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ENCYCLOPAEDIA    AMERICANA. 


'. yer/.'/f/x/'//  / f // 


POPULAR   DICTIONARY ^^     ^'^ 

OF 

ARTS,  SCIENCES,  LITERATURE,  HISTORY,  POLITICS  AND 

BIOGRAPHY, 

BROUGHT  DOWN  TO  THE  PRESENT  TIME; 

INCLUDING 

A   COPIOUS   COLLECTION   OF   ORIGINAL  ARTICLES 

IN 

AMERICAN   BIOGRAPHY; 

ON 
THE     BASIS    OF    THE    SEVENTH    EDITION    OF    THE     GERMAN 

CONVISRSATZONS-XZ2ZXCON. 

EDITED    BY 

FRANCIS    LIEBER, 

ASSISTED    BY 

E.  WIGGLESWORTH. 


Vol.  II. 


3|l)ila^fli)i)ia: 

CAREY   AND   LEA. 

SOLD  L\  PHILADELPHIA  BY  E.  L.  CAREY  AND  A.  HART-IN  NEW  YORK 
BY  G.  &  C.  &  H.  OARVILL— IN  BOSTON  BY 
CARTER  &  HENDEE. 

1830 


EASTERN  DISTRICT  OF  PENNSYLVANIA,  to  wU : 

Be  it  remembered,  that  on  the  tenth  day  of  August,  in  the  fifty-fourth  year  of  the  Independence  of  tlie 
United  States  of  America,  A.  D.  1829,  Carey,  Lea  &  Carey,  of  the  said  district,  have  deposited  in  this  office 
the  title  of  a  book,  the  right  whereof  they  claim  a^  proprietors,  in  the  words  following,  to  wit : 

"  Encyclopa>dia  Americana.  A  Popnlar  iJictionar^  of  Arts,  Sciences,  Literature,  History,  Politics  and 
Biography,  brought  down  to  the  present  Time  ;  inclading  a  copious  Collection  of  Original  Articles  in  American 
liio^'raphy  ;  on  the  Basis  of  the  seventh  Edition  of  tho  German  Conversations-Lexicon.  Edited  by  Francis  Lieber, 
assisted  by  E.  Wigglesworth  ' 

In  conformity  to  the  act  of  the  Congress  of  the  United  States,  entitled,  "  An  Act  for  the  encouragement  of 
learning,  by  securing  the  copies  of  maps,  charts  and  books  to  the  authors  and  proprietors  of  such  copies, 
during  tlie  times  therein  mentioned  :"  and  also  to  tho  act,  entitled,  "  An  Act  supplementary  to  an  act,  entitled, 
'  An  Act  for  the  encouragement  of  learning,  by  securing  the  copies  of  maps,  charts  and  books  to  the  authors 
and  proprietors  of  such  copies,  during  the  times  therein  mentioned :'  and  extending  the  benefits  thereof  to  tho 
arts  of  designing   engraving  aud  etching  historical  and  other  prints." 

D.  CALDWELL, 

Clerk  of  the  Eastern  District  of  Pennsylvania. 


ENCYCL.OP.«DIA    AMERICANA. 


Oattle-Axe;  a  weapon  much  used  in 
the  early  part  of  the  middle  ages,  particu- 
larly by  the  people  who  fought  on  foot. 
It  was  not  uncommon,  however,  among 
the  kiiights,  who  used  also  the  mace,  a 
species  of  iron  club  or  hanuuer.  Both 
are  to  be  seen  in  the  different  collections 
of  old  arms  m  Europe.  Both  these 
weapons,  and  another  kind,  called,  in 
German,  Morgenstem  {morning  star),  con- 
sisting of  a  staff,  having  an  iron  ball  at 
the  end,  with  cross  iron  spikes,  served  to 
give  stunning  blows,  whose  force  was 
felt  through  the  ux)n  armor  of  the  knights. 
Knights  used  chiefly  the  Morgenstem 
and  tlie  mace.  The  Greeks  and  Romans 
did  not  employ  the  battle-axe,  though  it 
was  found  among  contemporary  nations. 
In  fact,  the  axe  is  one  of  the  earliest 
weapons,  its  use,  as  an  instrument  of  do- 
mestic industrj'^,  naturally  suggesting  its 
apphcation  for  piu^poses  of  offence  ;  but, 
at  the  same  tune,  it  will  always  be  aban- 
doned as  soon  as  the  art  of  fencing,  at- 
tacking and  guai'ding  is  the  least  culti- 
vated ;  because  the  heavier  the  blow 
given  with  this  instnunent,  the  more  will 
it  expose  the  fighter.  It  is  a  weapon 
which  affords  hai'dly  any  guard,  and  it 
never  would  have  remained  so  long  in 
use  in  the  middle  ages,  had  it  not  been 
for  the  iron  annor,  which  protected  the 
body  from  eveiy  thing  but  heavy  blows. 
In  England,  Ireland  and  Scotland,  the 
battle-axe  was  much  employed.  At  the 
battle  of  Bannockburn,  king  Robert  Bruce 
clave  an  English  champion  down  to  the 
chine  with  one  blow  of  his  axe.  A  blow 
of  equal  force  was  given  by  a  Suabian 
knight,  in  the  Levant,  in  presence  of  the 
German  emperor.  The  Lochaber  axe 
remained  a  formidable  implement  of  de- 


struction in  the  hands  of  the  Highlanders 
nearly  to  the  present  period,  and  is  still 
used,  by  the  city-guard  of  Edinburgh,  in 
quelling  riots,  &c. 

BATTiE-PiECE  ;  a  painting  which  rep- 
resents a  battle,  exhibituig  large  masses 
of  men  in  action.  The  armor  of  the  an- 
cients, and  the  whole  array  and  action  of 
their  battles,  afford  subjects  much  more 
favorable  to  the  artist  than  the  straight 
hues,  or  condensed  columns,  and  tlie  f&e- 
arms  of  tlie  modems.  A  painter  of  bat- 
tle-pieces ought  to  have  an  accurate 
knowledge  of  the  appearance  of  horses 
and  men,  and,  if  possible,  to  have  seen  a 
battle,  as  few  pei"sons  are  able  to  foi-m 
from  hearsay  an  accurate  idea  of  such  a 
scene.  Some  of  the  greatest  pieces  of 
this  kind  are,  tlie  battle  of  Constantine, 
of  which  the  cartoons  were  drawTi  by 
Raphael,  and  which  was  executed  by 
GiuUo  Romano  ;  Lebrun's  battles  of  Al- 
exander, and  the  battles  of  the  Amazons, 
by  Rubens.  From  these  may  be  distin- 
guished the  skirmishes,  surprises,  &c., 
which  are  represented  witli  so  much 
skill  by  Antonio  Tempesta,  John  Snel- 
link,  Jos.  van  der  Velde,  John  Asselyn, 
Peter  Sneyeis,  Robert  von  Hoek,  Ful- 
cone,  called  oracolo  delle  batiaglie,  James 
Courtois,  Francis  van  der  Meulen,  Philip 
Wouvermann,  Charles  Breydel,  Henrj" 
Verschuuring  and  George  PhiUp  Rugen- 
das. 

Battoges,  Battacks;  two  thin  sticks, 
with  which  criminals  in  Russia  were 
formerly  beaten  upon  their  naked  backs. 
The  criminal  was  laid  upon  the  ground, 
and  one  of  the  executionei-s  sat  upon  his 
head,  another  upon  his  feet.  By  the  code 
of  Catherine  11,  this  punishment  was 
abolished. 


421413 


•'Tfx'rft^fecA'i-i^rTifiit. 


Battuecas,  Las ;  two  valleys,  enclosed 
by  high  nioimtaius,  in  the  Spanish  king- 
dom of  Leon,  50  miles  Iroui  Salamanca, 
about  a  Spanisli  mile  long,  and  so  inac- 
cessible that  the  inhabitants  are  said  to 
have  been  unknouTi  to  the  Spaniards  for 
several  centuries.  However,  a  convent  of 
Cannelites  was  built  in  the  Battuecas  val- 
leys as  early  as  1559.  They  are  situated 
so  low,  that,  in  tlie  longest  days,  the  smi 
only  shines  there  for  four  houi-s.  The  com- 
mon account,  that  tliese  valleys  were  dis- 
covered in  the  16th  centuiy,  by  two  lovers, 
who  fled  there  to  escape  the  pureuit  of 
their  families,  has  been  declared  by  father 
Feyjoo  to  be  unfounded.  Madame  de 
GenUs  has  founded  upon  this  story  her 
romance  Lms  Battuicas  (Paiis,  1816,  2 
vols.);  but  she  labors  under  a  mistake 
when  she  asserts  that  I>L  de  Bourgoing, 
in  his  Travels  through  Spaui,  has  quoted, 
as  a  historical  fact,  what  she  relates  of 
the  Battuecas. 

Baucis;  a  Phrj'gian  woman ;  the  wife 
of  Philemon.  They  received  Jupiter  and 
Mercury  hospitably,  after  these  gods  had 
been  denied  hospitably  in  the  whole 
country,  while  travelling  in  disguise.  A 
deluge  destroyed  the  remainder  of  the 
people,  but  Philemon  and  Baucis,  vdth 
their  cottage,  were  saved.  They  begged 
the  gods  to  make  their  cottage  a  temple, 
in  which  they  could  officiate  as  priest  and 
priestess,  and  that  they  might  die  togeth- 
er; which  was  granted.  Philemon  and 
Baucis  are  tlierefore  names  often  used  to 
indicate  faithful  and  attached  married 
people. 

Bauman  Islands  ;  a  cluster  of  islands 
in  the  South  Pacific  ocean,  discovered,  in 
1722,  by  Bauman,  in  his  voyage  round 
the  world  with  Roggewein.  All  the  in- 
habitants, says  a  ■svriter,  are  white ;  some 
of  them  burned  by  the  sun:  they  are 
immerous,  and  armed  with  bows  and  ar- 
rows, but  represented  as  of  a  gentle  and 
humane  disposition,  and  friendly  to  sti-an- 
gers.  The  largest  island  is  about  21  or 
22  miles  in  circumference,  with  good  an- 
chorage.    Lon.  173°  W. ;  lat.  12^  S. 

Baumann's  Cavern  (in  German,  Bau- 
viannshohle) ;  an  interesting  natural  cavern 
in  the  Harz,  in  the  principaUty  of  Blan- 
kenburg,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Bode, 
about  five  miles  from  Blankenburg,  in  a 
hmestone  mountain,  consisting  of  six 
principal  apartments,  besides  many  small- 
er ones,  every  where  covered  -v^-ith  stalac- 
tites. The  earthy  ingredients  of  these 
petrifactions  are  held  in  solution  by  the 
water,  which  penetrates  the  rock,  and 
deposits  a  calcarious  stone.    The  name 


of  this  cavern  is  derived  from  a  miner, 
who  entered  it,  in  1672,  with  the  view  of 
finding  ore,  but  lost  his  way,  and  wander- 
ed about  for  two  days  before  he  could  find 
the  entrance.     He  soon  afier  died. 

Baujigarten,  Alexander  Gottheb,born, 
in  1714,  at  Berhn,  an  acute  and  clear 
thinker,  of  the  school,  of  Wolf,  studied  at 
Halle,  and  was,  for  a  time,  professor  ex- 
traordinary there.  In  1740,  he  was  made 
professor  of  philosophy  at  Frankfort  on  the 
Oder,  and  died  there  in  1762.  He  is  the 
founder  of  aesthetics  as  a  science,  and 
the  inventor  of  this  name.  He  derived 
the  rules  of  art  from  the  works  of  art  and 
their  effects.  Hereby  he  distinguished 
himself  advantageously  from  the  theorists 
of  his  time.  (See  Esthetics.)  His  ideas  of 
this  science  he  fii-st  developed  in  his  aca- 
demical discussion,  De  j\onniillis  ad  Poema 
pertineniibus  ( Halle,  1735, 4to).  George  Fr. 
Meier's  Principles  of  all  Liberal  Sciences 
(3  vols.,  Halle,  1748 — 50)  originated  from 
his  suggestions.  Eight  years  later,  B. 
published  his  JEsthdica  (Frankfort  on  the 
Oder,  1750 — 58,  2  vols.),  a  work  which 
death  prevented  him  from  completing. 

Bause,  John  Frederic,  a  distinguished 
German  engraver,  bom  at  Halle,  in  1738, 
died  at  Weimm-,  1814.  He  resided  chief- 
ly at  Leipsic,  where  he  executed  many 
highly  esteemed  engravings.  He  was  a 
member  of  several  academies  of  fine  arts. 

Bautzen,  or  Budessin;  capital  of  Up- 
per Lusatia,  in  the  part  belonging  to  the 
king  of  Saxony,  upon  a  height  defended 
on  the  west  side  by  steep  rocks,  the  foot 
of  which  is  watered  by  the  Spree.  Among 
tlie  11,500  inhabitants,  who  are  princi- 
pally Lutherans,  there  are  a  great  nimiber 
of  Wendes,  or  descendants  of  the  Vandals, 
who  worship  in  a  Lutheran  and  in  a 
Catholic  church,  in  their  own  language. 
The  (lerman  part  of  the  population,  both 
Catholic  and  Protestant,  worship  together 
in  the  cathedral :  the  former  are  in  pos- 
session of  the  tliird  part  of  it,  including 
the  high  altar,  sufficiently  lai'ge  for  tJie 
small  Cathohc  congregation ;  the  nave 
serACs  the  Lutheran  community  as  their 
l)arish  church,  and  the  mutual  spirit  of 
toleration  in  both  parties  has,  in  recent 
times,  prevented  trouble  from  such  an 
arrangement. — Here  was  fought,  on  the 
20th  and  21st  of  May,  1813,  the  second 
great  battle  in  the  camjjaign  of  the  Prus- 
sians and  Russians  against  the  French. 
The  allies  hatl  been  comj>elled,  after  the 
battle  of  Liitzen  (May  2,  1813),  to  retreat 
to  the  right  bank  of  the  Elbe,  and  pre- 
pared tliemselves,  near  Bautzen  on  the 
Spree,  for  a  new  engagement.    AlthougU 


BAUTZEN— BAVARIA. 


the  lu-my  of  Napoleon  was  far  superior  in 
number,  being  strengtliened  by  reCn- 
forcenaents  from  France,  Italy  and  the 
troops  of  the  confederation  of  the  Rlune, 
so  as  to  amount  to  about  148,000  men, 
yet  the  alhes  determined  to  risk  a  battle, 
that  Prussia  might  gain  time  for  its  levies 
in  Silesia,  and  Napoleon  be  checked  in  his 
advance  as  much  as  possible.  It  was  also 
desirable  that  the  wavering  troops  of  Aus- 
tria should  be  convinced  that  the  army  was 
able  to  make  a  stand  against  the  enemy, 
and  that  the  courage  of  tlie  new  Pnissian 
recruits  should  not  be  damped  by  contin- 
ual retreat,  but,  on  the  coutrarj^,  their 
wish  for  battle  gi-atitied.  On  the  morning 
of  May  20,  Napoleon  disclosed  his  plan 
of  attack.  In  tlie  evening,  the  French 
had  gained  the  city  of  Bautzen.  On  tlie 
21st,  the  fight  continued  until  4  o'clock 
in  the  afternoon,  when  the  allies  resolved 
on  a  retreat,  which  was  performed  in  sucli 
order,  that  Napoleon  was  not  able  to  gain 
any  innnediale  advantage  from  his  victo- 
ly.  The  field  of  battle  was  covered  with 
the  dead,  and  was  lighted  by  .30  burning 
villages.  The  French  loss  was  about 
8000  n)en  killed,  and  18,000  wounded ; 
that  of  the  allies,  between  8  and  12,000. 
Napoleon,  to  encourage  liis  troops,  assign- 
ed 25,000,000  trancs  for  the  erection  of  a 
monument  upon  moimt  Cenis,  as  a  tokoi 
of  his  gratitude  towards  the  French  and 
Italian  troops.  The  rear  of  the  allies 
repulsed  two  serious  attacks,  and,  contrary 
to  the  expectations  of  Napoleon,  tliey 
marched  to  the  intrenched  camp  of  Piil- 
zen.  But  Lauriston  occuj)ied  Breslau, 
The  position  of  the  allies,  threatening  the 
rigiit  wing  of  the  French  army,  the  great 
loss  which  the  French  had  suffered,  and 
the  detached  corps,  which  cut  off  Napo- 
leon's conununication  with  Saxony,  in- 
duced him  to  accede  to  a  suspension  of 
arms  on  the  4lh  of  Jime,  near  the  city  of 
Jauer.    (See  ^far  o/ 1812— 1815.) 

Bavaria.  At  the  time  of  the  general 
migration  of  the  barbarians,  the  regions 
formerly  inhabited  by  the  Boii,  the  Celts 
of  the  Danube,  were  taken  possession  of 
by  some  German  tribes.  This  country, 
in  the  time  of  Csesar,  had  been  a  waste, 
and,  in  the  time  of  Augustus,  a  Roman 
province  (Viudelicia  and  Noricum).  At 
the  end  of  the  fifth  century,  these  tribes — 
the  Heruli,  the  Uugians,  theTurcilingians 
and  the  Skyres — formed  a  confederacy, 
like  those  of  the  Fi-anks  and  the  Mar- 
comauiii,  under  the  name  Baioarians. 
They  sj>rcad  from  Noricum  westward  to 
the  Lecli.  Ratisbon  was  tiieir  chief  seat. 
This  country  was  then  culled  N'orkum, 
1* 


and,  accordmg  to  Maimert,  was  never 
subjected  to  the  Ostrogoths.  When  the 
Franks  took  possession  of  Rhcetia,  the 
Baioarians  became  subject  to  them.  The 
people,  however,  still  retained  the  liberty 
of  choosuig  their  o\\n  rulers.  After  tlie 
diiision  of  the  empire  of  Charlemagne, 
this  region  was  disturbed,  like  the  rest  of 
Europe,  by  the  conflicting  clauns  of  rival 
dukes,  till  the  time  of  Otho  the  Great, 
count  palatine  of  Wittelsbach.  Otho,  the 
ancestor  of  the  present  dpiasty,  died  in 
1183.  His  successor,  Louis  I,  enlarged 
the  Bavarian  territorj',  and  acquired  the 
palatinate  of  the  Rhine.  He  was  mur- 
dered in  1231,  probably  at  the  instigation 
of  Henry,  whose  rebellion  agauist  his 
father,  the  emperor  Fredei'ic  II,  the  duke 
had  censured.  He  was  succeeded  by  his 
son  Otho,  the  Illustrious,  palatine  of  the 
Rhine.  Under  his  reign,  the  bishops 
made  themselves  independent.  His  do- 
minions, however,  were  considerably  in- 
creased. His  attachment  to  the  emperor 
involved  him  in  the  excommunication 
pronounced  against  that  prince.  He  died 
in  1253.  His  sons,  Louis  and  Henrj', 
reigned  for  two  years  in  conjunction.  In 
1255,  they  divided  the  territories,  Louis 
receiving  Upper  and  Henry  Lower  Ba- 
varia. The  fine  of  the  latter  became 
extinct  a  few  years  afterwards.  The  in- 
heritance of  the  unhappy  Conradin  of 
Hohenstaufen  fell  into  the  hands  of  these 
princes.  One  of  the  two  sons  of  Louis 
was  raised  to  the  imperial  dignity,  in 
1314,  under  the  title  of  Louis  IV  (q.  v.), 
called  the  Bavarian.  He  entered  into  an 
agreement  with  the  sons  of  his  brother 
(Pa via,  1329)  for  the  division  of  the  do- 
minions of  the  family.  In  consequence 
of  this  agreement,  king  Maximilian  Jo' 
seph  united  all  the  dominions  of  the 
Wittelsbach  dynasty  in  1799.  After  the 
extinction  of  die  Lower  Bavaiian  line, 
the  emperor  Louis,  by  the  desne  of  his 
states,  united  Lower  with  Upper  Bavai'ia. 
The  emperor  introduced  a  new  code  of 
laws  for  Upper  Bavaria,  a  new  organiza- 
tion of  the  courts  for  Lower  Bavaria,  con- 
ferred the  priiileges  of  a  city  on  Munich, 
and  reduced  to  order  the  mtemal  admin- 
istration. He  died  Oct.  11,  1-347,  leaving 
six  sons  by  two  marriages.  His  domin- 
ions included  Bavaria,  Brandenburg,  the 
provinces  of  Holland  and  Zealand,  Tyrol, 
&c.  These  provinces  were  soon  lost  by 
the  divisions  and  dissensions  of  the  dif- 
ferent lines.  Most  of  the  lines  founded 
l)y  the  six  brothers  early  Ijecame  extinct. 
In  1506,  a  diet  of  the  states  of  Upper  andv 
Lower  Bavaria  Avas  assembled  by  duke 


BAVARIA. 


Albert  II,  who,  with  tlie  consent  of  his 
brother  Wolfgang,  and  of  the  estates, 
published  a  pragmatic  siuiction,  intro- 
ducing the  law  of  ])riinogeniture,  and 
fixing  the  allowance  of  the  younger  sons. 
Alljert  died  in  1508.  Of  his  three  sons, 
WilUani  IV,  Louis  and  Ernest,  William 
ought,  accordingly,  to  have  been  his  sole 
heir.  The  authority  was,  however,  di- 
vided, after  much  contest,  between  Wil- 
liam IV  and  Louis,  until  the  death  of  tiie 
latter,  in  1534.  These  i)rinces  were  both 
opposed  to  the  reformation.  Luther's 
most  violent  opponent,  John  Eck,  lived  at 
Ingolstadt,  under  their  protection,  which 
they  also  extended  to  the  Jesuits.  Wil- 
liam died  in  1550 ;  his  son  Albert  Y,  the 
(Jenerous,  succeeded  him.  He  also  fa- 
vored the  Jesuits,  but  was  a  liberal  patron 
of  the  arts  and  sciences.  The  states  re- 
ceived from  him  great  privileges.  He 
died  in  1579.  Of  three  sous,  the  eldest, 
William  V,  the  Pious,  succeeded  him, 
and,  in  1596,  resigned  the  government  to 
his  eldest  son,  Maximilian  I,  and  retired 
to  a  monastery.  Maximilian,  a  prince  of 
distinguished  abilities,  w^as  the  soul  of  the 
league  fonned  against  the  Protestant 
union.  In  the  coin-se  of  the  30  years' 
war,  which  had  just  broken  out,  Maxi- 
nulian  was  invested,  bj'  the  em})eror  Fer- 
dinand II  (1623),  with  the  dignitj'  of 
elector  jialatine.  The  ])eace  of  West- 
phaha  confirmed  Maximilian  in  the  elec- 
toral dignity  and  the  possession  of  the 
upper  palatinate,  in  return  for  the  renun- 
ciation of  Upper  Austria,  which  had  been 
pledged  to  him  for  13,000,000  florins,  ex- 
penses of  war ;  and,  on  the  other  hand, 
a  new  electorate,  the  eighth,  was  estab- 
lished for  the  })alatinate  Une,  and  its  suc- 
cession to  the  title  and  territorj-  of  the 
original  electorate  was  settled,  in  case  of 
the  failure  of  the  line  of  William.  Max- 
imilian died  Sept.  27,  1651,  after  a  reign 
of  55  years.  He  was  succeeded  by  his 
son  Ferdinand  Mai'ia,  who  was  succeed- 
ed, in  1679,  by  his  eldest  son,  Maximilian 
Emanuel.  In  the  war  of  tlie  Spanish  suc- 
cession, the  elector  declared  for  France. 
After  the  imfortunate  battle  at  Blenheim, 
Bavaria  was  treated  by  the  emperor 
as  a  conquered  counti7.  The  elector 
was  put  under  the  ban  of  the  empire  in 
1706,  and  was  not  reinstated  in  his  gov- 
ernment till  the  peace  of  Baden  (1714). 
After  his  death,  in  1726,  Charles  Albert 
succeeded  hun  in  the  electoral  dignity. 
Although  he  had  signed  the  pragmatic 
sanction  of  the  emperor  Charles  VI,  yet, 
after  the  death  of  the  emperor,  and  the 
beginning  of  tlie  first  Silesian  war,  so 


fortimate  for  the  king  of  Prussia,  he 
claimed  the  whole  Austrian  territorj', 
subjected  all  Upi)er  Austria,  assumed  tlie 
title  of  archduke  of  Austria,  after  the  cap- 
ture of  Prague  in  the  same  yeai-  received 
homage  as  king  of  Bohemia,  and  was 
elected  emj)eror  of  Germany,  at  Frank- 
fort, 1742,  under  the  title  of  Charles  VII. 
But  here  his  fortune  began  to  decline. 
As  he  liad  received  the  homage  of  Aus- 
tria and  Bohemia,  so,  after  the  sudden 
change  in  the  fortune  of  the  war  (1743), 
Maria  Theresa  obliged  the  states  of  Bava- 
ria, and  of  the  u})per  palatinate,  to  swear 
allegiance  to  her.  Notwithstanding  his 
alliance  with  the  landgrave  of  Hcsse- 
Cassel  and  Frederic  II  (1744),  and  the 
progress  of  the  Prussian  arms,  Charles 
was  compelled,  by  the  superior  talent  of 
the  Austrian  general,  Charles  of  Lorraine, 
to  expose  Bavaria.  He  did  not  live  to 
see  the  end  of  the  war,  but  died  Jan.  20, 
1745.  His  son  and  successor,  Maximilian 
Joseph  III,  who  also  assumed,  at  first, 
the  title  of  archdvke  of  Austria,  made 
peace  with  Austria  soon  after,  at  Fussen 
(April  22, 1745),  became  one  of  the  guar- 
antees of  the  pragmatic  sanction,  prom- 
ised the  archduke  Francis  his  vote  in  the 
election  of  emperor,  and  received,  in  re- 
turn, all  the  Bavarian  territories  which 
had  been  conquered  by  Austria.  Maxi- 
milian Joseph  devoted  himself  entirely  to 
the  good  of  his  country.  He  encouraged 
agi-iculture,  manufactures,  mining ;  regu- 
lated the  judicial  establishments,  the  po- 
lice, the  finances,  and  institutions  for 
instruction  ;  the  sciences  were  promoted 
by  the  foundation  of  the  academy  of  sci- 
ences at  Munich,  in  1759,  and  the  fine 
arts  found  in  him  a  liberal  protector.  He, 
himself  without  children,  confirmed  all 
the  contracts  relating  to  the  inheritance, 
which  had  been  made  with  the  electoral 
line  of  the  palatinate  since  the  treaty  of 
Pa  via  (1329).  In  compliance  with  the 
treaties  of  the  house  of  Wittelsbach,  as 
well  as  with  the  terms  of  the  peace  of 
Westphalia,  the  right  of  succession  in 
Bavaria  reverted,  undeniably,  to  the  elec- 
tor of  the  palatinate,  since  the  Wittels- 
bach-Bavarian  line  became  extuict  on 
the  death  of  Maximilian  Joseph,  30th  of 
Dec,  1777.  Austria  then  laid  claim  to 
Lower  Bavaria,  and  attempted  to  support 
her  demands  by  anns,  without  any  previ- 
ous declaration  of  war.  Charles  Theo- 
dore, being  without  children,  was  per- 
suaded to  sign  a  treaty  (Jan.  3  and  14, 
1778),  formally  renouncing  the  Bavarian 
succession.  But  the  duke  of  Deux-Ponts, 
uncle  of  the  reigning  king,  the  nearest 


BAVARIA. 


agiiate  and  presumptive  heir,  encouraged 
by  Frederic  II,  refused  to  acknowledge 
that  renunciation.  This  was  the  origin 
of  the  war  of  the  Bavarian  succession, 
which  was  terminated,  without  bloodslied 
(owing  chiefly  to  the  Russian  declaration 
of  war  against  Austria),  by  the  peace  of 
Teschen,  May  13,  1779.  The  possession 
of  Bavaria,  from  which  Austria  obtained 
only  the  Innvieitei,  with  Braunau  (800 
square  miles),  was  secured  to  the  elector 
palatine  of  Bavaria,  according  to  the  fam- 
ily compacts.  By  this  union  of  the  Ba- 
varian dominions,  the  eighth  electorate 
became  extinct,  according  to  the  terms 
of  the  peace  of  Westphalia.  In  1784, 
Jiowever,  the  possession  of  Bavaria  again 
became  an  object  of  desire  at  Vienna, 
and  an  exchange  was  proposed,  which 
liad  been  already  a  subject  of  negotiation 
in  tiie  beginning  of  the  centuiy.  The 
emperor  Joseph  II  proposed  to  tlie  elec- 
tor to  exchange  Bavaria  for  the  Austrian 
Netherlands  (excluding  Luxemburg  and 
Namur),  and  the  sum  of  3,000,000  flor- 
ins for  himself  and  the  duke  of  Deux- 
Ponts,  with  the  title  of  king  of  Burgundy. 
This  project,  though  favored  by  Russia, 
was  disfippointed  by  the  firmness  of  the 
duke  of  Deux-Ponts,  who,  encouraged 
Ijy  the  protection  of  Prussia,  declared 
"  that  he  would  never  consent  to  barter 
away  the  inheritance  of  his  ancestors." 
The  zeal  with  which  Frederic  II  ado])ted 
the  cause  of  Bavaria,  induced  the  cabinet 
of  Vienna  to  relinquish  the  plan,  and  to 
declare,  at  the  same  time,  "  tliat  there 
never  had  been  and  never  would  be  any 
intention  of  a  forced  exchange."  (See 
League  of  the  Princes.)  The  reign  of 
Charles  Theodore  was  remarkaljle  for 
t4ie  rise  of  the  Itluminati  (q.  v.)  in  Bava- 
ria, for  the  processes  against  them,  and 
the  revival  of  Jesuitism.  During  these 
troubles,  the  liberty  of  the  press  was  con- 
tinually more  and  more  restrained,  and  a 
period  of  intellectual  darkness  ap})eared 
to  be  about  to  commence.  In  the  war 
©f  the  French  revolution,  the  elector  sent 
his  contingent  to  the  army  of  the  empire. 
The  palatinate  sufl^ered  much,  and,  in 
1796,  Bavaria  itself  became  the  theatre 
of  ^var.  At  this  crisis  (Feb.  16,  1799), 
Charles  Theodore  died  without  issue,  and 
the  Sulzbach  branch  of  the  line  of  the 
palatinate  became  extinct  with  him.  The 
duke  Maximilian  Josej)h  of  Deux-Ponts 
came  into  possession  of  all  the  Bavarian 
territories.  The  peace  of  Luneville  (Feb. 
9,  1801)  put  an  end  to  the  renewed  war, 
and  its  most  important  article — the  cession 
of  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine  to  Fi-ance — 


essentially  affected  Bavaria.  Wliilst  it 
lost  all  its  possessions  on  the  left  bank  of 
the  Rhine,  and  also  the  lands  of  the  pa- 
latinate on  the  right  bank,  it  obtained,  on 
the  other  hand,  by  an  imperial  edict,  an 
indemnification,  by  which  it  gained,  in 
addition  to  the  amount  lost,  a  surplus  of 
2109  square  miles, and  216,000  inhabitants. 
The  pohtical  importance  of  Bavaria,  with 
respect  to  Austria  as  well  as  to  France,  was 
more  fully  displayed  in  the  war  of  1805. 
When  Austria  resumed  hostihties  against 
France,  she  required  the  elector  of  Bava- 
ria to  unite  his  troops  with  the  Austrian 
army,  and  refused  to  allow  him  to  remain 
neutral,  "wliich  (as  the  emperor  Fran- 
cis wrote  to  the  elector,  Sept.  3,  1804) 
France  herself  would  only  suffer  as  long 
as  she  should  find  it  expedient."  Bava- 
ria, however,  did  not  find  it  accordant 
with  its  own  interests  to  place  itself  en- 
tirely in  the  power  of  Austria.  At  the 
beginning  of  the  war,  the  elector  joined 
the  French  with  about  30,000  troops,  and 
the  peace  of  Presburg  annexed  to  his 
dominions  10,595  square  miles,  and 
1,000,000  inhabitants,  and  conferred  on 
him  the  dignity  of  king  ;  in  return  for 
which,  he  ceded  Wiirzburg,  which  was 
erected  mto  an  electorate,  m  the  place  of 
Salzburg.  The  king  of  Bavaria,  like  the 
rulers  of  Wilrtemberg  and  Baden,  now 
assumed  sovereignty  over  the  lands  of 
the  nobility  of  the  empire  within  his  bor- 
ders. The  political  connexion  recently 
formed  with  France  was  confirmed  by 
the  marriage  of  the  princess  Augusta, 
daughter  of  the  khig,  with  Eugene  Na- 
poleon, viceroy  of  Italy,  son-in-law  of  the 
French  emj)eror.  An  immediate  conse- 
quence of  this  alliance  was  the  exchange 
of  Berg,  which  Bavaria  surrendered  to 
Napoleon,  for  Anspach,  which  Prussia 
had  given  uj)  to  France  in  exchange  for 
Hanover,  and  finally,  what  was  most  im- 
portant, the  signing  of  the  confederation 
of  the  Rhine  (July  12,  1806),  in  which 
Bavaria  promised  to  bring  into  the  field 
30,000  troops,  and  to  fortify  Augsburg 
and  Lindau.  Thereupon,  the  king  of 
Bavaria  was  obliged  to  take  part  in  the 
^var  against  Prussia,  in  1806,  and  in  the 
war  against  Austria,  in  1809,  one  of  the 
conse(iuences  of  Avhich  was  the  revolution 
of  Tyrol.  After  its  termination,  Bavaria 
received  important  adtlitions,  partly  at  the 
expense  of  Austria,  partly  by  treaties  of 
exchange  with.  Wiirtemberg  and  Wiirz- 
burg.— When,  in  1812,  the  war  between 
France  and  Russia  broke  out,  Bavaria 
sent  anew  its  whole  proportion  of  troops 
to  the   French  army.     Insignificant  re- 


8 


BAVARIA. 


mains  only  of  the  30,000  Bavarians  re- 
turned in  the  spring  of  1813.  Maximil- 
ian Joseph,  notwithstanding  this  sacrifice, 
placed  fresh  troops  under  the  command 
of  Napoleon  as  the  protector  of  the  con- 
federation of  the  Rhine,  when  the  new 
campaign  was  opened,  near  the  close  of 
April.  This  army  also  suffered  gieat 
losses,  but  distinguished  itself  with  its 
wonted  bravery,  under  the  commtmd  of 
marslml  Ouduiot.  It  suftiired  particularly 
in  the  battles  of  Luckau  and  Grossbeeren 
(1813).  At  this  time,  the  whole  political 
system  of  Bavaria  was  suddenly  cliangcd. 
Whilst  the  French  army  of  observation 
was  formed  at  Wurzburg,  under  Au- 
gereau,  a  Bavarian  corps  of  observation 
was  placed  on  the  Iim,  over  against  a 
division  of  the  Austrian  anny.  For  a 
long  time,  both  corps  remained  inactive. 
The  departure  of  the  corjis  of  Augcreau, 
by  which  Bavaria  was  exposed  in  its  most 
vulnerable  point,  accelerated  the  resolu- 
tion of  its  king.  The  Bavarian  general 
Wrede  concluded  an  ai'mistice  with  the 
Austrian  general  Frimont,  Octoljer  8,  at 
Ried,  which  was  followed  by  a  jiroclaina- 
tion,  October  15,  l)y  which  the  king  of 
Bavaria  abandoned  the  confedei-ation  of 
the  Rhine,  and  turned  his  forces  agauist 
France.  In  this  convention,  his  present 
ten'itories,  with  full  sovereignty,  Avere 
assured  to  the  king,  and  a  sufficient 
indemnification  for  those  lands  which 
should  be  made  over  to  Austria.  At  the 
same  time,  Wrede,  as  commander-in- 
chief,  united  the  Austrian  corps  with  his 
own,  and  turned  the  Bavarian  arms 
against  the  French,  in  the  battle  of  lla- 
nau.  In  1815,  at  the  breaking  out  of  the 
new  war,  the  present  king,  then  croAvn- 
prince,  took  the  command  of  the  natio)ial 
anny.  Meanwhile,  the  congress  of  Vi- 
enna, and,  more  particularly,  the  prepara- 
tion of  tlie  statutes  of  the  Gennan  diet 
(as  well  as  the  different  interests  originat- 
ing liom  the  new  Euroj)can,  and  espe- 
cially tiie  new  German  system  of  states), 
had  given  sufiicient  opiiortunity  to  the 
Bavaiian  goveriunent  for  the  (leve!oj)c- 
nient  of  its  system  of  diplomacy.  Bava- 
ria has  jealously  maintained  its  station  as 
an  independent  sovereign  state.  Since 
1825,  Bavaiia  has  l)een  under  the  govern- 
ment of  Louis  I,  the  most  hberal  of  the 
German  princes.  He  has  hitherto  acted 
with  much  energj'. — Bavaria  was  erected 
into  a  kingdom  in  1605,  and  is  now  one 
of  the  most  considerable  of  the  secondary 
states  of  Europe.  It  is  composed  of  the 
greater  part  of  the  circles  of  Bavaria  and 
Fnuiconia,  part  of  Suabia,  and,  on  the 


west  side  of  the  Rhine,  embraces  the 
greater  part  of  that  portion  of  the  circle 
of  Upper  Rhine  included  in  the  late 
French  department  of  3Iont  TonneiTe. 
Exclusive  of  the  part  west  of  the  Rhine, 
it  is  bounded  N.  by  Hesse-Damistadt, 
Hesse-Cassel,  and  the  Saxon  principalities 
of  Meiningen,  Hildburghausen,  Coburg 
and  Reuss,  and  the  kingdom  of  Saxony  ; 
E.  and  S.  by  Austiia,  and  W.  by  Wia- 
temberg,  Baden  and  Hesse-Darmstadt. — 
The  kingdom  of  Bavaria  is  divided  into  the 
8  following  circles : — Iser,  Upper  Maine, 
Lower  Maine,  Rezat,  Regen,  Upper  Dan- 
ube, Lower  Danube,  Rhine.  The  last  is 
on  the  west  side  of  the  river  Rhine. — 
This  kingdom  contams  32,000  square 
miles  and  3,800,000  inhabitants.  Its  ar- 
my is  53,900  strong,  of  whom  35,800 
form  the  seventh  corps  (Tamiie  of  the 
Gfennan  confederacy.  Its  public  debt 
amounted,  in  Sept.,  1824,  to  103,157,859 
florins;  the  income  was, at  the  same  time, 
29,132,260  florins.  The  present  kuig, 
Louis,  endeavore,  with  much  zeal,  to  in- 
troduce econoniy  into  the  expenses  of 
the  government:  he  has  dnninished  the 
standing  army,  and  discharged  many  ofii- 
cers  from  the  civil  govennnent. — The 
various  inhabitants  of  tins  countrj-  differ 
very  much  in  their  character,  the  Bava- 
rian, from  the  highlands  near  Tyrol,  and 
the  Franconian,  in  the  north  ])art  of  the 
kingdom,  being  as  unlike  as  any  two  Ger- 
mans probably  can  be  ;  and  the  different 
parts  of  this  young  Idngdom  have  been  so 
recently  united,  that  it  is  not  possible  to 
speak  of  any  character  as  common  to  its 
iidiabitants.  The  native  of  Upper  Bava- 
ria is  hai-dy,  laborious,  short  in  stature. 
Many  portions  of  the  population  are  dis- 
tinguished by  mechanical  talent.  The 
excellence  of  Frauenhofer's  telescopes 
and  Bader's  rail-road  is  generally  Icnown. 
Blunich  and  Nuremberg  have,  in  recent 
times,  produced  more  philosophical  instru- 
ments than  any  other  two  cities  of  Ger- 
many, [^ee  Munich.)  The  manufactures 
of  Bavaria  include  hnen,Avoollen  and  cot- 
ton cloths,  iron,  fire-Jirms,  and  other  arti- 
cles, designed  chiefly  for  the  suj)i)]y  of 
domestic  wants.  Glass,  paper,  clocks  and 
hard  ware  are  also  made  in  several  of  the 
])rincipal  towns.  The  common  language 
of  Bavaria,  of  course,  is  Gennan  ;  but  the 
dialects  vary  much,  from  the  strong  Fran- 
conian spoken  in  Wiii-zburg  to  the  broad 
Swiss  dialect  in  Lindau.  At  the  head  of 
each  of  the  circles,  into  which  the  kingdom 
is  divided,  stands  a  general  conunissioner 
( General  Kreiscomviissair),  with  great  pow- 
er, chiefly  of  an  executive  character.    All 


BAVARIA, 


the  lower  courts,  municipal  magistrates, 
village  officers,  &c.,  are  under  his  control. 
The  judiciary  consists  of  a  high  court  of 
appeal  ( Ober  Appellations  Gericht)  at  Mu- 
nich ;  also  a  court  of  appeal  tor  each 
circle,  and  the  inferior  courts.  The  Codex 
juris  Bavarici  has  been  in  force  since 
Jan.  1,  1811,  The  penal  code  is  now 
under  revision.  A  complete  code  is  also 
hi  preparation.  (See  Feuerbach.)  The 
executive  consists  of  a  privy  council, 
called  Geheime  Rath,  composed  of  4  min- 
istei-s  of  state,  the  4  crown-officei-s,  and 
from  12  to  l(j  other  membei-s,  who  delib- 
erate in  3  sections  on  the  affairs  of  the 
kingdom.  The  affairs  of  the  Catholics 
in  the  kingdom  are  regulated  by  the  con- 
cordat concluded  with  Pius  VII,  Jan.  5, 
1817,  which,  in  1821,  was  promulgated 
as  the  law  of  the  land.  Those  of  the 
Protestants  are  under  the  direction  of  a 
general  consistory.  The  two  sects  live 
without  contention.  The  circumstance 
that  the  queen  of  the  late  king  was  a 
Protestant  (as  is  also  the  present  queen, 
if  we  are  not  greatly  mistaken)  had  a 
most  beneficial  influence.  In  the  smaller 
council  of  the  German  diet,  Bavaria  has 
the  third  place,  and  in  the  plenum  has 
four  votes.  (See  German  Confederacy.) 
Education  made  much  progi-ess  under 
the  government  of  the  late  Maximilian 
Jose])h,  and  it  is  to  be  expected  that  the 
present  king,  who  has  manifested  Uberal 
views,  on  many  occasions,  more  openly 
tlian  any  prince  of  the  continent  now 
living,  will  continue  to  give  it  the  aid  of 
the  government.  Many  seminaries  for 
the  training  of  instructers  have  been 
erected,  and  the  academy  of  sciences  at 
Munich,  with  the  three  universities  at 
Munich,  Wilrzburg  and  Erlangen,  pro- 
duce the  best  results.  (See  Munich, 
Wiirzburg  and  Erlangen.)  The  fii-st  of 
these  universities  contains  nearly  2000 
students,  whilst  the  medical  department 
of  Wiirzburg  is  considered  one  of  the 
first  in  Eui-ope.  Agi'icuhure  and  indus- 
try in  general  have  received,  since  the 
reign  of  Maximilian,  much  attention. 
Several  institutions  for  promoting  them 
have  been  established,  including  agricul- 
tural seminaries,  in  which  those  young 
men  who  jjrepare  themselves  for  village 
school-masters  leani  gai-dening,  &c.  A 
festival  was  instituted  by  Maximilian, 
generally  called  the  October  festival,  at 
which  prizes  are  assigned,  by  order  of 
the  king,  for  the  best  specimens  of  agri- 
cuhural  produce,  the  best  cattle,  &c. 
There  are  also  races  connected  with  this 
celebration.     The  present   king,  when 


crown-prince,  was  a  hberal  patron  of  the 
fine  arts,  and  still  affords  them  much 
encouragement.  As  Bavaria  is  entirely 
an  inland  country,  and  has  no  great  river 
crossing  it,  its  commercial  resources  could 
be  fully  developed  only  in  case  of  a  per- 
fectly free  intercourse  between  all  the 
German  states ;  to  obtain  which,  efforts 
have  several  times  been  made,  but,  un- 
hap])i]y,  in  vain.  A  great  canal,  near 
Nuremberg,  has  been  sometimes  spoken 
of,  to  unite,  by  means  of  smaU  rivers,  the 
Rhine  and  Dtmube,  a  work  begun  by 
Charlemagne :  the  traces  of  his  work,  still 
remaining,  are  called  fossa  Carolina : 
but  the  expense  would  be  great  for  so 
small  a  kingdom,  and  it  is  very  doubtful 
whether  the  commerce  carried  on  in  this 
way  would  be  considerable,  depending, 
as  it  would,  upon  so  many  governments, 
from  the  Turkish  to  that  of  the  Netlier- 
lands. — According  to  Rudliart,  Bavaria 
contains  1384  noble  families.  Agriculture 
is  the  chief  branch  of  industry.  Bavarian 
beer  is  excellent. 

Bavaria,  constitution  of  Like  most  of 
the  states  of  the  middle  ages,  Bavaria  had 
its  constitution.  No  other  state  of  Grer- 
many  has  so  complete  a  collection  of 
Avorks  relating  to  its  ancient  form  of  gov- 
ernment. The  estates  consisted,  as  usual, 
of  the  three  classes — the  prelates,  among 
whom  the  university  had  the  first  rank ; 
the  nobility,  and  the  burgesses.  Their 
privileges  were  great,  but  early  lost  by 
dissension  among  themselves.  The  last 
diet  was  holden  in  1669.  A  committee 
of  the  estates  arrogated  the  privileges  be- 
longing to  the  whole  body ;  the  seculari- 
zation of  the  ecclesiastical  establishments, 
in  1803,  made  the  old  constitution  still 
more  inefficient,  and,  in  1808,  the  sys- 
tem of  the  estates  was  abolished ;  but 
an  order  was  issued,  May  1  of  the  same 
year,  instituting  a  new  constitution.  The 
kuig  of  Bavaria  was  the  first  among  the 
sovereigns  of  Germany  to  fulfil  the  prom- 
ise contained  in  the  thirteenth  article  of 
the  ordinances  of  the  GJerman  confedera- 
tion, which  assures  the  people  that  they 
shall  receive  constitutional  forms  of  gov- 
ernment. The  king  promulgated  the 
new  representative  constitution  Rlay  26, 
1818.  The  system  of  the  two  chambei-s 
has  been  adopted.  The  chamber  of 
peers,  or,  as  they  are  called  in  Bavaria, 
Reichs  Rathe  (counsellors  of  the  realm), 
consists  of  the  princes,  the  crown-officers, 
2  archbishops,  the  16  seniors  of  the  fami- 
lies which  were  formerly  members  of  the 
German  empire,  1  bishop,  appointed  by 
the  king,  the  president  of  the  Protestant 


10 


BAVARIA— BAXTER. 


consistory,  besides  15  hereditary  peers, 
and  12  who  hold  their  stations  for  hfe, 
chosen  by  the  kuig.  The  lower  cham- 
ber consists  of  14  representatives  of 
the  lower  nobihty,  1  representative  of 
each  of  the  three  universities  of  the  khig- 
doin,  9  representatives  of  the  Cathohc,  and 
5  of  the  Protestant  clergy,  2  of  Munich, 
1  of  Augsburg,  1  of  Nuremberg,  24  of  all 
the  other  cities  and  market-places,  and 
56  of  the  land-owners  (not  noblemen). 
The  elections  in  the  cities  are  badly  con- 
ducted, as  they  are  in  the  hands  of  the 
city  councils,  the  mayors,  &c.  Another 
great  fault  is,  that  the  amount  of  property 
required  in  a  representative  is  so  great, 
tlmt  whole  districts  are  excluded  from 
representation.  The  rights  which  the 
representatives  have  are  not  altogether 
insignificant;  yet  there  are  many  other 
things  wanted,  as,  a  perfectly  free  press, 
and  many  real  guarantees  of  fi-eedom,  be- 
fore we  can  speak  of  it  as  actually  existing 
in  Bavaria.  The  ministers  are  responsi- 
ble, and  yet  their  power  is  unconstitution- 
ally great.  It  would  not  be  very  difficult 
for  the  Bavarian  government  to  do  any 
thing  they  pleased,  without  encountering 
many  constitutional  obstacles.  The  first 
meeting  of  the  representatives  was  held 
Feb.  4,  1819.  There  is  1  representative 
for  about  35,000  souls.  The  constitu- 
tion is  a  granted  one,  ^dz.,  given  by  the 
king,  not  a  compact  between  two  parties, 
the  people  and  the  ruler.  It  promises 
liberty  and  equal  rights  to  all  reUgions, 
and  also  fi-eedom  of  the  press,  which, 
however,  no  American  or  EngUshman 
would  call  truly  fi:«e.  Bond-service  is 
abolished.  The  king  appoints  the  presi- 
dent of  the  representatives. 

Bavius,  Marcus,  and  Ma:vius ;  still  no- 
torious as  two  miserable  poets  and  pre- 
sumptuous critics,  satirized  by  Virgil. 

Bawdy-Hocse  ;  a  house  of  ill  fame,  to 
which  persons  of  both  sexes  resort  for 
sexual  intercourse.  Such  houses,  under 
the  name  of  brothels  or  stews,  are  licensed 
by  the  laws  of  some  countries.  They 
were  formerly  licensed  m  England,  fi-om 
the  reign  of  Henry  II  to  the  last  year  of 
Henry  VIII,  when  they  were  suppressed 
by  sound  of  trumpet,  with  as  great  cere- 
mony as  the  religious  houses.  The  laws 
of  most  civihzed  countries  prohibit  the 
keeping  of  bawdy-houses,  as  tending  not 
only  to  the  corruption  of  morals  and 
manners,  but  also  to  "a  breach  of  the  peace, 
by  bringing  together  disorderly  and  vi- 
cious people.  The  keepuig  of  such  a 
house  is  indictable  at  the  common  law, 
end  so  is  the  frequenting  of  it ;  but  these 


offences  are,  most  generally,  the  subjects 
of  positive  statutes.  In  some  parts  of 
Europe,  such  houses  are  licensed,  and 
under  the  care  of  the  medical  pohce. 

Baxter,  Andrew;  an  ingenious  philos- 
opher ar)d  metaphysician.  He  was  a  na- 
tive of  Aberdeen,  and  was  educated  at 
King's  college  in  that  city ;  after  which 
he  was  employed  as  a  private  tutor. 
About  1730,  he  published  an  Enquiry  into 
the  Nature  of  the  Human  Soul ;  wherein 
the  Immateriality  of  the  Soul  is  evinced 
from  the  Princijjles  of  Reason  and  Phi- 
losophy. This  work  was  aj)plauded  by 
Warburton,  and  obtained  for  the  author  a 
high  reputation  ;  though  his  arguments, 
which  are  founded  on  the  ins  inerticE  of 
matter,  have  since  been  controverted  by 
Hume  and  Cohn  Maclaurin.  In  1741,  he 
went  abroad  with  one  of  his  pupils,  and 
remained  for  some  yeare  at  Utrecht,  where 
he  contracted  an  acquauitance  with  some 
of  the  Dutch  hterati.  He  returned  to 
Scotland  in  1747,  and  resided  at  Wbit- 
tingham,  in  East  Lothian,  where  he  died 
in  1750,  aged  63.  He  was  the  author  of 
a  Latin  treatise,  entitled  Matho  sive  Cos- 
motheoria  puei-Uis  Dialogus,  which  he  af- 
terwai'ds  translated  into  English,  and  pub- 
lished in  2  vols.  12mo. 

Baxter,  Richard,  the  most  emment 
of  the  English  nonconfonning  divines 
of  the  17th  century,  was  bom  in  the  vil- 
lage of  Rowton  in  1615.  The  example 
of  his  father,  who  was  accused  of  Puri- 
tanism, gave  him  a  serious  turn  very  early 
in  life.  Aft;er  receiving  his  education,  he 
was  sent  to  London,  under  the  patronage 
of  sir  Henry  Herbert,  master  of  the  revels ; 
but  he  soon  returned  into  the  country 
with  a  view  to  study  divinity,  and,  in  1638, 
received  ordination  in  tlie  church  of  Eng- 
land. The  imposition  of  the  oath  of  uni- 
versal approbation  of  the  doctrine  and 
disciphiie  of  die  church  of  England,  usu- 
ally termed  the  et  ccetera  oath,  detached 
liim  and  many  othere  from  the  establish- 
ment. When  the  civil  war  broke  out,  he 
sided  with  the  parUament,  and,  after  tlie 
battle  of  Naseby,  accepted  the  appointment 
of  chaplain  to  colonel  Whalley's  regiment. 
He  is  said  to  have  been,  the  whole  of  this 
time,  a  friend  to  the  estabhshment,  accord- 
ing to  his  own  notions,  and  to  have  re- 
pressed sectaries  as  much  as  he  was  able. 
In  1647,  he  retired,  m  consequence  of  ill- 
health,  from  his  military  chaplainship,  and, 
when  he  recovered,  opposed  the  measures 
of  those  in  power,  and  preached  urgently 
against  the  covenant.  He  even  endeav- 
ored to  persuade  the  soldiery  not  to  en- 
counter tlie  Scottish  troops  who  came 


BAXTER— BAYARD. 


11 


into  the  kingdom  with  Charles  II,  and 
hesitated  not  to  express  an  open  dislike 
to  the  usur])atiou  of  Cromwell,  whom  he 
told,  in  a  conference  very  characteristic 
of  both  parties,  that  the  people  of  England 
deemed  the  ancient  monarchy  a  blessing. 
The  fact  is,  that  B.,  with  many  more 
zealous  religious  partisans,  held  civil  lib- 
erty to  be  of  secondary  consequence  to 
what  he  esteemed  true  religion,  and  ap- 
pears, from  the  tenor  of  a  sermon  which 
lie  pi'eached  before  Cromwell,  to  have 
deemed  the  toleration  of  separatists  and 
sectaries  the  grand  evil  of  his  government. 
After  the  restoration,  he  was  made  one 
of  the  king's  chaplains,  and  a  commis- 
sioner of  the  Savoy  conference,  to  draAV 
up  the  reformed  liturgy.  The  active 
persecution  of  the  Nonconformists  soon 
followed ;  and,  upon  the  passing  of  the 
act  ajrainst  conventicles,  he  retired,  aixl 
preaclied  more  or  less  openly,  as  the  act 
was  more  or  less  rigidly  enforced.  After 
~^  the  accession  of  James  II,  in  1685,  he 
mtf'  was  arrested  for  some  passages  in  his 
Commentary  on  the  New  Testament,  sup- 
posed hostile  to  Episcopacy,  and  was 
tried  for  sedition.  The  violence  of  Jef- 
feries,  who  would  neither  hear  tlie  ac- 
cused nor  his  counsel,  produced  a  verdict 
of  guilty  on  the  most  frivolous  grounds. 
He  was  sentenced  to  two  years'  imprison- 
ment and  a  heavy  penalty,  which,  after 
a  short  confinement,  the  king  remitted, 
probably  with  some  degree  of  comi)unc- 
tion  for  tlie  manner  of  its  infliction. 
Henceforward,  B.  lived  in  a  retired 
manner  till  his  death,  in  1691.  His  wife 
cheerfully  shai-ed  all  his  sufferings  on  the 
scoi'c  of  conscience,  both  in  and  out  of 
prison.  The  character  of  B.  was  formed 
by  his  age ;  his  failing  was  subtle  and 
controversial  theology ;  his  excellence, 
practical  piety.  In  divinity,  he  sought  to 
establish  a  resting-i)lace  between  strict 
Calvinism  and  high-church  Arminianism, 
by  the  admission  of  election,  and  the  re- 
jection of  reprobation.  Christ  died  for 
some  especially,  and  for  all  generally ; 
that  is  to  say,  all  possess  the  means  of 
salvation.  A  body  called  Baxtcrians  long 
acknowledged  these  distinctions,  and  the 
nonconfonnist  clergy,  after  the  revolu- 
tion, were  divided  between  tliis  body,  the 
pure  Calvinists,  and  the  high-church  pas- 
sive-obedient Arminians.  B.  was  a  vo- 
luminous writer:  his  Saints'  Everlasting 
Rest,  and  the  Call  to  the  Unconverted, 
have  been  extraordinarily  popular. 

Bayadeer,  in  the  East  Indies ;  young 
girls,  from  10  to  17  years  of  age,  who  are 
instructed  in  dancing,  singing,  and  acting 


little  plays.  They  are  under  the  care  of 
matrons,  who  are  experienced  in  all  female 
arts,  and  particulai'ly  in  that  of  pleasing. 
These  select  from  the  lowest  classes  of 
the  people  the  most  beautiful  girls,  of 
seven  or  eight  yeai-s  of  age,  secure  them, 
by  inoculation,  from  the  disfiguring  conse- 
quences of  the  small-pox,  and  instruct 
them  in  all  the  arts  of  tlieir  profession, 
the  object  of  which  is  to  amuse  the  rich, 
and  minister  to  tlieir  passions.  Their 
presence  is  considered  necessary,  even  at 
the  smallest  entertainments.  If  any  of  the 
spectators  desires  to  become  better  ac- 
quainted with  the  talents  of  a  bayadeer, 
only  a  hint  is  needed.  For  a  girl  of  the 
greatest  attractions,  the  matron  to  whom 
she  belongs  receives  a  hundred  rupees  for 
an  evening,  and  as  much  for  a  night, 
besides  a  present  for  the  girl.  After  their 
17th  year,  when  their  first  charms  have 
faded,  they  retire  to  a  pagoda  (the  temple 
of  their  idols),  under  the  protection  of  the 
Bramins,  but  not,  like  pubUc  girls  in  Eu- 
rope, to  become  devotees.  They  continue 
to  exercise  their  profession  in  the  temple, 
and  what  they  gain  belongs  to  tlie  Bra- 
mins, who  give  them  food  and  shelter. 
Their  profession  is  not  thought  infamous 
in  India. 

Bayamo,  or  St.  Salvador  ;  a  tovsm  of 
Cuba,  on  a  river  which  forms  a  port  on 
the  S.  E.  coast ;  520  miles  E.  S.  E.  Ha- 
vannah ;  Ion.  76°  55'  W.;  lat.  20°  46'  N.; 
population  estimated  at  12,000.  The 
town  is  about  20  miles  distant  from  the 
port.  It  gives  name  to  a  channel  situated 
between  the  main  land  of  Cuba  and  the 
islands  called  the  Queen's  Gardens. 

Bayard,  Pierre  du  Terrail,  chevalier 
de,  called  the  knight  without  fear  and  urith- 
out  reproach,  born  in  1476,  in  the  castle  of 
Bayai-d,  near  Grenoble,  was  one  of  the 
most  spotless  characters  of  the  middle 
ages.  He  was  simple  and  modest;  a  true 
friend  and  tender  lover ;  j)ious,  humane 
and  magnanimous.  The  family  of  Ter- 
rail, to  which  he  belonged,  was  one  of  the 
most  ancient  in  Dauphin^,  and  was  cele- 
brated for  nobility  and  valor.  Young  B., 
educated  under  the  eyes  of  his  uncle 
George  of  Terrail,  bishop  of  Grenoble, 
early  imbibed,  in  the  school  of  tiiis  wor- 
thy prelate,  the  virtues  which  distinguish- 
ed him  aftei-wards.  At  the  age  of  13,  he 
was  received  among  the  pages  of  the 
duke  of  Savoy,  the  ally  of  France. 
Charles  VIII,  who  saw  him  at  Lyons,  in 
the  suite  of  this  prince,  was  struck  with 
the  dexterity  with  which  the  youth  man- 
aged his  horse :  he  begged  him  of  the 
duke,  and  committed  him  to  the  care  of 


12 


BAYARD. 


Paul  of  Luxemburg,  count  de  Ligny. 
The  tournaments  were  his  first  field  of 
glory.  At  the  age  of  18,  he  accompanied 
Charles  VIII  to  Italy,  and  distinguished 
himself  greatly  in  the  battle  at  Verona, 
where  he  took  a  standard.  At  the  begin- 
ning of  die  reign  of  Louis  XII,  in  a  battle 
near  Milan,  he  pursued  the  fugitives  with 
such  eagerness,  that  he  entered  the  city 
with  them,  and  was  taken  prisoner.  Lu- 
dovico  Sforza  returned  him  his  arms  and 
his  horse,  and  dismissed  him  without  ran- 
som. Whilst  the  French  were  in  Apu- 
lia, B.  defeated  a  Spanish  corps,  and 
made  their  leader,  don  Alonzo  de  Soto- 
mayor,  prisoner.  He  treated  him  with 
generosity.  Sotomayor,  however,  not  only 
violated  his  parole  by  flight,  but  calum- 
niated B.,  who,  according  to  the  custom 
of  that  time,  challenged  him,  and  killed 
him.  Afterwards,  like  Horatius  Codes, 
he  defended  a  bridge  over  the  Garigliano 
singly  against  the  Spaniards,  and  saved 
tlie  French  army  by  checking  the  advance 
of  the  victorious  enemj'.  For  this  exploit, 
he  received  as  a  coat  of  arms  a  porcupine, 
with  the  motto  Vires  agminis  umis  kahet. 
He  distinguished  himself  equally  agtunst 
the  Genoese  and  the  Venetians.  When 
Juhus  II  declared  himself  against  France, 
B.  went  to  the  assistance  of  the  duke  of 
Ferrara.  He  did  not  succeed  in  his  plan 
of  taking  the  pope  prisoner ;  but  he  re- 
fused, with  indignation,  an  offer  made  to 
betray  him.  Being  severely  wounded  at 
the  assault  of  Brescia,  he  was  carried  into 
the  house  of  a  nobleman,  who  had  fled, 
and  left  his  wife  and  two  daughters  ex- 
posed to  the  insolence  of  tlie  soldiers.  B. 
protected  the  family,  refused  the  reward 
of  2500  ducats,  which  they  ofibred  to  him, 
and  returned,  as  soon  as  he  was  cured, 
into  the  camp  of  Gaston  de  Foix,  before 
Ravenna,  In  an  engagement,  which 
shortly  after  ensued,  he  took  two  stand- 
ards from  the  Spaniards,  and  pursued  the 
fiigitives.  Gaston,  the  hope  of  France, 
perished  through  his  neglect  of  the  advice 
of  B.  In  the  retreat  from  Pavia,  B.  was 
again  wounded.  He  was  carried  to  Gre- 
noble ;  his  life  was  in  danger.  "  I  gi-ieve 
not  for  death,"  he  said, "  but  to  die  on  my 
bed,  like  a  woman."  In  the  war  com- 
menced by  Ferdinand  the  Catholic,  he 
displayed  beyond  the  Pyrenees  tlie  same 
talents,  the  same  heroism,  which  had  dis- 
tinguished him  beyond  the  Alps.  The 
fiital  reverses  which  imbittered  the  last 
years  of  Louis  XII  only  added  a  brighter 
splendor  to  the  personal  glory  of  B. 
Henry  VIII  of  England,  in  alhance  with 
Ferdinand  and   Maximilian,  threatened 


Picardy  in  1513,  and  besieged  Terouane. 
The  French  army  disgracefully  took  to 
flight.  B.,  with  his  accustomed  intrepid- 
ity, made  an  ineffectual  resistance  to  the 
enemy:  overpowered  by  superior  num- 
bers, his  troop  was  on  the  point  of  laying 
down  their  arms,  when  B.,  perceiving  an 
English  officer  at  some  distance  from 
him,  immediately  galloped  towards  him, 
presented  his  sword  to  his  breast,  and 
cried,  "  Yield,  or  die  !"  The  Englishman 
surrendered  his  sword:  B.  immediately 
gave  him  his  own,  saying,  "  I  am  Bayard, 
and  your  captive,  as  you  are  mine."  The 
boldness  and  ingenuity  of  this  action 
pleased  the  emperor  and  the  king  of  Eng- 
land, who  decided  that  B.  needed  no  ran- 
som, and  that  both  captives  were  released 
from  their  parole.  When  Francis  I  as- 
cended the  throne,  he  sent  B.  uito  Dau- 
phin6,  to  open  for  his  army  a  passage  over 
the  Alps,  and  through  Piedmont.  Pros- 
per Colonna  lay  in  wait  for  him  on  his 
march,  expecting  to  surprise  him,  but  B. 
made  him  prisoner.  This  brilliant  exploit 
was  the  prelude  to  the  battle  of  Marigna- 
no,  in  which  B.,  at  the  side  of  the  king, 
performed  wonders  of  bravery,  and  deci- 
ded the  victory.  After  this  glorious  day, 
Francis  was  knighted  with  the  sword  of  B. 
When  Charles  V  invaded  Champagne, 
with  a  large  army,  and  threatened  to  pene- 
trate into  the  heart  of  France,  B.  defended 
the  weakly-fortified  to^vn  of  Mezieres 
against  evei-y  assault,  until  the  dissensions 
of  the  hostile  leaders  compelled  them  to 
retreat.  B.  was  saluted  in  Paris  as  the  sav- 
ior of  his  country :  the  kuig  bestowed  on 
him  the  order  of  St.  Michael,  and  a  compa- 
ny of  100  men,  which  he  was  to  command 
in  his  own  name — an  honor  which,  till 
then,  had  only  been  conferred  on  princes 
of  the  blood.  Soon  afterwards,  Genoa 
revolted  from  France:  B's  presence  re- 
duced it  to  obedience.  But,  after  the  sur- 
render of  Lodi,  fortune  changed,  and  the 
French  troops  were  exj)clled  from  tlieir 
conquests.  Bonnivet  was  obliged  to  re- 
ti-eat  through  the  valley  of  Aosta;  his  rear 
was  beaten,  and  himself  severely  wounded, 
when  the  safety  of  the  army  was  com- 
mitted to  B.  It  was  necessary  to  pass  the 
Sesia  in  the  presence  of  a  superior  enemy, 
and  B.,  always  the  last  in  retreat,  vigor- 
ously attacked  the  Spaniards,  when  a 
stone,  from  a  blunderbuss,  struck  his  right 
side,  and  shattered  his  back-bone.  The 
hero  fell,  exclaiming,  "  Jesus,  my  God,  I 
am  a  dead  man !"  They  hastened  towards 
him.  "  Place  me  mider  yon  tree,"  he  said, 
"  that  I  may  see  the  enemy."  For  want 
of  a  crucifix,  he  kissed  the  cross  of  his 


BAYARD. 


13 


sword,  confessed  to  liis  squire,  consoled 
his  servants  and  his  friends,  bade  farewell 
to  his  king  and  his  country,  and  died, 
April  30, 1524,  suiTounded  by  friends  and 
enemies,  who  all  shed  tears  of  admiration 
and  grief.  His  body,  which  remained  in 
the  hands  of  his  enemies,  was  embalmed 
by  them,  given  to  the  French,  and  inten'ed 
in  a  church  of  the  Minorites,  near  Greno- 
ble. His  monument  consists  of  a  simple 
bust,  with  a  Latin  inscription.  (See  Hist, 
de  P.  Terrail,  dit  le  Chevalier  Bayard  sans 
Peur  et  sans  Reproche,  by  Gayai-d  de  Ber- 
ville,  new  edition,  Paris,  1824). 

Batard,  James  A.,  an  emment  Ameri- 
can lawyer  and  politician,  was  born  in 
Philadelphia,  in  1767.  His  classical  edu- 
cation was  completed  at  Princeton  col- 
lege. In  the  year  1784,  he  engaged  in  the 
study  of  the  law,  and,  on  his  admission 
to  the  bar,  settled  in  the  state  of  Delaware, 
where  he  soon  acquired  considerable  prac- 
tice and  reputation.  A  fcAv  years  after 
he  reached  his  majority,  he  was  elected  a 
representative  of  Delaware  in  congress. 
The  first  occasion,  on  which  he  particu- 
larly distinguished  himself,  was  the  im- 
peachment of  William  Blount,  a  senator 
of  the  U.  States.  Mr.  B.  was  chairman  of 
the  commrttee  of  eleven,  who  were  se- 
lected, by  the  house  of  representatives,  to 
conduct  that  impeachment.  He  took  the 
chief  and  a  very  bi'illiant  part  m  the  dis- 
cussion of  the  constitutional  questions 
which  arose  out  of  the  successful  plea  of 
the  accused  to  tlie  jurisdiction  of  thesenate. 
At  an  early  period  of  liis  pohtical  career, 
president  Adams  offered  him  the  post  of 
envoy  to  the  French  republic,  which  pru- 
dential reasons  induced  him  to  decline. 
Mr.  B.  WE^  one  of  the  leaders  of  the  fed- 
eral party  in  congress  at  the  epoch  of  the 
election  of  Mr.  Jefferson  to  the  office  of 
jircsident.  In  the  memorable  contest  in 
the  house  of  representatives,  which  was 
produced  by  the  equality  of  votes  for  Mr. 
Jetferson  and  colonel  Burr,  he  finally 
prevailed  upon  his  pohtical  coadjutors  to 
adopt  the  mode  of  proceeding  which  ena- 
bled tlie  friends  of  Mr.  Jeffei-son  to  ti-i- 
umph.  Hostile  as  he  was  to  that  states- 
man, and  much  as  he  had  reason  to 
expect  of  personal  advantage  from  a  dif- 
ferent issue,  he  sacrificed  party  feeling 
and  ambitious  hope,  when  he  perceived 
that  the  peace  of  the  country  and  the 
stabihty  of  the  constitution  might  be  en- 
dangered by  continuing  the  struggle.  In 
no  debate  of  the  house  did  Mr.  B.  display 
his  genius  more  than  in  that  which  pre- 
ceded the  repeal,  in  March,  1802,  of  the 
judiciary  bill.    A  volume  of  the  speeches 

VOL.  II.  2 


which  were  delivered  in  this  famous  con- 
troversy has  been  published.  It  was 
almost  miiversally  conceded  that  he  was 
the  ablest  advocate  of  the  system  or  or- 
ganization which  was  destroyed.  He 
continued  in  the  house  of  representatives 
after  the  change  of  adraujistration,  always 
conspicuous  for  his  sound  principles,  con- 
stant acuteness,  extensive  knowledge,  and 
manly,  copious  eloquence.  Elected  to  the 
senate  of  the  U.  States  by  the  legislaturo 
of  Delaware,  he  displayed,  for  several 
years,  in  that  assembly,  the  same  talents 
and  patriotism.  In  1812,  he  strenuously 
opposed  the  declaration  of  war  with  Great 
Britain.  President  IMadison  selected  him 
as  one  of  the  commissionere  to  treat  for 
peace  under  tlie  proffered  mediation  of 
the  emperor  Alexander  of  Russia.  He 
embarked  on  this  important  mission, 
which  had  not  been  sought  nor  expected 
by  himself  or  his  friends  for  him,  from 
the  port  of  Philadelpliia,  May  8,  1813, 
and  arrived  at  St.  Petersburg  in  July  of 
that  year.  The  absence  of  the  emperor 
prevented  the  transaction  of  any  lousiness, 
and,  when  all  hope  of  advancing  the  main 
object  seemed  idle,  Mr.  B.  proceeded 
(January,  1814)  by  land  to  Holland. 
There  he  learned  the  willingness  of  the 
British  court  to  treat  directly  with  the 
American  envoys.  Previously  to  the  aiTi- 
val  of  his  colleagues,  who,  in  consequence 
of  this  annunciation,  were  despatched  by 
the  American  government,  he  visited 
England.  At  the  proper  period,  he  re- 
paired to  Ghent,  which  was  ultimately 
chosen  as  the  scene  of  the  negotiations 
which  terminated  in  the  treaty  tliat  bears 
the  name  of  that  place.  His  share  in  the 
oral  discussions  and  the  written  corre- 
spondence with  the  British  plenipotentia- 
ries was  such  as  might  have  been  expect- 
ed from  liis  peculiar  fitness  for  the  task 
of  negotiation.  On  the  conclusion  of  this 
business,  he  made  a  journey  to  Paris, 
where  he  remained  until  he  heard  of  the 
ratification  of  the  treaty,  and  of  his  ap- 
pointment as  envoy  to  the  court  of  St. 
Petersburg.  This  he  promptly  dechned. 
It  was  his  intention,  however,  to  go  to 
England,  m  order  to  co-operate  in  the 
formation  of  a  connnercial  treaty  with  the 
British  cabinet,  as  he  was  included  in  the 
commission  sent  for  that  purpose ;  but  an 
alarming  illness  put  an  end  to  every 
plan,  except  that  of  reaching  his  home  as 
early  as  possible.  He  embarked  at  Havre 
in  May,  1815,  in  a  state  of  the  most  pain- 
ful debility,  suffered  unfortunate  delays 
m  the  voyage,  and  arrived  in  the  U.  States 
only  to  die  in  the  arms  of  his  family. — 


14 


BAYARD— BAYLE. 


Mr.,  B.  was  a  logician  of  the  first  order, 
possessed  a  rich  and  ready  elocution,  and 
commanded  attention  as  well  by  his  fine 
countenance  and  manly  person  as  his 
cogent  reasoning  and  comprehensive 
views.  He  acquired  a  reputation,  both  as 
a  lawyer  and  political  orator,  scarcely 
inferior  to  that  of  any  one  of  his  American 
contemporaries. 

Bayle,  Pierre,  bom  at  Carlat,  in  the 
county  of  Foix  (Languedoc),  in  1647, 
received  his  first  instruction  from  his 
father,  a  Calvinistic  preacher.  He  gave 
early  proofs  of  an  astonishing  memory, 
and  of  a  singular  vivacity  of  muid.  At 
the  age  of  19  years,  he  entered  the  college 
of  Puy-Laurens,  to  finish  his  studies. 
TJie  ardor  Avith  which  he  devoted  him- 
self to  them  weakened  his  constitution. 
All  books  were  eagerly  devoui'ed  by  him ; 
his  taste  for  logic  led  him  particularly  to 
study  religious  controversies,  but  Amyot's 
Plutarch  and  IMontaigne  were  his  favorite 
works.  The  latter  encouraged,  witliout 
doubt,  his  inclination  to  scepticism  ;  per- 
liaps  both  contributed  to  give  to  his  style 
that  vivacity,  that  boldness  of  expression 
and  antique  coloring,  so  observable  Ln  it. 
In  Toulouse,  he  studied  philosophy  with 
the  Jesuits.  The  arguments  of  his  pro- 
fessor, and,  still  more,  his  fi-iendly  discus- 
sions with  a  Catholic  priest,  who  dwelt 
near  him,  confirmed  his  doubts  of  the 
orthodoxy  of  Protestantism,  so  that  he  re- 
solved to  change  his  rehgion.  His  con- 
version was  a  triumph  to  the  CathoUcs. 
His  family,  however,  tried  all  means  to 
regain  hhn,  and,  after  17  months,  he  re- 
turned to  his  old  faith.  In  order  to 
escape  from  tlie  punishment  of  perpetual 
excommunication,  which  tlie  Catholic 
church  then  pronounced  agauist  apostates, 
he  went  to  Geneva,  and  tlience  to  Copet, 
where  count  Dohna  intrusted  him  vnth 
uie  eQU(;auon  of  his  sons,  and  where 
he  studied  the  philosophy  of  Des  Cartes. 
But,  afl.er  some  years,  he  returned  to 
France,  and  settled  in  Rouen,  where  he 
was  employed  in  teaching.  From  thence 
he  went  to  Paris,  Avhere  the  society  of 
learned  men  indemnified  him  for  the  fa- 
tigues of  an  occupation  to  which  he  was 
obliged  to  submit  for  a  third  time.  In 
1675,  he  obtained  the  philosophical  chair 
at  Sedan,  where  he  taught  with  distinc- 
tion until  the  suppression  of  this  acade- 
my in  1681.  He  was  afl:erwards  invited 
to  discharge  the  same  duties  at  Rotter- 
dam. The  appearance  of  a  comet,  in 
1680,  which  occasioned  an  almost  miiver- 
sal  alann,  induced  him  to  pubhsh,  in  1682, 
his  Pensies  diverses  sur  la  Corn^te,  a  work 


full  of  learning,  in  which  he  discussed 
various  subjects  of  metaphysics,  morals, 
theology,  history,  and  politics.  It  was 
followed  by  his  Critique  g6nh-ale  de  VHis- 
toire  du  Calvinisme  de  Maimbourg.  This 
work,  received  with  equal  approbation  by 
the  Cathohcs  and  Protestants,  and  es- 
teemed by  IMaiinbourg  himself,  excited 
the  jealousy  of  his  colleague,  the  theolo- 
gian Jurieu,  whose  Refutation  du  P. 
Maimbourg  had  not  succeeded,  and  in- 
volved B.  in  many  disj)utes.  He  after- 
ward undertook  a  periodical  work,  JVbih- 
vtlles  de  la  Republique  des  Lettres,  ui  1684. 
A  letter  fi'om  Rome,  published  in  this 
work,  excited  the  displeasure  of  the  queen 
Christina  of  Sweden,  who  caused  two  vi- 
olent letters  to  be  sent  to  liim.  B.  apolo- 
gized, and  his  excuses  so  perfectly  satisfied 
die  queen,  that  from  that  time  she  kept 
uj>  a  literarj'  correspondence  wth  him. 
The  death  of  his  father  and  of  his  two 
brothers,  together  with  the  religious  per- 
secutions in  France,  induced  him  to  un- 
dertake his  Commentaire  phUosophique  sur 
ces  Paroles  de  VEvangile ;  Contrains-les 
d^entrer ;  which,  in  regard  to  style  and 
tone,  is  not  worthy  of  him.  B.  hunself 
was  unwilling  to  aclcnowledge  it ;  but 
Jurieu,  who  probably  recognised  its  au- 
tlior  by  the  zeal  with  which  toleration  is 
defended  in  this  work,  attacked  it  with 
violence.  His  hatred  only  waited  for  a 
pretence  to  break  out  against  B. ;  he 
fijund  it  in  the  Avis  aux  Refugiis,  a  work 
in  which  the  Protestants  are  treated  with 
little  ceremony.  Jurieu  not  only  accused 
B.  of  being  tlie  author  of  this  work  (which 
certainly  is  not  his),  but  also  of  being  the 
soul  of  a  party  devoted  to  France,  m  op- 
position to  the  Protestants  and  alUed 
powers.  B.  repelled  these  charges  in  two 
pubUcations ;  but  the  calunuiy  {)revailed. 
In  169-3,  the  magistrates  of  Rotterdam 
removed  him  fi*om  his  office,  and  forbade 
him  to  give  private  instruction.  He  now 
devoted  all  his  attention  to  the  composi- 
tion of  his  Didionnaire  historique  et  cri- 
tique, which  he  first  pubhshed  in  1696, 
in  2  vols.  fol.  This  was  the  first  work 
which  appeared  under  liis  name.  Jiuieu 
opposed  him  anew,  and  caused  the  con- 
sistoiy,  in  which  lie  had  the  greatest  in- 
fluence, to  make  a  severe  attack  upon 
him.  B.  promised  to  remove  every  thing 
which  the  consistory  deemed  offensive; 
but,  finding  the  public  had  other  views, 
and  preferruig  rather  the  satisfaction  of  his 
readers  than  that  of  his  judges,  he  lefl:  the 
work,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  trifles, 
unaltered.  He  found  two  new  enemies 
in  Jacquelot  and  Le  Clerc,  who  both  at- 


BAYLE— BAYLEN. 


15 


tacked  his  religion  :  othei*s  persecuted 
him  as  tlie  enemy  of  his  sect  and  his  new 
countiy.  Tliese  contests  increased  his 
bodily  infirmities.  His  lungs  became  in- 
flamed ;  but  he  was  unwilling  to  use  any 
medical  apphcations  against  a  disoi-der 
which  he  considered  as  hereditary  and 
incurable.  He  died,  so  to  speak,  with  the 
pen  in  his  liand,  in  1706,  at  the  age  of  51) 
yeai-s.  "  Bayle,"  says  Voltaire,  "  is  the 
first  of  logicians  and  sce])tics.  His  gi-eat- 
est  enemies  must  confess  that  there  is  not 
a  line  in  his  works  which  contains  an 
open  aspereion  of  Christianity ;  but  his 
warmest  apologists  must  acknowledge, 
tliat  tliere  is  not  a  page  in  his  controver- 
sial \yritings  which  does  not  lead  the 
i-eader  to  doubt,  and  often  to  scepticism." 
He  compares  himself  to  Homer's  cloud- 
compelhng  Jupiter.  "  3Iy  talent,"  he  says, 
"consists  in  raising  doubts;  but  they  are 
only  doubts."  The  confidence  of  most 
tljeologians  mduced  him  to  undertake  to 
prove  that  several  points  arc  not  so  certain 
and  so  evident  as  they  imagined.  But  he 
gradually  passed  these  limits:  his  pene- 
tration caused  him  to  doubt  even  the 
most  universally  acknowledged  facts.  Yet 
he  never  attacked  the  great  principles  of 
morality.  Though  an  admirable  logician, 
he  was  so  little  acquainted  with  physics, 
that  even  the  discoveries  of  Nevnon  were 
unknown  to  him.  His  style  is  natural 
and  clear,  but  often  prolix,  careless  and 
incorrect.  He  himself  calls  his  Diction- 
naire  "une  compilation  informe  des  pas- 
sa^ts  cousus  a  la  queue  les  tms  des  atdres." 
Without  assenting  implicitly  to  this  mod- 
est judgment,  we  must  confess  that  the 
articles,  in  themselves,  are  of  little 
value,  and  that  they  serve  only  as  a  pre- 
text for  the  notes,  in  which  the  author 
displays,  at  the  same  time,  his  learning, 
and  the  power  of  his  logic.  The  chai-ac- 
ter  of  B.  was  gentle,  amiable,  disinterest- 
ed, highly  modest  and  peaceable :  he  de- 
voted himself  entirely  to  literature.  The 
most  esteemed  edition  of  his  Dictionnaire 
kistorique  is  that  of  1740,  in  4  vols.  fol. 
(an  edition  was  also  printed  at  Bale, 
tlie  same  year).  At  the  Hague  appeared 
the  (Euvres  diverse^  de  P.  Bai/le  (also  4 
vols,  fol.)  An  edition  of  his  Diet,  histor., 
in  1(5  vols.,  printed  with  gi'eat  typograph- 
ical beauty,  was  published,  in  1820,  by 
Desoer,  in  Paris:  it  contains  notes,  and 
tlie  life  of  the  author.  In  the  Disc,  pre- 
limin.,  the  editor,  Beuchot,  reviews  the  11 
former  editions.  Gottsched  has  translated 
tlie  Diet,  into  German  (Leipsic,  1741 — 44, 
4  vols,  fol.)  An  Enghsh  translation,  with 
considerable    additions,    by    Th.    Birch, 


Lockman    and    others,    was    published, 
1734— 41,  10  vols.  fol. 

Batle>',  capitulation  of  general  Du|>ont 
at ;  an  event  which,  in  July,  1808,  raised 
the  courage  of  Spain,  and  hastened  a 
general  insurrection.  Joseph  Bonaparte 
had  entered  Madrid  as  king ;  the  prov- 
inces Leon,  Valencia,  Valladolid,  Zamo- 
ra  and  Salamanca  had  been  subdued 
and  disarmed.  In  the  south  alone,  on  the 
Guadalquivir,  in  the  naturally  fortified 
Andalusia,  in  Cordova,  Grenada,  Jaen, 
the  spirit  of  insurrection  still  prevailed, 
and  was  excited  as  much  as  possilile  by 
the  junta  of  Seville.  Thither  general 
Dupont  directed  his  march,  at  the  end  of 
May,  with  three  divisions.  Cortlova  and 
Jaen  were  taken  by  assault,  after  the 
most  terrible  resistance.  The  monks 
promised  the  joys  of  heaven,  without 
purgatoiy,  to  everj'  one  who  should  kill 
three  Frenchmen.  The  corps  of  Casta- 
iios  soon  increased  to  30,000  men.  The 
able  manceuvTcs  of  this  general,  together 
with  famine  and  sickness  in  the  French 
anny,  augmented  by  the  total  want  of 
hospitals,  prepai'ed  the  way  for  the  over- 
throw of  general  Dupont.  3000  Span- 
iards had  possession  or  the  Sierra  Morena, 
in  the  rear  of  his  army.  In  ordt-r  to  re- 
establish his  communication  with  the 
capital,  he  occupied  the  cities  of  B.  and 
Carolina  with  detachments,  while  he 
himself  took  a  position  near  Andujar,  on 
the  Guadalquivir.  But,  on  the  14th  of 
July,  18,000  men,  with  some  pieces  of 
heavy  artilleiy,  marched  against  the  front 
of  the  French  position  near  Andujar; 
while  3000  men  came  through  the  defiles 
of  the  Sierra  Morena  upon  the  rear,  and 
6000  men  attacked  Dupont's  left  wing. 
He  defended  himself,  for  three  days,  with 
skill  and  courage ;  but  the  18th  of  July 
decided  the  contest.  The  Spanish  gen- 
erals Reding  and  Compigny  attacked  B. 
Peilas  and  Jones  overawed  the  main  body, 
under  Dupont.  He  was  compelled  to 
evacuate  Andujar,  after  B.  had  been  taken 
by  the  Spaniards.  The  action  continued 
nine  hours,  when  Dupont  requested  a 
suspension  of  arms,  but  was  told  that  he 
must  sun'ender  at  discretion.  Meanwhile 
the  division  of  Vedel,  not  acquainted  with 
the  proceedings  of  Dupont,  had  attacked 
the  Spaniards  anew,  and  taken  the  regi- 
ment of  Cordova  prisoners,  together  with 
two  pieces  of  artillery,  but  were  finally 
overpowered  by  superior  munbei-s.  On 
the  2.3d  of  July,  the  whole  French  anny, 
17,000  men  strong,  being  surrounded, 
was  obliced  to  capitulate,  havine  lost 
3000  men"  on  the  field  of  battle.    The  dj- 


16 


BAYLEN— BAYONET. 


visions  of  Dupont  and  Vedel  were  made 
prisoners  of  •war:  the  latter  was  to  be 
j)erniitted  to  embark  at  Catliz  for  Roche- 
fort  :  the  same  tenns  wei"e  allertvards 
promised  to  the  division  of  Dupom,  but 
not  fulfilled.  General  Dupont  returned, 
Avith  his  staff,  to  France,  and  was  arrested 
at  Toulon,  and  subjected  to  trial.  But, 
before  a  decision,  he  was  delivered  by 
the  capture  of  Paris,  March  30,  1814. 
He  was  aftenvards  appointed,  by  Louis 
XVIII,  minister  of  war ;  but  was  super- 
seded by  Soult,  in  December,  1S14. 

Bayley,  Richard,  M.  D.,  was  bom  at 
Fail-field,  Connecticut,  in  the  year  1745. 
Having  completed  his  medical  studies,  he 
went  to  London,  to  attend  the  lectures 
and  hospitals.  After  little  more  than  a 
year's  residence  in  that  city,  he  returned 
to  New  York,  and  commenced  practice 
there  in  1772.  At  this  period,  his  atten- 
tion was  first  dravra  to  the  then  prevalent 
and  fatal  croup,  which  had  been  treated 
as  the  putrid  sore  throat.  Observing  how 
fatal  was  the  use  of  stimulants  and  anti- 
septics, he  examined  tlie  nature  of  the 
disease,  and  became  convinced  that  it  was 
of  an  inflammatory  character.  He  ac- 
cordingly treated  it  as  such,  with  decided 
success,  and,  soon  after  the  publication  of 
his  View  of  the  Croup,  his  opinions  and 
treatment  of  it  were  universally  adopted. 
In  the  autumn  of  1775,  B.  revisited  Lon- 
don, where  he  spent  a  winter,  and,  in  the 
followdng  spring,  returned  to  New  York, 
in  the  capacity  of  surgeon  in  the  English 
army  under  Howe.  He  resigned  tliis 
I)ost  in  1777,  and,  during  the  rest  of  his 
life,  continued  the  practice  of  his  pro- 
fession in  the  same  city.  In  1787,  he 
lectured  on  surgery.  In  1788,  he  lost  his 
valuable  collection  in  morbid  anatomy, 
and  some  delicate  preparations,  by  the 
violence  of  the  famous  "doctors'  mob," 
who  broke  mto  liis  house,  and  carried  off 
and  burned  his  cabinet.  In  the  spring 
of  1792,  he  was  appointed  professor  of 
anatomy  in  Columbia  college,  and,  in 
1793,  became  professor  of  surgery,  which 
was  his  favorite  subject.  His  lectures 
were  clear,  precise  and  practical.  As  an 
optician,  he  acquired  great  celebrity,  and 
also  as  an  experienced  and  successftil  U- 
thotomist.  When  the  yellow  fever  deso- 
lated New  York,  soon  after  the  revolu- 
tion, doctor  B.  devoted  himself  to  personal 
attention  to  the  sick,  and  became  practi- 
cally familiar  with  the  disease,  and  its 
most  successful  remedies.  He  likewise 
investigated  its  cause,  and  declared  that 
it  was  the  filth  which  polluted  the  docks 
and  some  of  the  streets,  aflSrming,  "  that 


when  a  more  rigid  police  prevailed,  to 
free  the  city  from  nuisances,  no  more 
would  be  heard  of  particular  diseases." 
In  1797,  he  published  his  work  On  Yel- 
low Fever,  wherein  he  proved  the  malady 
to  be  of  local  origin.  So  strong  was  his 
belief  on  this  point,  and  so  clear  his  per- 
ception of  the  cause  of  the  fever,  tliat  he 
predicted  tlie  verj-  spot  where  it  after- 
wards appeared,  in  the  year  1799.  In  the 
year  1795  or  6,  he  was  ajipointed  health 
physician  for  the  port  of  New  York,  and, 
in  1798,  published  Lettei-s  fi-om  the 
Heakh  Office,  submitted  to  the  New 
York  Common  Council,  being  a  series  of 
letters  in  the  years  '96-7-8.  One  letter, 
dated  Dec.  4,  1798,  assigns  the  reasons 
why  the  fever  in  '98  was  more  exteii- 
sively  prevalent  than  in  '95, 6  or  7,  which 
he  considers  to  be  the  rains  flooding  large 
portions  of  tlie  city,  its  low  levels,  new- 
made  ground,  and  a  hot  sun. — In  1798,  a 
correspondence  took  place  between  the 
cities  of  New  York  and  Philadelphia,  in 
the  course  of  which  a  proposition  was 
made  by  the  committee  of  the  latter  to  that 
of  the  former,  soliciting  their  co-operation 
in  a  memorial  to  the  general  government 
for  a  quarantine  law.  This  gave  doctor 
B.,  who  was  on  the  New  York  commit- 
tee, an  opportunity  of  impressing  upon 
the  general  government  tlie  propriety  of 
estabUshing  a  lazaretto,  below  and  at  a 
dist«uice  fi-om  the  city  or  port  of  entry. 
He  was  the  person  to  whom  the  state  of 
New  York  is,  in  fact,  chiefly  indebted  for 
its  quarantine  laws,  although  they  have 
since  been  altered  and  amended.  In  Au- 
gust, 1801,  doctor  B.,  in  the  discharge  of 
his  duty  as  health  physician,  enjoined  the 
passengers  and  crew  of  an  Irish  emigrant 
ship,  aflilicted  with  the  ship  fever,  to  go  on 
shore  to  the  rooms  and  tents  appointed 
for  tliem,  leaving  their  luggage  behind. 
The  next  morning,  on  going  to  the  hospi- 
tal, he  found  that  both  crew  and  passen- 
gers, well,  sick  and  dying,  were  huddled 
together  in  one  apartment,  where  they 
hfid  passed  the  night.  He  inconsiderately 
entered  into  this  room  before  it  had  been 
properly  ventilated,  but  remained  scarce- 
ly a  moment,  being  obliged  to  retire  by  a 
most  deadly  sickness  at  the  stomach,  and 
violent  paui  in  the  head,  with  which  he 
was  suddenly  seized.  He  returned  home^ 
and  retired  to  his  bed,  from  which  he 
never  rose.  In  the  afternoon  of  the 
seventh  day  following,  he  expired. 

Bayonet.  Tliis  is  the  name  of  the 
iron  blade,  formed  like  a  dagger,  and 
placed  upon  the  muzzle  of  the  musket, 
which  is  thus  transformed  into  a  thrusting 


BAYONET— BEAR- 


17 


weapon.  It  was  probably  invented,  about 
1640,  in  Bayonne,  and  was  used  in  the 
Netherlands,  in  1647,  but  Avas  not  univer- 
sally uitroduced  until  after  the  pilve  was 
AvhoUy  laid  aside,  in  the  beginning  of  the 
18th  centuiy.  Smce  the  general  wai-  in  Eu- 
rope, some  officers  have  adopted  the  idea 
of  fonner  niilitaiy  ivriters  (for  instance, 
Guibeit),  of  increasing  the  efficiency  of 
tlie  bayonet  by  a  more  regulai*  exercise  of 
tlie  infantiy  in  its  use.  A  Saxon  captain, 
von  Sehmiitz,  has  the  merit  of  having 
fii-st  developed  this  idea  in  a  systematic 
ti'eatise.  (See  The  Art  of  Fighting  with  the 
Bayonet,  by  E.  von  Selmnitz,  Dresden, 
1825,  with  copperplates.)  As  cavalry  are 
often  counted  by  horses,  mfantry  are 
sometimes  counted  by  bayonets. 

Bayo>'>e  ;  a  well-built,  rich,  commer- 
cial city,  the  largest  in  the  French  de- 
partment of  the  Lower  Pyrenees,  formerly 
capital  of  the  district  Labour,  in  Gascony 
(Ion.  1°  24'  W. ;  lat.  43°  29'  N.),  at  the 
confluence  of  tlie  Nive  and  the  Adour, 
about  two  miles  from  the  bay  of  Biscay. 
It  has  13,600  inliabitants,  6000  of  whom 
live  in  the  suburbs.  The  Nive  and  the 
Adour  (the  former  of  which  is  navigable 
about  30,  and  the  latter  70  miles)  form  a 
harbor  capable  of  admitting  men  of  war 
from  40  to  50  guns,  but  it  has  a  difficult 
access.  These  two  rivers  serve  to  convey 
timber,  tar  and  iron  from  the  Pyrenees  to 
B.  A  citadel,  built  by  Vauban,  on  the 
summit  of  an  eminence  in  the  suburb, 
commands  the  harbor  and  the  city.  The 
bishop  of  B.  is  under  the  archbishop  of 
Toulouse,  and  exercises  spiiitual  jurisdic- 
tion over  three  departments.  The  cathe- 
dral is  a  beautiful  ancient  building.  B. 
has  considerable  commerce  with  Spam  ; 
French  and  foreign  goods  being  ex- 
changed for  iron,  fruit,  gold  and  silver. 
B.  is  much  engaged  in  the  cod  and  whale 
fishery,  in  which,  before  the  revolution, 
30 — 40  vessels  of  250  tons  burthen  were 
employed,  ftlasts  and  other  timber  for 
ship-building,  from  the  P3Tenees,  are  ex- 
j)orted  to  Brest  and  other  polls  of  France. 
The  hams  of  B.  are  famous.  Its  wine 
and  chocolate  are  sliipped  to  the  noilh  of 
Europe.  Among  the  lower  class,  the  an- 
cient Biscayan  or  Basque  language  is 
spoken.  Catharine  of  fliedicis  had  an 
important  interview  with  the  duke  of  Al- 
l)a  in  B.,  June  1565.  The  meeting  of  Na- 
poleon with  the  king  of  Spain,  Charles 
IV,  and  the  prince  of  the  Asturias,  also 
took  place  here  in  May,  1808,  in  conse- 
quence of  which  the  two  last  signed  (5th 
and  lOtli  May)  an  agreement,  by  which 
they,  and  all  the  childi-en  of  the  king, 
2* 


transferred  their  rights  to  the  Spanish 
territories,  in  Europe  and  India,  to  the 
French  emperor.  Napoleon  convened  a 
Spanish  general  junta  at  B.,  June  15th,  to 
draw  up  a  constitution.  This  constitution 
was  published  July  6,  and  Joseph  de]Kirt- 
ed,  on  the  9th,  from  B.  for  Madrid.  The 
convention  of  B.,  between  the  Poles  and 
France,  was  signed  on  the  10th  May, 
1808,  (See  Scholl's  Traites  de  Paix,  vol. 
9,  page  28.)  The  transactions  at  B.  are 
some  of  the  most  important  in  Napoleon's 
life,  and  disclose  the  AATCtched  character 
of  the  royal  family  of  Spain. 

Bazar,  Bazaar,  or  Basar  ;  a  market- 
place in  the  East.  The  word  is  Arabic, 
and  originally  denotes  sale  or  exchange. 
Some  are  open,  some  covered  with  lolty 
ceiluigs,  or  domes.  At  the  bazars,  or  in 
the  neighborhood  of  them,  are  the  coffee- 
houses, so  much  frequented  in  Turkey, 
Persia,  &c. ;  and,  as  the  Orientals  live  al- 
most entirely  out  of  doors,  tlie  bazars  of 
populous  cities,  besides  their  mercantile 
importance,  are  of  consequence  as  places 
of  social  intercouree.  The  bazar  of  Ispa- 
han is  one  of  the  finest  places  in  Persia- 
That  of  Tauris  is  the  largest  kno\M].  At 
Constantinople  are  two  bazai-s — the  old 
and  new  one.  In  the  Oriental  tales,— 
for  instance,  in  the  Arabian  Nights, — the 
bazars  occupy  a  veiy  conspicuous  place. 
Since  the  system  of  credit  is  almost  en- 
tirely unknoAvn  in  Eastern  trade,  and  all 
commercial  transactions  take  place  in 
merchandise  and  money,  the  places 
where  this  merchandise  is  brought  and 
changed  from  one  owner  to  another  are, 
of  coui-se,  very  much  frequented. — The 
word  bazar  has  been  used,  in  recent  times, 
also,  in  Europe.  Thus  there  is  the  well- 
known  bazar  in  Solio  square,  in  London. 

Beacon.  (See  Signals,  and  Lighthouse.) 

Beagle  ;  a  species  of  the  genus  dog, 
kept  entirely  for  huntuig  hares.  They 
are  small,  and  much  inferior  to  the  hare 
in  swiftness,  but  have  a  veiy  delicate 
scent,  and  seldom  fail  of  running  her 
down. 

Bear  [urstis,  L.) ;  a  genus  of  carniv- 
orous, or,  more  accurately,  frugi-caniiv- 
orous,  mamraiferous  quadi-upeds,  belong- 
ing to  the  family  plantigrada,  which  tread 
on  the  entire  soles  of  the  [hind]  feet. 
The  genus  is  characterized  by  a  heavy 
body,  covered  with  a  thick,  woolly  coat, 
a  large  head,  terminating  in  a  prolonged 
snout,  with  very  extensible  hjis.  The 
ears  are  of  moderate  size,  and  rather 
])ointed,  and  the  tongue  smooth.  TJie 
limbs  are  large  and  heavy,  and  all  the 
feet    are  five-toed,  and   fiinnshed  with 


18 


BEAR— BEARD. 


very  strong,  hooked  claws,  well  suited 
for  burrowing. — Five  species  at  present 
belong  to  this  genus.  The  Linnaean  genus 
comprised  the  raccoon,  badger,  &:c.,  uo^v, 
properly,  separated  from  it.  These  spe- 
cies are,  the  brown  bear  of  Europe  ( U. 
arctos) ;  the  white  or  polar  bear  ( U.  mar- 
iiirmis);  tlie  American  or  black  bear  ( L^. 
Amtricanvs) ;  the  grisly  bear  ((/. /lorn'J- 
ilis\  also  of  America;  and  the  3Ialay- 
an  or  Asiatic  bear  {U.  lahiatus). — The 
brown  bear  is  chiefly  an  inhabitant  of 
cold  and  elevated  situations,  and  feeds  on 
a  great  variety  of  animal  and  vegetable 
substances.  During  winter,  this  species, 
like  some  others,  remains  torpid  in  caves, 
whither  it  retires,  in  the  autumn,  verj'  fat, 
and  comes  out,  in  the  spring,  extremely 
emaciated.  The  bromi  bear  is  remarka- 
ble for  its  sagacity,  as  well  as  the  ferocity 
of  its  disi)osition,  and  it  becomes  espe- 
cially sanguinaiy  as  it  advances  in  age. 
Besides  the  difterences  of  color  and  size 
which  distinguish  this  bear  fi-om  those 
belonging  to  the  old  continent,  it  differs 
from  the  American  bears,  by  having  a 
convexity  of  front  above  the  eyes,  which 
rendere  its  physiognomy  strikingly  dis- 
similar to  theii-s.  Other  distinctions,  suffi- 
ciendy  obvious,  present  themselves  when 
the  species  ai'e  compared. — The  polar,  or 
maritime  bear,  is  only  found  in  high 
nortliem  latitudes,  along  the  borders  of 
the  Icy  ocean  and  nortliem  coasts  of 
America  m  the  vicinity  of  Hudson's  bay. 
It  does  not  descend  to  the  eastern  coast 
of  Siberia  nor  Kamtschatka ;  neither  is  it 
found  in  the  islands  lying  l)etween  Sibe- 
ria and  America.  It  is  uniformly  white, 
attains  a  large  size,  is  very  ])owerfuI,  fe- 
rocious and  daring.  It  is  an  excellent 
diver  and  swimmer,  being  apparently  as 
much  at  home  in  the  ocean  as  on  land. 
An  individual  of  this  species  was  seen,  by 
the  late  northern  explorers,  in  the  mid- 
dle of  Mehille  sound,  swimming  across, 
where  the  shores  were  at  least  ^0  miles 
apart.  The  polar  bear  is  the  most  exclu- 
sively carnivorous  of  the  genus,  though 
equally  capable  of  liNing  on  vegetable 
food  witli  the  rest.  He  preys  upon  seals, 
the  cubs  of  the  Avhale,  morse,  &c.,  or  the 
carcasses  of  whales  left  by  whalers  after 
removing  the  blubber.  Individuals  of 
this  species  are  sometimes,  though  rarely, 
seen  in  caravans  of  wild  animals  in  the 
U.  States.  A  large  and  beautiful  one  was 
exhibited  in  New  York,  in  the  spring  of 
1826,  and,  notwithstanding  the  coolness 
of  the  weatlier,  it  appeared  to  suffer  ex- 
tremely from  heat,  as  it  bathed  itself 
frequently  in  water  provided  for  the  pur- 


pose. When  ice  was  placed  in  the  cage, 
it  rolled  upon  it  with  great  satisfaction, 
and  showed  every  sign  of  being  gratified. 
— The  black  bear  of  America  is  distin- 
guished by  its  color  and  a  peculiarly  con- 
vex facial  outline.  It  is  found  very  gen- 
erally in  mountainous  and  forest  lands, 
and  subsists,  in  a  great  degree,  on  berries 
and  vegetable  substances,  though  it  preys 
upon  small  animals,  and  insects,  which  it 
searches  for  industriously,  by  turning  over 
large  logs  of  decayed  timber.  It  is  rarely, 
if  ever,  known  to  attack  man,  unless  in 
self-defence.  It  is  very  fond  of  young 
com  and  honey,  which,  being  an  expert 
climber,  hke  the  brown  European  bear,  it 
obtains  by  plundering  the  wild  bees. — 
The  grisly  bear  inhabits  the  country  ad- 
jacent to  the  Rocky  mountains,  and  is, 
of  all  the  race,  the  most  dreadful  for  size, 
strength  and  tenible  ferocity  of  nature.* 
— The  Malay,  Asiatic  or  long-lipped  bear, 
is  a  native  of  the  mountainous  parts  of 
India,  and  feeds  on  white  ants,  rice,  honey, 
the  frait  of  the  palm,  &c.  The  spe- 
cies is  inoffensive  and  timid,  burrows  in 
the  ground,  and  lives  in  pairs,  together 
wth  the  young,  which,  when  alanned, 
seek  safety  by  moimting  on  the  backs  of 
the  parents. 

Beard  ;  the  hah'  round  the  chin,  on 
the  cheeks  and  the  upper  lip,  which  is  a 
distinction  of  the  male  sex.  It  diffei-s 
from  the  hair  on  the  head  by  its  greater 
hardness  and  its  fonn.  The  beard  begins 
to  gi-ow  at  the  time  of  puberty.  Tlje 
connexion  between  the  beard  and  pulwr- 
ty  is  evident  from  this,  among  other  cir- 
cumstances, that  it  never  grows  in  the 
case  of  eunuchs  who  have  been  such 
from  childhood ;  but  the  castration  of 
adults  does  not  cause  the  loss  of  the 
beard.  According  to  Caesar,  the  Ger- 
mans thought,  and  perhaps  jusdy,  the 
late  gro^vth  of  the  beard  favorable  to  the 
deveiopement  of  all  the  powers.  But  there 
are  cases  in  which  this  circumstance  is  an 
indication  of  feebleness.  It  frequently 
takes  place  in  men  of  tender  constitution, 
whose  pale  color  Indicates  little  power. 
The  beards  of  different  nations  afford  an 
interesting  study.  Some  have  hardly 
any,  others  a  great  proftision.  The  latter 
generally  consider  it  as  a  great  ornament ; 
the  former  pluck  it  out ;  as,  for  instance, 
the  American  Indians.  The  character 
of  the  beard  differs  with  that  of  the  indi- 
vidual, and,  in  the  case  of  nations,  varies 

*  For  the  detailed  historj-  of  this  and  the  two 
preceding  species,  too  extensive  to  be  introduced 
into  this  work,  see  the  first  volume  of  the  Ameri- 
caai  Natural  History,  by  the  writer  of  this  article. 


BEARD— BEATIFICATION. 


19 


with  the  climate,  food,  &c.     Thus  the 
beard  is  generally  dark,  dry,  hard  and 
thin  ui  UTitable  persons  of  full  age :  the 
same  is  the  case  wjtli  the  inliabitants  of 
hot  and  diy  countines,  as  the  Araliians, 
Ethiopians,  East  Indians,  Italians,  Span- 
iards.   But  persons  of  a  very  mild  dis- 
position have  a  Ught-colored,  thick  and 
sUghtly  curling  beard:  the  same  is  the 
case  with  inhabitants  of  cold  and  humid 
countries,  as  Holland,  England,  Sweden. 
The  ditference  of  circumstances   causes 
all  shades  of  variety.     The  nature  of  the 
nourishment,  likewise,  causes  a  great  va- 
riety ni  the  beard.     Wholesome,  nutri- 
tious and  digestible  food  makes  tiie  beard 
soft ;  but  poor,  dry  and  indigestible  food 
renders  it  hard  and  bristly.     In  general, 
the  beard  has  been  considered,  with  all 
nations,  as  an  omament,  and  often  as  a 
mark  of  the  sage  and  the  priest.    Moses 
forbade  the  Jews  to  shave  their  beards. 
With  the  ancientGennans,  the  cutting  off 
another's  beard  was  a  high  offence  ;  with 
the  East  Indians,  it  is  severeh'  punished. 
Even   now,  the  beard  is  regarded  as  a 
mark  of  great  dignity  among  many  na- 
tions in  the  East,  as  the  Turks.    The 
custom  of  sjiaving  is  said  to  have  come 
into  use  during  the  reigns  of  Louis  XIII 
and  XIV"  of  France,  both  of  whom  as- 
cended   the    throne    without    a   beai'd. 
Couitiere  and  inhal)itants  of  cities  then 
bega)i  to  shave,  in  order  to  look  like  the 
kuig,  and,  as  France  soon  took  the  lead 
in  all  matters  of  fashion  on  tlie  continent 
of  Europe,  shaving  became  general ;  but 
it  is  only  since  the  lieg'uming  of  the  last 
century,    that    shavii^.g    off   tl)e    whole 
beai'd  has  become  connnon.     Till  then, 
fashion  had  given  divers  foinis  to  mus- 
tachioes  and  beards.      Much  could  be 
said,  and  has  been  said,  in  a  medical  point 
of  view,  on  shaving  the  beard.    Such  a 
discussion  would  lead  us,  hov.-ever,  here 
too  far.     It  is  not  to  be  denied,  that  the 
mouth,  one  of  the  most  expressive  parts 
of  the  countenance,  is  sliown  to  much 
l)etter  advantage  in  conseriiieiioe  of  shav- 
ing ;  but,  at  tiie  same  time,  old  age  ap- 
pears to  nuich  greater  disadvantage,  the 
beard  concealing  the  loss  of  the  teeth. 
Moreover,  the  eye  gains  much  in  ex- 
pression by   a  full  beard.      Every   one 
knows  the  trouble  of  shaving ;  and  who 
does  not    remember   Byron's  computa- 
tion  of  the  amount  of  this  trouble   in 
Don  Juan?    Seume,  a  German  author, 
says,  in  his  journal,  "  To-day  1  threw  my 
powder  apparatus  out  of  the  window : 
when  will  come  the  blessed  day,  that  I 
Bhall  send  the  shavmg  apparatus  after  it !" 


— Shaving,  among  many  ancient  nations, 
was  the  mark  of  mourning;  with  otiiers, 
it  was  the  contrary.  Plutarch  says  that 
Alexander  mtroduced  shaving  among  tlie 
Greeks,  by  ordering  his  soldiers  to  cut 
off  their  beards ;  but  it  appears  that  this 
custom  had  prevailed  before  among  tlie 
Macedonians.  The  Romans  began  to 
shave  about  454  x\.  U.,  296  B.  C,  when 
a  certain  Ticinius  Moenas,  a  barber  from 
Sicily,  introduced  this  fashion.  Scipio 
Afi-icanus  was  the  firet  who  shaved  every 
day.  The  day  that  a  young  man  first 
shaved  was  celebrated,  and  the  first  hair 
cut  off  was  sacrificed  to  a  deity.  Adrian, 
in  order  to  cover  some  large  warts  on  his 
chin,  renewed  the  fashion  of  long  beards; 
but  it  did  not  last  long.  In  mourning, 
the  Romans  wore  a  long  beard  some- 
times for  years.  They  used  scissors,  ra- 
zors, tweezers,  &c.,  to  remove  the  beard. 
The  public  barber  shops  [tonstrirue),yvheTe 
the  lower  classes  went,  were  much  re- 
sorted to ;  rich  people  kept  a  shaver  [ton- 
sor)  among  their  slaves. 

Bear>-  ;  before  the  revolution,  a  prov- 
ince of  France,  at  the  foot  of  the  Pyre- 
nees, with  the  title  of  a  principality  ; 
about  42  miles  long  and  36  broad ;  bound- 
ed E.  by  Bigon*e,  N.  by  Armagnac,  Tur- 
san  and  Chalosse,  W.  by  Dax,  a  part  of 
Soule,  and  tlie  Lower  Navarre,  and  S.  by 
the  Pyrenees.  It  belonged,  with  Navarre, 
to  Henry  IV,  when  he  obtained  the 
crown.  The  plain  country  is  very  fertile, 
and  the  mountains  are  covered  with  fir- 
trees,  while  Avithin  are  mines  of  copper, 
lead  and  iron ;  and  the  little  hills  are 
planted  with  vines,  which  yield  good 
wine.  It  is  now  included  in  the  depart- 
ment of  Lower  Pyrenees.  Pan  was  the 
capital  town.     Pop.  about  220,000. 

Beatificatio>",  in  the  Roman  Catholic 
church ;  an  act  by  which  the  pope  declares 
a  pei-son  beatified  or  blessed  after  his  death. 
It  is  tlie  fii-st  step  to  canonization,  i.  e. 
the  raising  one  to  the  honor  and  dignity 
of  a  saint.  No  jierson  can  be  beatified 
till  50  years  after  his  or  her  death.  All 
certificates  or  attestations  of  virtues  and 
miracles,  the  necessarj'  qualifications  for 
sauitship,  are  examined  by  the  congrega- 
tion of  rites.  This  examination  often 
continues  for  several  years ;  after  which 
his  holiness  decrees  the  beatification. 
The  coi"pse  and  relics  of  the  future  saint 
are  from  thenceforth  exposed  to  the  ven- 
eration of  all  good  Christians  ;  his  image 
is  crowned  with  rays,  and  a  particular 
ofiice  is  set  apart  for  him  ;  but  his  body 
and  relics  are  not  canied  in  procession. 
Indulgences,  likewise,  and  remissions  of 


20 


BEATIFICATION— BEATTIE. 


sins,  are  granted  on  the  day  of  his  beatifi- 
cation ;  which,  though  not  so  j)ompous  as 
that  of  canonization,  is,  liowever,  very 
splendid.  Beatification  differs  from  can- 
onization in  tl^iis,  tJiat  the  pope  does  not 
act  as  a  judge  in  determining  tlie  state 
of  tlie  beatified,  but  only  gi-ants  a  ])rivi- 
lege  to  certain  persons  to  honor  him  by  a 
particular  religious  woi-ship,  witliout  in- 
curring the  penalty  of  superstitious  woi-- 
shippers ;  but,  in  canonization,  the  pope 
speaks  as  a  judge,  and  determines,  ex  ca- 
thedra, upon  the  state  of  the  canonized. 
Beatification  was  introduced  when  it  was 
thought  proper  to  delay  the  canonization 
of  saints,  for  the  greater  assurance  of  tlie 
truth  of  the  steps  taken  in  the  procedure. 
Some  particular  ordei-s  of  monks  have 
assumed  to  themselves  the  power  of  be- 
atification. Thus  Octavia  Melchiorica 
was  beatified  by  the  Dominicans.  (See 
Canonization.) 

Beaton,  Davidj  archbishop  of  St.  An- 
drews, and  cardinal,  was  bom  in  1494. 
Pope  Paul  III  raised  him  to  the  rank  of 
cardinal  in  December,  15.38 ;  and,  being 
employed  by  James  V  in  negotiating  his 
maniage  at  the  court  of  France,  he  was 
there  consecrated  bishop  of  Mirepoix. 
Soon  after  his  instalment  as  archbishop, 
he  promoted  a  furious  persecution  of  the 
reformers  in  Scotland ;  but  tlie  king's 
death  put  a  stop,  for  a  time,  to  his  arbi- 
trary proceedings,  he  being  then  excluded 
from  affairs  of  government,  and  confined. 
He  raised,  however,  so  strong  a  party, 
that,  upon  the  coronation  of  the  young 
queen  Maiy,  he  -was  admitted  into  the 
council,  made  chancellor,  and  received  a 
commission  as  legate  a  latere  from  Rome. 
He  now  began  to  renew  his  persecution 
of  heretics,  and,  among  the  rest,  of  the 
famous  Protestant  preacher  George  Wis- 
hart,  whose  sufferings  at  the  stake  he 
viewed  from  his  window,  with  apparent 
exultation.  B.  was  murdered  in  his 
chamber,  May  29,  15-30.  He  united  with 
great  talents  equally  great  vices,  and  left 
several  children,  the  fi-uit  of  open  concu- 
binage. 

Beattie,  James,  LL.  D.,  a  pleasing 
poet  and  miscellaneous  wiiter,  was  bom 
at  LawTencekirk,  in  the  county  of  Kin- 
cardine, in  1735.  He  lost  his  father  when 
he  was  only  seven  years  of  age,  but  was 
placed  early  at  the  only  school  liis  birth- 
place afforded,  whence  he  was  removed 
to  Marischal  college,  Abei-deen.  He  there 
studied  Greek,  under  the  principal,  Thom- 
as Blackwell,  and  made  a  general  profi- 
ciency in  every  branch  of  education, 
except  mathematics.    In  1753,  he  ob- 


tained the  degree  of  A.  M.,  and  accepted 
the  office  of  school-master  and  parish- 
clerk  to  the  parish  of  Fordoun,  looking 
fbrvvard  to  the  church  of  Scotland  as  his 
principal  prospect,  for  which  reason  he 
still  attended,  during  winter,  tlie  divinity 
lectures  at  Marischal  college.     In  June, 
1758,  these  views  were  somewhat  chang- 
ed, by  the  attainment  of  the  situation  of 
one  of  the  masters   of  the    grammar- 
school  of  Aberdeen.     In  1761,  he  pub- 
lished a  volume  of  poems,  which  were 
received  favorably,  but  which  he  subse- 
quently thought  very  httle  of,  and  en- 
deavored to  buy  up.    They  nevertheless 
procm'ed    him    some    powerful  friends, 
whose  patronage  obtained  him  the  ap- 
pouitment  of  professor  of  moral  philoso- 
phy and  logic  at  Marischal  college.    In 
1765,  he  published  a  poem,  the  Judg- 
ment of  Paris,  (4to.),  which  proved  a  fail- 
ure, although  it  was  afterwards  added  to 
a  new  edition  of  his  poems,  in  1766.    The 
work  which  procured  him  the  gieatest 
fame  was  his  Essay  on  Truth,  which 
first  appeared  in  1770.    It  was  so  popular, 
that,  in  four  years,  five  large  editions  were 
sold;  and  it  was  translated  into  several 
foreign  languages.    Among  other  marks 
of  respect,  the  university  of  Oxford  con- 
fen-ed  on  the  author  the  degi-ee  of  LL.  D. ; 
and  George  III  honored  him,  on  his  visit 
to  London,  Avith  a  private  conference  and 
a  pension.    He  was  also  solicited  to  enter 
the  church  of  England  by  flattering  pro- 
posals from  the  archbishoji  of  York  and 
the  bishop  of  London ;  which  jiroposals 
he   declined,  lest  his  opponents  should 
attribute  the  change  to  self-interest.    The 
popularity  of  this  celebrated  essay,  which 
was  Avritten  in  opposition  to  the  prevalent 
scepticism  of  Hume  and  others,  was  prin- 
cipally owing  to  its  easiness  of  style,  and 
to  a  mode  of  treating  the  subject,  calcu- 
lated for  the  meridian  of  slight  scholar- 
ship and  medium  intellect.    Tiiis  is  often 
a  great  source  of  immediate  celebrity ; 
but,  thus  produced,  it  is  usually  as  transi- 
torj"  as  spontaneous,  which  has  proved 
the  case  in  the  present  instance.    A  few 
months  after  tlie  appearance  of  the  Essay 
on  Truth,  B.  published  the  first  book  of 
die  Minstrel  (4to.),  and,  in  1774,  the  sec- 
ond ;  which  pleasing  jioem  is,  indisputa- 
bly, the  work  by  which  he  will  be  the 
longest  remembered.    To  a  splendid  edi- 
tion ofhis  Essay  on  Truth,  ])ubljshed,  by 
subscription,  in  1776,  he  added  some  mis- 
cellaneous disseilations   on    Poetiy  and 
Music,  Laughter  and  Ludicrous  Compo- 
sition, &c.    In  1783,  he  published  Dis- 
sertations, Moral  and  Critical  (4to.) ;  and 


BEATTIE— BE  AUHARNAIS. 


21 


in  1786,  appeared  his  Evidences  of  the 
Christian  Religion  (2  vols,,  12ino.)  In 
17'j0,  he  ptililished  the  fii-st  volume  of  his 
Elements  of  Moral  Science,  the  second 
of  which  followed  in  1793 ;  and  to  the 
latter  was  appended  a  dissertation  against 
the  slave-trade.  His  last  publication  was 
an  Account  of  the  Life,  Character  and 
Writings  of  his  eldest  son,  James  Henry 
Beattie,  an  amiable  and  promising  young 
man,  who  died  at  the  age  of  22,  in  1790. 
This  great  affliction  was  followed,  in 
179ti,  by  the  equally  premature  death  of 
his  yoinigest  and  only  sun-iving  son,  in 
his  iStli  year ;  which  losses,  added  to  the 
melmicholy  loss  of  reason  by  his  wife, 
wholly  subdued  his  constitution ;  and, 
after  two  paralytic  strokes,  he  died  at 
Aberdeeji,  in  August,  1803.  B.  was  a 
religious  and  an  amiable  man,  but  consti- 
tutionally more  calculated  for  a  poet  than 
a  philosopher,  and  for  a  pleader  than  a 
controversialist.  He  was,  however,  a  re- 
sjxjctable,  if  not  a  strong  writer,  and 
might  have  l>een  thought  more  of  at 
present,  had  he  been  thought  less  of 
heretofore. 

Beaucaire  ;  a  small,  well-built,  cojn- 
mercial  city  of  France,  with  8000  inhal)- 
itants  (Ion.  4°  43'  E. ;  lat.  43°  48^  N.),  in 
Low^er  Languedoc,  now  in  the  depart- 
ment of  the  Gard,  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  Rhone,  opposite  Tarascon,  with  which 
it  conimuniciites  by  a  bridge  of  boats.  It 
has  a  commodious  harbor  for  vessels 
which  ascend  the  river  fi*om  the  Mediter- 
)-anean,  7  leagues  distant,  and  is  famous 
for  its  great  fair  (foimded  in  1217,  by 
Raymond  II,  count  of  Toulouse),  held 
yearly,  from  the  22d  July,  during  10  days. 
In  fonner  times,  this  fair  was  frequented 
by  merchants  and  manufacturers  from 
most  countries  of  Europe,  the  Levant, 
and  even  from  Persia  and  Armenia,  so 
that  many  thousand  bootlis  were  erected 
for  foreigners  in  the  adjoining  valley. 
Before  16:32,  the  fair  of  B.  was  exempt 
from  all  taxes,  and  the  annual  sale 
amounted  to  several  million  dollars. 
Since  that  time,  B.  has  gradually  declined, 
and  its  trade,  tlie  articles  of  which  are  the 
productions  of  the  vicinity,  was  valued, 
in  1816,  at  23,000,000  francs. 

Beaufort  ;  a  seajwrt  and  post-town 
in  a  district  of  the  same  name,  in  South 
Carolina,  on  Port  Royal  island,  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Coosawhatchie ;  60  miles 
N.  E.  Savannah,  72  S.  W.  Charleston ; 
Ion.  80°  3:3'  W. ;  lat.  32=  31'  N. ;  popula- 
tion about  1000.  It  is  a  very  pleasant 
and  healthy  town,  with  an  excellent  har- 
bor, though  but  httle  commerce.    It  con- 


tains 3  churches  and  a  seminary,  which 
was  incorporated  as  a  college,  endowed 
with  funds  amounting  to  60  or  S70,000, 
having  a  handsome  edifice,  and  a  hbrary 
of  700  volumes,  but  it  has  hitherto  as- 
sumed only  the  form  of  an  academy. 

Beaufort,  Henry,  legitimate  brother 
of  Henry  IV,  king  of  England,  was  made 
bishop  of  Lincoln,  whence  he  was  trans- 
lated to  Winchester.  He  was  also  noin- 
mated  chancellor  of  the  kingdom,  and 
sent  ambassador  to  France.  In  1426,  he 
received  a  cardinal's  hat,  and  was  ai> 
pointed  legate  in  Germany.  In  1431,  he 
cro\\Tied  Hem-y  VI  in  the  great  church 
of  Paris.  He  died  at  W^inchester,  1447. 
He  was  a  haughty,  turbulent  prelate,  and 
Shalvspeare  is  considered  as  giving  a  true 
portrait  of  liim,  when  he  describes  his 
last  scene. 

Beaoharnais,  Alexander,  viscount ; 
boni  in  1760,  in  Martinique ;  served  with 
distuiction,  as  major,  m  the  French  forces 
under  Rochambeau,  which  aided  the  U. 
States  in  their  revolutionary  war ;  married 
Josephine  Tascher  de  la  Pagerie,  who 
was  aftenvards  the  wife  of  Napoleon. 
At  the  breaking  out  of  the  French  revo- 
lution, he  was  chosen  a  member  of  the 
national  assembly,  of  which  he  was,  for 
some  tune,  president,  and  which  he  open- 
ed, afler  the  king's  departure,  with  the 
following  words: — Messieurs,  le  roi  est 
parti  cette  nuit :  passons  a  Vordre  du  jour. 
In  1792,  he  was  general  of  the  anny  of 
the  Rhine,  and,  in  1793,  was  appointed 
minister  of  war.  In  consequence  of  the 
decree  removing  men  of  noble  birth  from 
the  army,  he  retired  to  his  country-seat. 
He  was  falsely  accused  of  having  pro- 
moted the  surrender  of  Mentz,  and  was 
sentenced  to  death,  July  23,  1794,  when 
34  years  old.  (For  mfbrmation  respecting 
his  son  Eugene,  viceroy  of  Italy,  see 
Eugene  ;  respecting  his  daughter  Hor- 
tense,  see  Louis  Bonaparte ;  and  respect- 
ing his  elder  brother,  FranQois  Beauhar- 
nais,  see  the  next  article.) 

Beauharnais,  Francois,  marquis  de ; 
born  at  La  Rochelle,  Aug.  12, 1756 ;  voted 
with  the  right  side  in  the  national  assem- 
bly. He  violently  opposed  the  motion 
of  his  younger  brother,  the  viscount  Al- 
exander, to  take  fit)m  the  king  tlie  chief 
command  of  the  army,  and  would  not 
hsten  to  any  of  the  amendments  pro- 
posed, saying,  R  n^y  a  point  d'amendement 
avec  Vhonneur.  He  was  called,  in  conse- 
quence of  this,  h  fial  Beauhamais  sans 
amendement.  In  1792,  with  the  count 
d'Hervilly,  the  baron  de  Viomenil  and 
others,  he  formed  the  project  of  a  new 


23 


BEAUHARNAIS-BEAUMONT  AND  FLETCHER. 


flight  of  the  royal  family  ;  but  the  arrest 
of  his  companion,  the  baron  Chambon, 
prevented  the  execution  of  the  plan.  He 
was  appointed  major-general  in  the  army 
of  the  prince  of  Conde,  and  wrote,  in 
1792,  to  the  president  of  the  national 
assembly,  protesting  against  their  unlaw- 
ful treatment  of  the  king,  and  offering  to 
appear  himself  among  his  defenders. 
When  Bonaparte  became  first  consul,  the 
marquis  sent  him  a  letter,  in  which  he 
exliorted  him,  by  the  glory  which  he 
would  gain  by  such  a  course,  to  restore 
the  sceptre  to  the  house  of  Bourbon. 
The  empress  Josephine  married  her 
niece,  the  daughter  of  the  marquis,  to 
the  emperor's  aid,  Lavalette  (q.  v.),  and 
effected  the  recall  of  the  marquis.  Ap- 
pohited  senator,  and  ambassador  to  the 
court  of  Spain,  he  united,  in  1807,  with 
the  prince  of  the  Asturias  (now  Ferdinand 
VII),  against  the  prince  of  peace,  and  fell 
into  disgrace  with  Napoleon,  who  ban- 
ished him.  After  the  restoration,  he  re- 
turned to  Paris,  where  he  died,  Jan.  10, 
1819. 

Beaumarchais,  Pierre  Augustin  Caron 
de  ;  bom  at  Paris,  1732 ;  son  of  a  watch- 
maker, who  destined  him  for  his  trade. 
He  early  gave  sticking  proofs  of  his  me- 
chanical and  also  of  his  musical  talents. 
He  was  afterwards  the  teacher  on  the 
harp  of  the  daughters  of  Louis  XV,  and 
was  admitted  into  their  society.  By  a 
rich  marriage,  he  laid  the  foundation  of 
his  immense  wealth.  He  now  aspired  to 
literary  reputation.  His  Eugenie  appear- 
ed in  1767 ;  Les  deux  Amis  in  1770.  The 
first  still  holds  its  place  on  the  stage.  He 
showed  all  his  talent  in  his  lawsuit  against 
Groesman  and  La  Blache,  when  he  wrote 
against  the  former  (who  belonged  to  the 
parlament  Maupeou,  so  called,  which  was 
engaged  in  a  dispute  with  the  ministry) 
his  celebrated  Memoires  (Paris,  1774), 
which  entertained  all  France.  Had  he 
remained  more  quiet,  he  probably  would 
have  gained  his  process.  The  fame  of 
his  Memoires  alarmed  even  Voltaire,  who 
was  jealous  of  every  kind  of  glory.  The 
Barber  of  Seville  and  the  Marriage  of 
Figaro  have  given  him  a  permanent  rep- 
utation. Shortly  before  the  revolution, 
he  was  involved  in  the  process  against 
the  banker  Kommann.  In  179^,  he 
wrote  Im  Mkre  coupable,  but  never  re- 
gained his  former  fame.  He  was  once 
more  in  his  true  element  in  his  memoir 
Mes  six  ipoques.  He  relates,  in  that 
work,  the  dangers  to  which  he  was  ex- 
posed, in  a  revolution,  where  a  celebrated 
name,  talent  and  riches,  were  sufficient 


causes  of  proscription.  He  still  possess- 
ed, at  the  age  of  more  than  sixty,  all  the 
vigor  of  his  youth,  and  had  lost  nothing 
but  his  gayety.  His  contract  to  supply 
the  U.  States  with  miUtary  stores,  during 
their  revolutionary  war,  had  increased  his 
fortune,  of  which  he  always  made  a  noble 
use  ;  but  he  lost  about  a  million  hvres  by 
his  famous  edition  of  the  works  of  Vol- 
taire, the  very  imperfect  execution  of 
which  was  not  answerable  to  the  im- 
mense cost.  He  lost  still  more,  at  the  end 
of  1792,  by  his  attempt  to  provide  the 
French  army  with  60,000  muskets.  Dis- 
contented with  the  present,  despairing  of 
the  fiiture,  wearied  with  struggling  against 
the  revolution  and  his  creditors  for  the 
ruins  of  his  wealth,  he  died,  at  the  age  of 
69  years,  without  any  particular  disease, 
in  May,  1799.  His  biography  appeared 
in  1802 ;  and,  in  1809,  an  edition  of  his 
works,  in  7  vols. — B.  was  a  singular  in- 
stance of  versatility  of  talent,  being  at 
once  an  artist,  pohtician,  projector,  mer- 
chant and  dramatist.  He  was  passion- 
ately attached  to  celebrity.  His  Marriage 
of  Figaro  excited  one  of  those  extraor- 
dinary sensations,  for  which  Paris  has 
always  been  remarkable.  The  English 
modifications  and  versions  of  this  comedy 
convey  but  a  slight  notion  of  tlie  mis- 
chievous subtlety  and  deep  spirit  of  in- 
trigue in  the  original.  B.  left  to  his  heirs 
a  claim  against  the  U.  States  of  a  milhon 
of  francs  for  supphes  furnished  during  the 
war,  which  has  been  repeatedly  presented 
to  congress,  but  always  rejected  on  the 
ground  that  B.  acted  only  as  the  agent  of 
the  French  government,  from  whom  he 
received  funds  to  that  amount. 

Beaumont,  Francis,  and  Fletcher, 
John ;  two  dramatic  ^vriters.  The  former 
was  bom  in  1585,  studied  at  Oxford,  and 
died  in  1616 ;  the  latter  was  bom  at  Lon- 
don in  1576,  and  died  there,  in  1625,  of 
the  plague.  Animated  by  the  same  in- 
cUnation,  they  both  devoted  themselves 
to  poetry.  Their  plays,  about  50,  ap- 
peared under  their  joint  names  (London, 
1679,  and  lately,  1812,  in  14  vols.),  and  it 
is  impossible  now  to  determine  their  re- 
spective shares  in  these  productions. 
According  to  the  testimony  of  some  of 
their  contemporaries,  Fletcher  was  the 
inventing  genius,  while  Beaumont,  though 
the  younger,  was  more  distinguished  for 
maturity  and  correctness  of  judgment. 
Shakspeare  was  their  model,  and,  like 
him,  they  intermix  patlietic  and  low 
comic  scenes ;  but  their  attempts  to  sur- 
pass their  model  sometimes  lead  them 
into  extravagances.    The  desire,  also,  of 


BEAUMONT  AND  FLETCHER— BEAVER. 


23 


pleasing  the  public  at  times  induces  tliem 
to  deviate  from  a  correct  standard  of 
taste.  They  succeed  best  in  comic  scenes. 
Their  contemporaries  preferred  tliem 
even  to  Shakspeare,  affirming  that  the 
Enghsh  drama  readied  its  perfection  in 
them.  Impartial  posterity  has  reversed 
this  decision,  and  adjudged  the  pahn  to 
Shakspeare.  Tliey  are  said  to  have  fre- 
quented taverns  and  alehouses,  to  study 
the  human  character,  and  to  have  been 
arrested,  while  disputing  in  such  a  place 
res|)ecting  the  conclusion  of  a  play.  One 
wished  to  have  the  king  in  tlie  piece 
assassinated,  the  other  opposed  it ;  and, 
being  overheard,  they  were  apprehended 
on  suspicion  of  conspiring  the  death  of 
their  sovereign. 

Beaumont,  madame  Leprince  de ;  bom 
at  Rouen,  1711 ;  died  at  Annecy,  in  Sa- 
voy, 1780  ;  lived  partly  in  France,  partly 
in  England,  where  she  devoted  her  tal- 
ents to  the  instruction  of  youth.  A  sim- 
ple and  easy  style,  a  i)leasuig  moral,  well 
chosen  historical  passages,  and  a  happy 
imagination,  render  her  writings  agreea- 
l)le,  although  much  is  too  artificial,  and 
the  theological  \'iews  are  no  longer  of 
value.  She  has  written  a  gi-eat  many 
romances  and  works  for  children.  Her 
Magazin  des  Enfans  was  formerly  the 
manual  of  all  goveniantes  and  Fi'euch 
boarding-schools. 

Beauty.    (See  Philosophy.) 

Beaver  {castor,  L.) ;  a  genus  of  clavic- 
ulated,  mamtniferous  quadrupeds,  of  the 
order  glires,  L.,  rodentia,  C,  or  gnawei-s. 
— Having  drawn  up,  with  great  care,  the 
natural  liistory  of  this  species  in  another 
work  (American  Natural  Historj'^,  vol.  ii., 
p.  21),  we  shall  avail  oui*selves  of  some 
of  the  most  interesting  statements,  and 
refer  the  reader  thereto  for  more  ample 
details,  as  well  as  for  the  fabulous  history 
of  the  animal. — It  is  only  hi  a  state  of 
nature  that  the  beaver  displays  any  of 
those  singular  modes  of  acting,  which 
have  so  long  rendered  the  species  cele- 
brated. These  may  be  summed  up  in  a 
statement  of  the  manner  in  which  they 
secm-e  a  depth  of  water  that  cannot  be 
frozen  to  the  bottom,  and  their  mode  of 
constructing  the  huts  in  which  they  pass 
the  winter.  They  are  not  particular  as  to 
the  site  which  they  select  for  the  estabhsh- 
ment  of  their  dwellings,  but  if  it  is  in  a 
lake  or  pond,  where  a  dam  is  not  re- 
quired, they  are  careful  to  build  where 
the  water  is  sufficiently  deep.  In  stand- 
ing watei-s,  however,  they  have  not  the 
advantage  affijrded  by  a  current  for  the 
transportation  of  their  suppUes  of  wood, 


which,  when  they  build  on  a  running 
stream,  is  always  cut  higher  up  than  the 
place  of  their  residence,  and  floated  down. 
The  materials  used  for  the  construction 
of  their  dams  are  the  trunks  and  branches 
of  small  bu-ch,  mulbeny,  willow  and  po}>- 
lar  trees,  &c.  They  begin  to  cut  do^Ti 
their  timber  for  building  early  in  the 
summer,  but  their  edifices  are  not  com- 
menced until  about  the  middle  or  latter 
part  of  August,  and  are  not  completed 
until  the  beguining  of  the  cold  season. 
The  strength  of  their  teeth,  and  their 
perseverance  in  this  work,  may  be  fairly 
estimated  by  the  size  of  the  trees  they 
cut  down.  Doctor  Best  informs  us,  that 
lie  has  seen  a  mulberry  tree,  eight  inches 
in  diameter,  which  had  been  gnawed 
down  by  the  beaver.  We  were  shown, 
while  on  the  banks  of  the  Little  Miami 
river,  sevei"al  stuinjis  of  trees,  which  had 
evidently  been  felled  by  these  animals, 
of  at  least  five  or  six  niches  in  diameter. 
The  trees  are  cut  in  such  a  way  as  to  fall 
into  the  water,  and  then  floated  towards 
the  site  of  the  dam  or  dwellings.  Small 
shrubs,  &c.,  cut  at  a  distance,  they  drag 
with  their  teeth  to  the  stream,  and  tlien 
launch  and  tow  them  to  the  place  of  de- 
posit.^ At  a  short  distance  above  a  beaver 
dam,  the  number  of  trees  which  have 
been  cut  down  appears  truly  siu-prising, 
and  the  regularity  of  the  stumps  might 
lead  persons,  unacquainted  with  the  habits 
of  the  animal,  to  believe  that  the  clearing 
was  the  result  of  hiunan  industry. — The 
figure  of  the  dam  varies  according  to  cir- 
cumstances. Should  the  current  be  very 
gentle,  the  dam  is  canied  nearly  straight 
across ;  but  when  the  stream  is  swift,  it 
is  unifornd^-  made  with  a  considerable 
curve,  having  the  convex  part  opposed  to 
the  current.  Along  with  the  trunks  and 
branches  of  trees  they  intermingle  mud 
and  stones,  to  give  gi"eater  security ;  and, 
when  dams  have  been  long  undisturbed 
and  frequently  repaired,  they  acquire 
gi'eat  soliditj',  and  their  power  of  resist- 
ing the  pressure  of  water,  ice,  &c.,  is 
greatly  increased  by  the  willow  and  birch 
occasionally  taking  root,  and  eventually 
growing  up  into  something  like  a  regular 
hedge.  The  materials  used  in  construct- 
ing the  dams  are  secured  solely  by  the 
resting  of  the  branches,  &c.  against  the 
bottom,  and  the  subsequent  accumulation 
of  mud  and  stones  by  the  force  of  the 
stream,  or  by  the  industry  of  the  beavers. 
— The  dwellings  of  the  beavers  are  form- 
ed of  the  same  materials  as  their  dams, 
are  very  rude,  and  adai)ted  in  size  to  the 
number  of  their  inhabitants :  seldom  more 


94 


BEAVER— BECCARIA. 


than  four  old,  or  six  or  eight  young  ones, 
are  found  in  one  of  the  lodges,  though 
double  that  number  have  been  sometimes 
seen.  In  building  their  houses,  they  place 
most  of  the  wood  crosswise,  and  nearly 
horizontally,  observing  no  other  order  than 
that  of  leavij]g  a  cavity  in  the  middle. 
Branches  projecting  inwards  are  cut  oft" 
with  their  teeth,  and  thrown  among  the 
rest  The  houses  are  not  of  sticks,  and 
then  plastered,  but  of  all  the  materials 
used  in  the  dams — sticks,  mud  and  stones, 
if  the  latter  can  be  procured.  This  com- 
position is  employed  from  the  foundation 
to  the  summit.  The  mud  is  obtained 
from  the  adjacent  banks  or  bottom  of  the 
stream  or  pond  near  the  door  of  the  hut. 
The  beaver  always  carries  mud  or  stones 
by  holding  them  between  his  fore  yjaws 
and  throat.  Their  work  is  all  perform- 
ed at  night,  and  with  much  expedition. 
When  straw  or  grass  is  mingled  with  the 
mud  used  in  buQding,  it  is  an  accident 
owing  to  the  nature  of  the  spot  whence 
the  mud  is  obtained.  As  soon  as  any 
portion  of  the  materials  is  placed,  they 
turn  round,  and  give  it  a  smart  blow  with 
the  tail.  The  same  sort  of  blow  is  struck 
by  them  on  the  surface  of  the  water 
when  tliey  are  in  the  act  of  diving.  The 
outside  of  the  hut  is  covered  or  jilastered 
with  mud,  late  in  the  autumn,  and  after 
frost  has  begun  to  appear.  By  freezing, 
it  soon  becomes  almost  as  hard  as  stone, 
eflfectually  excluding  their  great  enemy, 
the  wolverene,  during  the  winter.  Their 
habit  of  walking  over  the  work  frequent- 
ly, has  led  to  the  absurd  idea  of  their 
using  the  tail  as  a  trowel.  The  houses 
are  generally  from  four  to  six  feet  thick 
at  the  apex  of  the  cone :  some  have  been 
fotmd  as  much  as  eight  feet  thick  at  top. 
The  door  or  entrance  is  always  on  the 
side  farthest  fi-om  land,  and  is  near  the 
foundation,  or  a  considerable  depth  under 
water :  this  is  the  only  opening  into  the 
hut.  The  large  houses  are  sometimes 
found  to  have  projections  of  the  main 
building  thrown  out,  for  the  better  sup- 
port of  the  roof,  and  this  circumstance 
has  led  to  all  the  stories  of  tlie  different 
apartments  in  beaver  huts.  These  larger 
edifices,  so  far  from  having  several  apart- 
ments, are  double  or  treble  houses,  the 
parts  having  no  communication  except  by 
water.  It  is  a  fact,  that  the  muskrat  is 
sometimes  found  to  have  taken  lodgings 
in  the  huts  of  the  beaver.  The  otter, 
also,  occasionally  intrudes :  he,  however, 
is  a  dangerous  guest,  for,  should  provis- 
ions grow  scarce,  it  is  not  uncommon  for 
him  to  devour  his  host    All  the  beavers 


of  a  community  do  not  co-operate  in  fab- 
ricating houses  for  the  common  use  of 
the  whole.  The  only  affair  in  which 
they  have  a  joint  interest,  and  upon  which 
they  labor  in  concert,  is  the  dam.  Bea- 
Vei-s  also  make  excavations  in  the  adjacent 
banks,  at  regular  distances  from  eacli 
other,  which  have  been  called  washes. 
These  are  so  enlarged  within,  that  the 
beaver  can  raise  his  head  above  water  to 
breathe  without  being  seen,  and,  when 
disturbed  at  their  huts,  they  immediately 
swim  under  water  to  these  washes  for 
greater  security,  where  they  are  easily 
taken  by  the  hunters. — The  food  of  the 
beaver  consists  chiefly  of  the  bark  of  the 
aspen,  willow,  birch,  poplar,  and,  occa- 
sionally, alder :  to  the  pine  it  rarely  re- 
sorts, unless  from  severe  necessity.  They 
provide  a  stock  of  wood  from  the  trees 
first  mentioned,  during  summer,  and 
place  it  in  the  water,  opposite  tlie  en- 
trance mto  their  housea — The  beaver 
produces  from  two  to  five  at  a  litter.  It 
is  a  cleanly  anijnal,  and  always  perfoniis 
its  evacuations  in  the  water,  at  a  distance 
from  the  hut :  hence  no  accumulation  of 
filth  is  found  near  their  dwellings. — The 
beaver  is  about  two  feet  in  length ;  its 
body  thick  and  hea\'y ;  the  head  com- 
pressed, and  somewhat  arched  at  the 
front,  the  upper  part  rather  narrow ;  the 
snout  much  so.  The  eyes  are  placed 
rather  high  on  the  head,  and  the  pupils 
arc  rounded  ;  the  ears  are  short,  elliptical, 
and  almost  concealed  by  the  fur.  The 
skin  is  covered  by  two  sorts  of  hair,  of 
which  one  is  long,  rather  stiff",  elastic,  and 
of  a  gray  color  for  two  thirds  of  its  length 
next  the  base,  and  terminated  by  shining, 
reddish-brown  points ;  the  other  is  short, 
thick,  tufted  and  soft,  being  of  different 
shades  of  silver-gray  or  light  lead  color. 
The  hair  is  shortest  on  the  head  and  feet. 
The  hind  legs  are  longer  than  the  fore, 
and  are  completely  webbed.  The  tail  is 
10  or  11  inches  long,  and,  except  the 
third  nearest  the  body,  is  covered  with 
hexagonal  scales.  The  third  next  the 
body  is  covered  with  hair  like  that  on  the 
l)ack.  (See  Godman's  Am.  JVat.  Hist., 
vol.  ii,  p.  19,  et  seq.) 

Beccaria,  Cesare  Bonesana,  marchese 
di,  boni  at  Milan,  1735,  was  early  excited, 
by  Montesquieu's  Lettres  Persanes,  to  the 
cultivation  of  his  philosophical  talents, 
and  afterwards  favorably  known  as  a  phi- 
losophical wiiter  by  his  memorable  work, 
full  of  a  noble  philanthropy,  Dd  Delitti  e 
ddle  Pene  (On  Crimes  and  Punishments), 
Naples,  1764,  and  several  others.  With 
the  eloqueiice  of  true  feeling,  and  a  Uvely 


BECCARIA— BECKET. 


25 


imagination,  he  opposes  capital  punish- 
ments and  the  torture.  This  work  led  to 
the  estabhshment  of  more  settled  and 
more  correct  principles  of  penal  law,  and 
contributed  to  excite  a  general  horror 
against  inhuman  punishments.  B.  was  a 
true  friend,  a  good  son,  a  tender  husband 
and  a  real  philanthropist.  He  is  also 
known,  in  Italy,  as  the  author  of  a  philo- 
sophical grainuiar  and  theory  of  style, 
Ricerche  intomo  alia  JVatura  dello  Stilo 
(Milan,  1770),  and  of  several  good  trea- 
tises on  style,  on  rhetorical  ornament,  &c., 
contained  in  the  journal  II  Caffe,  edited 
by  him,  in  conjunction  with  his  friends 
Visconti,  Verri  and  others.  A  fit  of  ajjo- 
plexy  put  an  end  to  his  useful  life  in  No- 
vember, 1793. 

Beccaria,  Giovanni  Battista ;  boni, 
1716,  at  Mondovi ;  went  to  Rome  in  1732, 
where  he  studied,  and  afterwards  tauglit 
grammar  and  rhetoric  ;  at  the  same  time, 
he  applied  himself  with  success  to  math- 
ematics. He  was  appointed  professor  of 
philosophy  at  Palermo,  and  afterwards  at 
Rome.  Charles  Emanuel,  king  of  Sar- 
dinia, invited  him  to  Turin,  in  1748,  to  fill 
the  professorshijj  of  natural  philosophy  at 
the  university  there.  Electricity  had,  at 
that  time,  through  the  experunents  of 
Fituiklin  and  others,  become  an  object  of 
universal  interest.  He  therefore  published 
his  DelV  Elettricismo  naturale  ed  artifizicde 
{Turin,  4to).  The  experiments  which 
this  work  contains  on  atmospherical  elec- 
tricity are  so  numerous  and  various,  that 
Priestley  aflirmed,  in  his  Histoiy  of  Elec- 
tricity, that  Beccaria's  labors  far  surpass 
all  that  had  been  done,  before  and  after 
hun,  on  this  subject.  The  academies  in 
London  and  Bologna  elected  him  a  mem- 
ber. He  wrote  many  other  valuable 
works  on  this  subject.  The  most  impor- 
tant, DeW  Ehttricismo  artifizicde  (1772), 
contauis  all  that  was  then  kno^vn  of  elec- 
tricity. Franklin,  who  esteemed  the 
works  of  B.,  had  them  translated  into 
English.  In  1759,  the  king  employed 
him  to  measure  a  degi'ee  of  the  meridian 
in  Piedmont.  He  began  the  measure- 
ment in  1760,  together  with  the  abbot 
Canonica,  and  published  the  result  in 
1774.  Tlie  doubts  expressed  by  Cassini 
of  the  exactness  of  this  measurement, 
drew  from  him  his  Lettere  d'un  Italiaiio  ad 
un  PuT^no,  in  which  he  showed  the  in- 
fluence of  the  proximity  of  the  Alps  on 
the  deviation  of  the  pendulum.  As  his 
thouglits  were  entirely  absorbed  by  his 
studies,  he  often  neglected  the  nicer  rules 
of  good-breeding,  vvithout  losing,  however, 
the  general  esteem.  He  died  April  27, 1781. 

VOL.  n.  3 


Becher,  John  Joachim ;  author  of  the 
first  theory  of  chemistry ;  bom  at  Spire,  in 
1635.  He  finished  his  restless  life  at  Lon- 
don, in  1685,  after  having  resided  in  many 
parts  of  Gennany.  He  had  many  ene- 
mies, and  has  been  accused,  not  entirely 
without  justice,  of  charlatanry  ;  yet  his  in- 
fluence on  the  science  of  chemistry  gives 
him  still  a  claim  to  remembrance.  He 
brought  it  into  a  nearer  connexion  \vith 
physics,  and  sought  for  the  causes  of  all 
the  ])henomena  of  the  inorganic  universe 
in  these  two  departments  of  science. 
This  is  the  object  of  his  principal  work, 
Physica  sid)teiranea.  At  the  same  time, 
he  began  to  form  a  theory  of  chemistiy ; 
and  conceived  the  idea  of  a  primitive  acid, 
of  which  all  the  others  were  only  modifi- 
cations. He  also  made  researches  into 
the  process  of  combustion.  He  main- 
tained that  every  metal  consists  of  a  com- 
mon earthy  matter,  of  a  common  com- 
bustible principle,  and  of  a  peculiar  mer- 
curial substance.  If  we  heat  a  metal  so 
that  it  changes  its  fonn,  we  disengage  the 
mercurial  substance,  and  notliing  remains 
but  the  metallic  calx.  This  was  the  first 
germ  of  the  phlogistic  theory,  whicli  was 
further  developed  by  Staid,  and  prevailed 
until  the  time  of  Lavoisier.  The  numer- 
ous works  of  B.  ai"e,  even  now,  not  with- 
out interest. 

Beck,  Christian  Daniel ;  one  of  the 
most  active  living  philologists  and  histori- 
ans, born  in  Leipsic,  Jan.  22,  1757.  He 
is  professor  at  the  university  in  that  city, 
and  has  rendered  himself  famous  by  a 
great  number  of  excellent  woi-ks.  His 
editions  of  the  classics  are  in  high  esteem. 
Between  1787  and  1806  appeared  the  4 
volumes  of  his  work,  Introduction  to  a 
Knowledge  of  the  Genei*al  History  of  the 
World  and  of  Nations,  until  the  Discov- 
ery of  America.  He  also  ti'anslated  Gold- 
smith's History  of  Greece,  and  Ferguson's 
History  of  the  Roman  RepubUc.  Of  his 
theological  works,  we  may  mention  his 
Commentarii  historici  Decretorum  Religio- 
nis  ChristiaruE,  et  Fomnda  l/u</ier  (Leipsic, 
1800).  He  has  also  edited  a  learned  pe- 
riodical work. 

Becket,  Thomas,  the  most  celebrated 
Roman  Cathohc  prelate  in  the  Englisli  an- 
nals, was  bom  in  London,  1119.  He  was 
the  son  of  Gilbert,  a  London  merchant. 
His  mother  is  said  to  have  been  a  Sai-acen 
lady,  to  whose  father  Gilbert  was  prisoner, 
in  Jerusalem,  being  taken  cajjtive  in  one 
of  the  crusades.  Tlie  lady  is  said  to  liave 
fallen  in  love  with  the  prisoner,  and  to 
have  followed  him  to  London,  where  he 
married  her.    After  studying  at  Oxford 


BECKET. 


and  Paris,  B.  was  sent,  by  the  favor  of 
Theobald,  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  to 
study  civil  law  at  Bononia,  in  Italy,  and, 
on  lijs  retum,  was  made  archdeacon  of 
Ganterburj' and  provost  of  Beverley.  His 
claim  to  the  good  opinion  of  Theobald  was 
founded  on  his  skill  in  negotiation  sho'svn 
in  a  matter  of  the  highest  importance  to 
England — tlie  solicituigtrom  the  pope  the 
prohibitory  letters  against  the  crowning  of 
Eustace,  the  son  of  Stephen,  by  which 
that  design  was  defeated.  This  service 
not  only  raised  Becket  in  the  esteem  of 
the  archbishop,  but  m  that  of  king  Heniy 
II,  ^d  was  the  foundation  of  liis  high 
fortune.  In  1158,  he  was  appointed  high 
chancellor  and  preceptor  to  prince  Henry, 
and  at  tliis  time  was  a  complete  courtier, 
conforming,  in  every  respect,  to  the  hu- 
mor of  the  king.  He  was,  in  fact,  his 
prime  companion,  had  the  same  hours 
of  eating  and  going  to  bed,  held  splendid 
levees,  and  couited  po})ular  aj )plause.  In 
1159,  he  made  a  camj)aign  witli  tJie  king 
in  Toulouse,  liaving  hi  his  own  pay  700 
knights  and  1200  hoi-semen;  and  it  is 
said  he  advised'Heniy  to  seize  the  person 
of  Louis,  king  of  France,  shut  up  in 
Toulouse  withotit  an  army.  This  coim- 
sel,  however,  so  indicative  of  the  future 
martjT,  being  too  bold  for  the  lay  coun- 
sellors of  one  of  the  boldest  monarchs  of 
the  age,  was  declined.  In  the  next  year, 
he  visited  Paris,  to  treat  of  an  aUiance  be- 
tween the  eldest  daughter  of  the  king  of 
France  and  jirince  Henry,  and  returned 
with  the  young  princess  to  England.  He 
had  not  enjoyed  the  chancellorship  more 
than  four  years,  when  his  patron  Theo- 
bald died,  and  king  Henry  was  so  far  mis- 
taken as  to  raise  his  favorite  to  the  pri- 
macy, on  the  presumption  that  he  would 
aid  hun  in  those  political  views,  in  respect 
to  church  power,  which  all  the  sovereigns 
of  the  Norman  line  ■embraced,  and  which, 
in  fact,  caused  a  continual  struggle,  until 
its  terjnination  by  Henry  VIII.  It  has 
been  asserted,  that  B.  told  the  king  what 
he  was  to  expect  from  him;  but,  inde- 
pendent of  the  appointment  itself,  there 
is  evidence  to  prove  his  eagerness  to  ob- 
tain the  dignity,  and  the  disgust  entertain- 
ed by  Hemy  at  the  first  symptoms  of  the 
real  temper  of  the  man  whom  he  had  been 
so  anxious  to  promote.  B.  was  consecra- 
ted archbishop  in  1162,  and  immediately 
affected  an  austerity  of  character  which 
formed  a  very  natural  prelude  to  the  part 
which  he  meant  to  play.  Pope  Alexan- 
der III  held  a  general  council  at  Toui-s, 
in  1163,  at  which  B.  attended,  and  made 
a  formal  complaint  of  the  infringements 


by  the  laity  on  the  rights  and  immunities 
of  the  church.  On  his  retum  to  Englajid, 
he  began  to  act  in  the  spirit  of  this  repre- 
sentation, and  to  prosecute  several  of  the 
nobihty  and  others,  holding  church  pos-' 
sessions,  whom  he  also  proceeded  to  ex- 
communicatei  Henry,  an  able  and  pohtic 
monarch,  was  anxious  to  recall  certain 
privileges  of  tlie  clergy,  which  withdrew 
them  from  the  jurisdiction  of  the  civil 
courts ;  and  it  was  not  without  a  violent 
struggle,  and  the  mediation  of  the  pope, 
that  B.  finally  acquiesced.  The  king 
soon  after  su'nmoned  a  convocation  or 
parliament  at  Clarendon,  to  the  celebrated 
constitution  of  which,  although  the  arch- 
bishop swore  that  he  would  never  assent, 
he  at  length  subscribed  it,  and,  alleging 
something  like  force  for  his  excuse,  by 
way  of  penance,  suspended  himself  from 
his  archiepiscopal  functions  until  the 
pojie's  absolution  could  anive.  Findujg 
himself  the  object  of  the  king's  displeas- 
ure, he  soon  alter  attempted  to  escape  to 
Fi-ance ;  but, l)eing intercepted,  Henry,  in  a 
parhament  at  Northampton,  charged  liim 
witli  a  violation  of  his  allegiance,  and  all 
his  goods  were  confiscated.  A  suit  was  al  - 
so  commenced  against  him  for  money  lent 
him  during  his  chancellorship,  and  for  the 
proceeds  of  the  benefices  which  he  had 
held  vacant  wirile  in  that  capacity.  In 
this  desperate  situation,  he,  with  great 
difficulty  and  danger,  made  his  escape  to 
Flanders,  and,  proceeding  to  the  po{)e  at 
Sens,  humbly  resigned  his  archbishopric, 
which  Avas,  however,  restored.  He  then 
took  up  his  abode  at  the  abbey  of  Pon- 
tigny,  in  Normandy,  whence  he  issued  ex- 
postulatoi-y  letters  to  the  king  and  bishops 
of  England,  in  which  he  excommunicated 
all  violatoi-s  of  the  prerogatives  of  the 
church,  and  included  in  the  censure  tlie 
principal  officers  of  the  crown.  Henry 
was  so  exasperated,  that  he  banished  all 
his  relations,  and  obliged  the  Cistercians 
to  send  him  away  fi-om  tlie  abbey  of  Pon- 
tigny ;  fi-om  Vliich  he  removed,  on  the 
recommendation  of  tlie  king  of  France, 
to  the  alibey  of  Columbe,  and  spent  four 
years  there  in  exile.  Afl;er  much  nego- 
tiation, a  sort  of  reconciliation  took  place 
in  1170,  on  the  whole  to  the  advantage  of 
Becket,  who,  being  restored  to  his  see, 
with  all  its  former  privileges,  behaved,  on 
tlie  occasion,  with  excessive  haughtiness. 
After  a  triumphant  entry  into  Canterbury, 
the  young  king  Henry,  crowned  during 
the  Ufe-time  of  his  father,  tr^smitted 
him  an  order  to  restore  the  suspended  and 
excommunicated  prelates,  which  he  re- 
fused to  do,  on  the  pretence  that  the  pope 


BECKET— BEDE. 


27 


alone  could  grant  the  favor,  although  the 
latter  had  lodged  the  instruments  of  cen- 
sure in  his  hands.  The  prelates  immedi- 
ately appealed  to  Henry  in  Normandy, 
who,  in  a  state  of  extreme  exasperation, 
exclaimed,  "  AVhat  an  unhappy  prince  am 
I,  who  have  not  about  me  one  man  of 
spirit  enough  to  rid  me  of  a  single  inso- 
lent ]>relate,  the  perpetual  trouble  of  my 
life!"  These  rash  and  too  significant 
^vords  induced  four  attendant  barons, 
Reguiald  Fitz-Urse,  William  de  Tracy, 
Hugh  de  Morville  and  Ricliard  Breto,  to 
resolve  to  wipe  out  the  king's  reproach. 
Hiiving  laid  their  plans,  they  forthwith 
])rocoeded  to  Canterbuiy,  and,  having 
foi-mally  required  the  archbishop  to  re- 
•store  the  suspended  prelates,  they  return- 
ed in  the  evening  of  the  same  day  (Dec. 
29,  1170),  and,  placing  soldiers  in  the 
couit-yard,  rushed,  with  their  swords 
drawn,  into  the  cathedral,  where  the 
ai'olibishop  was  at  vesjiei-s,  and,  advan- 
cing towards  liim,  threatened  him  with 
death  if  he  still  disobeyed  the  orders  of 
IleiJiy.  B.,  without  the  least  token  of 
fear,  replied,  that  he  was  ready  to  die  for 
the  rights  of  the  church  ;  and  maguiuii^ 
mously  added,  "  I  charge  you,  in  the  name 
of  tlje  Almighty,  not  to  hurt  any  other 
person  here,  for  none  of  them  have  been 
concerned  in  the  late  transactions."  The 
confederates  then  strove  to  drag  him  oat 
of  the  church  5  but,  not  being  able  to  do 
so,  on  account  of  his  resolute  deportment, 
they  killed  him  on  the  spotv»atli  repeated 
wounds,  all  which  he  endured  without  a 
groan. — The  conduct  of  Henry,  and  tlie 
consequences  of  this  assasshiation,  form  a 
part  of  English  history  wherein  the  dis- 
cerning student  will  perceive  the  subtle 
fjolicy  of  the  court  of  Rome,  which  eager- 
y  availed  itself  of  this  opportunity  to  ad- 
vance its  general  object,  with  a  due 
regard  to  the  power  of  Heniy  and  his 
strength  of  character.  The  perpetrators 
of  the  deed,  on  taking  a  voyage  to  Rome, 
were  admitted  to  penance,  and  allowed  to 
expiate  their  enormity  in  the  Holy  Land. — 
Thus  perished  Thomas  B'ecket,  in  his 
52d  year,  a  martyr  to  the  cause  which  he 
espoused,  and  a  man  of  unquestionable 
vigor  of  intellect.  He  was  canonized 
two  years  after  his  death,  ajid  miracles 
alx)unded  at  his  tomb.  In  the  reign  of 
Henry  HI,  his  body  was  taken  up,  and 
placed  in  a  magnificent  shrine,  erected 
by  archbishop  Stephen  Langton ;  and  of 
the  popularity  of  tlie  pilgrimages  to  his 
tomb,  the  Canterbury'  Tales  of  Chaucer 
will  prove  an  enduring  testimony. 
B£ckma:vn,  John,  for  almost  45  years 


professor  of  philosophy,  economy,  policy, 
finance  and  commerce  in  Gottingen,  was 
born  at  Hoya  in  1739.  In  1763,  he  was  ap- 
pointed, on  Biisching's  recommendation, 
professor  of  the  Lutheran  gymnasiiun  in 
St.  Petei"sburg.  In  1766,  he  became  pro- 
fessor in  Gottingen,  where  he  lectured 
with  great  success.  B.  died  in  1811,  be- 
ing a  member  of  most  of  the  learned  so- 
cieties of  the  north  of  Europe.  There 
are  a  number  of  text-books,  in  the  chflfer- 
ent  sciences  above-mentioned,  by  Imn. 
Among  his  other  works  is  a  History  of 
Inventions,  Leipsic,  1780 — 1805,  5  vols. 

Bed,  in  gunnery ;  the  frame  of  tim- 
ber or  planks  in  which  cannon,  mortars, 
&c.  are  placed,  to  give  them  a  steady  and 
even  position,  necessary  for  aiming. 
Bed  of  Justice.  (See  Lit  de  Justice.) 
Bede,  or  Beda,  an  eminent  ecclesiastic 
of  the  eightli  century,  usually  called  the 
venerable  Bede,  was  born  ui  the  year  672 
or  673,  in  the  neighborhood  of  Wear- 
mouth,  in  the  bishopric  of  Durham. 
From  the  age  of  7  to  that  of  19,  he  pureued 
his  studies  in  the  monastery  of  St.  Peter, 
at  WeaiTnouth.  Being  then  ordained 
deacon,  he  was  employed  in  the  task  of 
educating  the  youth  who  resorted  to  the 
monastery  for  instruction,  and  pursued 
his  own  studies  with  unremitting  ardor. 
In  his  thirtieth  year,  he  was  ordained 
I)riest ;  and,  his  fame  for  zeal  and  erudi- 
tion reacliing  the  ears  of  pope  Sergius,  he 
was  invited  to  Rome,  but,  in  consequence 
of  the  death  of  that  pontiflj  never  went 
there.  It  is  not  even  certain  tliat  he  ever 
left  Northumberland,  which,  of  course, 
reduces  the  incidents  of  his  life  to  his  lit- 
eraiy  pureuits  and  domestic  occupations, 
as  he  accepted  no  benefice,  and  never 
seems  to  have  interfered  in  civil  transac- 
tions. His  church  history  was  published 
in  731.  His  last  literary  labor  was  a  trans- 
lation of  the  Gospel  of  St.  John  into  Sax- 
on, which  he  completed,  with  difficulty, 
on  the  very  day  and  hour  of  his  death. 
The  ^M'itings  of  Bede  were  numerous 
and  important,  considering  the  time  in 
which  they  were  written,  and  the  sub- 
jects of  which  they  treat,  wliich  extended 
to  ecclesiastical  affaii-s,  rehgion  and  edu- 
cation only.  His  English-  Ecclesiastical 
History  is  the  greatest  and  most  j)opular 
of  his  works,  and  has  acquired  additional 
celebrity  by  the  translation  of  king  Alfred. 
The  collections  which  he  made  for  it 
were  the  labor  of  many  years.  Besides 
his  own  personal  investigations,  he  kept 
up  a  coiTCspondence  with  the  monaste- 
ries throughout  the  Heptarchv,  to  obtain 
archives  and  records  for  his  purpose ;  and 


28 


BEDE— BEDFORD. 


thus  nearly  all  the  knowledge  possessed 
of  the  early  state  of  Christianity  in  his 
country  is  due  to  B.  There  have  been 
several  editions  of  the  original  Latin, 
wliich  is  easy,  although  not  elegant.  The 
latest  and  best  is  that  of  Dr.  Smith,  Cam- 
bridge, 1722.  There  is  a  translation  into 
English  by  Thomas  Stapyhon,  D.  D.,  Ant- 
werp, 1505,  besides  the  Saxon  version  of 
Alfred.  B.  was  also  the  author  of  many 
otlier  works,  a  catalogue  of  which  he  sub- 
joined to  his  histor}'.  Several  of  these 
were  ])rinted  early ;  but  the  fii-st  general 
collection  of  his  works  was  that  of  Paris, 
1554,  3  vols.  fol.  Some  of  his  treatises 
have  been  pubUshed  by  Mr.  Wharton, 
from  MSS.  in  the  library  at  Lambeth  pal- 
ace, London,  4to,  1693.  While  the  num- 
ber and  variety  of  the  writings  of  B.  show 
the  extent  of  his  erudition,  his  probity, 
moderation  and  modesty  insured  him 
general  respect ;  and  his  dismterestedness 
is  proved  by  the  fact,  that  he  was  never 
any  thing  l)ut  an  unbeneficed  priests  A 
letter  of  advice,  which  he  wrote,  late  in 
life,  to  Egbert,  archbishop  of  York,  proves, 
at  once,  the  purity  of  his  morals,  the  lib- 
erality of  his  sentiments,  and  the  excel- 
lence of  his  discernment ;  his  ^vish  behig 
to  curtail  the  number  of  monasteries,  and 
to  increase  the  eflicacy  and  respectability 
of  tlie  secular  clergy.  Notwthstanding 
the  veneration  with  which  he  was  regard- 
ed, not  a  single  miracle  is  recorded  of 
him ;  and,  as  monks  were  the  gi'eat  mira- 
cle mongers,  and  his  views  of  monastic 
reform  such  as  we  have  mentioned,  this 
is  not  surprising.  The  maimer  of  the 
death  of  this  virtuous  ecclesiastic  Avas 
striking  and  characteristic.  He  was  dic- 
tating a  translation  of  the  gospel  of  St. 
John  to  an  amanuensis.  The  young  man 
who  wrote  for  him  said,  "  There  is  now, 
master,  but  one  sentence  wanting ;"  upon 
which  he  bade  him  write  quickly ;  and, 
when  the  scribe  said,  "  It  is  now  done," 
the  dymg  sage  ejaculated,  "It  is  now 
done,"  and  a  few  minutes  afterwards  ex- 
pired, in  the  act  of  prayer,  on  the  floor  of 
his  cell,  in  the  63d  year  of  his  age,  in  the 
month  of  May,  A.  D.  7.35. 

Beddoes,  Thomas ;  a  physician  and 
author ;  bom,  1760,  at  Shiffnal  in  Shrop- 
shire ;  died  1808.  He  was  educated  by 
his  grandfether.  He  made  great  progress 
at  school,  in  classical  studies,  and  dis- 
tinguished himself  at  Oxford  by  his 
knowledge  of  ancient  and  modem  lan- 
guages and  Uterature.  The  great  discov- 
eries in  physics,  chemistry  and  physiology, 
irresistibly  attracted  him.  He  continued 
his  studies  with  success  in  London  and 


Edinburgh.  In  his  26th  year,  he  took 
his  doctor's  degree,  afterwards  visited 
Paris,  and  formed  an  acquaintance  with 
Lavoisier.  On  his  return,  he  was  appoint- 
ed professor  of  chemistry  at  Oxford. 
There  he  pubhshed  some  excellent  chem- 
ical treatises,  and  Observations  on  the 
Calculus,  Sea-Scurvy,  Consumption,  Ca- 
taiTh  and  Fever.  But,  dazzled  by  the 
splendid  promises  of  the  French  revolu- 
tion, he  offended  some  of  his  former  ad- 
mirers, and  excited  such  a  clamor  against 
him  by  the  publication  of  his  political 
opinions,  that  he  determined  to  resign  his 
professoi"ship,  and  retired  to  the  house  of 
his  friend  Mr.  Reynolds,  in  Shropshii'e. 
There  he  composed  his  observations  on 
the  nature  of  demonstrative  evidence,  in 
which  he  endeavors  to  prove,  that  mathe- 
matical reasoning  proceeds  on  the  evi- 
dence of  the  senses,  and  that  geometry  is 
founded  on  experiment.  He  also  pub- 
lished the  History  of  Isaac  Jenkins,  which 
was  intended  to  impress  useful  moral 
lessons  on  the  laboring  classes  in  an  at- 
tractive manner.  Above  40,000  copies  of 
this  popular  work  were  sold  in  a  short 
time.  After  he  had  married,  in  1794,  he 
formed  the  plan  of  a  pneumatic  institu- 
tion, for  curing  diseases,  particularly  con- 
sumption, by  means  of  factitious  airs  or 
gases.  He  succeeded,  with  the  assistance 
of  the  celebrated  Wedgewood,  in  opening 
this  institution,  in  1798.  He  engaged,  as 
superintendent  of  the  whole,  a  young  man, 
Humphrey  Davy,  tlie  foundation  of  whose 
future  fame  was  laid  here.  The  chief 
purpose  of  the  institution,  however,  was 
never  realized,  and  B.'s  zeal  gradually  re- 
laxed, so  that  he  relmquished  it  one  year 
before  his  death,  after  having  pubUshed  a 
number  of  valuable  works  upon  the  ap- 
plication of  factitious  ail's.  In  the  last 
years  of  his  life,  he  acquired  the  reputa- 
tion of  the  best  medical  writer  in  Great 
Britain,  particularly  by  his  Hygeia,  in  3 
vols.,  a  popular  work,  which  contains 
passages  of  extraordinary  eloquence. 
His  pohtical  pamphlets,  from  1795 — ^97, 
are  forgotten. 

Bedford,  John,  duke  of;  one  of  the 
younger  sons  of  Henry  IV,  king  of  Eng- 
land ;  famous  as  a  statesman  and  a  war- 
rior. Shakspeare,  who  calls  him  prince 
John  of  Lancaster,  introduces  him,  in  his 
plays  of  Henry  IV,  as  distinguishing  him- 
self by  his  youthful  courage  in  the  battle 
of  Shrewsbury,  in  1403,  and  forming  a 
kind  of  moral  contrast  to  his  more  dissi- 
pated brother,  the  prince  of  Wales.  Du- 
ring the  reign  of  Henry  V,  he  participated 
in  the  fome  acquired  by  the  conquest  of 


BEDFORD— BEDOUINS. 


29 


France ;  but  his  talents  were  fully  dis- 
played when,  after  the  death  of  that  king, 
he  became  regent  of  France,  having  been' 
appointed  to  this  post  by  Heniy,  in  his 
will.  At  Vemeuil,  in  1424,  he  displayed 
his  miUtary  talents  ;  and  the  difficulties, 
which,  from  various  causes,  he  experi- 
enced in  endeavoring  to  niaintain  pos- 
session of  the  conquered  provinces  in 
France,  afforded  frequent  occasi6n  for 
the  manifestation  of  his  abihty.  The 
greatest  blemish  in  his  character  is  his 
cruel  execution  of  the  maid  of  Orleans, 
in  1431.  Hb  survived  tliis  event  about 
four  years,  and  dying,  in  1435,  at  Rouen, 
was  buried  in  the  cathedral  of  that  city. 
The  duke  desei-ves  notice  also  for  his 
patronage  of  the  arts.  A  curious  monu- 
ment of  his  taste  still  exists — the  Bedford 
Missal.  Mr.  Dibdin,  in  his  Bihliovmnia, 
p.  25.3,  gives  an  account  of  it.  It  was 
made  for  the  duke  and  duchess,  and  con- 
tains 59  large,  and  more  than  1000  small 
miniature  paintings.  In  1786,  it  was 
purchased,  by  3Ir.  Edwards,  for  215  guin- 
eas, from  the  collection  of  the  duchess 
of  Portland ;  and,  &  few  years  after,  500 
guineas  were  oftered  for  it.  In  a  histori- 
cal point  of  view,  it  is  interesting  on  ac- 
count of  several  portraits  of  eminent  per- 
sons ;  some  of  Avhich  have  been  engraved 
by  Vertue,  for  his  portraits  to  illusti'ate 
the  history  of  England.  For  the  anti- 
quarian and  the  student  of  the  fine  arts, 
it  is  one  of  the  most  interesting  monu- 
ments of  that  age.  Gough,  the  antiqua- 
rian, published  a  work  ui  8vo.,  describing 
the  Bedford  Missal. 

Bedford  ;  a  town  in  England,  and 
cajjital  of  the  county  of  Bedford,  to  which 
it  gives  name,  situated  on  the  Ouse ;  22 
miles  S.  E.  of  Northampton,  50  N.  of 
London  ;  Ion.  0°  27'  W. ;  lat  52°  8'  N. ; 
l)op.  4605.  It  contains  5  churches,  3  on 
the  north  and  2  on  the  south  side  of  the 
river,  3  independent  meeting-houses,  and 
a  free  grammar  school  liberally  endowed. 
The  ])rincipal  manufacture  is  lace.  It  is 
a  place  of  considerable  trade,  which  is 
much  assisted  by  the  river,  navigable  to 
Ljnm,  and  is  the  only  market-town  of 
the  county,  on  the  north  side  of  the  Ouse. 
The  soil  about  it  is  fertile,  particularly  in 
excellent  wheat.  It  sends  two  repre- 
sentatives to  parliament.  It  has  two 
markets  weekly. 

Bedford  ;  a  borough  town,  and  capi- 
tal of  Bedford  countv,  Pennsvlvania  ;  91 
miles  E.  by  S.  of  Pittsburg,  "lOO  W.  of 
Philadelphia:  population  of  the  borough, 
789  ;  including  the  township,  2116.  It  is 
finely  situated  on  a  branch  of  the  Juni' 
3" 


atta,  regularly  laid  out,  and  built  on  an  em- 
inence enveloped  by  mountains.  Will's 
.mountain,  on  the  west  side  of  the  town, 
is  1300  feet  high,  and  Dunning's  moun- 
tain, on  the  east  side,  is  1100  feet  high. 
A  mile  and  a  half  south  of  the  town, 
there  are  mineral  springs,  which  were 
discovered  in  1804,  and  are  much  resort- 
ed to,  and  found  useful  in  cutaneous 
complaints,  ulcers,  rheumatisms,  chronic 
complaints,  &c. — There  are  several  other 
towns  and  counties  of  the  same  name  hi 
the  U.  States :  as,  B.  in  the  state  of  New 
York,  Westchester  county,  population 
nearly  2500 ;  B.  comity  in  the  south  of 
Virginia ;  and  another  in  West  Tennessee. 

Bedford  Level  ;  a  large  tract  of  land 
in  England,  in  the  counties  of  Cambridge, 
Norfolk,  Suffolk,  Huntingdon,  Northamp- 
ton and  Lincoln,  fonnerly  full  of  fens  and 
mai-shes,  and,  in  rainy  seasons,  for  the 
most  part  under  water;  but  drained,  at 
the  expense  of  £400,000,  by  the  noble 
family  of  Russell,  eai'ls  and  dukes  of 
Bedford,  and  othere  ;  by  which  means 
100,000  acres  of  good  land  have  been 
brought  into  use. 

Bedford,  New  ;  a  seaport  in  Massa^ 
chusetts.     (See  JSTew  Bedford.) 

Bedouins,  or  Bedoweens  (that  is,  in- 
habitants  of  the  desert) ;  a  numerous  Mo- 
liammedan  race,  which  dwells  in  the 
deserts  of  Arabia,  Egypt  and  Northern 
Africa.  It  is  still  doubtful  whether  they 
belong  to  the  same  race  with  the  Arabs, 
or  differ  from  them  hi  their  descent,  its 
they  do  in  their  manner  of  Uvhig.  The 
Bedouins  live  at  a  distance  from  cities 
and  villages,  in  families,  under  sheiks,  or 
in  tribes,  under  emirs.  Their  dwelluigs 
are  tents,  huts,  caverns  and  ruins.  With 
their  herds  and  beasts  of  burden,  wliicli 
carry  their  httle  property,  they  wander  in 
quest  of  fresh  water  and  pasture.  They 
are  all  good  horsemen,  and  are  generally 
fond  of  hunting.  The  peaceful  tribes 
exchange  horses  (which  they  raise  witli 
great  care)  and  fat  cattle,  for  arms  and 
cloth,  whh  the  neighboring  nations. 
Other  hordes  are  such  open  robbei-s,  that 
it  is  dangerous  to  travel  through  their 
country  without  a  guard  or  a  passport, 
which  the  different  chiefs  sell.  They  not 
only  plunder,  but  murder,  even  when  the 
travellers  offer  no  resistance.  Notwith- 
standing this  barbarous  custom,  the  Bed- 
ouins hold  the  rights  of  Iiospitality  sa- 
cred ;  and  the  most  defenceless  enemy  is 
sure  of  their  protection,  if  they  have  once 
allowed  him  sheher.  But  the  Bedouin 
considei-s  every  one  his  enemy  wlio  is 
not  his  brother,  kinsman  or  ally.    Always 


30 


BEDOUINS— BEE. 


careful  of  his  oa\ti  safety,  he  attacks  no 
rai'avan  or  canip  witliout  being  sure  of 
Ills  superiorit}.  To  superior  numbers,  and 
a  bold  resistance,  he  yields,  and  saves 
himself  by  a  speedy  flight.  A  tenor  to 
the  neighboring  nations,  the  rajjacious 
Bedouin  lives  in  a  state  of  continual 
watchfuhiess ;  poor,  ignorant,  wild  and 
rude,  but  free,  and  proud  of  his  liberty. 
This  people  is  remarkable  for  temperance 
in  regard  to  food,  amounting  a^nost  to 
abstinence. 

Bee  (apis  mellifica,  L.)  ;  a  species  of 
liymenopterous  insect,  belonging  to  the 
family  apiaria, — The  honey-bee  is  uni- 
versally celebrated  for  its  singulai"  instincts, 
and  highly  prized  for  the  valuable  prod- 
ucts of  its  industiy.  A  vast  number  of 
interesting  facts  have  consequently  been 
collected  in  relation  to  the  economy  of 
the  species,  for  the  detail  of  whose  history 
a  voltnne  of  considerable  size  would  be 
required.  We  shall  therefore  be  able  to 
present  notliing  more  than  a  sketch  of 
tlie  most  striking  generalities,  obtained 
from  the  admirable  works  of  Huber,  Cu- 
vier,  &c.,  and  to  these  authentic  sources 
must  refer  the  reader  desirous  of  more 
ample  information. — Three  sorts  of  indi- 
viduals are  found  to  fonn  a  community 
of  honey-bees;  the  female,  mother,  or,  as 
she  is  connnonly  called,  queen ;  the  males, 
or  drones;  and  the  working  bees,  improp- 
erly termed  neuters,  as  they  are  actually 
females,  though,  in  a  peculiar  respect, 
imperfect.  A  hive  commonly  consists 
of  one  mother,  or  queen,  fi-om  C  to  800 
males,  and  from  15  to  20,000  working 
bees.  The  last  mentioned  ai'c  the  small- 
est, have  12  joints  to  their  antenna:,  and 
6  abdominal  rings  :  the  fii-st  joint  or 
square  portion  of  the  })osterior  tarsi  is 
enlarged  at  the  posterior  angle  of  its  base, 
and  shaped  like  a  pointed  auricle,  having 
its  internal  sui-face  covered  with  a  fine, 
short,  close,  silky  down.  They  are  pro- 
vided with  stings.  The  mandibles  are 
spoon-shaped,  and  not  dentated.  There  is, 
on  tlie  outside  of  the  hind  legs,  a  smooth 
hollow,  edged  with  hairs,  called  the  bas- 
ket :  the  silky  brush  of  tlie  first  joint  of 
the  posterior  tarsi  has  7  or  8  transverse 
stricE.  The  mother,  or  queen,  has  the 
same  characteristics,  but  is  of  larger  size, 
especially  in  the  abdomen:  she  has  a 
shorter  sucker  or  trunk,  and  the  mandi- 
bles grooved  and  velvet-like  beneath  the 
tip.  The  males,  or  drones,  differ  from 
both  the  preceding  by  having  13  joints  to 
tlie  antenmt ;  a  rounded  head,  with  larger 
eyes,  elongated  and  united  at  tlie  summit ; 
smaller  and  more  velvety  mandibles,  and 


shorter  anterior  feet,  the  two  first  of 
which  are  arched.  They  have  no  aiuic- 
idar  dilatation  nor  silky  brush  on  the 
square  part  of  the  posterior  tarsi,  and  are 
destitute  of  stings.  The  genitals  consist 
of  two  horn-shaped  bodies  of  a  reddish- 
yellow  color,  with  a  broad-ended  penis. — 
When  we  examine  the  internal  structure 
of  this  insect,  we  find  at  the  superior  base 
of  the  ti'upk  or  sucker,  below  the  labrum, 
a  considerable  aperture,  shut  by  a  small, 
triangular  piece,  which  has  been  called 
tongue,  epiphanjnx,  &c.  This  opening 
receives  the  food,  which  is  thence  con- 
veyed by  a  delicate  asophagus,  through 
the  coi-sclet,  to  the  anterior  stomach, 
which  contains  the  honey ;  the  second 
stomach  receives  the  pollen  of  flowers, 
and  has,  on  its  internal  surface,  a  number 
of  transverse  aiid  annular  wrinkles.  The 
abdomuial  cavity  of  the  queen  and  work- 
ing bees  also  contains  the  little  bag  of 
poison  communicating  with  the  sthig.  In 
the  queen,  there  are,  moreover,  two  large 
ovaries,  consisting  of  a  great  number  of 
small  cavities,  each  containing  16  or  17 
eggs.  These  ovaries  open  near  the  anus, 
previous  to  which  they  dilate  into  pouch- 
es, where  the  egg  is  delayed  to  receive  a 
viscous  coating  from  an  adjacent  gland. 
The  inferior  half^circles,  except  the  first 
and  liist,  on  the  abdomens  of  working 
bees,  have  each  on  their  inner  surface 
two  cavities,  where  the  wax  is  fomied  in 
layers,  and  conies  out  from  between  the 
abdominal  rings.  Below  these  cavities 
is  a  particular  membrane,  fomied  of  a 
very  small,  hexagonally-meslied  network, 
which  is  connected  with  the  membrane 
lining  the  walls  of  tlie  abdominal  cavity. 
— Wax,  of  which  the  combs  are  formed, 
is  elaborated  from  honey.  The  pollen 
collected  fi"om  flowers,  mixed  with  a 
small  quantity  of  wax,  constitutes  the 
food  of  bees  anil  their  larves ;  and  this 
food  apjieai-s  to  be  modified  in  its  com- 
position, according  to  the  sort  of  indi- 
viduals it  is  intended  for.  Another  sub- 
stance collected  by  bees  from  tlie  opening 
buds  of  jjoplar  and  other  trees,  and  used 
by  them  for  hning  their  hives,  stopping 
holes,  &c.,  is  called  propolis. — Besides 
the  distinctions  remarked  in  the  female, 
male  and  working  bees,  Huber  regards 
the  working  bees  as  of  two  sorts;  one 
devoted  to  the  collection  of  provisions, 
and  all  the  materials  necessary  to  the 
comb,  as  well  as  to  its  construction ;  these 
he  calls  cirieres.  The  othere  are  more 
dehcate,  small  and  feeble,  and  employed 
exclusively  Avithin  tlie  hive,  in  feeding 
and  taking  care  of  tlie  young. — The  re- 


BEE— BEECH. 


31 


semblance  existing  between  the  -working 
and  female  bees  fii-st  led  to  tlie  idea  that 
they  were  of  the  same  sex,  and  tlie  in- 
genious experiments  and  accurate  obser- 
vations of  Huber  enabled  him  to  estab- 
lish this  fact  in  the  most  satisfactory 
mamier.  Ilavuig  deprived  a  hive  of  the 
motlier  or  queen,  he  found  that  the  work- 
ing bees  immediately  began  to  prejiare  a 
larve  of  their  own  class  to  occupy  tliis 
important  station.  This  was  effected  by 
enlarging  the  cell  to  tlie  dimensions  of  a 
inatenial  or  royal  chamber,  and  feechng 
the  selected  individual  on  food  exclu- 
sively destined  for  the  nourishment  of 
the  royal  larves.  If  merely  fed  upon  this 
food,  without  an  accompanying  enlarge- 
ment of  the  cell,  the  maternal  faculties 
were  but  imperfectly  acquired,  as  the 
female  did  not  attain  the  proper  size,  and 
was  incapable  of  laying  any  eggs  but 
tliose  which  produced  males. — The  cells 
of  the  comb  compose  two  opjjosite  ranges 
of  horizontal  iicxagons,  with  pyramidal 
bases  :  each  layer  of  the  comb  is  perpen- 
dicular, and  attached  by  the  sunmiit,  and 
separated  from  the  rest  by  a  space  suffi- 
cient for  tlie  bees  to  pass  ia  and  out. 
The  comb  is  always  built  from  above 
downward.  The  cells,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  those  for  the  female  larve  and 
nymph,,  are  nearly  of  etjual  size,  some 
containing  the  jjrogeny,  and  others  the 
honey  imd  pollen  of  flowers.  Some 
honey  cells  are  left  open,  othci-s  are 
closed  for  future  use  by  a  flat  or  slightly 
convex  coveruig  of  wax.  The  maternal 
or  I'egal  cells  varj'  fi-om  2  to  40  in  imm- 
ber,  are  greatly  superior  in  size,  nearly 
cyliiulrical,  and  somewhat  larger  at  the 
extremity.  They  have  small  cavities  on 
the  outside,' and  commonly  depend  from 
the  comb  hke  stalactites,  so  that  the  lai-ve 
has  its  head  downwards. — The  season  of 
fecundation  occurs  about  the  beginning 
of  siunmer,  and  the  meeting  between  the 
females  and  males  takes  place  high  in 
the  air,  whence  the  female  returns  with 
the  sexual  parts  of  tlie  male  attached  to 
the  extremity  of  the  abdomen.  This  one 
fecundation  is  thought  to  be  sufficient  to 
A'i\ify  the  eggs  which  the  mother  may 
lay  in  the  course  of  two  years.  The  lay- 
ing beguis  immediately  afterwards,  and 
continues  until  autumn.  Reaumur  states 
that  the  female,  in  the  spring,  lays  as 
many  as  12,000  eggs  in  the  lajjse  of  24 
days.  Each  sort  of  egg  is  dejwsited  in 
the  appropriate  cell,  unless  a  sufficient 
number  of  cells  have  not  been  prepared  : 
in  this  case,  she  places  several  eggs  in 
one,  and  leaves  to  the  working  bees  the 


task  of  subsequently  arranging  them. 
The  eggs  laid  at  the  commencement  of 
fine  weather  all  belong  to  the  working 
sort,  and  hatcJi  at  the  end  of  4  days.  The 
larves  are  regularly  fed  by  tlie  workers 
for  G  or  7  days,  when  they  are  enclosed 
m  their  cell,  spin  a  cocoon,  and  become 
nymphs,  and  in  about  12  days  acquire 
their  j)erfect  state.  The  cells  are  then 
immediately  fitted  up  for  the  reception 
of  new  eggs.  The  eggs  for  producing 
males  are  laid  two  montlis  later,  and 
those  for  the  females  unmediately  after- 
wards. This  succession  of  generations 
forms  so  many  particular  communities, 
which,  when  increased  beyond  a  certain 
degree,  leave  the  parent  hive  to  found  a 
new  colony  elsewhere.  Three  or  four 
swarms  sometunes  leave  a  hive  in  a  sea- 
son. A  good  swann  is  said  to  weigh  at 
least  six  or  eight  pounds.  The  life  of  the 
bee,  like  that  of  all  the  other  insects  of 
its  class,  does  not  continue  long  after  the 
great  business  of  providing  for  the  con- 
tinuance of  the  species  is  completed. — 
The  liistoiy  of  tlie  bee,  as  already  stated, 
is  too  extensive  to  allow  us  to  attempt 
more  than  this  brief  sketch.  But  to  such 
as  have  leisure,  aiid  are  desirous  of  in- 
structive amusement,  we  know  of  no 
study  which  promises  a  greater  degree 
of  satisfaction  ;  and  there  is  no  book  bet- 
ter adapted  for  this  purpose,  than  the 
excellent  treatise  of  Huber,  which  may 
almost  be  regarded  as  the  ne  plus  ultra  of 
its  kind.  A  beautiful  little  poem,  called 
The  Bees,  WTitten  by  the  Florentine  Gi- 
ovaimi  Rucellai,  appeared  in  1539. 

Beech.  The  beech  [fagus  sylvalica), 
one  of  our  liandsomest  forest-trees,  is 
known  by  its  waved  and  somewhat  oval 
leaves,  and  its  triangular  fruit,  consisting 
of  tliree  cells,  and  enclosed,  by  pairs,  in  a 
husk,  Avhich  is  covered  with  simple 
prickles. — Beech  woods  are  very  com- 
mon in  almost  all  the  New  Engkuid  and 
Middle  States,  in  the  states  of  Maine, 
Pennsylvania,  Ohio,  &c.  They  are  very 
luxuriant  in  their  gi'owth.  These  woods, 
it  has  been  observed,  are  peculiarly  dry, 
and  pleasant  to  walk  in,  and,  under  their 
shade,  afford  to  the  botanist  many  inter- 
esting plants,  such  as  the  bird's  nest 
[monoiropa],  winter-green  (pyrola),  and 
some  rare  orchidem.  Beech-trees  bear 
lopping  well,  and  may  be  trained  so  as  to 
form  lofty  hedges,  which  are  valuable  for 
shelter,  since  the  leaves,  though  faded, 
remain  through  the  winter,  and  tlie 
twisted  branches  may  be  fonned  into  a 
very  strong  fence.  The  wood  is  hard 
and  brittle,  and,  if  exposed  to  the  air,  is 


32 


BEECH— BEER. 


liable  soon  to  decay.  It  is,  however,  pe- 
culiarly useful  to  cabinet-makers  and 
turners :  carpenters'  planes,  &c.  are  made 
of  it  When  split  into  tliin  layers,  it  is 
used  to  make  scabbards  for  swords. 
Chairs,  bedsteads  and  other  fumitiu'e  are 
occasionally  formed  of  beech.  The  fruit 
of  this  tree,  which  has  tlie  name  of  beech- 
mast,  and  falls  in  September,  is  very  pal- 
atable, but,  if  eaten  in  great  quantity, 
it  occasions  giddiness  and  headaches  ; 
when,  however,  it  is  diied  and  powdered, 
it  may  be  made  into  a  wholesome  bread. 
The  inhabitants  of  Scio,  one  of  tlie  Ionian 
islands,  were  once  enabled  to  endure  a 
memorable  siege  by  the  beech-mast 
which  their  island  supphed.  This  fruit 
has  occasionally  beien  roasted,  and  used 
as  a  substitute  for  coffee.  When  sub- 
jected to  pressure,  it  yields  a  sweet  and 
palatable  oil,  which  is  equal  in  quality  to 
the  best  olive-oil,  and  has  the  advantage 
of  contuiuing  loivger  than  that  without 
becoming  rancid.  Beech-oil  is  nianufac- 
tured  in  several  parts  of  France,  and  is 
used  by  the  lower  classes  of  Silesia  in- 
stead of  butter.  The  cakes  which  remain 
after  the  oil  is  extracted  are  a  wholesome 
food,  and  may  be  also  advantageously 
employed  for  the  fattening  of  swine, 
poultrj"^  and  oxen.  In  some  countries, 
the  leaves  of  the  beech-tree  are  collected 
in  the  autunm,  before  they  have  been 
injured  by  tlie  frost,  and  are  used  mstead 
of  feathei-s,  for  beds  ;  and  mattresses 
formed  of  them  are  said  to  be  preferable 
to  diose  either  of  straw  or  chaff. 

Beef-Eaters  (a  corrujrtion  from  the 
French  buffetiers,  from  buffet,  sideboard) 
are  yeomen  of  the  guard  of  the  king  of 
Great  Britain.  They  are  stationed  by  the 
sideboard  at  great  royal  dinners.  There 
are  now  100  in  service  and  70  supemu- 
menu-ies.  They  are  dressed  after  the 
fashion  of  the  time  of  Henry  VIII. 

Beejapoor  {Bija-pur,  a  coiTuption  of 
Vijaya-puri,  the  city  of  victor}-,  the  orig- 
inal name  of  the  capital) ;  a  large  prov- 
ince of  Deccan,  between  the  15th  and 
18di  degi-ees  of  N.  lat. ;  bounded  N.  and 
E.  by  Aurungabad  and  Beder,  S.  by 
North  Canara  and  the  river  Toombudra, 
and  W.  by  the  sea ;  about  350  miles  long, 
and  200  broad.  It  is  watered  by  the 
Crishna,  Toombudra,  Beemah  and  Gat- 
purba;  and  is  traversed  by  the  Ghaut 
mountains.  The  soil  is  generally  fertile, 
and  provisions  plentiful.  The  chief  cities 
are  Beejapoor,  Boonah  (the  capital  of  the 
Mahrattas),  St.  Kuttany  and  Nubely. 
Four  fifths  of  the  country  ai-e  subject  to 
the  Mahrattas,  the  rest  to  the  Nizam. 


The  population  is  estimated  at  7,000,000 ; 
one  twentieth  Mohammedans,  the  rest 
Hindoos.  The  proAince  is  divided  into 
15  tenntorial  divisions.  In  the  southern 
part  of  Concan,  one  of  these  divisions, 
Goa  ( Gowah,  or,  more  properly,  Govay\ 
the  capital  of  the  Portuguese  settlements 
in  the  East,  is  situated.  (See  Goa.)  Tlie 
productions  of  B.  are,  in  general,  similar 
to  those  of  the  rest  of  the  Deccan.  One 
part — the  neighborhood  of  the  Beemah — 
is  celebrated  for  its  breed  of  horses,  and 
supplies  tlie  best  cavalry  in  the  Mahratta 
ai'iiiies. 

Beejapoor;  the  former  capital  of  the 
above  province.    (See  Bija-pur.) 

Beek,  David,  a  portrait-painter  of  con- 
siderable merit,  was  bom  in  1621,  at  Arn- 
lieim,  in  Guelderland ;  became  a  pupil  of 
Vandyck ;  resided,  for  some  time,  at  the 
court  of  Sweden,  and  died  in  1656.  It  is 
related  of  him,  that,  on  a  journey  through 
Germany,  he  fell  sick,  and  became,  to 
appearance,  dead  ;  when  one  of  his  ser- 
vants pouring  a  glass  of  wine  into  his 
throat,  to  amuse  his  companions,  B. 
opened  his  eyes,  and,  after  a  while,  re- 
covered his  health. 

Beelzebub  (in  Hebrew,  the  god  of 
jlies) ;  an  idol  of  the  Moabites  or  Syrians. 
This  term  is  applied,  in  the  Scriptures,  to 
tlie  chief  of  the  evil  spirits.  We  must 
remember  what  a  terrible  torment  insects 
often  are  in  the  East,  in  order  to  conceive 
how  this  name  came  to  be  given  to  one 
of  the  greatest  of  the  imaginary  spirits  of 
evil.  We  find  that  ahnost  all  nations, 
who  beheve  in  evil  spirits,  represent  them 
as  the  rulers  of  disgusting,  tormenting  or 
poisonous  animals — flies,  rats,  mice,  rep- 
tiles, &c.  The  Greeks  worshipped  sev- 
eral of  their  chief  deities  under  the  char- 
acter of  protectors  against  these  animals ; 
for  instance,  Apollo  s^/v0£uf,  the  destroyer 
of  rats.  Eveiy  one  knows,  that  Christ 
was  charged  by  the  Jews  with  driving 
out  demons  by  the  power  of  Beelzebub. 
[Matt.  xii.  24.) 

Beer.  (See  Me  and  Brewing.)  We 
have  evidence  of  the  use  of  this  liquor  for 
more  than  2000  years.  The  Grecian  poet 
and  satirist  Archilochus,  who  lived  about 
700  B.  C,  and  the  Grecian  tragedians 
iEschylus  and  Sophocles,  who  lived  more 
than  400  B.  C,  call  it  ipi'ne  of  barley.  Dio- 
dorus  of  Sicily,  who  lived  about  the  time 
of  Julius  Csesar,  about  50  B.  C,  mentions 
beer  in  his  History  (lib.  i.  chap.  20).  Pliny 
also,  about  the  middle  of  the  first  century 
after  Christ,  speaks  of  this  beverage  in 
several  places  of  his  Natural  Historj*.  He 
says  that  it  is  prepared  in  different  ways, 


BEER— BEET. 


33 


and  that  there  is  a  species  more  intoxi- 
cating than  wine.  He  says,  fluther,  that, 
in  Spain,  it  is  called  cdia  and  ceria ;  but, 
in  Gaul  and  in  other  provinces  of  the 
Roman  empire,  cerevisia ;  that  it  was  in 
general  use  among  the  ancient  Germans, 
who  also  called  it  cerevisia  (from  Ceres, 
tlie  goddess  of  grain,  and  vis,  power.) 
The  Egyptians,  as  the  firet  promoters  of 
agriculture,  are  said  to  liave  invented  beer, 
and  to  have  pi-epared  a  kind,  in  later  times, 
at  Pelusium,  which  was  called  by  tJie 
name  of  that  city,  and  was  much  cele- 
brated. Beer  was  afterwards  unknown 
in  Egypt,  until  the  French  army  intro- 
duced it  anew,  since  which  it  is  said  that 
beer  is  still  brewed  there.  We  are  igno- 
rant liow  far  the  beer  of  the  ancients 
resembled  the  modern  article.  The  word 
beer  may  most  naturally  be  derived  from 
bibere,  to  drink. 

Beer,  Michael,  sometimes  called  Mi- 
chael Berr,  a  learned  Jew  in  Paris,  bom  at 
Nancy,  in  1784,  was  the  first  of  his  reli- 
gion who  pursued  the  profession  of  an 
advocate  in  France.  His  success  in  this 
career  was  brilliant;  but  he  soon  gave 
liimself  up  exclusively  to  literature,  and 
received  the  honor,  never  before  confer- 
red on  a  Jew,  of  being  admitted  into  tlie 
learned  academies  of  France.  He  was 
elected  a  member  of  the  royal  society  of 
anti(juaries,  of  the  philotechnic  society, 
of  the  academies  of  Nancy,  Strasburg, 
Nantes  and  Gottingen.  Napoleon  in- 
vited him,  in  1807,  to  the  assembly  of 
Jews,  who  were  to  advise  concerning 
the  aineUoration  of  the  condition  of  that 
people ;  and  the  general  sanhedrim  for 
France  and  Italy  chose  him  their  secre- 
tary. At  the  erection  of  the  kingdom  of 
Westphaha,  on  account  of  his  knowledge 
of  the  language  of  the  country,  he  receiv- 
ed an  appointment  m  the  ministry  of  the 
interior,  and,  afterwards,  was  appointed  to 
a  corresponding  ofiice  in  the  French  min- 
istiy :  he  also  delivered  a  course  of  lec- 
tures on  German  hterature  in  the  athenae- 
um of  Paris.  Among  his  numerous  works 
is  an  Eloge  de  Charles  ViUers. 

Beering,  Vitus,  captain  in  the  Russian 
navy,  born  at  Horsens,  in  Jutland,  being  a 
skilful  seaman,  was  employed  by  Peter 
the  Great  in  the  na\-y  which  he  had 
newly  estabUshed  at  Cronstadt.  His  tal- 
ents, and  the  undaunted  courage  display- 
ed by  him  in  the  naval  wars  against  the 
Swedes,  procured  him  the  honor  of  being 
ciiosen  to  command  a  voyage  of  discovery 
in  the  sea  of  Kamtschatka.  He  set  out 
from  Petersburg,  Feb.  5, 1725,  for  Siberia. 
In  the  year  1728,  he  examined  the  north- 


ern coasts  of  Kamtschatka  as  far  as  lat. 
67°  18'  N.,  and  proved  that  Asia  is  not 
united  to  America.  It  remained,  however, 
to  be  determined  whether  the  land  oppo- 
site to  Kamtschatka  was,  in  reahty,  the 
coast  of  the  American  continent,  or  mere- 
ly islands  lying  between  Asia  and  Amer- 
ica. June  4, 1741,  he  sailed,  with  two 
ships,  from  Ochotsk,  and  touched  the 
north-western  coast  of  America,  between 
lat.  35°  and  69°  N.  Tempests  and  sick- 
ness jjrevented  him  from  pursuing  his 
discoveries :  he  was  cast  on  a  desolate  isl- 
and, covered  with  snow  and  ice,  where 
he  grew  dangerously  sick,  and  died  Dec. 
8,  1741.  The  straits  between  Asia  and 
America  have  received  the  name  of  Beer- 
ing's  straits  (also  called  ^nian),  and  the 
island  on  which  he  died  that  of  Beering's 
island.  (See  Miiller's  Voyages  et  Dicouv. 
faiies  par  les  Russes,  Amsterdam,  1766). 

Beering's  Island  ;  an  island  in  N.  Pa- 
cific ocean,  about  90  miles  long,  and  25  to 
30  wide ;  Ion.  163°  12'  to  164°  12'  E.;  lat. 
54°  45'  to  56°  10'  N.  Neitlier  thunder  nor 
the  aurora  boreaUs  have  ever  been  observ- 
ed here.  The  island  has  springs  of  excel- 
lent water,  and  beautiful  cataracts.  No 
animals  ai*e  found  here  but  ice-foxes,  seals, 
sea-beai-s,  sea-lions,  sea-cows,  &c.  No 
wood  grows  here,  but  several  kinds  of 
plants  are  seen.  The  island  is  uninhab- 
ited. It  was  discovered  by  Vitus  Beering 
(q.  V.)  m  1741.  It  is  sometimes  classed 
with  the  Aleutian  chain. 

Beering's  Straits  ;  the  narrow  sea 
between  the  north-west  coast  of  N.  Amer- 
ica and  the  north-east  coast  of  Asia ;  39 
miles  wide  in  the  narrowest  part ;  Ion. 
168°  15'  to  169°  20'  W. ;  lat.  65°  46'  to  65° 
52'  N.  There  is  a  remarkable  similarity 
in  the  portions  of  both  continents  north 
of  the  strait:  botli  are  without  wood;  the 
coasts  are  low,  but,  farther  from  the  sea, 
they  rise  and  form  considerable  moun- 
tains. The  depth,  in  the  middle  of  the 
straits,  is  from  29  to  30  fathoms ;  towards 
the  land,  the  water  on  the  Asiatic  side  is 
deeper.  Captain  Vancouver,  who  visited 
these  shores  in  1740,  gave  this  name  to 
the  straits  in  honor  of  Vitus  Beermg 
(q.  v.),  because  he  thinks  that  he  anchored 
there.  Some  have  also  called  these  strdts 
Cook's  straits. 

Beet  (beta  vulgaris)  is  a  well-known 
valuable  succulent  root,  which  is  culti- 
vated in  our  kitchen  gardens,  and  grows 
wild  in  several  countries  of  the  south  of 
Europe.  There  are  two  principal  vari- 
eties of  beet,  one  of  which  is  of  a  deep 
red  or  purple  color,  and  the  other  is  white, 
crossed  with  bands  of  red.—Red  beet  is 


34 


BEET— BEETHOVEN. 


principallyvused  at  table,  in  salad,  boiled, 
aiid  cut  into  slices,  as  a  pickle,  and  some- 
times stewed  witli  onions ;  but,  if  eaten  in 
great  quantity,  it  is  said  to  be  injurious  to 
the  stoniacli.  The  beet  may  be  taken  out 
of  the  ground  for  use  about  tlie  end  of 
August,  but  it  does  not  attain  its  full  size 
and  perfection  till  the  mouth  of  October. 
When  good,  it  is  large,  and  of  a  deep  red 
color,  and,  when  boiled,  is  tender,  sweet 
and  palatable.  It  has  lately  been  ascer- 
tained, that  beet  roots  may  be  substituted 
for  malt,  if  deprived  of  the  greater  part  of 
their  juice  by  pressure,  then  dried,  and 
treated  in  the  same  maimer  as  the  grain 
intended  for  brewing.  The  beer  made 
from  the  beet  has  been  found  perfectly 
wholesome  and  palatable,  and  little  infe- 
rior to  that  prepared  from  malt. — From 
tiie  white  beet  tlie  French,  during  the 
late  wars  in  Europe,  endeavored  to  pre- 
pare sugar,  tliat  article,  as  British  colo- 
nial produce,  having  been  prohibited  in 
France.  For  tliis  purpose,  the  roots  were 
boiled  as  soon  as  possible  after  they  were 
taken  from  the  eailh.  When  cold,  they 
were  sliced,  and  afterwards  tlie  juice  was 
pressed  out,  and  evaporated  to  the  con- 
sistence of  sirup.  The  sugar  was  obtain- 
ed from  this  sirup  by  crystalhzation.  110 
pounds  weight  of  the  roots  yielded  41^ 
pounds  of  juice,  which,  on  further  evap- 
oration, afforded  somewhat  more  than  4.h 
pounds  of  brown  sugar ;  and  these,  by  a 
subsequent  operation,  produced  4  pounds 
of  well-grained  white  powder  sugar.  The 
residuum,  together  with  the  sirup  or  mo- 
lasses wbich  remained,  produced,  after 
distillation,  3^  quarts  of  rectified  spirit, 
somewhat  similar  to  rum.  But  many 
subsequent  experiments,  both  in  France 
and  in  Prussia,  have  tended  to  prove,  that 
sugar  can  never  be  advantageously  man- 
ufactured from  the  beet  upon  ^  large 
scale,  it  yielding,  upon  a  fair  average, 
barely  enough  to  deftly  the  expenses  of 
making.  The  leaves  of  the  beet,  when 
raised  in  richly-manured  soil,  have  been 
found  to  yield  a  considerable  quantity  of 
pure  nitre,  proceeding,  in  all  probability, 
from  the  decomposition  of  the  animal 
matter  contained  in  the  manure ;  but  this, 
like  the  sugar  of  the  root,  will  probably 
never  pay  the  expenses  of  cultivation, 
which  will  also  increase  rather  than 
diminish;  so  that  it  maybe  considered 
%'aluable,  at  present,  only  as  an  esculent 
plant.  The  French,  however,  and  other 
European  nations,  still  persevere  in  man- 
ufacturing beet  sugar,  and  make  great 
quantities  of  it,  although  it  can  never 
supereede  the  use  of  cpqwnon  sugar,  unless 


its  production  be  encouraged  by  bounties 
and  proliibitions. 

Beethoven,  Louis  von,  bom  in  Bonn, 
1772,  was  the  son  of  a  man  who  had  been 
a  tenor  singer  in  tliat  place  (according  to 
another  account,  in  Fayolle's  Dictionarj' 
of  Musicians,  a  natural  son  of  Frederic 
William  II,  king  of  Prussia).  His  great 
talent  for  music  was  early  cultivated.  He 
astonished,  in  his  eighth  year,  all  who 
heard  him,  by  his  execution  on  the  violin, 
on  which  be  was  in  the  habit  of  perform- 
ing, with  great  dihgence^  in  a  little  gan-et- 
In  his  11th  year,  he  played  Bach's  Jfohl 
Temperirtts  clavier,  and,  in  his  13th, 
composed  some  sonatas.  These  promis- 
ing appearances  of  great  talent  induced 
the  then  reigning  elector  of  Cologne  to 
send  him,  in  1792,  in  the  character  of  his 
organist,  and  at  his  expense,  to  Vienna, 
that  he  might  accomplish  himself  there 
in  composition,  under  the  instruction  of 
Haydn.  Under  Haydn  and  Albrechtsber- 
ger  he  made  rapid  progress,  and  became, 
likewise,  a  great  player  on  the  piano  forte, 
astonishing  every  one  by  his  extemjwre 
performances.  In  1809,  he  was  invited 
to  tlie  new  court  of  the  king  of  Westpha- 
Ua,  at  which  several  men  of  distinction, 
and  among  them  his  pupil  in  music  the 
archduke  Rodolph,  now  bishop  of  Olmiitz, 
persuaded  him  to  remeiin,  by  the  promise 
of  a  yearly  salary.  He  composed  his 
principal  works  after  1801.  A  few  years 
before  his  death,  a  cold,  which  he  had 
caught  by  composing  in  the  open  air, 
produced  a  deafiiess,  which  became,  by 
degrees,  very  great  He  lived,  afterwards, 
very  much  retired,  in  the  village  of  Mod- 
lingen,  near  Vienna.  Instrumental  music 
has  received  from  his  compositions  a  new 
character.  Beethoven  imited  the  humor 
of  Haydn  with  the  melancholy  of  Mozart, 
and  tlie  character  of  his  music  most 
resembles  Chenibini's.  His  boldness  is 
remarkable.  Reichhardt,  in  a  comparison 
of  Beethoven  with  Haydn  and  INIozart, 
says, "  The  Quartett  of  Haydn  was  the  off"- 
spring  of  his  amiable  and  original  charac- 
ter. In  naivete  and  good  humor  he  is 
unrivalled.  The  more  powerful  nature 
and  richer  imagination  of  Mozart  embra- 
ced a  wider  field,  and  many  of  his  com- 
positions express  the  whole  height  and 
depth  of  his  character.  He  placed  more 
value  also  on  exquisite  finish.  Beethoven, 
early  acquainted  with  Mozart's  composi- 
tions, gave  a  still  bolder  cast  to  his  ideas." 
Besides  his  great  symphonies  and  over- 
tures, his  quintetts,  quartetts,  and  trios 
for  stringed  instruments,  his  numerous 
sonatas,  variations,  and  other  pieces  for 


BEETHOVEN— BEGLERBEG. 


35 


the  piano  forte,  in  which  he  shows  the 
great  richness  of  his  imagination,  he  also 
composed  vocal  music,  but  with  less  suc- 
cess. To  this  department  belongs  his 
opera  Leonore  (in  its  altered  state,  called 
Pidelio),  some  masses,  an  oratorio  (Christ 
on  the  Mount  of  Olives),  and  songs  for 
the  piano  forte,  among  wliich  the  compo- 
sition of  jMatthison's  Adelaide,  called,  by 
the  Eughsli,  Rosalie,  and  some  songs  of 
Goethe  are  celebrated.  B.  died  March 
2Cth,  1827,  near  Vienna,  in  the  greatest 
poverty. 

Beetle  {scarabaiis,  L.) ;  a  tribe  of  co- 
leopterous insects,  belonging  to  the  family 
lamellicomiia,  C.  The  beetle  tribe  com- 
prises a  large  number  of  insects,  among 
which  some  are  veiy  remarkable  for  pro- 
jections or  horns  growing  from  tlie  head 
and  corselet.  The  species  found  in  warm 
climates  are  generally  of  large  size  and 
formidable  appearance,  though  by  no 
meaus  noxious.  They  all  are  winged,  fly- 
ing with  much  rapidity  and  force  ;  when 
on  the  ground,  their  movements  are  slow 
and  heavy.  The  Ijody  of  the  perfect  insect 
is  oval,  or  nearly  so,  and  the  antenna  are 
composed  of  eight  or  ten  pieces,  inserted 
into  a  cavity  under  the  border  of  the  head. 
From  the  airangement  of  the  antennce, 
which  is  peculiar  to  this  family,  its  essen- 
tial or  distinctive  character  is  formed. 
The  extremities  of  the  antennce  are  club- 
shaped,  and  composed  of  plates  or  joints, 
either  disposed  like  the  leaves  of  a  book,  or 
arranged  perpendicularly  to  the  axis,  like 
the  teeth  of  a  comb.  The  two  fii-st  legs 
of  beetles,  and  even  the  othei-s,  in  some 
instances,  are  dentated  externally,  and 
suited  for  bun-owing.  The  trachecz  are  all 
vesiculai". — The  larves  or  young  are  soft, 
flexible,  whitish,  somi-cylindric  worms, 
having  the  body  divided  into  12  rings, 
and  having  a  scaly  head,  armed  with 
strong  jaws.  They  have  nine  stigmata,  or 
breathing  holes,  on  each  side ;  and  the  feet, 
which  are  six,  are  scaly.  The  body  is 
thicker  at  the  posterior  than  at  the  ante- 
rior extremity,  rounded,  and  almost  uni- 
formly curved  do\vnwards,  so  that  the 
lane  moves  with  difficulty  over  an  even 
surface,  and  frequently  tumbles  down. 
The  period  during  which  the  larves 
retnain  in  the  state  of  destructive  worms 
varies  in  different  species ;  those  of  some 
khuls  becoming  nymphs  at  the  end  of 
several  months,  and  of  others,  not  sooner 
than  in  three  or  four  years.  During  this 
period,  they  live  in  the  earth,  where  they 
feed  upon  the  roots  of  vegetables,  animal 
matter  in  a  state  of  decomposition,  &c. 
It  is  in  this  stage  of  their  existence  that 


various  species  prove  exceedingly  injuri- 
ous to  fanners,  from  their  great  numbers 
and  voracity.  When  about  to  undergo 
their  change  of  fonn,  they  make  an  egg- 
shaped  cover  or  cocoon  from  fragments 
gnawed  off"  wood,  &c.,  which  are  stuck 
together  by  a  peculiar  glutinous  fluid  fur- 
nished by  their  bodies.  The  larves  have 
a  cyUndric  stomach,  surrounded  by  three 
ranges  of  mmute  cctca,  a  veiy  short,  small 
inlestuie,  an  exceedingly  large  colon,  and 
moderate-sized  rectum.  In  the  perfect 
insect,  none  of  these  hiequalities  exist,  as 
there  is  but  one  long  intestine,  of  equal 
size  tiiroughout.  All  of  the  beetle  tribe 
are  not  destructive  or  injurious  in  their 
inceptive  state,  as  many  of  them  breed  in 
the  dimg-heap,  or  feed  upon  the  excre- 
ment of  animals,  which  they  serve  to 
prepare  more  completely  as  manure.  The 
tumble-bug,  which  is  well  known,  fonns 
a  ball  of  dung,  in  the  centre  of  which  the 
e^^  is  deposited,  rolls  it  oflT  to  a  distance, 
and  buries  it  in  the  ground.  Great  num- 
bers, uniting  in  this  work,  speedily  clear 
away  excrementitious  matter,  that  nn'ght 
otherwise  soon  prove  offensive.  Among 
the  ancient  Egv'ptians,  a  species  of  beetle 
was  held  in  great  veneration,  and  Euse- 
bius  informs  us  [De  Prcep.  Evang.)  that  it 
was  regarded  as  the  animated  image  of 
the  sun..  We  find  it  generally  embalmed 
with  the  Egj'ptian  mummies,  placed  im- 
mediately upon  the  root  of  the  nose.  A 
numberof  models  of  these  insects,  in  clay 
and  stone,  have  been  found  in  the  places 
already  explored  in  the  ancient  domin- 
ion of  the  Pharaohs.  Linnasus  bestowed 
the  name  of  scarahceus  sacer  oji  this 
species,  which  is  found  in  Africa  and 
Europe. 

Befana  (Ital.;  fi-om  Befania,  which  sig- 
nifies Epiphany)  is  a  figure,  generally  repre- 
sentuig  an  old  woman,  which  is  exhil)ited, 
in  Italy,  on  the  day  of  Epiphany,  by  chil- 
dren, or  in  shops,  &c.,  where  things  for 
children  are  sold.  In  Germany,  presents 
are  given  to  children  on  Christmas-eve, 
and  in  France,  on  new-year's  evening,  but 
in  Italy,  on  the  day  of  Epiphany,  and  it  is 
said  that  the  befana  brings  tiiem  to  good 
children.  Generally,  a  little  bag  is  himg 
in  the  chimney,  and,  next  morning,  the 
children  find  the  presents  there. 

Beg  {prince,  or  lord) :  the  title  of  certain 
Turkish  officers,  several  of  whom  are 
subject  to  a  beglerbeg.    (See  Bey.) 

Beggary.     (See  Pauperism.) 

Beglerbeg  {prinre  of  princes,  or  lord 
of  lords)  is  the  title  of  a  high  officer  among 
the  Turks,  the  govenior  of  a  province, 
called  a  beglerbeglic,  who  has  under  him 


36 


BEGLERBEG— BEHN, 


several  san^iacs,  begs,  agas,  &c.  The 
governors  of  Sophia,  Kintaha  aiid  Damas- 
cus, in  particular,  have  this  title. 

Begitards,  or  Beghards.  (See  Be- 
guines.) 

Begcines  [begvita);  females  who, with- 
out having  taken  the  monastic  vows,  or 
bound  themselves  to  obey  the  rules  of  an 
order,  unite  for  the  purpose  of  devotion 
and  charity,  and  form  societies,  living 
together  m  houses  called  beguirutges 
(which  have  been  frequently  enriched 
by  donations),  distinguishing  themselves, 
above  others,  of  the  laity,  by  their  industry, 
tlieir  retired  life,  and  their  attention  to  the 
education  of  children.  These  societies 
originated,  towards  the  end  of  the  11th 
century,  in  Germany  and  the  Netherlands, 
and  were  very  flourishing  in  the  12tli  and 
13th  centuries.  They  still  exist  m  con- 
siderable numbers  in  the  Netherlands,  In 
imitation  of  diem,  males  foniied  similar 
societies,  under  the  name  of  beghards. 
These  societies,  whose  names  signify  sup- 
pliants, or  beggars,  underwent  many  per- 
secutions from  tlie  jealousy  of  the  clerical 
orders,  and  were  sometimes  confounded 
with  the  Lollards.  (See  Brotherhoods.) 
There  are,  in  some  places  of  Greniiany,  be- 
guinages,  which  are,  however,  only  elee- 
mosynary institutions,  where  unmarried 
females,  of  the  lower  classof  people,  have 
a  lodging  free  of  expense,  and  enjoy  some 
other  advantages. 

Behaim,  Martin,  bom  at  Nuremberg, 
about  1430,  is  distinguished  as  6ne  of  the 
most  leeuiied  matliematicians  and  astron- 
omers of  his  age.  He  was  engaged  in 
commerce,  and  travelled,  for  the  purjiose 
of  carrying  on  his  business,  from  1455 
to  1479 ;  but  he  also  devoted  himself  to 
the  study  of  tlie  mathematical  and  nauti- 
cal sciences,  in  which  llegiomontanus  is 
said  to  have  been  his  master.  He  went 
from  Antwerp  to  Lisbon,  in  1480,  where 
he  was  received  with  marks  of  distinction. 
He  sailed  m  the  fleet  of  Diego  Can,  on  a 
voyage  of  discoveiy,  and  explored  the 
islands  on  the  coast  of  Africa  as  far  as  the 
river  Zaire.  He  is  also  s«ud  to  have  dis- 
covered, or,  at  least,  to  have  colonized,  the 
island  of  Fayal,  where  he  remained  for 
several  years,  and  assisted  in  the  discoveiy 
of  the  other  Azores.  He  was  after^vards 
knighted,  and  returned  to  his  native  coun- 
try, where  he  constructed  a  terrestrial 
globe,  in  1492,  which  bears  tlie  marks  of 
Qie  imperfect  acquamtance  of  that  age 
with  the  true  dimensions  of  the  earth.  B. 
died,  after  many  voyages,  in  Lisbon,  1506. 
Some  ancient  Spanish  liistorians  assert 
that  he  made  many  discoveries,  and  that 


he  gave  to  his  friend  Columbus  tlie  idea 
of  anotlier  hemisphere.  Robertson  (in  liis 
History  of  America)  and  otiiers  contradict 
this  statement.  It  is  also  rejected  by 
Irvuig. 

Beheading  ;  a  capital  punishment, 
wherein  the  head  is  severed  from  the 
body  by  the  sti-oke  of  an  axe,  sword,  or 
other  cutting  instrument.  DecoUatio,  or 
beheading,  was  a  military  punishment 
among  die  Romans.  In  early  times,  it 
was  perfoniied  witli  an  axe,  and  after- 
wards %vith  a  sword.  It  is  worth  remark- 
ing, that,  in  all  countries  where  beheading 
and  hanging  are  used  as  capital  punish- 
ments, the  former  is  always  considered 
less  ignommious.  Thus,  in  England, 
beheading  is  often  the  punishment  of 
nobles,  when  commoners,  for  the  same 
crime,  are  hanged.  The  crime  of  high 
treason  is  there  punished  >vith  beheading. 
Commonere,  however,  are  hanged  before 
the  head  is  cut  off",  and  nobles  also,  unless 
the  king  remits  that  part  of  the  punish- 
ment. In  Prussia,  formerly,  a  nobleman 
could  not  be  hanged,  and,  if  his  crime  was 
such  that  the  law  required  this  punish- 
ment, he  was  degraded  before  the  execu- 
tion. At  present,  hanging  is  not  used  in 
that  country,  and,  since  so  many  uistances 
have  occurred  of  extreme  suffering,  on 
the  part  of  die  criminal,  caused  by  the 
imskilfulness  of  the  executioner  in  beliead- 
ing  with  the  sword,  this  mode  of  execu- 
tion has  been  abolished.  Beheading,  in 
Pnissia,  is  now  always  performed  with  a 
heavy  axe,  the  sufferer  being  previ- 
ously tied  to  a  block.  In  France,  during 
the  revolutionai-y  goveniment,  belieading 
by  means  of  a  machine,  the  guillotine 
(q.  v.),  came  into  use,  and  still  prevails 
there,  to  the  exclusion  of  all  other  modes 
of  capital  punishment.  A  person  who 
has  murdered  his  fadier  or  mother^  how- 
ever, has  his  riglit  arm  cut  off"  the  moment 
before  he  is  guillotined.  In  the  middle 
ages,  it  was,  in  some  states,  tlie  duty  of 
the  youngest  magistrate  to  perform  the 
executions  with  the  sword.  In  China,  it 
is  well  known  that  beheading  is  practised, 
sometimes  accompanied  with  the  most 
studied  tonnents.  In  the  U.  States  of 
America,  beheading  is  unknown,  the  hal- 
ter being  the  only  instniment  of  capital 
jiunishment.  Respecting  the  bad  or  good 
consequences  of  pubhc  beheading,  the 
same  remarks  may  be  made,  which  are 
applicable  to  pubhc  executions  in  general. 
In  many  European  countries,  beheading 
witli  the  sword  still  prevails. 

Behn,  Aphara,  a  lady  of  some  celebrity 
as  a  v\Titer  of  plays  and  novels,  was  de- 


BEHN— BEKKER. 


37 


scended  fi-om  a  good  family  in  Canter- 
bury, of  the  name  of  Johnson,  and  Mas 
born  in  the  reign  of  Cliarles  I.  Her  father, 
through  the  interest  of  his  relation,  lord 
Willoughby,  being  appointed  lieutenant- 
general  of  Surinam,  embarked  with  his 
family  for  the  West  Indies,  taking  with 
him  Aphara,  who  was  then  very  young. 
The  father  died  at  sea;  but  his  family 
arrived  safely  at  Surinam,  and  remain- 
ed there  some  years,  during  which  time 
Aphara  became  acquainted  with  the 
American  prince  Oroonoko,  whom  she 
made  the  subject  of  a  novel,  subsequently 
dramatized  by  Southern.  On  her  return 
to  England,  she  married  Mr.  Behn,  a  mer- 
chant of  London,  of  Dutch  extraction ; 
but  was  probably  a  widow  when  selected 
by  Charles  II  as  a  proper  pei^son  to  ac- 
quire intelligence  on  the  continent  during 
the  Dutch  war.  She  accordingly  took  up 
her  residence  at  Antwerp,  whers  she  en- 


which  is  about  82  persons  to  a  scjuare 
mile,  or  rather  less  than  the  average  num- 
ber for  the  whole  kingdom.  B.  contains 
7  episcopal  cities,  and  about  230  other 
towns:  the  chief  one  is  Coimbra.  (q.  v.) 
It  is  mountainous  and  well  watered.  The 
produce  of  wne  and  oUves  is  considera- 
ble.    (See  Portugal.) 

Beiram.    (See  Bairam.) 

Bekker,  EUzabeth ;  an  ornament  of 
Dutch  hterature  in  the  department  of  the 
belles-lettres.  Few  female  authors  have 
united  with  so  great  talents  so  much  dig- 
nity and  purity  of  morals.  The  mfluence 
of  her  numerous  works  was  much  in- 
creased by  her  cliaracter,  and  several  of 
them  are  considered  classics  in  Dutch 
literature,  particularly  her  romances  Wil- 
lem  Leevend,  in  8  vols. ;  Letters  of  A. 
Blankart  to  C.  Wildschut,  and  the  His- 
tory of  Sara  BOrgerhart.  She  MTote  her 
most  important  works  in  conjmiction  with 


gaged  in  galMntries  for  the  good  of  her    her  friend  Agatha  Deken  (q.  v.),  and  the 


counti-y  ;  and  it  is  said  that,  by  means  of 
one  of  her  admirers,  she  obtained  advice 
of  the  intention  of  the  Dutch  to  sail  up 
the  Thames,  which  she  transmitted  to 
England.  This  intelligence,  although  true, 
being  discredited,  she  gave  up  poUtics, 
returned  to  England,  and  devoted  herself 
to  intrigue  and  Avriting  for  supj)0rt ;  and, 
as  she  had  a  good  pei-son  and  much  con- 
versational talent,  she  became  fashionable 
among  the  men  of  \v\l  and  pleasure  of 
the  time.  She  published  three  volumes 
of  poems,  by  Rochester,  Etherege,  Crisp 
and  others,  with  some  poetry  of  her  own ; 
and  wrote  17  plays,  the  heartless  hcen- 
tiousness  of  which  was  disgraceful  both 
to  her  sex  and  to  the  age  which  tolerated 
the  perfonnance  of  them.     She  was  also 


share  of  each  in  the  composition  of  them 
is  unknown.  Elizabeth  was  bom  at 
Flushing,  in  1738,  and  died  at  the  Hague, 
in  1804.  Her  inseparable  fiiend  in  life 
followed  her  nine  days  later  in  death. 

Bekker,  Immanuel,  member  of  the 
academy  of  sciences,  and  professor  in  the 
univereity  of  BerUn,  is  knowTi  for  his 
leaniing  in  tlie  ancient  languages,  partic- 
ularly the  Greek,  displayed  in  many  val- 
uable works.  He  was  born  at  Berlin,  in 
1785.  He  was  a  pupil  of  the  famous  phi- 
lologer  Wolf,  at  Halle,  who  declared  him 
the  person  most  capable  of  continuing 
his  researches  in  philologA'.  B.  was  ap- 
jiointed  ])rofessor  hi  the  new  academy  of 
Berlin,  and  set  out.  May,  1810,  for  Paris, 
where  he  remained  until  Dec,  1812,  and 


the  author  of  a  couple  of  volumes  of    made  use  of  the  maimscripts  of  the  library. 


novels,  and  of  the  celebrated  love-letters 
between  a  nobleman  and  his  sister-in- 
law  (lord  Gray  and  lady  Henrietta  Berke- 
ley). Pope,  in  liis  character  of  women, 
alludes  to  Mrs.  Behn,  under  her  poetical 
nameof  ^<rca: 

The  staje  how  loosely  does  Astrea  tread, 

Who  fairly  puts  all  characters  to  bed. 

She  died  in  1689,  between  40  and  50 
years  of  age,  and  was  buried  in  the  clois- 
ters of  Westminster  abbey. 

Behring,  Behring's  Straits,  Behr- 
fng's  Island.     (See  Bearing.) 

Beira  :  a  province  of  Portugal,  bounded 
chiefly  by  the  river  Douro  on  the  north, 

by  Spain  on  the  east,  by  the  Tagus  and  the  use  of  the  libraries  by  means  of  his 
Portuguese  Estremadura  on  the  south,  friend  Niebuhr.  In  1819,  he  went  through 
and  by  the  Atlantic  on  the  west.  Its  Tin-in  to  Paris ;  spent  the  summer  of  1820 
extent  is  computed  at  11,000  square  miles,  in  England,  princii)ally  in  Oxford,  Cam- 
and    the    population  at  nearly  900,000,    bridge  and  London ;  and  returned  through 

VOL.  II.  4 

421413 


principally  collating  those  of  Plato,  and 
some  rhetorical  and  grammatical  writers. 
The  academy  of  sciences  of  Berhn  elected 
him  a  member  in  1815,  and  sent  him  back 
to  Paris  to  examine  the  papere  of  Four- 
mont,  for  the  sake  of  a  Corpus  Inscriptio- 
num  Grmcarum,  which  they  intended  to 
publish.  He  returned  the  same  year.  In 
1817,  he  was  sent  to  Italy,  to  examine, 
with  his  colleague  Goschen,  the  Institu- 
tions of  Gaius  at  Verona,  discovered  by 
Niebuhr  in  a  Codex  rescriptus,  and  to  pre- 
pare an  edition  of  Aristotle,  which  the 
academy  had  in  view.  He  spent  two 
winters  in  Rome,  particularly  favored  in 


88 


BEKKER— BELGRADE. 


Lej'den  and  Heidelberg  to  Berlin.  With 
what  industry  and  talent  he  collected  lit- 
erary treasures,  in  all  these  places,  can  be 
but  imperfectly  conceived  from  any  thing 
he  has  yet  published.  It  is  sufficient  to 
cite  here  the  Anecdota  Grata,  .3  vols.,  of  a 
grammatical  character;  editions  of  Apollo- 
nius  Dyscolns  De  Pronomine  (never  before 
printed)  and  De  Syntaxi  of  Theognis  (aug- 
mented with  150  verses);  of  Coluthus, 
Demosthenes,  and  other  Attic  orators ;  of 
the  Bibliotheca  of  Pholius ;  of  tlie  Scholiw 
to  the  Ihad,  &;c. 
Bel.    (See  Baal) 

Belem  (properly  Bethlehem);  a  quar- 
ter of  Lisbon,  formerly  a  market-town, 
situated  on  the  spot  where,  after  Vasco 
da  Gama's  fii-st  return  from  India,  in  1491), 
king  Emanuel  built  a  church  in  honor  of 
the  nativity  of  Christ,  and  founded  the 
celebrated  monastery  belonging  to  the  or- 
der of  St.  Jerome,  whose  walls  enclose 
the  magnificent  burjing- vault  of  the  royal 
family,  adorned  with  white  maible.  Af- 
ter tlie  earthquake  of  1755,  the  burial- 
churchy  so  called,  was  rebuilt  in  the  Gothic 
style.  B.,  at  that  time,  became  the  resi- 
dence of  the  royal  family  ;  but  after  the 
palace  there  had  been  consumed  by  fire, 
they  resided  m  the  castle  of  Quelus,  two 
leagues  distant,  in  a  retired  situation,  until 
their  dej)arture  for  Rio  Janeiro.  The 
new  royal  palace  in  B.  is  not  yet  finished. 
It  has  a  beautifiil  situation,  with  a  view 
of  the  harbor  and  the  sea.  Many  persons 
of  distinction,  and  the  greater  part  of  the 
important  officers  of  state,  reside  at  B. 
Here  is  also  the  church  of  JVo*«a  Senhora 
da  Jljuda,  in  tlie  neighborhood  of  which 
lies  the  botanical  garden,  with  a  chemical 
laboratoiy,  and  a  cabinet  of  natural  curi- 
osities. The  latter  contains  some  curious 
specimens  of  native  copper  from  Brazil, 
and  a  large  piece  of  elastic  sand-stone, 
interspersed  with  crystals  of  Calcarious 
spar.  In  B.,  the  royal  garden  (a  quinta  da 
raifnha),  with  a  menagerie,  and  manyavi- 
anes  for  rare  birds,  must  likewise  be  no- 
ticed, as  well  as  the  great  royal  park,  and, 
above  all,  the  old  tower,  Torre  de  Belem, 
which  rises  out  of  the  river  Tajo,  and  is 
provided  with  batteries.  No  ship  is  per- 
mitted to  pass  by  it  without  being  vis- 
ited. 

Belfast  ;  a  royal  borough  and  seaport 
in  Ireland,  in  Antrim,  at  the  entrance  of 
the  river  Lagan  into  Camckfergus  bay; 
50  miles  E.  S.  E.  Londonderry,  76  N. 
DubUn.  Lon.  5°  46^  W. ;  lat.  54°  35'  N. 
Population  in  1821,  including  the  suburbs, 
35,084 ;  houses,  5,754.  It  is  commodi- 
ously  situated  for  trade,  in  a  populous  and 


well-cultivated  countrj^,  is  connected  with 
Lough  Neagh  by  a  canal,  and  is  the  prin- 
cipal seaport  in  the  north  of  Ireland.  The 
bay  is  a  spacious  estuarj',  affording  safe 
anchorage.  Vessels  drawing  13  feet  of 
^vater  can  come  up  to  the  wharves  at  full 
tide.  It  is  well  built,  cliiefly  of  brick ; 
the  streets  are  broad,  straight,  well  paved 
and  lighted.  It  contains  13  houses  of 
public  woi-ship.  Belonging  to  the  port 
are  above  50  vessels,  amounting  to  more 
than  8,330  tons.  The  principal  exports 
are  lijien,  butter,  beef,  pork  and  oatmeal : 
—total  value,  in  1810,  £2,904,520.  The 
duties  have,  of  late,  amounted  to  £400,000 
per  annum.  The  manufactures  consist, 
chiefly,  of  linens  and  cottons  ;  the  former 
employing  723  looms.  It  sends  one  mem- 
ber to  parliament. 

Belfast  ;  a  seajwrt  and  post-town  in 
Waldo  county,  Maine,  12  miles  N.  W. 
Castine,  224  N.  E.  Boston.  Lon.  69°  1' 
W. ;  lat.  44°  25'  N.  Population  in  1810, 
1,274;  in  1820,  2,026.  It  is  delightfully 
situated  on  Belfast  bay,  at  the  mouth  of  a 
small  river  of  the  same  name,  and  at  the 
N.  W.  part  of  Penobscot  bay.  It  has  a 
good  harbor  and  great  maritime  advan- 
tages, and  is  a  flourishing  to^vn. 

Belgians  ;  a  collection  of  German  and 
Celtic  tribes,  who  inhabited  the  country 
extenduig  from  tlie  Atlantic  ocean  to  the 
Rhine,  and  from  the  jMarne  and  Seine  to 
the  southern  mouth  of  the  Rhine,  which 
is  united  with  the  Meuse.  From  time  to 
time,  until  the  period  of  Cresar,  Gennan 
nations  pushed  forward  beyond  the  Rhine, 
partly  expelling  the  Celts  from  their  seats, 
partly  uniting  with  them ;  and  fi-om  this 
union  sprung  a  mixed  nation,  which,  in 
its  language  as  well  as  in  its  manners,  re- 
sembled the  Germans  more  than  the 
Celts.  According  to  the  testimony  of 
Caesar,  they  were  tlie  most  vahant  of  the 
Gauls,  particularly  that  portion  which  re- 
sided on  the , northern  frontiers  of  Ger- 
many. 

Belgium  ;  the  name  of  that  part  of  the 
Netherlands  which  formerly  belonged  to 
Austria,  but  now  makes  a  part  of  the 
kingdom  of  the  Netherlands. — Belgium^ 
a  part  of  ancient  Gaul,  was  originally  the 
land  of  the  Bellovaci  and  Atrebates,  who 
hved  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  citj'  of 
Amiens,  and  perhaps  of  Seiilis. 

Belgrade  (the  ancient  Alba  Grcecorum ; 
in  German,  Griechisch  fVeissenburg,  which 
name,  however,  is  seldom  used) ;  a  Turk- 
ish commercial  city  and  fortress  in  Ser- 
via,  at  the  confluence  of  the  Save  and  the 
Danube,  with  30,000  inhabitants,  consist- 
ing of  four  parts,  the  citadel  in  the  centre, 


BELGRADE— BELISARIUS. 


39 


which  commands  the  Danube,  is  well 
fortified,  is  the  residence  of  the  pacha  of 
Servia,  and  contains  the  chief  mosque. 
Tlie  wiiole  number  of  mosques  in  B.  is 
14.  Between  the  citadel  and  the  other 
3  parts  of  tlie  city  there  is  an  empty 
space,  400  yards  wide.  B.  is  badly 
built ;  the  streets  are  not  paved.  At  the 
mouth  of  the  Save  Ues  the  island  of  the 
Gipsies.  B.,  on  account  of  its  important 
situation,  plays  a  conspicuous  pait  in  al- 
most every  wai*  between  Austria  and 
Turkey.  After  having  been,  at  different 
tunes,  in  the  possession  of  the  Greeks, 
Hungarians,  Bulgarians,  Bosnians,  Servi- 
ans and  Austrians,  it  was,  in  1442  and 
3456,  besieged  by  the  Turks,  and,  in  IS^l, 
conquered  by  Solyman  II.  In  1688,  the 
Austrians  reconquered  it,  but  lost  it  again 
in  1690.  Prince  Eugene  took  it  in  1717, 
and  the  peace  of  Pa^^sarowitz,  ui  1718, 
left  it  in  the  hands  of  Austria,  but  it  was 
again  lost  in  1739.  The  Porte  retained  it 
by  the  terms  of  the  peace  of  Belgi'ade,  in 
1739,  on  condition  that  the  fortifications 
which  Austria  had  erected  should  be  de- 
molished— a  work  which  required  almost 
nine  months.  General  Laudon  took  B. 
in  1789,  but  it  was  restored  to  the  Porte 
at  the  peace  of  Szistowe,  in  1791.  In 
1806,  it  was  taken  by  the  revolutionary 
Servians,  but,  wth  their  suppression,  it 
came  again  into  the  hands  of  the  Turks. 
Formerly,  a  bishop  resided  here,  but  his 
seat  is  now  in  Semendria. 

Belgraxo,  Manuel,  Avas  born  at  Bue- 
nos AjTes,  of  wealthy  parents,  who  emi- 
grated from  Italy.  After  completing  his 
education  at  the  university  of  Salamanca, 
he  was  appointed  secretaiy  of  the  cons^i- 
lado  at  Buenos  x\yres,  and  thus  came  in 
contact  continually  with  the  mercantile 
classes,  the  most  enlightened  and  im- 
portant portion  of  the  po{)ulation  of 
that  city.  His  polished  and  amiable  man- 
ners, and  his  taste  for  lettei-s  and  the  fine 
arts,  enabled  him  to  improve  the  oj)por- 
tunity  afforded  him  by  his  situation,  so  as 
to  acquire  extensive  popularity.  When 
the  political  troubles  ui  America  com- 
menced, B.  was  at  first  disposed  to  fiivor 
the  princess  Carlota,  sister  of  Ferdinand, 
and  establish  an  independent  monarchy 
in  Buenos  Ayres.  But  he  soon  adopt- 
ed the  plan  of  erecting  a  perfectly 
free  government,  and  entered  with  zeal 
and  ability  into  tlie  measures  which  pre- 
pared and  followed  the  deposition  of  the 
viceroy  Cisneros,  in  May,  1810.  In  the 
new  order  of  things,  B.  entered  on  a  mili- 
tary career,  and  was  speedily  raised  to  the 
rank  of  general,  in    which  capacity  he 


commanded  the  expedition  sent  against 
Paraguay,  which,  after  advancing  into  the 
heart  of  that  provnice,  was  compelled, 
by  the  skill  of  Yedros  and  Francia,  to  re- 
turn to  Buenos  Ayres,  without  an  engage- 
ment, and  leave  the  Pai*aguayans  unmo- 
lested. B.'s  next  enterprise  was  more 
successful.  September  24, 1812,  he  gain- 
ed a  complete  victory  over  the  royalist 
general  D.  Pio  Tristan,  at  Tucuman,  and 
thus  defeated  the  intended  expedition  of 
the  latter  against  Buenos  Ayres.  On  the 
13th  of  February  following,  he  obtained 
another  signal  victory  over  Tristan  at 
Salta.  But  these  brilliant  advantages 
were  soon  followed  by  equally  striking 
reverses.  B.  imprudently  released  Tris- 
tan and  his  troops  upon  their  parole, 
which  the  Spaniards,  with  that  profligate 
disregard  of  all  conventions  and  engage- 
ments, which  has  characterized  their  poli- 
cy in  the  contest  with  the  South  Ameri- 
cans, dishonorably  violated.  The  conse- 
quence was,  that  general  Pezuela,  with 
the  veiy  same  troops,  added  to  others  col- 
lected in  Peru,  attacked  and  defeated  B. 
at  Vilcapugio,  Oct.  1,  1813,  and  again  at 
Ayoma,  Nov.  14,  of  the  same  year ;  and 
San  Martin  was  appomted  to  succeed  him 
in  command.  In  1816,  B.  was  reappoint- 
ed to  the  command  of  the  troops  in  Tu- 
cuman, and  was  making  the  most  judi- 
cious arrangements  for  acting  against  the 
Spaniards  in  Upper  Peru,  when  the  spirit 
of  anarchy  seized  upon  the  army,  and  he 
was  deposed,  and  the  troops  dispersed. 
B.  was  liberal,  upright  and  disinterested 
to  a  degree  not  exceeded  by  any  of  his 
compatriots,  and  faithful  and  exact  in  the 
discharge  of  all  his  duties.  He  displayed 
considerable  ardor  as  an  oflicer,  and  ap- 
phed  himself  closely  to  the  study  of  tac- 
tics ;  but  had  neither  the  experience  nor 
the  military  capacity  necessaiy  to  consti- 
tute a  great  general.  Regai-dless  of  his 
occasional  reverses  of  fortune,  and  of  the 
persecution  Avhich  he  underAvent  fi"om 
some  of  the  transitory  factions  of  the  day, 
he  continued  to  labor  unremittingly  for  the 
welfare  of  his  country  until  his  death,  in 
1820,  which  was  very  justly  deplored. 
(See  Memoirs  of  General  Miller,  in  the  Ser- 
vice of  the  Republic  of  Peru,  London,  1828.) 

Belial  was,  with  the  Hebrews,  what 
Pluto  was  with  the  Greeks — the  ruler  of 
the  infernal  regions.  The  word  itself  sig- 
nifies the  bad,  the  destructive. 

Belisarius  ;  one  of  the  greatest  gener- 
als of  his  time,  to  whom  the  emperor 
Justinian  chiefly  owed  the  splendor  of  his 
reign.  Sprung  fi-om  an  obscure  family 
in  Thrace,  B.  first  served  in  the  body- 


40 


BELISARIUS— BELL. 


guard  of  the  emperor,  soon  after  obtained 
the  chief  command  of  an  army  of  25,000 
men,  stationed  on  the  Persian  frontiers, 
and,  in  the  year  530,  gained  a  complete 
victory  over  a  Persian  aimy  of  not  less 
than  40,000  soldiers.  The  next  year,  how- 
ever, he  lost  a  battle  against  the  same  en- 
emy, who  had  forced  his  way  into  Syria — 
tlie  only  battle  which  he  lost  during  his 
whole  career.  He  was  recalled  from  tlie 
aiTny,  and  soon  became,  at  home,  the  sup- 
I)ort  of  Jiis  master.  In  the  yeai*  532,  civil 
commotions,  proceeduig  from  tvvo  rival 
parties,  who  called  themselves  tlie  green 
and  the  blue,  and  who  caused  great  disor- 
ders in  Constantinople,  brought  the  life 
and  reign  of  Justinian  in  the  utmost  peril, 
and  Hypatius  was  already  chosen  empe- 
ror, when  13.,  with  a  small  body  of  faith- 
ful adherents,  restored  order.  Justinian, 
with  a  view  of  conquering  the  dominions 
of  Gelimer,  king  of  the  Vandals,  sent  B., 
with  an  army  of  15,000  men,  to  Afinca. 
After  two  victories,  he  secured  the  pei-son 
and  treasures  of  the  Vandal  king.  Geli- 
mer was  led  in  triumph  through  the 
streets  of  Constantinople,  and  Justinian 
ordered  a  medal  to  be  struck,  with  the  in- 
scription Belisanus  gloria  Romanoinim, 
which  has  descended  to  our  times.  By 
the  dissentions  existing  in  the  royal  fami- 
ly of  the  Ostrogoths  (see  Goths)  in  Italy, 
Justinian  was  induced  to  attempt  to  bring 
Italy  and  Rome  under  his  sceptre.  B. 
vanquished  Vitiges,  king  of  the  Gotlis, 
made  him  prisoner  at  Ravenna  (540),  and 
conducted  him,  together  witli  many  other 
Goths,  to  Constantinople.  The  war  in 
Italy  against  the  Goths  continued ;  but 
B.,  not  behig  sufficiently  supplied  with 
money  and  troops  by  the  emperor,  de- 
manded his  recall  (548).  He  afterwards 
commEuided  in  the  war  against  the  Bulga- 
rians, whom  he  conquered  in  the  year  559. 
Upon  his  return  to  Constantinople,  he 
was  accused  of  having  taken  part  in  a 
conspiracy.  But  Justinian  was  convinced 
of  his  innocence,  and  is  said  to  have  re- 
stored to  him  his  property  and  di^jities, 
of  which  he  had  been  deprived.  B.  died 
in  the  year  565.  His  history  has  been 
much  colored  by  the  poets,  and  particu- 
larly by  Marmontel,  in  his  othenvise  ad- 
mirable poUtico-philosophical  romance. 
According  to  his  nanative,  the  emperor 
caused  the  eyes  of  the  hero  to  be  struck 
out,  and  B.  was  compelled  to  beg  his 
bread  in  the  streets  of  Constantinople. 
Other  writers  say,  that  Justinian  had  him 
thrown  into  a  prison,  which  is  still  shown 
under  the  appellation  of  the  tower  of  Bel- 
isanus.   From  this  tower  he  is  reported 


to  have  let  down  a  bag  fastened  to  a  rope, 
and  to  have  addressed  the  passengei-s  in 
these  words: — Date  Belisario  obolum, 
quern  virtus  evexit,  invidia  depressit  (Give 
an  obolus  to  Belisarius,  whom  virtue  ex- 
alted, and  envy  has  oppressed).  Of  this, 
however,  no  contemporary  writer  makes 
any  mention.  Tzetzes,  a  shghtly-esteemed 
writer  of  the  12th  century,  was  the  first 
who  related  this  fable.  Certain  it  is,  that, 
through  too  great  indulgence  towards  bis 
wife  Antonina,  B.  was  impelled  to  many 
acts  of  injustice,  and  tliat  he  evinced  a 
servile  submissiveness  to  the  detestable 
Theodora,  the  wife  of  Justinian. 

Bklknap,  Jeremy  ;  an  American  cler- 
gytnan  and  author,  of  considerable  repu- 
tation. He  Avas  born  in  June,  1744, 
graduated  at  Harvard  college  in  1762, 
and  ordained  pastor  of  the  church  in  Do- 
ver, New  Hampshire,  in  1767.  Here  he 
spent  20  years  in  the  diUgent  performance 
of  his  clerical  duties,  and  the  cultivation 
of  literature.  It  was  during  tliis  period 
that  he  composed  his  History  of  New 
Hampshire,  a  work  by  which  he  estab- 
hshed  himself  as  an  author  in  the  good 
opinion  of  his  countrymen.  In  1787,  he 
took  charge  of  a  church  in  Boston,  where 
he  contmued  to  officiate  until  his  death, 
in  1798.  Besides  his  History,  he  pubhsh- 
ed  two  volumes  of  his  unfinished  Ameri- 
can Biography,  and  a  number  of  political, 
religious  and  literary  tracts.  Doctor  B, 
wrote  with  ease  and  correctness,  though 
not  with  elegance :  he  was  more  remark- 
able for  research  and  extensive  informa- 
tion, than  for  brilliancy  or  originality  of 
talents.  The  History  of  New  Hampshire 
and  the  American  Biography,  above  men- 
tioned, are  often  consulted.  His  sermons, 
and  many  dissertations,  are  but  httle 
known.  As  a  public  preacher  and  citi- 
zen, he  enjoyed  the  highest  estimation. 
He  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Mas- 
sachusetts historical  society,  whose  Col- 
lections are  important  to  the  public  an- 
nals. 

Bell.  Church  bells  originated  in  Ita- 
ly, being  formed,  by  degrees,  out  of  the 
cymbals,  small  tinkling  bells  and  hand- 
bells of  the  East,  used,  in  reUgious  cere- 
monies, as  a  means  of  honoring  the  gods, 
or  of  summoning  them  to  the  feast.  The 
feast  of  Osiris,  particularly,  is  known  to 
have  been  announced  by  bells,  and,  in 
Athens,  the  priests  of  Cybele  made  use 
of  them  at  their  sacrifices.  Pliny  says 
that  bells  were  invented  lon^  before  liis 
time.  They  were  called  tintinnabula ; 
and  Suetonius  tells  us  that  Augustus 
caused  one  to  be  hung  before  the  temple 


BELL— BELLA. 


41 


of  Jupiter.  Among  Christians,  they  \vere 
first  employed  to  call  together  religious 
congregations,  for  which  purpose  luuners 
had  been  employed  before.  Aftenvards, 
the  people  were  assembled  by  the  sound 
of  little  pieces  of  board  struck  together ; 
hence  called  sacred  boards.  To  the  pi-es- 
ent  day,  the  CathoUcs  use  such  boards  in 
Passion-week  and  Lent,  because  the  noise 
of  bells  seems  to  them  unsuited  to  the  so- 
lemnity of  the  season.  On  the  first  day  of 
Easter,  tlie  bells  ring  again,  and  the  return 
of  the  accustomed  sound  produces  a  very 
cheerful  eflfect.  PauUuus,  bishop  of  Nola, 
in  Campania,  is  said  to  have  fii-st  intro- 
duced church  bells,  in  the  fourth  centuiy, 
and  thence  the  Latin  names  of  tlie  bell, 
campana  and  nola,  are  said  to  have  origi- 
nated. In  the  sixth  century,  bells  were 
used  in  the  convents ;  they  were  suspend- 
ed on  the  roof  of  the  church  in  a  frame. 
Towards  tlie  end  of  this  century,  bells 
were  placed  on  some  churches  at  the 
expense  of  certain  cities.  About  550,  they 
were  intioduced  into  France.  Pope  Se- 
bastian, who  died  in  605,  first  ordered  that 
the  hours  of  the  day  should  be  aimounced 
by  striking  the  bell,  that  people  might 
better  attend  to  the  Jiorce  canonica,  that  is, 
to  the  hours  for  smguig  and  praying.  Li 
610,  Clothair  besieged  Sens,  when  Lupus, 
bishop  of  Oi'leans,  ordered  the  bells  of  St. 
Stephen  to  be  rung.  The  sound  so  fi-ight- 
ened  Clothair,  tlaat  he  gave  up  tlje  siege. 
In  the  eighth  centurj^,  the  custom  of  bap- 
tizing and  naming  bells  began.  (See 
Baptism.)  Church  bells  were  probably 
introduced  into  England  soon  after  their 
invention.  They  are  first  mentioned  by 
Bede,  about  tlie  close  of  the  seventh  cen- 
tury. In  the  East,  tliey  came  into  use  in 
the  ninth  century ;  in  Switzerland,  in 
1020 ;  at  what  period  they  were  brought 
into  Germany  is  uncertain.  In  the  llth 
century,  the  cathedral  at  Augsburg  had 
two  bells.  The  same  spirit  which  induced 
people  to  build  immense  minsters,  and  to 
apply  their  wealth  in  ornamenting  the 
places  of  woi-ship,  made  them  vie  with 
each  other  in  the  size  of  their  bells.  The 
great  bell  of  Moscow,  c^ist  in  1653,  in  the 
reign  of  the  empress  Anne,  is  said,  b}'  Mr. 
Clarke,  to  be  computed  to  weigh  443,772 
lbs.  A  bell  in  the  church  of  St.  Ivan,  in 
the  same  city,  weighs  127,830  lbs.;  anoth- 
er, ;356  c^vt. ;  and  the  one  cast  in  1819 
weighs  1600  cwt.,  the  clapi^er  alone  weigh- 
ing 18  cwt.  On  the  cathedral  of  Paris  a 
bell  was  placed,  in  1680,  which  weighed 
340  cwt.,  and  measured  25  feet  in  circum- 
ference. In  Vienna,  a  bell  was  cast,  in 
1711,  of  354  cwt.  In  Olmiitz  is  one  of 
4* 


358  cwt.  The  famous  bell  at  Erfurt,  in 
Gennany,  which  is  considered  to  be  of 
tlie  finest  bell-metal,  having  the  largest 
proportion  of  silver  in  it,  and  is  baptized 
Susanne,  weighs  275  cwt.,  is  more  than 
24  feet  in  circumference,  and  has  a  clap- 
per of  4  feet,  weighing  11  cwt.  Great 
Tom,  of  Christ  church,  Oxford,  weighs 
17,000  lbs.;  of  Lincoln,  9894  lbs.;  the  bell 
of  St.  Paul's,  London,  8400  lbs. ;  a  bell  at 
Nanlvin,  in  China,  is  said  to  weigh  50,000  ' 
lbs. ;  and  seven  at  Pekin,  120,000  lbs. 
each.  The  inscriptions  on  old  bells  are 
curious,  and,  in  some  cases,  have  even 
historical  value  ;  and,  at  this  time,  when 
curiosities  of  all  kinds  are  eagerly  sought 
for,  a  collection  of  these  inscriptions  would 
not  be  unuiteresting.  The  different  uses 
of  bells  have  given  rise  to  many  poems, 
some  of  which  are  inscribed  on  the  beUs 
themselves.  One  of  the  most  common  is 
tlie  following : 

Fiuiera  plaiigo,  fulgura  frango,  sabbata  pango 
Excito  leulos,  dissi[X)  ventos,paco  cruentos. 

Perhaps  the  finest  poem  which  has  ever 
been  written  on  bells  is  Schiller's  poem, 
Die  Glocke  (The  Bell),  in  which  he  de- 
scribes the  castmg  of  the  bell,  and  all  its 
uses,  in  a  highly  poetical  mamier.  This 
has  been  translated  into  many  lan- 
guages, and  lately  into  Greek  and  Latin, 
by  a  professor  at  Liege.  (For  the  metal 
of  which  bells  are  made,  called  bell- 
vietal,  see  Copper.)  A  bell  is  divided  into 
the  body  or  barrel,  the  clapper,  and  the 
ear  or  cannon. — The  word  beU  is  used  in 
many  arts  and  sciences  for  instruments 
similar  in  form  to  church  bells. 
Bell.  (See  Lancaster.) 
Bell-Metal.  (See  Copper.) 
Bell-Rock,  sometimes  called  Inch  cape ; 
a  dangerous  rock  of  Scotland,  about  12 
miles  from  Arbroath,  nearly  o])posite  the 
mouth  of  the  river  Tay ;  Ion.  2°  22'  W. ; 
lat.  56°  29^  N.  A  fight-house  has  been 
erected  on  it,  finished  in  1811,  115  feet 
high.  Duruig  high  tides,  the  rock  is  en- 
tirely covered.  It  is  said  that,  in  former 
ages,  the  monks  of  Aberbrothock  caused 
a  bell  to  be  suspended  on  this  rock,  which 
was  rung  by  the  waves,  and  warned  the 
marinei-s  of  this  highly  dangerous  place. 
The  Bell-rock  Ught-house  is  famous  for  its 
construction. 

Bella,  Stefano  de  la;  an  engraver,  bom 
at  Florence,  in  1610.  He  followed,  at 
fii-st,  Callot's  manner,  but  soon  adopted 
one  of  his  own.  In  1642,  he  went  to 
Paris,  where  he  was  employed  by  cardi- 
nal Richelieu.  He  returned  to  Florence, 
and  became  the  teacher,  in  drawing,  of 
Cosmo,  the  son  of  the  great  duke,  and 


BELLA— BELLE-ISLE. 


died  in  1664.    It  is  said  that  he  engraved 
1400  plates.    ' 

Bellamy,  James,  a  Flemish  poet,  was 
born  at  Flushing,  in  the  year  1757,  and 
died  in  1796.  He  was  25  years  old,  and 
followuig  the  trade  of  a  baker,  when,  in 
the  year  1772,  the  second  secular  festival, 
in  commemoration  of  the  foundation  of 
tlie  republic,  was  celebrated  throughout 
Holland.  His  genius,  suddenly  inflamed 
by  the  love  of  his  native  land,  rendered 
him  a  poet,  and  his  first  productions  met 
with  success.  He  studied  Jjatin,  made 
himself  better  acquainted  with  his  mother 
tongue,  and  composed  several  pieces  of 
merit  sufficient  to  induce  the  society  of  arts 
at  the  Hague  to  incorporate  them  in  their 
collections.  He  jiublished  his  patriotic 
songs  under  the  title  Vaderlandse~Gezengen, 
which  secure  him  a  place  among  the  tirst 
poets  of  his  nation.  B.  sung,  likewise,  the 
praise  of  love.  The  later  works  of  this 
poet  betray  a  certain  melancholy,  which 
renders  them  still  mdre  interesting.  A 
biographical  account  of  him  has  l>een 
written  by  G.  Kniper.  He  may  be  placed 
by  the  side  of  Bilderdyk,  Hehners,  Loots, 
R.  Feyth,  &c.,  as  one  of  the  restorers  of 
modem  Dutch  poetry. 

Bellarmin,  Robert,    a   cardinal,  and 
celebrated  controversialist  of  tlie  Roman 
church,  was  bom  at  Monte  Pulciano,  in 
Tuscany,  in  1542.    At  the  age  of  18,  he 
entered  into  the  college  of  Jesuits,  where 
he  soon  distinguished  himself;  and  his 
reputation  caused  him  to  be  sent  into  tlie 
Low  Countries,  to  oppose  the  progress  of 
the  Refonners.   He  was  ordained  a  priest, 
in  1569,  by  Jansenitis,  bishop  of  Ghent, 
and  placed  in  the  theological  chair  of  the 
university  of  Louvain.    After  a  residence 
of  seven  years,  he  returned  to  Italy,  and 
was  sent  by  Sixtus  V  to  France,  as  com- 
panion to  tlic  legate.    He  was  made  a 
cardinal,  on  account  of  his  learning,  by 
Clement  VIII,  and,  in  1602,  created  arch- 
bishop of  Capua.     At  the  elections  of 
Leo  XI  and  Paul  V,  he  was  thought  of 
for  the  pontificate,  and  might  have  been 
chosen,  had  he  not  been  a  Jesuit.     Paul 
V  recalled  him  to  Rome,  on  which  he 
resigned  his  archbisliopric  without  retain- 
ing any  pension  on  it,  as  he  might  have 
done.    In  1621,  he  left  his  apartments  in 
the  Vatican,  and  returned  to  a  house  of 
his  order,  wiiere  he  died  the  same  year, 
at  the  age  of  71.     So  impressed  were  the 
people  with  the  idea  of  his  sanctity,  that 
it  was  necessary  to  place  guards  to  keep 
off"  the  crowd,  which  pressed  round  to 
touch  his  body,  or  procure  some  reUcs  of 
his  garments.    B.  had  the  double  merit. 


with  the  court  of  Rome,  of  supporting  her 
temporal  power  and  spiritual  supremacy 
to  the  utmost,  and  of  strenuously  opposing 
the  Reforniei-s.     The  talent  he  displayed 
in   the   latter    controversy    called    forth 
all  the  similar  ability  on  the  Protestant 
side ;  and,  for  a  number  of  years,  no  em- 
inent divine  among  the  Reformers  failed 
to  make  his  arguments  a  particular  sub- 
ject of  refutation.    The  great  work  wliich 
he  composed  in  this  warfare  is  entitled 
A  Body  of  Controversy,  written  m  Latin, 
the  style  of  which  is  perspicuous  and  pre- 
cise, without  any  pretension  to  purity  or 
elegance.     He  displays  a  vast  amount  of 
Scriptural  learning,  and  is  deeply  versed 
in  the  doctrine  and  practice  of  the  church 
in  all  ages,  as  becomes  one  who  deter- 
mines every  point  by  authority.     To  his 
credit,  he  exhibits  none  of  the  lax  moral- 
ity of  his  order,  and,  in  respect  to  the 
doctrines  of  predestination  and  efiicaciotis 
grace,  is  more  a  follower  of  St.  Augustine 
than  a  Jesuit.      His  maxims  on  tlie  right 
of  pontiffs  to  depose  princes  caused  hi» 
work  on  the  temporal  power  of  the  popes 
to  be  condemned  at  Paris.     On  the  other 
liand,  it  did  not  satisfy  the  court  of  Ronie, 
because  it  asserted,  not  a  direct,  but  an 
indirect,  power  in  the  popes  in  temporal 
mattere;  which  resen'ation  so  offended 
Sixtus  V,  that  he  placed  it  among  the  list 
of  prohibited  books.     These  differences 
among  the   Catholics    necessarily    gave 
strength  to  the  Protestant  side,  and  pro- 
duced a  work  from  Mayer  in  exposition 
of  tliem.     In  tlie  rancor  of  controversy^ 
some  malignant  calumnies  were  uttered 
against  the  morals  of  B. ;  but  it  is  e-adent, 
that  he  inclined  to  superstition  in  faith, 
and  scrupulosity  in  practice.  At  liis  deatli» 
he  bequeathed  one  half  of  his  soul  to  tlie 
Virgin,  and  the  other  to  Jesus  Christ.   His 
society  thought  so  highly  of  his  sanctity^ 
that  proofs  were  collected  to  entide  hun 
to  canonization ;  but  the  fear  of  giving 
offence  to  the  sovereigns,  whose  rights  he 
oppugned,  has  always  prevented  a  com- 
pliance with  the   ardent  wishes   of  tlie 
Jesuits.    The  best  edition  of  his  contro- 
versial works  is  that  of  Prague,  1721,  4 
vols.,  folio. 

Belle  Alliance.  (See  Waterloo.) 
Belle-Isle,  or  Belle-Isle-en-Mer 
(anciently  Vindilis) ;  an  island  in  the  bay 
of  Biscay,  115  miles  from  the  west  coast 
of  France,  about  nine  miles  long,  and 
from  two  to  four  broad,  surrounded  by 
sharp  rocks,  which  leave  only  three 
fortified  passages  to  the  island.  The 
soil  is  diverse,  consisting  of  rock,  salt 
marsh,  and  fertile  grounds.    Palais  is  th© 


BELLE-ISLE— BELLES-LETTRES. 


43 


capital.     It  contains  three  other  small 
towns,  and  many  villages.    Lon.  3°  6'  W. ; 

lat.  47°18'N.    Pop.,  5,569. 

Belle-Isle,  or  Belli  sle  ;  an  island 
N.  E.  of  the  gulf  of  St.  Lawrence,  about 
21  miles  in  circuit ;  on  the  north-west  side 
has  a  small  harbor,  fit  for  small  craft, 
called  Liark  harbor,  within  a  Uttle  island 
which  lies  close  to  the  shore.  At  the  east 
point,  it  has  another  small  harbor  or 
cove,  that  will  only  admit  fishuig  shallops ; 
from  whence  it  is  al)out  16  miles  to  the 
coast  of  Labrador.  The  naiTow  channel 
hetween  Newfoundland  and  the  coast  of 
Labi'ador  is  called  the  straits  of  Bellisle ; 
15 miles  N.Newfoundland.  Lon.  55°  15' 
W. ;  lat.  52°  N. 

Bellegarde,  count,  bora  atChambeny, 
in  Savoy,  in  the  year  1760,  of  one  of  the 
oldest  Savoyard  families,  early  entered 
the  Austrian  service,  and  distinguished 
himself  during  the  campaigns  of  1793 — 96 
in  such  a  manner  as  to  become  a  member 
of  the  archduke  Charles's  counsel  of  war, 
and,  in  1796,  field-marshal  lieutenant.  In 
tliis  capacity,  he  concluded,  in  1797,  an 
armistice,  at  Leoben,  with  Bonapaite,  and, 
m  1799,  commanded  the  corps  that  was 
to  maintain  the  comiexion  between  Su- 
warofF  and  the  archduke  Chai-les.  After 
the  campaign  in  Italy,  m  1800,  he  was 
made  privy  counsellor  of  the  archduke 
Frederic,  who  commanded  the  army  of 
Italy.  In  July,  1805,  the  chief  command 
in  the  temtories  of  Venice  was  committed 
to  him.  In  1806,  he  was  created  field- 
niai-shal,  and  appointed  civil  and  military 
governor  of  both  the  Galicias.  In  the 
campaign  of  1809,  he  liistiuguished  him- 
seLfat  Aspern.  B.  aftenvards  became  pres- 
ident of  the  council  of  war  at  Vienna,  act- 
ed in  Italy  against  Murat,  was  appointed 
governor  of  Lombardy,  and  lives  now 
retired  fi*om  the  senice  on  account  of  a 
disorder  in  his  eyes. 

Bellegarde,  Gabriel  du  Pac  de ;  bom 
at  the  palace  of  Bellegarde,  in  the  year 
1717 ;  one  of  the  most  indefatigable  com- 
pilers of  history,  who  has  thrown  much 
light  on  the  historical  events  of  the  17th 
century. 

Belleisle  (Charles  Louis  Auguste 
Fouquet),  count  de,  marshal  of  France, 
born  at  Villefranche,  Sept.  22,  1684,  dis- 
tinguished himself  during  the  famous 
siege  of  Lille,  and  became  brigadier  in 
the  royal  forces.  After  the  conclusion  of 
the  war  of  the  Spanish  succession,  he 
went,  with  marshal  Villain,  to  Rastadt, 
where  he  displayed  diplomatic  talents. 
The  cession  of  Lorraine  to  France,  in 
1736,  was  principally  his  work.    Cardinal 


Fleurj'  reposed  confidence  in  him ;  Louis 
XV  made  him  governor  of  Metz  and  the 
three  bishoprics  of  Lorraine,  which  ojffice 
he  held  until  his  death.  Before  the  break- 
ing out  of  the  war,  in  1741,  he  visited  the 
])rincipal  courts  of  Germany  with  the 
design  of  disposing  them,  after  the  death 
of  Charles  VI,  to  choose  the  elector  of 
Bavaria  emperor  of  Germany ;  and  he 
disi)layed  so  much  address,  on  this  occa- 
sion, as  to  excite  the  admiration  of  Fred- 
eric II.  After  his  return,  he  placed  him- 
self, together  with  Brogho,  at  the  head  of 
the  French  forces,  to  oppose  those  of 
JWaria  Theresa.  He  took  Prague  by  as- 
sault ;  but,  the  king  of  Prussia  having  made 
a  separate  peace,  he  was  compelled  to  a 
retreat,  which  he  performed  with  admi- 
rable skill.  In  Dec,  1744,  when  on  a 
diplomatic  journey  to  Berlin,  he  was 
an-ested  at  Elbingerode,  a  Hanoverian 
post,  and  sent  to  England,  where  he  was 
exchanged,  however,  in  1746.  In  the 
following  year,  he  forced  general  Browne, 
who  had  entered  the  south  of  France 
from  Italy,  to  raise  the  siege  of  Antibes, 
and  to  retreat  over  the  Var.  In  1748,  the 
khig  made  him  a  duke  and  peer  of  France, 
and  the  department  of  war  was  committed 
to  his  charge.  He  reformed  the  anny  by 
abohshing  many  abuses,  enlarged  the  mil- 
ilaiy  academy,  and  caused  an  order  of 
merit  to  be  established.  The  city  of  Metz 
is  indebted  to  him  for  an  academy.  He 
died  in  1761. 

Bellenden,  William ;  a  Scottish  writer 
of  the  17th  centuiy,  distinguished  for  the 
elegance  of  his  Latin  style.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Paris,  where  he  was  professor 
of  belles-lettres  in  1602,  and,  though  he 
was  made  master  of  requests  by  James  I, 
he  still  continued  to  reside  in  the  French 
metropolis.  In  1608,  he  pubhshed  a  work 
entitled  Cicero  Princeps,  containing  a  se- 
lection from  the  works  of  Cicero,  consist- 
ing of  passages  relating  to  the  duties  of  a 
prince,  &c.  He  afterwards  republished 
this  work,  with  some  other  treatises,  in  his 
Bdlendenus  de  Statu.  This  work  was 
published  again,  in  1787,  by  an  anony- 
mous editor,  since  known  to  have  been 
doctor  Samuel  Parr,  who  added  a  Latin 
preface  on  the  politics  of  that  time. 
Belleropho:\.  (See  Hipponoiis.) 
Belles-Lettres  {Frtnch)  signifies  the 
same  with  jooii/e  literature.  It  is  impossi- 
ble to  give  a  satisfactory  explanation  of 
what  is  or  has  been  called  belles-lettres: 
in  fact,  the  vaguest  definition  would  be 
the  best,  as  almost  every  branch  of  knowl- 
edge has,  at  one  time,  been  included  in, 
at  another,  excluded  from,  this  denomina- 


44 


BELLES-LETTRES-BELLONA, 


tion.  The  most  correct  definition,  there- 
fore, would  be,  perhaps,  such  as  embraced 
all  knowledge  and  every  science,  not 
merely  abstract,  nor  simply  useful.  In 
the  division  of  the  departments  at  the 
lyceum  of  arts,  estabUshed  at  Paris  in 
1792,  the  belles-lettres  comprehended  gen- 
eral grammar,  languages,  rhetoric,  geog- 
raphy, history,  antiquities  and  numismat- 
ics ;  whilst  philosophy,  mathematics,  &c., 
were  called,  in  contradistinction,  sciences. 
If  the  name  of  belles-lettres  ought  to  be 
retained  at  all,  it  would  seem  proper  to 
include  under  it  poetry,  rhetoric,  and  all 
prose  which  has  pretensions  to  elegance. 
A  historical  work,  therefore,  would  fall 
within  the  definition  of  belles-lettres,  only 
if  its  style  was  distinguished  for  elegance. 
The  saiTie  would  be  the  case  with  books 
of  travels,  &c.  It  is,  however,  to  be  hoped 
that  this  vague,  unnecessary  name  will 
soon  be  abandoned,  in  imitation  of  the 
example  of  the  Germans,  who,  having 
investigated  the  philosophy  of  the  arts  and 
sciences  more  thoroughly  than  any  other 
nation,  and  critically  analyzed  their  prin- 
ciples, have  rejected  the  term ;  so  that  it 
is  known  in  Germany  only  as  matter  of 
history.  They  class  poetry  with  the  fine 
arts,  and  its  history,  hke  the  histoiy  of 
any  other  art,  science,  nation  or  thing, 
with  the  sciences.  Rhetoric,  too,  is  called 
a  fine  art.  It  was  formerly  said,  that  the 
difference  of  belles-lettres  and  beaux-arts 
consisted  in  the  difference  of  the  means 
employed  by  each  respectively.  The  for- 
mer, it  was  said,  used  arbitrary  signs,  by 
which  was  meant  language ;  the  latter, 
natural  signs,  i.  e.,  sounds  and  visible 
fonns.  It  is  easy  to  see  how  untenable 
this  division  is. 

Bellevue  (Fr.  Jine  prospect).  This 
name  is  given  to  several  villas  and  palaces, 
but  particularly  to  a  beautiful  country 
palace  in  the  neighborhood  of  Paris,  situ- 
ated on  the  ridge  of  those  moimtains 
which  stretch  firom  St.  Cloud  towards 
Meudon.  Mad.  de  Poriipadour  (q.  v.) 
built  it.  The  building  was  commenced 
in  July,  1748,  and  finished  in  November, 
1750.  After  the  death  of  Louis  XV,  the 
use  of  it  was  granted  to  the  aunts  of 
Louis  XVl,  mesdames  de  France.  The 
first  French  artists  of  the  time,  Coustou, 
Adam,  Salu,  Pigalle,  Gragenard,  Laprenue, 
had  exerted  all  their  talents  in  embelUsh- 
ing  Bellevue ;  so  that  this  palace,  at  the 
period  when  it  was  built,  was  considered 
the  most  channing  in  all  Europe.  After 
the  revolution,  the  convention  decreed 
that  Bellevue  should  be  kept  in  repair  at 
the  expense  of  the  nation,  and  that  it 


should  be  devoted  to  public  amusements. 
Nevertheless,  it  was  publicly  sold,  during 
the  highest  pitch  of  revolutionaiy  excite- 
ment, and  the  purchaser,  M.  Lenchere, 
a  post-master  in  Paris,  had  it  demohshed, 
quite  m  the  spirit  of  the  Bande  noire. 
(q.  v.)  Its  ruins  are  frequently  visited,  on 
account  of  the  beautiful  view  of  Paris 
from  this  spot. 

Bellkm,  James,  and  liis  two  sons.  Gen- 
tile and  Giovanni  (who  surpassed  their 
father) ;  celebrated  ])ainters,  who  made  a 
new  epoch  in  the  Venetian  school.  Of 
James's  works  nothing  has  been  left ;  but 
several  of  Gentile's  (e.  g.,  a  S/.  Mark)  have 
reached  our  times.  In  tlie  year  1479, 
Gentile  went  to  Constantinople,  3Ioham- 
med  II  having  sent  to  Venice  for  a  skil- 
fiil  painter.  He  is  said  to  have  there 
copied  the  bass-reliefs  of  the  column  of 
Theodosius,  and  to  have  died  at  Venice, 
in  the  year  1501.  Tiie  most  distinguished 
of  the  family  was  Giovanni  B.,  who  was 
bom  at  Venice,  about  1424,  and  died  about 
1516.  He  studied  nature  diligently,  and 
his  drawing  was  good.  He  contributed 
much  to  make  oil  painting  popular,  and 
has  left  many  excellent  pictures,  of  which 
one,  the  Savior  pronouncing  his  Benedic- 
tion, is  to  be  found  in  tlie  gallery  of  Dres- 
den. His  own  reputation  was  much  in- 
creased by  that  of  his  celebrated  disciples, 
namely,  Titian  and  Giorgione.  As  their 
instructer,  he  is  sometimes  called  the 
founder  of  the  Ve7ietian  school. 
Bellisle.  (See  Belle-Isle.) 
Bellmaj«n,  Charles  Michael,  the  most 
original  among  the  Swedish  poets,  was 
born  at  Stockholm,  in  1741,  and  grew  up 
in  the  quietude  of  domestic  hfe.  The 
first  i)roofs  which  he  gave  of  his  poetic 
talents  were  religious  and  pious  effiisions. 
The  dissipated  lite  ofyoungmen,at  Stock- 
holm, devoted  to  pleasure,  was  afterwards 
the  subject  of  his  poems.  By  these  his 
name  was  spread  over  all  Sweden.  Even 
the  attention  of  Gustavus  lU  was  attract- 
ed to  him,  and  he  received  from  the  king 
an  appointment,  which  enabled  him  to 
devote  himself  almost  entirely  to  poetical 
pui-§uits,  in  an  easy  independence,  mitil 
his  death,  in  1795.  His  songs  are  truly 
national,  principally  describuig  scenes  of 
revelry. 

Bellona;  the  goddess  of  war;  daugh- 
ter of  Phorcys  and  Ceto.  She  was  called 
by  the  Greeks  Enyo,  and  is  often  con- 
founded witli  Minerva.  She  was  anciently 
called  Dudliona,  and  was  the  sister  of 
Mai-s,  or,  according  to  some,  his  daugh- 
ter or  his  wife.  She  prepared  liis  chariot 
when  he  was  going  to  war,  and  drove  his 


BELLONA— BELLOY. 


45 


steeds  through  the  tumult  of  the  battle 
with  a  bloody  scourge,  her  hau*  dishevel- 
led, and  a  torch  in  her  hand.  The  Ro- 
mans paid  great  adoration  to  her ;  but  she 
was  held  in  the  highest  veneration  by  tlie 
Cappadocians,  chiefly  at  Coniana,  where 
she  had  above  3000  priests.  Her  temple 
at  Rome  was  near  the  Porta  Carmcutalis. 
In  it  the  senators  gave  audience  to  foreign 
ambassadors  and  to  generals  returned  from 
war.  At  the  gate  was  a  small  column, 
called  the  column  of  war,  against  which 
they  threw  a  spear,  whenever  war  was 
declared.  The  priests  of  this  goddess 
consecrated  themselves  by  making  great 
incisions  in  their  bodies,  and  particularly 
iii  the  tliigh,  from  which  they  received 
tlie  blood  in  their  hands  to  offer  as  a  sac- 
rifice to  the  goddess.  In  their  wild  en- 
thusiasm, they  often  predicted  bloodshed 
and  wars,  the  defeat  of  enemies,  or  tlie 
besieging  of  towns. 

Bellows  ;  a  machine  so  formed  as  to 
expire  and  inspire  air  by  turns,  by  the 
enlargement  and  contraction  of  the  ca- 
pacity. As  soon  as  men  began  to  make 
use  of  fire,  the  importance  of  bellows  was 
felt,  since  the  natural  bellows,  if  we  may 
give  this  name  to  tlie  lungs,  could  not  be 
applied  to  any  great  extent.  The  inven- 
tion of  bellows  is  ascribed  to  Anachai-sis 
tlie  Scythian.  Probably,  this  invention, 
hke  so  many  others,  took  place  in  ditfer- 
ent  countries,  since  the  want  which  oc- 
casioned it  is  universal.  The  first  devia- 
tion from  the  ancient,  and  still  common 
form  of  the  bellows,  was  made  by  the 
Germans,  about  100  years  ago,  and  tlie 
forms  at  present  are  very  vaiious,  as  many 
attempts  have  been  made  for  the  improve- 
ment of  this  highly  important  machine, 
which  becomes  necessary  wherever  a 
powerful  flame  is  required  in  the  arts. 
As  mming  is  carried  on  extensively  in 
Germany,  and  great  heat  is  required  in 
smelting  the  ores,  and  working  the  metals, 
many  new  kinds  of  bellows  have  been 
invented  in  that  country,  of  which  we 
only  mention  that  of  ]\Ir.  von  Baader,  in 
Munich  (known  as  the  inventor  of  a  new 
kind  of  rail-roads).  It  consists  of  an  emp- 
ty box,  which  moves  up  and  down  in 
another,  partially  filled  with  water.  Be- 
tween the  bottom  of  the  empty  box  and 
surface  of  the  water  is  a  space  filled  with 
air,  which  is  driven  out  by  the  descent 
of  the  enclosed  box.  Bellows  of  very 
great  power  are  generally  called  blowing- 
machines.  One  of  the  largest  is  that  re- 
cently erected  in  England,  at  the  smith- 
ery  in  tlie  king's  dock-yard,  at  Woolwich. 
It  is  adequate  to  the  supply  of  air  for  40 


forge  fires,  amongst  which  are  several 
for  the  forgingof  anchors,  iron  knees,  and 
many  other  heavy  pieces  of  smithery. 
The  common  Chmese  bellows  consist  of 
a  box  of  wood  about  two  feet  long,  and 
one  foot  square,  in  which  a  thick,  square 
piece  of  board,  which  exactly  fits  the 
internal  cavity  of  the  box,  is  pushed  back- 
wards and  forwards.  In  the  bottom  of 
the  box,  at  each  end,  there  is  a  small  coni- 
cal or  plug  valve  to  admit  the  air,  and 
valves  above  to  discharge  it. 

Bklloy,  Pierre  Laurent  Buirette  de, 
the  fii"st  French  dramatist  who  success- 
fully introduced  native  heroes  upon  the 
French  stage,  uistead  of  those  of  Greece 
and  Rome,  or  the  great  men  of  other  na- 
tions, was  born  at  St.  Flour,  in  Auvergne, 
in  1727.  He  went  to  Paris  when  a  child, 
lost  his  father  soon  after,  and  was  sup- 
ported by  his  uncle,  a  distinguished  ad- 
vocate m  the  parliament  of  Paris,  who 
<lesigned  him  for  the  same  profession. 
He  applied  himself  to  this  profession  with 
reluctance,  while  he  showed  much  genius 
for  the  drama.  His  uncle  opposed  this 
taste,  and  the  young  man  secretly  left 
his  house.  He  now  made  his  appearance 
at  several  northern  courts,  as  an  actor, 
under  the  name  of  Dormont  de  Belloy. 
Every  where  his  character  gained  him 
love  and  esteem.  He  spent  several  years 
ill  Petereburg,  where  the  empress  Ehsa- 
betli  showed  him  much  kindness.  In 
1758,  he  returned  to  France,  with  the  in- 
tention of  having  his  tragedy  Titus  rep- 
resented. His  uncle  obtained  a  warrant 
of  imprisonment  against  him,  in  case  he 
should  appear  on  tlie  stage.  B.  had 
hoped  to  reconcile  his  family  to  him  by 
the  success  of  Tiius,  but  this  hope  was 
disappointed  by  the  failure  of  the  piece ;. 
and  the  author  went  once  more  to  Pe- 
tersburg. Shortly  after,  his  uncle  died, 
and  B.  returned  again  to  France,,  where 
he  brought  out  his  tragedy  Zetmirey 
which  was  acted  with  the  most  complete 
success.  In  1765  followed  his  &ege  de 
Calais,  a  tragedy  which  produced  a  great 
sensation,  and  is  still  esteemed,  though  it 
owes  the  applause  bestowed  on  it  rather 
to  its  subject  tlian  to  its  poetical  merit. 
He  received  the  medal  promised  by  the 
king  to  those  poets  who  should  produce 
three  successful  pieces,  and  which  has 
been  awarded  only  on  this  occasion.  On 
account  of  the  great  applause  with  which 
the  Siege  of  Calais  was  received,  it  was 
counted  as  two,  it  beuig,  in  fact,  only  the 
second  successful  piece  of  B.  The  city  of 
Calais  sent  him  the  freedom  of  the  city,  in 
a  gold  box,  with  the  inscription  Lauream 


46 


BELLOY— BELZONI. 


tulit,  cxmcam  recipit.  B.  has  written  sun- 
dry other  dramatic  pieces,  of  which  Gas- 
ton et  Bayard  vrocured  his  reception  into 
the  Acadimie  Franpaise.  Upon  the  whole, 
he  was  not  happy  in  the  expression  of 
tragical  pathos.  He  died  in  1775. 
Bell-Rock.  (See  Belij-RocL) 
Beloochistan.  (See  Belujistan.) 
Belt,  the  Great  and  Little ;  two  straits 
of  Denmark,  connecting  the  Baltic  with 
the  Cattegat.  The  former  runs  between 
the  islands  of  Zealand  and  Funen,  and  is 
about  15  miles  in  width,  where  it  is  crossed 
from  Nyborg,  in  Funen,  to  Corsoer,  in 
Zealand.  The  greatest  breadth  of  the 
strait  is  20  miles.  T^ie  navigation  is  very 
dangerous,  on  account  of  the  many  small 
islands  and  sand-banks,  by  which  the 
channel  is  impeded.  Vessels  sailing 
through  this  strait  pay  tribute  at  Ny- 
borg. The  Little  Belt  is  between  the 
island  of  Funen  and  the  coast  of  Jutland, 
and  the  narrowest  part  of  the  strait  is  not 
more  than  a  mile  in  width.  At  this  place 
stands  the  fortress  Fredericia,  where  the 
tolls  are  paid.  The  fortress  commands 
completely  the  entrance  from  the  Catte- 
gat. The  sound  between  Zealand  £ind 
the  Swedish  coast  is  preferred  for  all 
large  vessels. 

Belujistan,  or  Beluchistan  ;  a  coun- 
try in  Asia,  situated  on  the  north-west  of 
the  peninsula  of  Hindostan,  formerly  be- 
longing to  Persia;  now  connected  with 
Cabulistan.  It  comprehends,  in  its  most 
extensive  acceptation,  all  the  space  be- 
tween Ion.  58°  and  67°  E. ;  lat.  24°  and 
30°  N.  It  extends  from  the  country  of 
the  Afghans  on  the  north  to  the  Indian 
ocean,  and  from  the  provinces  of  Laristan 
and  Kerman  on  the  west  to  that  of  Sind 
on  the  east.  It  contains  six  principal  di- 
visions : — 1.  Jhalawan  and  Sarawan,  with 
the  district  of  Kelat ;  2.  Macran  and  Les ; 
3.  Kohistan,  that  is,  the  mountainous  re- 
gion west  of  the  Desert ;  4.  the  Desert ;  5. 
Cach  Gandavah  and  the  district  of  Her- 
rend  Dajel ;  6.  the  province  of  Sind.  It 
is  very  mountainous.  Many  of  the  moun- 
tains are  of  great  height,  covered  with 
snow.  In  the  plains,  the  heat  is  very 
great ;  in  summer,  water  is  generally 
scarce.  The  rivers  are  the  Pooralle 
Muktoo,  Dast,  Nughor,  Sinroo  and  Sud- 
gee.  The  desert  of  Belujistan  is  300 
miles  long,  and  upwards  of  200  broad, 
consisting  of  waves  of  sand  extremely 
difficult  to  be  traversed.  The  minerals 
are  gold,  silver,  lead,  iron,  copper,  tin, 
rock  salt,  alum,  saltpetre  and  sulphur. 
The  soil  produces  grain,  cotton,  indigo, 
madder  and  assafoetida.    The  Belooches, 


or  Bulojes,  consist  of  three  tribes — the 
Beluches,  the  Brahuis,  the  Dehwars. 
They  are  warlike  and  semi-barbarous. 
They  hve  a  pastoral  life,  and  are  of  the 
Mohammedan  religion.  Little  was  knovi^n 
of  this  country,  till  Mr.  Pottinger,  and 
some  other  enterprising  officers  in  the 
East  India  company's  service,  explored  it 
in  1809  and  1810. 

Belvedere  (Ital.^ne  s^ht.  See  Belle- 
vue.)  The  name  of  buildings  in  Italy  des- 
tined for  the  enjoyment  of  prospects. 
The  name  is  also  given  to  the  small  cupolas 
on  houses,  which  are  ascended  for  the 
sake  of  fresh  air,  or  of  the  view  which 
they  afford.  Many  of  the  buildings  in 
Rome  are  furnished  with  such  cupolas ; 
yet  the  term  belvedere  is  generally  applied 
only  to  those  on  the  palaces  of  the  rich. 
In  France,  the  name  beUevue  is  given  to 
small  countiy-seats,  in  a  simple  style, 
or  to  arched  bowei-s  at  the  end  of  a  gar- 
den or  park,  intended  for  the  enjoyment 
of  fresh  air,  or  as  places  of  shelter  against 
the  burning  sun.  This  is  the  name,  also, 
of  a  part  of  the  Vatican,  where  the  famous 
statue  of  Apollo  is  placed,  which,  on  this 
account,  is  called  Apollo  Belvedere. 

Belzoni,  Giambattista,  that  is,  John 
Baptist ;  bom  at  Padua,  and  educated  at 
Rome.  He  was  destined  for  tlie  monastic 
life,  but  left  the  city  when  it  was  occu- 
pied by  the  French  armies,  and,  in  1803, 
went  to  England,  where  he  acted  the 
parts  of  Apollo  and  Hercules,  at  Astley's 
amphitheatre.  Here  he  acquired,  besides 
an  acquaintance  with  the  Enghsh  lan- 
guage, much  knowledge  of  the  science 
of  hydrauhcs,  the  study  of  which  had 
been  his  chief  occupation  in  Rome,  and 
which  afterwards  carried  him  to  Egypt. 
He  left  England,  after  a  residence  of  nine 
years,  accompanied  by  his  wife  (who 
faced  the  Arabs  with  the  courage  of  an 
Amazon),  and  took  his  way  through 
Portugal,  Spain  and  Malta  to  Egypt. 
There  he  lived,  from  1815  to  1819,  at 
first  as  a  dancer,  till  he  won  the  favor  of 
the  pacha,  who  made  use  of  his  services. 
B.,  though  often  alone  amidst  tlie  rude 
inhabitants  of  the  country,  kept  them  in 
awe  by  his  extraordinary  stature  and 
strength.  He  succeeded  in  opening,  not 
only  the  pyramid  of  Ghiza,  which  had 
been  already  opened,  in  the  17th  century, 
by  Pietro  della  Valle,  and  to  which  the 
French,  during  their  expedition  to  Egypt, 
could  not  find  the  entrance,  but,  also,  a 
second,  known  by  the  name  of  Cephrenes, 
and  several  catacombs  near  Thebes,  es- 
pecially one,  in  a  fine  state  of  preserva- 
tion, in  the  valley  of  Biban  el  Molook, 


BELZONI— BEMBO. 


47 


which  is  considered  to  be  the  mausoleum 
of  Psammis  (400  B.  C).  Tlie  drawings 
which  he  has  furnished  of  these  an- 
tiquities are  the  most  exact  which  we 
possess.  In  the  year  1816,  his  pei-se- 
verance  and  skill  succeeded  in  trans- 
porting the  bust  of  Jupiter  Memno)i,  to- 
gether with  a  sarcophagus  of  alabaster, 
found  in  the  catacombs,  from  Thebes  to 
Alexandria,  from  whence  they  came  to 
the  British  museum.  On  the  1st  of 
August,  1817,  he  opened  the  temple  of 
Ipsambul,  near  the  second  cataract  of  the 
Nile,  which  two  Frenchmen,  Cailliaud  and 
Drovetti  (the  French  consul-general),  had 
discovered  the  year  before,  but  had  not 
succeeded  in  opening.  B.  discovered  a 
subterraneous  temple  in  its  ruins,  which, 
until  that  time,  had  been  unkno\vn.  He 
then  visited  the  coasts  of  the  Red  sea,  and 
the  city  of  Berenice,  and  made  an  expe- 
dition into  the  Oasis  of  Jupiter  Ammon. 
His  jouniey  to  Berenice  was  rewarded  by 
the  discovery  of  the  emerald  mines  of  Zu- 
bara.  B.  refuted  Cailliaud's  assertion,  that 
he  had  found  the  famous  Berenice,  the 
great  empoiium  of  Europe  and  India,  by 
subsequent  investigations  on  the  spot,  and 
by  the  actual  discovery  of  the  ruins  of 
that  gi-eat  city,  four  days  journey  from  the 
place  which  Cailliaud  had  taken  for  Bere- 
nice. B.'s  Narrative  of  the  Operations 
and  recent  Discoveries  within  the  Pyra- 
mids, Temples,  Tombs  and  Excavations 
in  Egypt  and  Nubia  ;  and  of  a  Journey  to 
the  Coast  of  the  Red  Sea,  in  Search  of 
Berenice ;  also  of  another  to  the  Oasis  of 
Jupiter  Ammon  (London,  1820) ;  accom- 
panied by  a  foho  vol.  of  44  copper-plates  ; 
wqs  received  with  general  approbation. 
Padua,  his  native  city,  requited  his  ])resent 
of  two  Egyptian  statues  from  Thebes, 
with  a  medal  by  Manfredini.  (Concerning 
the  models,  which  B.  placed  in  Bullock's 
museum,  see  Mitseum.)  In  the  year  1823, 
this  enteiprising  traveller  had  made  prep- 
arations for  passing  from  Benin  to  Hous- 
sa  and  Timbuctoo,  when  he  died,  at 
Gato,  on  his  way  to  Benin,  Dec.  3,  1823. 
He  beheved  the  Nile  and  the  Niger  to  be 
different  streams,  and  that  the  Niger  emp- 
ties its  waters  into  the  Atlantic  ocean. 

Bembo,  Pietro ;  one  of  the  most  cele- 
brated of  the  Italian  scholars,  that  adorned 
the  16th  century ;  born  at  Venice,  in  1470. 
He  very  early  learned  the  Latin,  and  af- 
terwards, at  Messina,  under  the  direction 
of  Lascaris,  the  Greek  language ;  afler 
which  he  returned  to  his  native  country, 
and  there  published  a  small  treatise  on 
mount  Etna.  In  compUance  with  the 
will  of  his  father,  he  entered  upon  the 


career  of  public  business,  but,  soon  con- 
ceiving a  dislike  for  it,  he  devoted  him- 
self to  science  and  the  theological  pro- 
fession. At  Ferrara,  where  he  completed 
his  philosophical  studies,  he  entered  into 
a  connexion  with  Ercole  Strozzi,  Tibal- 
deo,  and  particularly  with  Sadoleto.  From 
Ferrara  he  returned  to  Venice,  where  a 
literary  society  had  been  estabhshed,  in 
the  house  of  the  printer  Aldus  Manutius. 
B.  became  one  of  its  principal  members, 
and,  for  some  time,  took  pleasure  in  cor- 
recting the  beautiful  editions  whicli  pro- 
ceeded from  this  celebrated  press.  Afler 
visiting  Rome,  he  went,  in  1506,  to  tlie 
court  of  Urbino,  at  that  time  one  of  those 
Italian  courts  where  the  sciences  stood 
highest  in  esteem.  He  lived  there  about 
six  years,  and  gained  several  powerful 
friends.  In  1512,  he  went  to  Rome  with 
Giulio  de'  Medici,  whose  brother,  pope 
Leo  X.  made  him  his  secretary',  and  gave 
him  his  friend  Sadoleto  for  a  colleague. 
About  this  time,  B.  became  acquainted 
with  the  young  and  beautiful  Morosina, 
with  whom  he  lived,  in  the  most  tender 
union,  during  22  years.  She  presented 
him  with  two  sons  and  a  daughter,  whom 
he  educated  with  the  greatest  care.  His 
many  labors,  arising  from  his  ofhce,  as 
well  as  his  Uterary  pursuits,  and,  perhaps, 
too  great  an  indulgence  in  pleasure,  hav- 
ing impaired  his  health,  he  was  using  the 
baths  of  Padua,  when  he  was  apprized 
of  the  death  of  Leo  X.  Being  by  this 
time  possessed  of  several  church  bene- 
fices, he  resolved  on  withdrawing  entirely 
from  business,  and  on  passing  his  days  at 
Padua,  (the  air  of  which  he  had  found 
very  beneficial),  occupied  only  with  lit- 
erature and  science,  and  enjoying  the  so- 
ciety of  his  friends.  The  learned  mem- 
bers of  the  famous  university  of  this  city 
eagerly  frequented  his  house,  and  stran- 
gers also  flocked  thither.  B.  collected  a 
considei'able  library  :  he  had  a  cabinet  of 
medals  and  antiquities,  which,  at  that 
time,  passed  for  one  of  the  richest  in  Ita- 
ly, and  a  fine  botanical  garden.  He  spent 
the  spring  and  autumn  at  a  villa  called 
Bozza,  which  had  always  belonged  to  his 
family.  He  devoted  the  leisure  of  a 
country  Ufe  principally  to  his  literary  pur- 
suits. In  the  year  1529,  afler  the  death 
of  Andreas  Navagero,  the  office  of  histo- 
riographer of  the  republic  of  Venice  was 
offered  to  him,  which  he  accepted,  afler 
some  hesitation,  and  declining  the  salary 
connected  with  it.  At  the  same  time,  he 
was  nominated  librarian  of  the  library  of 
St.  Mark.  Pope  Paul  III,  having  re- 
solved upon  a  new  promotion  of  cardinals, 


BEMBO— BKxVARES. 


from  the  most  distinguished  men  of  his 
time,  conferred  on  him,  in  1539,  the  hat 
of  a  cardinal.  From  that  time,  B.  re- 
nounced the  belles-lettres,  and  made  the 
fathers  and  the  Holy  Scriptures  his  chief 
study.  Of  his  former  laboi-s,  he  continued 
only  the  History  of  Venice.  Two  years 
later,  Paul  HI  bestowed  the  bishopric  of 
Gubbio  on  him,  and,  soon  after,  the  rich 
bishopric  of  Bergamo.  He  died,  loaded 
with  honors,  1547,  in  the  77th  year  of  his 
age.  B.  united  in  his  person,  his  charac- 
ter and  conversation,  all  that  is  amiable. 
He  was  the  restorer  of  a  pure  style,  as 
well  in  Lathi  composition,  in  which 
Cicero,  Virgil  and  Julius  Caesar  were  his 
constant  models,  as  in  the  ItaUan,  in  which 
he  chiefly  imitated  Petrarca.  He  was  so 
rigorous  with  regard  to  purity  of  style, 
that  he  is  said  to  have  had  40  different 

Eartitions,  through  which  his  writings,  as 
e  pohshed  them  by  degrees,  successive- 
ly passed ;  nor  did  he  publish  them  till 
they  had  sustained  these  40  examinations. 
A  collection  of  all  his  works,  which  were 
frequently  printed  singly,  appeared,  in 
17^,  at  Venice,  in  4  foho  vols.  The 
most  important  of  them  are.  History  of 
Venice  from  1487  to  1513,  in  12  books, 
which  he  >vrote  both  in  Latin  and  Italian ; 
Le  Prose,  dialogues,  in  which  the  rules 
of  the  Italian  language  are  laid  down ; 
Gli  Asolani,  dialogues  on  the  nature  of 
love;  Le  Rime,  a  collection  of  beauti- 
fiil  sonnets  and  canzonets;  his  lettei-s, 
both  iu  Latin  and  Italian :  De  VirgUii 
Cvlice  d  Terentii  Fabvlis  lAber ;  Carmi- 
na,  which  are  ingenious  and  elegant,  but 
more  free  than  the  author's  profession 
would  lead  us  to  expect ;  besides  several 
others. 

Ben  [Hebrew,  son) ;  a  prepositive  syl- 
lable, found  in  many  Jewish  names ;  as, 
Bendavid,  Benasser,  &c.,  which,  with  the 
Jews  in  Germany,  has  been  changed  into 
the  Germjui  Sohn  (son),  e.  g.,  Mendels- 
sohn, Jacobssohn,  &c.  The  origin  of  this 
manner  of  naming  is  to  be  found  in  the 
ancient  custom  of  the  IsraeUtes'  having 
no  family  names,  which  is  still  their  usage 
in  many  countries. 

Benares  ;  a  town  and  district  in  the 
province  of  Allahabad,  in  Bengal.  It 
has  an  area  of  12,000  square  miles,  10,000 
of  which  are  rich  cultivated  flats  on  each 
side  of  the  Ganges.  The  heat,  in  sum- 
mer, is  excessive,  but,  in  winter,  fires  are 
requisite.  Garden-stuff,  grain  of  differ- 
ent kinds,  flax  for  oil  (no  linens  are  man- 
ufactured here),  and  sugar,  are  the  prin- 
cipal objects  of  cultivation.  The  gross 
revenue,  hi  1813,  amounted  to  4,562,707 


i-upees  (£570,338).  Muslins,  silks  and 
gauzes,  salt,  indigo  and  opium  are  made 
in  diis  district.  The  principal  towns  are 
Benares,  Mirza-pur,  Chunargarh  and 
Ghazi-pur.  The  population  exceeds 
3,000,000,  and  the  Hindoos  are  to  the 
Mussulmans  as  10  to  1  in  the  town,  and 
as  20  to  1  in  the  villages.  The  rajah 
Chet  Singh  was  expelled  by  Mr.  Has- 
tings in  1781. 

Benares  (in  Sanscrit,  Vara  JVasi,  from 
the  two  streams.  Vara  and  Nasi)  stands 
in  lat.  25°  30'  N.,  and  Ion.  83°  1'  E.,  on 
the  high  bank  and  northern  side  of  the 
Ganges.  The  town  rises  like  an  amphi- 
theatre. The  height  of  the  houses  and 
narrowness  of  the  streets  give  it  all  the 
usual  inconveniences  of  an  Asiatic  town. 
Its  inhabitants  are  more  than  600,000,  of 
whom  8000  are  said  to  be  Bramins ;  and, 
at  the  great  Hindoo  festivals,  the  concoui-se 
is  immense ;  for  Casi,  or  Cashi,  the  splendid, 
as  the  Indians  commonly  call  it,  is  one 
of  the  most  sacred  places  of  pilgrimage  in 
all  India-  To  die  at  B.  is  the  greatest 
happiness  for  a  Hindoo,  because  he  is 
then  sure  of  immediate  admission  into 
heaven.  The  number  of  pious  founda- 
tions and  temples  is  exceedingly  great. 
Several  of  the  Huidoo  piinces  have  agents 
here  to  offer  up  sacrifices  in  their  behalf^ 
The  principal  temple  is  called  Viswesvoar 
or  Bisesar,  and  is  dedicated  to  Siva, 
whose  sacred  rehc  it  contains.  Aurung- 
zeb  built  a  splendid  mosque  on  the  high- 
est groimd  in  the  city,  and  on  the  ruins 
of  a  temple.  At  the  end  of  the  17th  cen- 
tuiy,  an  observatory  was  erected  in  this 
cit}",  which  still  exists ;  and  a  college  for 
the  instruction  of  Hindoos  in  their  own 
literature  was  established  by  the  British 
government  in  1801 ;  but  it  has  not  yet 
done  much  for  the  revival  of  learning 
among  the  natives,  owing  to  the  pride  of 
the  Bramins.  B.  has  long  been  the  great 
mart  for  diamonds  and  other  gems, 
brought  ])rincipally  from  the  Bundel- 
cund.  The  merchants  and  bankers 
are  numerous  and  wealthy.  There  are 
few  English  inhabitants,  except  the  gov- 
ernment officers  and  the  members  of  tlie 
circuit  court.  Casi  was  ceded  to  the 
East  India  company  by  the  nabob  of 
Aud'h  (Oude),  in  1775,  and,  smce  1781, 
has  enjoyed  unhiterrupted  tranquiUity. 
The  inhabitants  are  better  informed  than 
the  natives  of  the  country  in  general. 
The  reader  will  find  an  interesting  ac- 
count of  B.  in  bishop  Heber's  Narrative 
of  a  Journey  through  the  Upper  Prov- 
inces of  India,  in  1824 — ^26;  London, 
1828,  Philadelphia,  1829,  vol.  1. 


BENAVIDES— BENCOOLEN. 


49 


Benavides  ;  an  outlaw  and  pirate, 
who,  for  several  years,  proved  the  scourge 
of  the  southern  parts  of  Chile.  He  was 
a  native  of  Quirihue,  in  the  province  of 
Concepcion,  and  entered  tlie  patriot  army 
as  a  common  soldier  at  the  coninit-nce- 
ment  of  the  revolution.  Having  deserted 
to  the  Spaniards,  and  being  made  pris- 
oner by  the  Cliihans,  at  the  battle  of 
Menibrilla,  in  1814,  he  was  to  have  been 
tried  for  desertion,  but  effected  his  es- 
cape. Being  made  prisoner  again  at  the 
battle  of  Maj^pu,  in  1818,  he  was  sen- 
tenced to  be  shot,  and  was  supposed  to 
have  been  killed;  but,  although  shock- 
ingly wounded,  and  left  for  dead,  he  re- 
covered, and,  having  obtained  a  com- 
mission from  the  Spanish  commander 
Sanchez,  he  commenced  a  war  upon  the 
southern  frontier  of  Chile,  never  surpass- 
ed in  savage  crueltj'.  He  laid  waste  the 
country  with  fire  and  sword,  murdered 
bis  prisoners,  and  perpetrated  the  most 
horrid  cruelties  upon  tlie  unarmed  peas- 
ants, including  women  and  children,  who 
chanced  to  fall  into  his  power.  Notwith- 
standing repeated  engagements  with  the 
Cliilian  forces  of  the  province  of  Con- 
cepcion, he  sustained  himself,  for  a  long 
time,  in  this  atrocious  coui-se.  At  length 
he  undertook  to  establish  a  navy,  and,  for 
this  purpose,  piratically  seized  upon  sev- 
eral English  and  American  vessels,  which 
unsuspectingly  stopped  for  refi-eshment 
not  far  from  the  town  of  Arauco,  the 
centre  of  his  operations.  So  intoleraWe 
had  tlie  grievance  become,  that,  in  1821, 
the  Chihans  fitted  out  an  expedition 
against  Arauco,  and  succeeded  in  break- 
ing up  the  robber's  strong  hold.  He  at- 
tempted to  escape  to  Peru  in  a  launch, 
but,  being  captured,  was  condemned  to 
death,  and  executed  Feb.  23, 1822. — His- 
tory of  Rev.  in  Spaimh  America. 

BeiNbow,  John  ;  an  English  naval 
cliaracter  of  distinguished  merit ;  bom  in 
Shrewsbury,  about  1650,  and  brought  up 
to  the  sea  in  the  merchant  service  ;  fought 
so  desperately  against  a  pirate  from  Sal- 
lee,  in  one  of  his  trips  to  the  Mediterra- 
^  nean,  about  the  yeai*  1686,  as  to  beat  her 
off,  though  greatly  his  superior  in  men 
and  metal.  For  this  gallant  action,  he 
was  promoted  at  once,  by  James  II,  to 
the  command  of  a  ship  of  war.  Wilham 
III  employed  him  m  protecting  the  Eng- 
lish trade  in  the  chamiel,  which  he  did 
with  great  effect.  His  valor  and  activity 
secured  him  the  confidence  of  the  nation, 
and  he  was  soon  promoted  to  the  rank 
of  rear-admiral,  and  charged  with  the 
blockade  of  Dunkirk.    But  the  squadron 

VOL.   I.  5 


in  that  port,  under  the  command  of  Du 
Bart,  managed  to  slip  out  of  port ;  nor 
could  Bcnbow,  though  he  sailed  instantly 
in  pursuit,  overtake  it.  In  1701,  he  sailed 
to  the  West  Indies  with  a  small  fleet, 
having  accepted  a  command  previously 
declined  by  several  of  his  seniors,  from 
the  supposed  superiority  of  the  enemy's 
force  in  that  quarter.  In  August  of 
the  following  year,  he  fell  in  with  tlie 
French  fleet  under  Du  Casse,  and  for 
five  days  maintained  a  running  fight  widi 
them,  when  he  at  length  succeeded  in 
bringing  the  enemy's  stemmost  ship  to 
close  quarters.  In  tlie  heat  of  the  action, 
a  chain-shot  carried  away  one  of  his  legs, 
and  he  was  taken  below;  but  the  mo- 
ment the  dressing  had  been  applied  to 
the  wound,  he  caused  himself  to  be 
brought  again  on  deck,  and  continued 
the  action.  At  this  critical  instant,  being 
most  disgracefully  abandoned  by  several 
of  the  captains  under  his  command,  who 
signed  a  paper  expressing  their  opinion 
that  "  nothing  more  was  to  be  done,"  the 
whole  fleet  effected  its  escape.  B.,  on 
his  return  to  Jamaica,  brought  the  delin- 
quents to  a  court-martial,  by  which  two 
of  them  were  convicted  of  cowardice  and 
disobedience  of  orders,  and  condemned 
to  be  shot ;  which  sentence,  on  their  arri* 
val  in  England,  was  carried  into  execution 
at  Plymouth.  B.,  who  suffered  equally 
in  mind  and  body  from  this  disgi'aceful 
business,  gi-adually  sunk  imder  his  feel- 
ings, and  exj)ired  at  Jamaica,  Nov.  4, 1702. 
Be>'coole-\,  or  Benkahule  ;  a  seaport 
of  Sumati-a,  on  the  S.  W.  coast ;  Ion.  102° 
11'  E. ;  lat.  3°  50'  S.  The  English  set- 
tled here  in  1685,  and,  in  1690,  the  East 
India  company  built  a  fort  here,  calling  it 
fort  York.  A  convenient  river  on  its  N. 
W.  side  brings  the  pepper  out  of  the  in- 
land countiy ;  but  there  is  gi'eat  incon- 
venience in  shipping  it,  by  reason  of  a 
dangerous  bar  at  the  river's  mouth.  The 
place,  which  is  almost  two  miles  in  com- 
pass, is  known  at  sea  by  a  high,  slender 
mountain,  which  rises  in  the  country,  20 
miles  beyond  it,  called  the  Sugar-Loqf. 
It  is  inhabited  by  a  mixed  population. 
The  medium  heat  throughout  the  year  is 
fi-om  81°  to  82°.  B.  is  the  chief  estabhsh- 
ment  of  the  East  Lidia  company  on  the 
island  of  Sumatra.  The  settlement,  lat- 
terly, is  of  but  little  importance.  Pepper 
is  the  only  produce  of  the  adjacent  coun- 
try, which  is  mountainous  and  woody. 
The  air  is  full  of  malignant  vapors,  and 
the  mountams  always  covered  Avith  thick 
clouds,  which  burst  in  storms  of  thunder, 
rain,  &c. 


50 


BENDA— BENEDICT. 


Benda,  George,  director  of  the  cliapel 
at  Gotha,  bom  at  Jungbuntzlau,  in  Bo- 
hemia, 1721,  received  fiom  Fi-ederic  II 
the  place  of  tlie  second  viohnist  in  the 
chaj)cl  at  Berhn,  but,  in  1748,  entered  the 
service  of  the  duke  of  Gotha,  as  chajjel- 
niastcr,  wliere  he  constantly  cidtivated 
his  talents  for  composition,  j)aiticularly 
of  sacred  music.  His  Ariadne,  an  opera, 
was  received  with  entliusia.stic  applause 
in  Germany,  and  afterwards  m  all  Europe, 
being  distinguished  for  originality,  sweet- 
ness and  ingenious  execution.  His  com- 
positions are  numerous ;  but  his  Ariadne 
is  his  best  work.  He  died  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  Gotha,  1795.  His  absence  of 
mind  has  given  rise  to  many  amusing 
anecdotes.  His  elder  bi-other,  Francis, 
was  a  distinguished  violinist.  Their  fa- 
ther was  a  poor  hnen- weaver. 

Bender  (in  the  Moldau  language,  TS.- 
gino) ;  the  chief  city  of  a  district  in  the 
RTissian  j)rovince  Bessarabia,  on  the 
Dniester ;  Ion.  24°  46'  E. ;  lat.  46°  51'  N. ; 
population,  10,000.  It  is  built  in  the 
shape  of  a  crescent,  is  well  fortified,  has 
12  mosques  and  1  Armenian  church. 
The  streets  are  nan'ow  and  dark.  Its 
commerce  is  important,  and  it  carries  on 
some  branches  of  manufacture.  Here 
resided  Charles  XII.  (q.  v.)  In  1771,  tlie 
Russians  took  the  place,  and  killed  most  of 
the  troops  and  citizens,  amounting  to 
nearly  .30,000  persons.  The  peace  of 
Cainardshi,  in  1774,  restored  it  to  Turkey. 
In  1809,  it  was  conquered  by  the  Rus- 
sians, but  again  restored  to  the  Turks  by 
the  peace  of  Jassy.  Since  the  peace  of 
Bucharest,  m  1812,  it  has  belonged  to 
Russia. 

Benedict  XIV  (Prosper  Lambertini), 
bom  at  Bologtia,  in  1675,  of  a  veiy  respect- 
able family,  distinguished  himself,  in  his 
youth,  by  a  rapid  progi'ess  in  all  the 
sciences.  His  favorite  author  was  St. 
Thomas.  He  appUed  himself  with  suc- 
cess to  the  canon  and  civil  law,  and  be- 
came advocate  to  the  consistoiy  at  Rome. 
Afterwards,  he  was  appointed  promotor 
Jidei,  and  wrote  a  valufjile  work  on  the 
Ceremonies  used  in  Beatifications  (Bolog- 
na, 1734, 4  vols,  fol.)  He  was  passionately 
fond  of  leaming,  of  historical  researches 
and  monuments  of  art,  and  also  associated 
with  tlie  distinguished  men  of  his  time; 
among  others,  with  father  Montfaucon, 
who  said  of  him,  "Benedict  has  two 
souls ;  one  for  science,  and  the  other  for 
society."  He  also  made  Iiiniself  famiUar 
■with  the  best  poetical  works,  whereby 
his  mind  became  elevated  and  his  style 
animated.    Benedict  XIII  made  him,  in 


1727,  bishop  of  Ancona ;  in  1728,  cardinal, 
and  in  1732,  archbishop  of  Bologna.  In 
every  station,  he  displayed  great  talents, 
and  fulfilled  his  duties  with  the  most 
conscientious  zeal.  He  opposed  fanati- 
cism even  at  the  risk  of  his  own  safety, 
defended  the  op})ressed,  and  expressed 
himself  with  the  greatest  frankness  to 
Clement  XII,  without  losing  Jyis  favor. 
When,  after  the  death  of  Clement  XII, 
in  1740,  the  election  of  a  new  pope  in 
the  conclave  was  retarded  by  the  in- 
ti'igues  of  cardinal  Tencin,  and  the  car- 
dinals could  not  agree,  Lambertini,  with 
his  usual  good  nature,  said  to  them,  "  If 
you  want  a  saint,  take  Gotti ;  if  a  pohti- 
cian,  Aldobrandi;  if  a  good  old  man, 
myself"  These  words,  thrown  out  in  a 
humorous  manner,  operated  on  the  con- 
clave like  inspiration,  and  Lambertini, 
under  the  name  oi"  Benedict  XJV,  ascend- 
ed the  pa])al  tlu-one.  His  choice  of  the 
ministers  and  friends,  whom  lie  assembled 
around  him,  does  the  greatest  honor  to 
his  judgment.  The  condition  of  the 
church,  and  of  the  Roman  court,  had  not 
escaped  his  penetration.  Since  the  ref- 
ormation, princes  no  longer  trembled  at 
the  thunders  of  the  Vatican.  The  po])es 
had  renounced  their  pretensions  to  world- 
ly authority,  and  Lambertini  knew  that 
resj)ect  for  the  papal  autliority  could  be 
maintained  only  by  a  wise  liioderation. 
He  constantly  regulated  his  measures  by 
this  principle,  and  thus  succeeded,  even 
in  difficult  circumstances,  in  satisfying, 
not  only  the  Catholic,  but  even  the  Prot- 
estant princes.  The  sciences  were  a 
special  object  of  his  care.  He  estabhshed 
academies  at  Rome ;  promoted  the  pros- 
perity of  the  academy  at  Bologna ;  caused 
a  degree  of  the  meridian  to  be  measured; 
the  obehsk  to  be  erected  in  the  Campus 
Martins ;  the  church  of  St.  Marcellino  to 
be  built  after  a  plan  projected  by  him- 
self; tlie  beautiful  pictures  in  St.  Peter's 
to  be  executed  in  mosaic ;  the  best  Eng- 
lish and  French  works  to  be  translated 
into  Itahan ;  .and  commanded  a  catalogue 
of  tlie  manuscripts  contained  in  the  Vati- 
can library  (the  number  of  which  he  had 
enlarged  to  3300)  to  be  printed.  His  gov- 
ernment of  the  papal  states  did  equal 
honor  to  his  wisdom.  He  enacted  severe 
laws  against  usury,  favored  commercial 
liberty,  and  diminished  the  number  of 
holydays.  His  piety  was  sincere,  yet 
enlightened  and  forbearing.  He  strove 
to  maintain  purity  of  doctrine  and  of 
morals,  giving,  in  his  own  character,  the 
most  praiseworthy  example.  He  died, 
after  a  painful  sickness,  during  which  his 


BENEDICT— BENEDICTINES. 


51 


cheerfulness  and  vivacity  never  deserted 
him,  May  3,  1758.  Ttie  sole  reproach 
brought  against  him  by  the  Romans  was, 
that  lie  wrote  too  much,  and  governed 
too  little.  His  works  compose,  in  the 
Venice  edition,  16  vols.  fol.  The  most 
important  of  his  works  is  that  on  the 
synods,  in  which  we  recognise  the  great 
canonist. 

Benedict,  ^t. ;  the  founder  of  the  fii*st 
religious  order  in  the  West ;  bom  at  Nor- 
cia,  in  Spoleto  (in  the  present  Ecclesiasti- 
cal States),  480.  In  the  14th  year  of  his 
age,  he  retired  to  a  cavern  situated  in  the 
desert  of  Subiaco,  40  miles  from  Rome, 
and,  in  515,  drew  up  a  loile  for  his  monks, 
which  was  first  introduced  into  the  mon- 
asteiy  on  Monte  Cassino,inthe  neighbor- 
hood of  Naples,  founded  by  him  (529)  in 
a  grove  of  Apollo,  after  the  temple  liad 
been  demolished.  This  gradually  be- 
came the  rule  of  all  the  Western  monks. 
Tiie  abbots  of  IMonte  Cassino  afterwards 
acquii'ed  episcopal  jurisdiction,  and  a  cer- 
tain patrioichal  authority  over  tlie  whole 
order.  B.,  with  the  intention  of  banish- 
ing idleness,  prescribed,  in  addition  to  the 
work  of  God  (as  he  called  prayer  and  the 
reading  of  religious  writings),  the  instruc- 
tion of  youth  in  reading,  writing  and  ci- 
phering, in  the  doctrines  of  Christianity, 
in  manual  labors  (including  mechanic  aits 
of  every  kind),  and  in  the  management 
of  tlie  monastery.  With  regard  to  dress 
and  food,  the  rule  was  severe,  but  not 
extravagant.  '  B.  caused  a  library  to  be 
founded,  for  which  the  aged  and  infirm 
brethren  {ordo  saiptorius)  were  obUged  to 
copy  manuscripts.  By  this  means  he 
contributed  to  preserve  the  literary  re- 
mains of  antiquity  fi"om  ruin ;  for,  though 
lie  had  in  view  only  the  copying  of  reli- 
gious writings,  yet  the  practice  was  after- 
wards extended  to  classical  works  of 
every  kind ;  and  the  learned  world  is 
indebted  for  the  preservation  of  great 
literary  treasures  to  the  order  of  St.  Bene- 
dict.    (See  Benedictines.) 

Benedictbeurn  ;  formerly  an  abbey, 
situated  in  the  Bavarian  circle  of  the 
Iser,  about  40  miles  distant  from  the  city 
of  Munich,  on  the  descent  of  the  moim- 
tains  towards  the  Tyrol.  The  convent 
was  founded  as  early  as  740.  In  our 
daj's,  it  is  only  remarkable  for  tlie  manu- 
factory of  optical  instruments  belonging 
to  Reichenbach  and  Liebherr,  who  have 
furnished  instruments  to  almost  all  the 
obser\"atories  of  Europe. 

Benedictines.  From  the  Gth  to  the  10th 
century,  almost  all  monks,  in  the  West, 
niiglit  be  so  called,  because  they  followed 


the  rule  of  St.  Benedict  of  Norcia.  (See  this 
article.  Monastery  and  Order.)  The  rules 
which,  at  that  time,  the  monasteries,  in 
Spain  and  France,  received  from  their 
bishops,  as  well  as  the  rule  of  the  Irish  St. 
Columba  (bom  560,  died  615),  were  essen- 
tially the  same  as  those  of  St.  Benedict ; 
and,  in  the  progress  of  his  order,  the  monas- 
teries in  Spain  and  France,  as  well  as  those 
of  the  order  of  Columba,  united  themselves 
with  it.  Monte  Cassino,  the  magnificent 
primitive  monastery  of  the  Benedictines, 
became  the  model  of  all  others.  At  that 
time,  the  monasteries,  having  no  common 
suj)erioi-s,  were  under  the  immediate  con- 
trol of  the  bishops  in  their  respective  dio- 
ceses, and  differed  from  one  another  in 
many  qualifications  of  the  primitive  rule. 
Not  even  the  color  of  their  dress  was  the 
same.  The  disciples  of  Columba  wore 
white  garments,  like  the  first  Benedictine 
nuns,  who  originated  in  France,  in  the  Gth 
century.  After  the  unions  which  took  place 
at  a  later  i)eriod,  all  the  membei-s  of  this 
order  wore  black,  as  the  founder  is  said 
to  have  done.  The  decHne  of  monastic 
discipline,  after  the  8th  century,  occasion- 
ed the  reforms  of  Benedict  of  Aniana,  ui 
France,  the  renewed  inculcation  of  the 
old  iTile,  and  the  adoption  of  new  oi*di- 
nances  suited  to  the  times,  by  the  coun- 
cil of  Aix-la-Chapelle  (817),  as  well  as  the 
particular  rules  and  fraternities  of  the  cel- 
ebrated monasteries  in  France,  Germany 
and  England,  which,  in  those  barbarous 
times,  became  seats  of  civilization ;  and, 
finally,  the  institution  of  the  Cluniacs,  a 
new  branch  of  the  Benedictines,  which 
proceeded  from  the  convent  of  Clugny,  in 
Burgundy,  founded  in  the  year  910.  The 
Benedictine  monasteries,  in  the  middle 
ages,  were  often  asylums  in  which  sci- 
ence took  refuge,  and  found  protection. 
In  the  place  of  the  discordant  and  uncer- 
tain rules  which  had  hitherto  existed,  the 
Cluniacs  made  fixed  regulations  concern- 
ing the  houi-s  of  worship,  the  obedience, 
discipline  and  common  government  of  all 
tlie  monasteries  belonging  to  their  order, 
which  were  soon  imitated  in  all  Europe. 
In  the  12th  century,  their  order  contained 
2000  monasteries,  whose  luxury  frequent- 
ly called  for  i*eforms,  and  finally  became 
the  chief  cause  of  their  decline.  The  re- 
mains of  the  Cluniacs  united  themselves, 
in  the  17th  century,  under  the  patronage 
of  Richelieu,  with  the  Benedictine  frater- 
nities of  St.  Vannes  and  St.  Maurus,  the 
latter  of  which,  founded  in  1618,  had,  in 
the  beginning  of  the  18th  rentury,  180 
abbeys  and  priories  in  France,  and  ac- 
quii-ed,  by  means  of  its  learned  members, 


93 


BENEDICTINES— BENEFIT  OF  CLERGY. 


such  as  Mabillon,  Montfaucon,  Martene, 
merited  distinction.  To  this  family  be- 
long those  new  orders,  established  on  the 
foundation,  and  observuig  the  rule  of  St. 
Benedict,  which  have  originated  since  tlie 
11th  century,  and  are  distinguislied  from 
the  proper  Benedictines  by  their  dress, 
names  and  particular  regulations ;  e.  g.,  tlie 
Camaldulians,  the  monks  of  Vallombrosa, 
the  SylvestrianSjthe  GrancUmontenses,  the 
Carthusians,  the  Coelestines,  the  Cister- 
cians and  Bernardines,  the  Trappists,  and 
the  monks  of  Fontevraud.  (q.  v.)  The 
Benedictine  monasteries  never  constituted 
one  society,  constitutionally  regidated  and 
governed  under  an  aristocratical  or  mo- 
narchical form :  on  the  contrary,  a  great 
many  monasteries,  which  descended  from 
the  old  Benedictines,  were  compelled,  by 
llie  council  of  Trent,  to  miite  them- 
selves gradually  into  particular  fraterni- 
ties. Among  these,  the  Benedictines  of 
Monte  Cassino,  of  Monte  Vergine,  and 
Monte  01iveto{who  call  themselves  Oli- 
vdanians),  in  Italy  and  Sicily,  where  they 
have  flourished  uninterruptedly  even  to 
the  present  time ;  those  of  Valladolid  and 
Montserrat,  in  Spaui,  where  they  are 
among  the  wealthiest  orders;  those  of 
Hirschau  and  Fulda,  together  with  Burs- 
feld,  which  have  now  ceased  to  exist,  and 
that  of  Moelk,  in  Germany,  deserve  par- 
ticular notice,  on  accoimt  of  the  extent  of 
their  possessions,  the  magnificence  of 
their  chiu-ches,  and  the  mildness  of  their 
rules.  To  the  fraternity  of  Moelk,  which 
still  exists,  but  accommodated  to  the  spirit 
of  the  times  (the  government  having  or- 
dered its  revenues  to  be  applied  to  the 
pubUc  service),  the  rest  of  the  Benedictine 
convents  in  Austria  are  joined.  Many 
of  tlie  nunneries  of  this  order  are  reserved 
for  the  nobihty,  because  the  places  in 
them  are  equal  to  the  most  lucrative  bene- 
fices. The  Benedictines  in  Sicily,  who 
are,  for  tlie  greater  part,  the  younger  sons 
of  distinguished  families,  five  under  very 
lax  rules.  In  Modena,  they  have  settled 
again,  and  received  a  convent,  witli  rev- 
enues for  their  support. 

Benediction  signifies  the  act  of  con- 
ferring a  blessing  (q.  v.). — Benedidto  be- 
atica ;  the  blessing  bestowed  on  the  pen- 
itent sick.  It  is  also  called  viaticum. — 
Benedictio  sacerdotalis  is  the  nuptial  ben- 
ediction pronounced  by  the  priest  on  the 
occasion  of  a  wedding. — To  give  the 
benediction,  is  an  expression  used  with 
regard  to  the  pope,  the  carchnals,  bishops 
or  papal  nuncios,  when  they  bestow  a 
Wessuig,  either  in  the  church,  or  in  the 
street,  with  the  sign  of  the  cross,  on  the 


people,  or  some  private  person.  The 
pope  gives  a  solemn  benediction  three 
limes  every  year ;  viz.  on  Maundy-Thurs- 
day, on  Easter,  and  ou  Ascension-day. 

Benefit  of  Clergy  was  a  privilege  of 
clergymen,  which  originated  in  a  pious 
regard  for  the  church,  whereby  the  clergj' 
of  Roman  Catholic  countries  were  either 
partially  or  wholly  exempted  from  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  lay  tribunals.  It  ex- 
tended, in  England,  only  to  the  case  of 
felony ;  and,  though  it  was  intended  to  ap- 
ply only  to  clerical  felons  or  clerks,  yet, 
as  every  one  who  could  read  was,  by  the 
laws  of  England,  considered  to  be  a  clerk, 
when  the  rudiments  of  learning  came  to 
be  diftused,  almost  every  man  in  the 
commmiity  became  entitled  to  this  privi- 
lege. Peers  were  entitled  to  it,  whether 
they  could  read  or  not ;  and  by  the 
statutes  of  3  and  4  Wilham  and  Marj', 
c.  9,  and  4  and  5  Wilham  and  Mary,  c. 
24,  it  was  extended  to  women.  In  the 
earlier  ages  of  the  English  Roman  Catho- 
lic church,  the  clerk,  on  being  convicted 
of  felony,  and  claiming  the  benefit  of 
clergy,  was  handed  over  to  the  ecclesias- 
tical tribunal  for  a  new  trial  or  purgation, 
the  pretty  uniform  result  of  wliicli  was 
his  acquittal  This  pretended  trial  or 
purgation  gave  rise  to  a  great  deal  of 
abuse  and  perjury,  so  that,  at  length,  the 
secular  judges,  instead  of  handing  over 
the  culprit  to  the  ecclesiastics  for  purga- 
tion, ordered  him  to  be  detained  in  prison, 
until  he  should  be  pardoned  by  the  king. 
By  the  statute  of  18  Elizabeth,  c.  7,  per- 
sons convicted  of  felony,  and  entitled  to 
the  benefit  of  clergy,  were  to  be  discharged 
from  prison,  being  first  branded  in  the 
thumb,  if  laymen,  it  being  left  to  the  dis- 
cretion of  the  judge  to  detain  them  in 
prison  not  exceeding  one  year ;  and,  by 
the  statute  of  5  Anne,  c.  6,  it  was  enacted, 
that  it  should  no  longer  be  requisite  that 
a  person  should  be  able  to  read,  in  order 
to  be  entitled  to  the  benefit  of  clergy,  so 
that,  from  the  passing  of  tliis  act,  a  felon 
was  no  more  hable  to  be  hanged  on  ac- 
count of  defect  of  learning.  The  Enghsh 
statutes  formerly  made  specific  provisions, 
that,  in  particular  cases,  the  culprit  should 
not  be  entitled  to  benefit  of  clergy,  but 
tlie  statute  of  7  and  8  George  IV,  c.  28, 
provides,  that  "  benefit  of  clergy,  with  re- 
spect to  persons  convicted  of  felony,  shall 
be  abolished." — Tliis  privilege  has  been 
fonnally  abolished  in  some  of  the  United 
States,  and  allowed  only  in  one  or  two 
cases  in  others,  while,  in  others  again,  it 
does  not  appear  to  have  been  known  at 
all,    By  the  act  of  congress  of  April  30, 


BENEFIT  OF  CLERGY— BENEZET. 


53 


1790,  it  is  enacted,  "that  benefit  of  clergy 
shall  not'  be  used  or  allowed,  upon  con- 
viction of  any  crime,  for  which,  by  any 
statute  of  the  United  States,  the  punish- 
ment is,  ■  or  shall  be,  declared  to  be 
death." 

Benevexto  ;  a  dukedom  in  the  Nea- 
politan province  Priucipato  Oltra  (86 
square  miles,  with  20,348  inhabitants), 
which,  includuig  a  city  and  eight  %'illages, 
belongs  to  the  i)apal  see.  In  180G,  Napo- 
leon made  a  present  of  it  to  his  minister 
Talleyrand,  who  received  thence  the  title 
of  prince  of  Btnevtnto.  In  1815,  it  was 
restored  to  the  pope.  Cattle,  grain,  wne, 
oranges  and  dead  game  are  e.\]Jorted. 
The  public  revenue  ainoimts  to  (iOOO  dol- 
lars. In  1820,  the  inhabitants  revolted. 
In  the  most  remote  times,  the  state  of 
Benevento  belonged  to  the  counti-y  of  the 
Samnites.  The  Lombards,  in  571,  made 
it  a  dukedom,  which,  long  after  tlie  ex- 
tinction of  the  Lombard  kingdom,  re- 
mained independent.  At  a  later  period, 
it  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Saracens  and 
Normans.  The  city,  however,  was  not 
conquered  by  the  latter,  because  Henry 
III  had  given  it  to  the  pope,  Leo  IX.  The 
city  of  B.  (Ion.  14°  38'  E.,  lat.  40°  &  N.), 
on  a  liill  between  the  rivers  Sabato  and 
Calore,  has  13,900  inhabitants,  8  churches 
and  19  convents.  Since  969,  it  has  been 
the  see  of  an  archbishop.  It  has  several 
manufactories.  Few  cities  in  Italy  de- 
serve so  much  attention,  on  account  of 
the  antiquities  which  they  contain,  as  B. 
Almost  every  wall  consists  of  fragments 
of  altai-s,  sepulchres,  columns  and  entab- 
latures. i\mong  other  thuigs,  the  well- 
preserved,  magnificent  triumphal  arch 
of  Trajan,  built  in  114,  deserves  particu- 
lar mention.  It  is  now  called  porta  au- 
rea  (the  golden  gate),  and  is  a  gate  of  the 
city.  The  cathedral  is  a  gloomy  build- 
ing, in  the  old  Gothic  style. 

Besezet,  Anthony ;  a  distinguished 
philanthropist,  born  at  St.  Quentin,  in 
France,  January  171.3.  His  parents  were 
opulent,  and  of  noble  descent.  On  the  rev- 
ocation of  the  edict  of  Nantes,  the  family 
associated  themselves  with  the  Hugue- 
nots ;  and,  on  this  account,  his  father's 
estate  was  confiscated,  in  1715,  who  there- 
upon sought  temporary  refuge  in  Holland, 
and  afterwards  in  England,  where  An- 
thony received  his  education.  Of  An- 
thony's juvenile  habits  and  dispositions, 
but  an  imj)erfect  account  is  preserved :  it 
is  only  known  that  he  became  a  member 
of  the  society  of  Friends,  about  the  14th 
year  of  his  age.  In  1731,  four  years 
subsequent,  he  arrived,  jJong  with  his 
5  * 


parents,  in  Philadelphia.  His  first  em- 
ployment was  that  of  an  mstructer  of 
youtli  at  Gerraantov™ — a  calling  which 
led  him  to  pi'epare  and  pubhsh,  several 
elementary  books  for  the  use  of  schools. 
The  leadhig  traits  of  his  character — en- 
thusiastic benevolence  and  profound  pie- 
ty— were  developed  at  this  period.  About 
the  year  1750,  he  was  particularly  struck 
with  the  iniquity  of  the  slave  trade,  and 
the  cruelty  whicli  was  exercised  by  too 
many  of  those  who  purchased  and  em- 
ployed the  negroes.  His  voice  and  his 
pen  were  now  employed  in  behalf  of  this 
oj)pressed  portion  of  his  fellow-beings. 
Finding  the  blacks  in  Philadelphia  nu- 
merous, and  miserably  ignorant,  he  estab- 
lished an  evening  school  for  them,  and 
taught  them  himself,  gratuitously.  In 
this  ofiice  he  was  signally  successful, 
and  accomplished  the  additional  good  of 
removing  prejudices  against  the  intellect 
of  the  Negro  by  exhibiting  the  proficiency 
of  his  pupils.  His  first  attempts  to  rouse 
the  public  feeling,  on  the  subject  of  Negro 
slavery,  consisted  in  short  essays  in  al- 
manacs and  newspapei-s,  which  he  was 
indefatigable  in  circulating.  He  soon 
published  a  vai-iety  of  more  elaborate  and 
extensive  tracts,  among  which  are  the 
following : — An  Account  of  tliat  Part  of 
Africa  inhabited  by  the  Negroes,  1762: 
a  Caution  and  Warning  to  Great  Britain 
and  her  Colonies,  on  the  calamitous 
State  of  the  enslaved  Negroes,  1767 : 
an  Historical  Account  of  Guinea,  its 
Situation,  Produce,  and  the  general  Dis^ 
position  of  its  Inhabitants ;  with  an  En- 
quiry' uito  the  Rise  and  Progress  of  the 
Slave-Trade,  its  Nature  and  calamitous 
Eftects.  These  works  were  printed  at 
his  own  expense,  and  distributed,  without 
charge,  wherever  he  thought  they  would 
make  an  impression.  He  addressed  them 
directly,  with  suitable  letters,  to  most  of 
the  crowned  heads  of  Europe ;  and  to 
many  of  the  most  illustrious  divines  and 
philosophei-s.  The  fervor  of  his  style, 
and  the  force  of  his  facts,  obtained  for 
his  philanthropic  efforts  the  notice  which 
he  sought  for  the  benefit  of  his  cause. 
Great  personages,  on  both  sides  of  the  At- 
lantic, con-esponded  with  him,  and  it  is 
certain  that  he  gave  the  original  impulse 
to  dispositions  and  measures  which  in- 
duced the  abolition  of  the  slave-trade  by 
England  and  the  United  States.  Clark- 
son,  the  British  philanthropist,  whose  la- 
bors contributed  so  largely  to  the  accom- 
plishment of  that  object,  acknowledges, 
that  his  understanding  was  enlightened, 
and  his  zeal  kindled,  by  one  of  B.'s  books, 


M 


BENEZET— BENGALv 


■when  he  was  about  to  treat  tlie  question 
submitted  to  the  senior  baclieiors  of  arts 
in  the  university  of  Cambridge,  Aiine 
lictat  invitos  in  servitutem  dare) — B.  re- 
garded all  mankind  as  his  brethren. 
About  the  year  1763,  the  wrongs  inflicted 
on  the  aboriginal  race  of  North  America 
excited  his  susceptible  mind,  and  prompt- 
ed him  to  i)ublish  a  tract,  entitled,  Some 
Observations  on  the  SiUiation,  Disposition 
and  Character  of  tJie  Indian  Natives  of 
this  Continent.  He  addressed  the  Britisli 
governors  and  military  commanders,  on 
the  effect  of  hostilities  against  the  natives, 
with  characteristic  boldness  and  pathos. 
His  various  philanthropical  efforts,  and 
liis  excellent  quahties,  obtained  for  him 
peculiar  consideration  in  the  society  of 
Friends, — In  1760,  he  wrote  and  pub- 
lished a  Short  Account  of  the  religious 
Society  of  Friends,  commonly  called 
Quakers ;  and,  in  1782,  a  Dissertation  on 
the  Plainness  and  innocent  Simplicity 
of  the  Christian  Religion.  About  the 
same  time,  he  issued  several  tracts  against 
the  use  of  ardent  spirits. — *The  pei-son  of 
B.  was  small,  and  his  face  far  irom  hand- 
some, though  benignity  might  be  traced 
in  his  animated  aspect,  even  by  those 
who  knew  not  how  his  whole  being  and 
small  estate  had  been  devoted.  His  un- 
derstanding was  originally  strong,  and 
much  improved  by  reading  and  observa- 
tion. His  private  habits,  morals  and  pur- 
suits were  adapted  to  endear  and  dignify 
his  pubUc  career.  He  died  at  Philadel- 
phia, May  5,  1784,  aged  71  years.  When 
it  was  announced  that  he  was  seriously 
ill,  a  multitude  of  his  fellow-citizens  pre- 
sented themselves  at  his  dwelling  with 
anxious  inquiries ;  and  he  conversed  lu- 
cidly Avith  hundreds  after  his  case  was 
pronounced  to  be  hopeless.  There  is  ex- 
tant a  full  and  interesting  memoir  of  his 
life,  by  Roberts  Vaux. 

Bengai,  ;  an  extensive  and  valuable 
province  of  Hindostan,  situated  between 
tlie  21st  and  27th  degrees  of  N.  lat.,  and 
between  the  86th  and  92d  degrees  of  E. 
Ion.,  being  in  length  about  400  miles,  and 
in  breadth,  300.  On  the  north  and  east, 
it  is  defended  by  the  mountains  of  Ne- 
paul,  Assam  and  Ava ;  on  the  south,  by 
a  line  of  inhospitable  and  dangerous  sea- 
coast,  containing  but  one  harbor  capable 
of  admitting  ships  of  any  considerable 
size,  and  even  that  one  guarded  by  innu- 
merable shoals :  on  the  west,  it  joins  Behr 
and  Oude  ;  and,  although  rather  exposed 
to  invasion  on  this  frontier,  it  is,  neverthe- 
less, better  defended  by  nature  than  any 
province  of  similar  extent  on  the  conti- 


nent of  Asia :  and  should  tlie  Engfish  be 
ever  driven  from  all  the  other  parts  of  In- 
dia, as  long  as  they  shall  retain  their  jnari- 
time  pre-eminence,  they  ^Y\\l  find  in 
B.  a  secure  asylum  against  their  ene- 
mies. Thus  guarded  from  a  foreign  foe, 
they  are  equally  safe  from  any  insur- 
rection of  the  natives,  whose  mildness 
of  disposition  and  aversion  to  war  are 
such,  tliat  nothing  short  of  the  most  atro- 
cious cruelty,  or  rehgious  persecution, 
could  induce  them  to  draw  their  swords 
against  their  present  rulers. — The  fertile 
soil  of  B.  produces  everj'  thing  requi- 
site for  tlie  sustenance  of  hfe,  and  in  such 
abundance,  that  the  crops  of  one  year 
are  sufficient  for  the  consumption  of  its 
inhabitants  for  two.  It  abounds  in  fruits 
and  animals  of  many  varieties,  and  yields 
ever}-  article  essential  to  the  comfort,  or 
even  luxuiy,  of  man.  Its  ingenious  in- 
habitants are  well  versed  in  all  the  arts 
of  useful  industry  ;  and,  whilst  their  deh- 
cate  and  valuable  manufactures  are  ex- 
ported to  every  pait  of  the  world,  they  re- 
quire no  assistance  from  other  countries. 
In  short,  it  has  been  truly  said  of  this 
province,  that  it  is  the  most  valuable  jewel 
in  the  British  crown.  The  revenues 
of  B.  consist  chiefly  of  rents  paid  to 
the  government  for  land.  In  the  year 
1811 — 12,  they  amounted,  including  those 
of  Behar  and  Orissa,  to  £2,590,000  ster- 
ling, to  which  may  be  added  nearly 
£200,000  for  the  monopolies  of  salt  and 
opium.  The  exports  of  B.  are  piin- 
cipally  rice,  cotton  and  silk,  both  raw  and 
manufactured ;  indigo,  sugar,  saltpetre, 
ivorj',  tobacco,  and  drugs  of  various 
Idnds :  hemp  and  flax  are  also  to  be  pro- 
cured in  great  abundance.  Its  unports 
by  sea  are  gold  and  silver,  copper  and 
bar-iron,  woollen  cloths  of  everj'  descrip- 
tion, tea,  salt,  glass  and  china  ware,  wines, 
and  other  commodities,  for  the  use  of  its 
European  inhabitants,  and  a  few  Arabian 
and  Enghsh  horses.  The  native  breed 
of  these  animals  being  diminutive,  B.  is 
chiefly  supplied  with  them  from  the 
north-west  provinces,  although  the  gov- 
ernment have  a  stud  of  their  own  in 
Behar,  and  hold  out  great  encouragement 
to  the  zemindars,  or  landholders,  to  breed 
them.  The  south-east  districts  produce 
fine  elephants,  which  are  not  only  in  con- 
siderable demand,  among  the  opulent 
natives,  for  state  or  riding,  but  also  used 
for  carrying  the  camp  equipage  of  the 
army.  They  vary  in  price  from  £50  to 
£1000:  a  good  one  should  be  from  8 
to  10  feet  high,  and  not  less  tlian  30 
years  of  age. — B.  is  intersected  by  the 


BENGAL. 


55 


Ganges,  the  Brahmapootra,  Dumniooda, 
and  several  other  rivers,  so  connected  by 
various  streams,  and  the  annual  inunda- 
tions, that  there  is  scarcely  a  town  which 
does  not  enjoy  the  benefits  of  an  inland 
navigation,  the  boats  employed  in  which 
are  of  various  sizes  and  shapes,  many  of 
them  very  handsome,  and  fitted  both  for 
convenience  and  state.  The  Delta  of  the 
Ganges,  the  water  of  which  is  either  salt 
or  brackish,  exliibits  a  labyrinth  of  unin- 
habited inland  navigation ;  and  in  other 
parts  of  the  country,  during  the  ramy 
season,  some  hundred  miles  of  rice  fields 
may  be  sailed  over.  These  inundations 
are,  however,  fi-equently  the  cause  of 
much  injury,  by  carrying  away  the  cattle, 
stores  of  grain,  and  habitations  of  the  poor 
peasants. — The  greater  proportion  of  the 
inhabitants  of  B.  are  Hindoos:  they  are 
olive-colored,  with  black  hair  and  eyes. 
They  are  small  and  delicate  in  their  per- 
sons, and,  although  very  timid,  are  litigious ; 
humble  to  their  superioi-s,  and  insolent  to 
their  inferiors.  In  youth,  they  are  quick 
and  inquisitive,  and  would  probably  be 
much  improved  by  their  intercoui-se  with 
Europeans,  but  for  the  supreme  con- 
tempt in  which  they  hold  otlier  nations, 
from  the  notion  of  their  being  degraded 
Hindoos.  The  indigent  wear  scarcely 
any  clothing  other  than  a  rag  round  their 
waist:  the  rich,  when  out  of  doors,  dress 
much  like  Mohammedans ;  within  the 
house,  they  usually  resume  their  old  na- 
tional costume,  wliich  consists  merely  of 
different  pieces  of  cloth  twisted  round  the 
body,  and  liaving  one  end  tucked  into 
the  folds.  No  small  part  of  the  poj)ulation 
are  Mohammedans  ;  they  are  the  descend- 
ants of  tlie  Afghan  and  Mogul  conquer- 
ors, and  Arabian  merchants,  softened,  in 
the  course  of  time,  by  an  intermixture 
with  Hindoo  women,  converts,  and  chil- 
dren, whom  they  purchased  during  a 
scarcity,  and  educated  in  tlieir  own  re- 
ligion. There  are  also  a  number  of  the 
descendants  of  the  Portuguese,  and  of 
various  other  nations;  and,  in  spite  of  the 
checks  held  out  by;  the  English  agahist 
colonization,  it  is  probable,  that,  in  the 
coui-se  of  another  century,  their  descend- 
ants will  become  so  numerous,  that  it 
will  1)0  necessary  to  permit  them  to  be- 
come cultivators  of  the  soil. — The  ther- 
mometer, part  of  the  year,  in  E.,  is  as 
high  as  100  degrees,  and  the  climate  is 
injurious  to  European  constitutions.  The 
year  is  there  divided  into  three  seasons, 
viz.  the  hot,  the  rainy  and  the  cold  :  the 
former  begins  in  March,  and  ends  in  June ; 
the  rains  then  conuneace,  and  continue 


till  October ;  after  which  it  becomes  cool, 
and  the  weather  continues  pleasant  for 
four  months. — Of  the  ancient  history  of 
B.  we  have  no  authentic  information.  It 
is  said  to  have  been  sometimes  an  inde- 
pendent kingdom,  and  at  other  times 
tributEuy  to  Magadha  (Behar).  In  the  in- 
stitutes of  Akbar,  a  hst  of  61  Hindoo 
kings  is  given ;  but  the  number  of  years 
assigned  to  many  of  the  reigns  does 
away  its  credibihty.  B.  was  first  invaded 
and  conquered  by  the  Afghan  Mohamme- 
dans in  A.  D.  1203,  and  continued  tribu- 
tary to  the  emperor  of  Delhi  till  the  year 
1340,  when  Fakher  Addeen,  a  confiden- 
tial servant  of  the  governor,  murdered  his 
master,  and,  having  seized  the  reins  of 
government,  threw  off  his  allegiance,  and 
took  the  title  of  sultan  Sekunder.  From 
this  period  till  1538,  B.  remained  an  in- 
dependent kingdom,  when  it  was  con- 
quered by  Shore  Sliah,  who  shortly  after 
annexed  it  to  Delhi.  From  the  descend- 
ants of  Shore  Shah  it  was  conquered  by 
the  emperor  Akbar,  and  continued  sub- 
ject to  Delhi,  or  nominally  so,  till  the 
year  1757,  when  it  fell  into  the  hands  of 
the  English,  who  have  gradually  changed 
its  form  of  government,  and  introduced  a 
code  of  regulations,  founded  on  the  Hin- 
doo, Mohanmiedan  and  Enghsh  laws,  by 
Avhich  impartial  justice  is  administered  to 
all  the  inhabitants,  and  toleration  granted 
to  all  religions,  owing  to  which  the  coun- 
try improves,  and  the  population  in- 
creases. The  cities  of  Gour,  Tonda,  Ra- 
jemahil,  Dacca  and  Mooi-shedabad  have 
each,  at  vai'ious  times,  been  the  capital ; 
but,  since  the  conquest  of  it  by  the  Eng- 
hsh, Calcutta  is  become  the  seat  of  gov- 
ernment.— The  government  of  this  presi- 
dency is  vested  in  the  supreme  council, 
consisting  of  the  governor-general  and 
three  counselloi-s.  The  former  is  ap- 
pointed by  the  king ;  the  latter  are  chosen 
by  the  court  of  directoi-s  from  the  civil 
servants  of  at  least  12  yeai-s'  standing. 
For  the  administration  of  justice,  there  is 
1  supreme  court  at  Calcutta,  6  courts 
of  appeal  and  circuit,  and  46  inferior  ma- 
gistrates, stationed  in  as  many  different 
towns  or  districts.  The  circuit  courts  are 
formed  by  3  judges,  ^vith  an  assistant  and 
native  officers.  Criminal  cases  are  tried 
by  the  Mohammedan  law,  in  fonn  and 
name,  but  so  modified  as  to  approach 
nearly,  in  fact,  to  the  English ;  and  capi- 
tal sentences  are  confinned  by  the  nizam- 
at  adcdat,  or  supreme  court  at  Calcutta. 
The  district  magistrates  or  judges,  as  they 
are  often  called,  have  each  a  registrar  and 
one  or  more  of  the  junior  civU  servants, 


56 


BENGAL— BENGUELA. 


as  assistants,  Avith  native  lawyers,  Mussul- 
man and  Hindoo.  An  api)eal  lies  from 
their  sentence,  in  almost  all  cases,  to  the 
provincial  court.  The  avei-age  size  of  a 
district  in  tliis  presidency  is  about  6000 
squai-e  miles.  In  civil  causes,  the  re- 
spective codes  of  the  Mohammedans  and 
Hindoos  are  generally  followed.  In  1793, 
regular  advocates,  educated  at  tlie  Mo- 
hammedan and  Hindoo  colleges  at  Cal- 
cutta and  Benares,  were  appointed  to 
plead  in  these  courts.  Their  fees  are 
regulated  by  law.  Written  pleadings  are 
allowed,  and  Aviitten  evidence  must  some- 
times be  admitted,  on  account  of  the  dis- 
incUnation  of  the  Asiatics  to  have  women 
appear  in  public. — Domestic  slavery  is 
pennitted  by  law,  but  the  slaves  are  kind- 
ly treated.  The  number  of  these  slaves 
it  has  been  thought  unsafe  to  ascertain. 
Their  marriage  is  never  impeded;  but 
few  children  are  sold,  as  it  is  reputed  dis- 
creditable to  sell  them,  and  their  manu- 
mission is  considered  an  act  of  jMety. 
Parents  themselves,  who  are  reduced  by 
famine,  &c.,  are  usually  the  persons  wlio 
supply  the  slave-market.  Inability  to 
provide  for  their  children,  not  the  desire 
of  gain,  seems  to  be  the  real  motive  of 
this  horrid  custom.  Slaves,  Uke  freejnen, 
are  under  the  protection  of  law. — Tlie 
Mohammedans  may  be  estimated  at  one 
seventh  of  the  whole  population.  Vari- 
ous estimates  of  the  population  have  been 
made  at  different  tunes,  but  rather  from 
conjecture  than  from  well-authenticated 
documents.  The  sum  total  for  Bengal 
appeai-s  to  be  25,-306,000,  and  there  are 
strong  reasons  for  believing  this  number 
to  be  short  of  the  real  amount.  The. 
number  of  native  troops,  called  seapoys 
[sipaliis)  or  soldiers,  was,  in  1811,  207,5/9, 
besides  5875  invaUds.  The  non-commis- 
sioned officers  are  natives,  those  who 
have  commissions  are  Europeans,  and 
the  number  of  the  latter  in  this  presiden- 
cy, at  the  time  above  mentioned,  was 
2024.  About  22,000  of  the  king's  troops 
are  also  stationed  in  India,  and  occasion 
an  expense  to  the  company  of  about 
£160,000  per  amium. — Before  concluding 
this  article,  it  may  be  proper  to  obsene, 
that  the  Dutch  possess  the  town  of  Chin- 
sura,  the  French,  Chindunagore,  and  the 
Danes,  Serampore,  with  a  small  tenitoiy 
adjoining  each.  These  towns  are  situ- 
ated on  the  Hoogly  river,  from  15  to  23 
miles  above  Calcutta. 

Bengel,  John  Albanus,  a  femous  Ger- 
man theologian,  born  in  1687,  at  Winne- 
den,  in  Wiirtemburg,  studied  at  Stuttgart 
and  Tubingen,  and,  in  1713,  became  a 


preacher  and  professor  at  Denkendorf! 
His  chief  studies  were  the  fathers  of  the 
church  and  the  New  Testament.  He 
died,  after  having  been  appointed  to  sev- 
eral offices,  in  1752.  B.  was  the  first  Lu- 
theran theologian  who  applied  to  the 
criticism  of  the  New  Testament  a  com- 
prehensive spirit,  which  embraced  the 
subject  in  its  whole  extent,  and  manifest- 
ed the  power  of  patient  investigation 
which  the  study  required.  His  sugges- 
tions for  the  correction  of  the  text  are 
particularly  valuable.  In  some  of  his 
obsenations,  his  judgment  has  been  led 
astray  by  his  inclination  to  mysticism. 
His  explanation  of  the  Apocalypse  has 
given  him,  with  some  persons,  the  fame 
of  an  inspired  prophet ;  with  most  peoj)Ie, 
that  of  an  enthusiast.  He  was  esteemed 
for  his  private  virtues. 

Benger,  Miss  Elizabeth  Ogihy,  was 
born  in  1778,  at  Portsmouth,  in  England. 
She  was  the  daughter  of  a  purser  in  the 
navy,  who  died  in  1796,  and  left  his  wife 
and  daughter  with  a  slender  jn-ovision. 
In  1802,  she  removed  with  her  mother 
to  London.  She  soon  attracted  attention 
by  her  vei-ses,  and  Miss  Sarah  Wesley 
early  became  her  patron.  Slie  composed 
some  theatrical  pieces,  which  did  not 
meet  with  success.  Mr.  Bo\vyer,  the  en- 
graver, employed  her  to  write  a  \)oen\  on 
the  Slave-Trade,  which,  with  two  othei-s, 
was  published  in  quarto,  with  engravings, 
in  1812.  She  successively  published 
memoirs  of  ]\Irs.  EUzabeth  Hamilton, 
memoirs  of  John  Tobin,  the  dramatist,  and 
notices  of  Klojistock  and  his  friends,  pre- 
fixed to  a  translation  of  their  letters  from 
the  German.  These  writings  were  fol- 
lowed by  the  history  of  Anne  Boleyn, 
wliich  was  translated  into  French,  ancl 
the  memoirs  of  Elizabeth,  queen  of 
Bohemia.  She  undertook  to  compile 
memoii-s  of  Henry  IV  of  France,  but  the 
progress  of  this  work  was  prevented  by 
her  death,  January  9,  1827.  By  all  who 
knew  her,  among  whom  the  editor  has 
the  pleasure  of  counting  liimself,  she  was 
esteemed  as  a  kind,  faithful  and  candid 
friend,  a  most  affectionate  daughter,  be- 
loved by  all  ages  and  both  sexes  on  ac- 
count of  her  fine  talents,  benevolent  dis- 
position, and  pure  heart. 

Be.nguela  ;  a  cotmtiy  in  Africa,  bound- 
ed N.  by  Angola,  ,E.  by  the  country  of 
Jaga  Cassangi,  S.  by  Mataman,  and  W.  by 
the  sea.  Cape  Negro  fonns  its  S.  W. 
extremity,  Avlience  mountains  run  north- 
ward, in  which  are  contained  the  springs 
of  many  rivers.  The  productions  are 
similar  to  those  of  Angola  and  Congo  ;^ 


BENGUELA— BENJOWSKY. 


57 


one  of  the  principal  is  manioc ;  divers 
sorts  of  palms  are  found ;  dates  grow  in 
great  abundance ;  the  vines  naturally 
form  alleys  and  arboi-s  ;  cassia  and  tama- 
rinds also  flourish ;  and,  from  the  hu- 
midity of  the  soil,  tliere  are  tvv^o  fruit 
seasons  in  the  year.  The  air  of  the 
country  is  exceedingly  unwholesome. 
The  chief  towns  are  Old  Benguelsi,  St. 
I'hilip  or  New  Benguela,  Man-kikondo, 
and  Kaschil.  Lon.  30°  to  35°  E. ;  lat.  13° 
SCy  to  15°  30'  S. 

Bem.\  ;  a  kingdom  in  the  west  of  Afri- 
ca, the  limits  of  which  are  not  well  ascer- 
tained ;  but  the  name  may  be  applied  to 
that  part  of  the  coast  extendmg  from  the 
river  Lagos,  the  eastern  limit  of  the  Slave 
coast,  to  the  Formosa,  about  180  miles. 
The  interior  limit  is  unknown.  The 
whole  coast  presents  a  succession  of  estu- 
aries, some  of  them  veiy  broad,  and  their 
origin  never  explored.  Between  the  La- 
gos and  Cross  rivers,  the  number  of  rivei-s 
flowing  into  the  gulf  of  Guinea  is  said  to 
exceed  20,  some  of  tliem  very  broad  and 
deep.  This  tract,  called  the  Delta  of  Be- 
Tjin,  is  about  260  miles  m  extent.  The 
aspect  of  the  coast,  and  the  great  body  of 
water  flowing  into  the  gulf,  have  led  to 
the  supposition  that  the  waters  of  the  Ni- 
ger here  find  an  entrance  into  the  ocean. 
This  region  has  been  but  httle  explored, 
and  is  little  known.  The  countiy  is  low 
and  flat,  the  soil  on  the  banks  of  the  riv- 
ers very  fertile,  but  the  climate  unhealthy. 
The  inliabitauts  are  of  a  mild  disposition  ; 
polygamy  is  practised  ;  almost  all  labor  is 
performed  by  females ;  the  government  is 
despotic.  Chief  to%vns,  Benin,  Agatton, 
Bododa,  Ozebo  and  Meiberg,  which  are 
situated  on  the  Formosa,  the  principal 
river. 

Benin ;  capital  of  the  above  kingdom, 
on  the  Formosa ;  lon.  5°  6'  E ;  lat.  6°  12' 
N.  This  town,  according  to  some,  is  18 
miles  in  circuit,  the  largest  street  3  miles 
long,  and  others  nearly  equal :  according 
to  other  statements,  it  is  only  4  miles  in 
circuit.  The  streets  are  filled  with  vari- 
ous articles  of  merchandise,  and  present 
the  appearance  of  a  crowded  market, 
thougli  always  clean.  The  houses  are 
large,  and,  though  their  walls  are  of  clay, 
the  reeds  and  leaves,  with  which  they  are 
covered,  give  them  a  pleasing  appearance. 
The  king's  palace  consists  of  a  great 
number  of  square  enclosures. 

Benjowsky,  Maurice  Augustus,  count 
of|  a  man  of  indefatigable  activity  and 
extraordinary  adventures,  bom  in  1741, 
at  Werbowa,  in  Hungary,  where  his  fa- 
tlier  was  a  general  in  the  Austrian  army, 


entered  the  same  service  himself,  and 
acted  as  lieutenant  in  the  seven  years* 
war  till  1758.  He  afl;erwards  studied 
navigation  in  Hamburg,  Amsterdam  and 
Plymouth.  He  then  went  to  Poland, 
joined  the  confederacy  against  the  Rus- 
sians, and  became  colonel,  command- 
er of  cavahy  and  quarter-master  general. 
B.  was  taken  prisoner  by  the  Russians  in 
1769,  and  sent,  the  next  year,  to  Kamt- 
schatka.  On  the  voyage  thither,  he  saved 
the  ship  that  carried  liim,  when  in  peril 
from  a  storm.  This  circumstance  pro- 
cured him  a  favorable  reception  fi'om 
governor  Niloff",  whose  children  he  in- 
structed in  the  German  and  French  lan- 
guages. Aphanasia,  NiloflT's  yoimger 
daughter,  fell  in  love  with  him.  B.  pre- 
vailed on  her  father  to  set  him  at  liberty, 
and  to  betroth  her  to  hun.  He  had,  how- 
ever, already  conceived  the  project  of 
escaping  from  Kamtschatka,  together 
with  several  other  conspirators.  Apha- 
nasia discovered  his  design,  but  did 
not  forsake  him.  On  the  contrary,  she 
warned  him  when  it  was  resolved  to  se- 
cure his  person.  Accompanied  by  Apha- 
nasia, who  remained  invariably  faithfiil 
to  him,  though  she  had  now  learned  that 
he  was  married,  B.,  together  with  96 
otlier  persons,  left  Kamtschatka  in  May, 
1771,  and  sailed  to  Formosa ;  from  thence 
to  Macao,  where  many  of  his  compan- 
ions died,  and  among  them  the  faithful 
Aphanasia.  At  length  he  arrived  in 
France,  where  he  was  commissioned  to 
found  a  colony  in  Madagascar;  an  un- 
dertaking of  which  he  foresaw  the  diffi- 
culties, especially  as  the  success  depended 
on  the  assistance  of  the  officers  in  the 
Isle  of  France,  to  whom  he  was  referred 
for  the  greater  part  of  his  equipment.  In 
June,  1774,  B.  arrived  in  Madagascar, 
established  a  settlement  at  Foul  point, 
and  gained  the  good  will  of  several  tribes, 
who,  in  1776,  appointed  him  their  am- 
pansacabe,  or  kuig;  on  which  occasion 
the  women  also  swore  allegiance  to  his 
wife.  Afterwards,  he  went  to  Europe, 
with  the  design  of  obtaining  for  the  na- 
tion a  poweriiil  ally  and  some  commer- 
cial advantages.  But,  on  his  arrival  in 
France,  he  was  compelled,  by  the  perse- 
cutions of  the  French  ministry,  to  enter 
into  the  Austrian  service,  in  which  he 
commanded  against  the  Prussians  in  the 
battle  of  Habelschwerdt,  1778.  In  1783, 
he  made  an  attempt  in  England  to  fit  out 
an  expedition  to  Madagascar.  He  re- 
ceived assistance  from  private  persons  in 
London,  and  particularly  from  a  commer- 
cial house  at  Baltimore,  in  America.    In 


58 


BENJOWSKY— BENSERADE. 


October,  1784,  he  set  out,  leaving  his 
wife  in  America,  and  landed  in  Madagas- 
Ccir,  1785.  Having  there  commenced 
hostiUties  against  the  French,  the  author- 
ities in  the  Isle  of  France  sent  troops 
against  him.  In  an  action  wJiich  took 
place  May  23,  1786,  he  was  mortally 
wounded  in  the  breast  by  a  ball.  B. 
wrote  an  account  of  the  events  of  liis  hfe 
m  French.  Wilham  Nicholson  has  pub- 
lished an  English  translation  of  it,  made 
from  the  manuscript.  His  widow  died  at 
her  estate  Vieska,  near  Betzko,  Dec.  4, 
1825.  Benjowsky's  only  son  is  said  to  have 
been  devoured  by  rats  in  Madagascar. 

Bejj-Lawers  ;  a  mountain  of  Scotland, 
in  the  county  of  Perth,  4015  feet  above 
the  level  of  the  sea ;  11  miles  S.  George- 
town. 

Ben-Lodi  ;  a  mountain  of  Scotland,  in 
Perthshire,  3009  feet  above  the  sea;  4 
miles  S.  W.  Callander. 

Ben-Lomond  ;  a  mountain  of  Scotland, 
in  Stirlingshire,  3240  feet  above  the  sea ; 
26  miles  W.  StirUng. 

Ben-Ma  CDtriE ;  a  mountain  of  Scot- 
land, on  the  western  confines  of  Aber- 
deenshire, 4300  feet  high.  It  is  the  sec- 
ond highest  mountain  in  Great  Britain. 

Ben-More  ;  a  mountain  of  Scotland, 
in  the  island  of  Mull,  3097  feet  above  the 
level  of  the  sea. 

Ben-More  ;  a  mountain  of  Scotland, 
in  Perthshire,  3903  feet  above  the  level  of 
the  sea ;  20  miles  W.  Crief. 

Ben-Nevis  ;  a  moiintain  of  Scotland, 
in  the  county  of  Dumbarton,  the  highest 
in  the  island  of  Great  Britain.  It  rises 
4370  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  A 
great  portion  of  this  mountain  consists  of 
porphyry  of  different  shades,  and  beauti- 
ful red  granite.  It  also  contains  a  vein 
of  lead  ore,  richly  impregnated  with  sil- 
ver. The  summit  is  generally  covered 
with  snow. 

Benningsen,  Levin  Augustus,  baron 
o^  Russian  commander-in-chief,  born  at' 
Banteln,  in  Hanover,  1745,  early  entered 
into  the  Russian  service,  and  distinguish- 
ed himself  by  great  gallantry  in  the  war 
against  Poland,  under  the  empress  Cath- 
arine II.  He  acted  a  chief  part  ui  the 
conspiracy  of  the  palace  against  the  em- 
peror Paul  I.  1)1 1806,  he  was  appointed 
to  command  the  Russian  anny  which 
hastened  to  the  assistance  of  the  Prus- 
sians ;  but,  before  his  arrival,  the  Prussians 
were  defeated  at  Jena.  He  afterwards 
fought  the  murderous  battle  of  Eylau 
(next  to  that  of  Mojaisk,  perhaps,  the 
most  bloody  in  miUtary  historj'),  and  the 
battle  of  Friedland.    After  the  peace  of 


Tilsit,  he  retired  to  his  estates.  In  1813, 
lie  led  a  Russian  army,  called  the  arviyof 
Poland,  into  Saxony,  took  part  in  the 
battle  of  Leipsic,  and  blockaded  Ham- 
burg. After  commanding  the  army  in 
tlie  south  of  Russia,  he  finally  settled 
in  his  native  country,  and  died  Oct.  3, 
1826.  He  is  the  author  of  Thoughts  on 
certjxui  Points  requisite  for  an  Officer  of 
Light  Cavalry  to  be  acquainted  with  (Ri- 
ga, 1794 ;  Wihia,  1805). 

Bennington  ;  a  post-town  in  a  county 
of  the  same  name,  in  Vennont,  watered 
by  a  branch  of  the  Hoosack ;  37  miles 
N.  E.  Albany,  68  S.  W.  AVindsor,  115  S. 
by  W.  Montpelier,  1:32  W.  N.  W.  Boston. 
Lon.  73°  W. ;  lat.  42°  42'  N.  Population 
in  1810,  2524 ;  m  1820,  2485.  It  borders 
on  New  York,  is  situated  in  a  good  fann- 
ing country,  and  is  a  place  of  considera- 
ble trade  and  manufactures.  The  courts 
for  the  county  are  held  alternately  at  Ben- 
nington and  Manchester.  On  mount  An- 
thony, in  this  town,  there  is  a  cave  con- 
taining many  beautiful  petrifactions. — 
Two  famous  battles  were  fought  here,  on 
the  16th  of  August,  1777,  in  which  gen- 
eral Stark,  at  the  head  of  1600  American 
militia,  gained  a  distinguished  victory 
over  the  British. 

Benno,  St.,  of  the  family  of  the  counts  of 
Woldenberg,  bom  at  Hildesheim,  in  1010, 
became  (1028)  a  Benedictine  monk,  in  the 
convent  of  St.  Michael  there.  Henry  IV 
(1066)  made  him  bishop  of  Misnia,  and 
favored  him  by  repeated  donations  of 
estates  for  his  church.  Nevertheless,  B. 
took  a  secret  part  in  the  consphacy  of  the 
Saxon  nobles  against  the  emperor,  for 
which  reason  Henry  led  him  away  pris- 
oner, when  he  passed  Misnia,  in  1075, 
after  the  battle  on  Uie  Unstrut.  He  was 
afterwards  set  at  hberty,  but  several  times 
proved  faithless  to  the  emperor.  He  died 
1107.  His  bones  began  by  degrees  to 
work  miracles ;  and  pope  Adrian  VI,  after 
many  entreaties  from  the  Saxons,  as  well 
as  from  the  emperor  Charles  V,  and  hav- 
ing received  large  sums  of  money,  placed 
him  among  the  saints,  1523.  It  was 
thought  that  this  canonization  would  tend 
to  the  promotion  of  the  Catholic  faith  in 
Saxony.  At  present,  the  bones  of  St. 
Benno  are  in  the  city  of  Munich,  wliich 
has  chosen  him  for  its  patron. 

Benserade,  Isaac  de,  a  poet  at  the 
court  of  Louis  XIV,  bom,  1612,  at  Lyons- 
la-Forfit,  a  small  town  in  Normandy, 
wrote  for  the  stage,  and  composed  a  great 
number  of  ingenious  verses  for  the  king 
and  many  distinguished  persons  at  court. 
In  the  first  half  of  the  reign  of  Louis  XIV, 


BENSERADE— BENTIVOGLIO. 


the  court,  and  the  followers  of  the  court, 
patronised  songs  of  gallantry,  rondeaux, 
triolets,  madrigals  and  sonnets,  containing 
sallies  of  wit,  conceits  and  eftUsions  of 
gallantry,  in  the  affected  style  then  prev- 
alent. No  one  succeeded  so  well  in  this 
art  as  B.,  who  was  tlierefore  called,  by 
way  of  eminence,  le  potte  de  la  cour.  He 
received  many  pensions  for  his  perform- 
ances, and  lived  at  great  expense.  Wea- 
ried, at  last,  widi  the  life  which  he  led  at 
court,  he  retired  to  his  countrj'-seat,  Gen- 
tilly,  and  died  1691. 

Bensley,  Thomas ;  a  printer  in  Fleet 
street,  London.  He  and  Bulmer  are 
among  the  first  typographical  artists  in 
England.  He  distinguished  himself  first 
by  the  edition  which  he  printed  of  the 
English  translation  of  Lavater's  Physiog- 
nomy, London,  1789,  5  vols.,  4to.  The 
most  beautiful  productions  of  his  jn-ess 
ai-e  Mackliu's  splendid  edition  of  tlie  Eng- 
lish translation  of  the  Bible  (1800—15,  7 
vols.,  foUo),  and  that  of  Hume's  History  of 
England  (1806, 10  vols.,  fbho),  botli  adorn- 
ed with  excellent  copper-plates.  Among 
his  impressions  of  a  smaller  size,  the  edi- 
tions of  Shakspeare  (1803,  7  vols.),  and 
Hume  (1803,  10  vols.),  \vitli  masterly  en- 
.gravings  on  wood,  are  distinguished.  He 
has  also  funiished  several  well-executed 
impressions  on  parchment,  and  first  used 
the  printing-press  invented  by  Koenig 
and  Bauer,  for  Elliotson's  Enghsh  trans- 
lation of  Blumenbach's  Physiology  (Lon- 
don, 1818). 

Bestham,  Jeremy,  an  English  lawyer, 
born  in  1749,  never  appeared  at  the  bar, 
nor  has  he  published  his  chief  works  him- 
self They  have  been  arranged  and  trans- 
lated into  French  by  his  friend  M.  Du- 
mont,  and  pruited  paitly  in  Paris  and 
partly  in  London.  Among  them  are 
TraiUs  de  Legislation,  civile  et  phiale, 
&c.  (Paris,  1802,  3  vols.),  and  Theorie  des 
Peines  et  des  Recompenses  (London,  1801, 
2  vols.).  B.  is  a  friend  of  refonii  m  pai-- 
liament,  and  of  a  thorough  correction  of 
civil  and  criminal  legislation.  His  Frag- 
ments on  Govcrnmejit,  in  opposition  to 
Biackstone,  appealed  anonymously  in 
1776,  and  witli  his  name,  London,  1823. 
In  France,  his  hteraiy  labors  found  a 
better  reception  than  in  England  or  Ger- 
many. A  small  pamphlet  on  the  liberty 
of  the  press  (London,  1821)  was  addressed 
by  him  to  the  Spanisli  cortes,  during  their 
discussion  of  this  subject;  and,  in  another 
(Three  Tracts  relative  to  the  Spanish  and 
Portuguese  Affairs,  London,  1821),  he 
reflited  the  idea  of  tlie  necessity  of  a 
house  of  peers  iu  Spain,  as  well  as  Mon- 


tesquieu's proposition,  that  judicial  forms 
are  tlie  defence  of  umocence.  His  latest 
work  is  the  Art  of  Packing  (London, 
1821 ) ;  that  is,  of  annnging  juries  so  as  to 
obtain  any  verdict  desired.  His  previous 
work,  Essai  sur  la  Tactique  des  vissem- 
hUes  legislatives,  edited,  from  the  author's 
papers,  by  Etienne  Dumont  (Geneva, 
1815),  and  translated  into  Gennan,  con- 
tains many  useful  observations.  His  In- 
troduction to  the  Prhiciples  of  Morals  and 
Legislation  (London,  1823,  2  vols.)  treats 
of  the  principal  objects  of  government  in  a 
profound  and  compreliensive  maimer.  Za- 
nobelli  has  translated  Bentham's  Theory 
of  Legal  Evidence  into  Itahan  (Bergamo, 
1824,  2  vols.).  Among  the  earher  works 
of  B.  was  his  Defence  of  Usury,  showing 
the  Impolicy  of  the  present  legal  Re- 
straints on  the  Terms  of  pecuniary  Bar- 
gains (1787). 

Bentivoglio,  Comelio;  cardinal  and 
poet,  bom  at  Ferrara,  1668,  of  a  family 
that  held  the  highest  ofBces  m  the  former 
repubUc  of  Bologna.  He  eai-ly  distin- 
guished himself  by  his  progress  in  the 
fine  aits,  hterature,  philosophy,  theology 
and  jurisprudence.  While  at  Fen-ara,  he 
patronised  the  literary  institutions  there. 
Pope  Clement  XI  made  him  his  domes- 
tic prelate  and  secretary  to  the  apostohc 
chamber,  and  sent  him,  in  1712,  as  nuncio 
to  Paris,  where,  during  the  last  years  of 
the  reign  of  Louis  XIV,  lie  acted  an  im- 
portant part  in  the  affair  of  the  bull  Uni- 
genitus.  The  duke  of  Orleans,  regent 
after  the  death  of  Louis,  was  not  favora- 
bly disposed  towards  him ;  the  pope, 
therefore,  transfen'ed  him  to  Ferrara,  and, 
in  1719,  bestowed  on  him  the  hat  of  a 
cardinal,  and  employed  him  at  first  in 
Rome,  near  his  own  pereon,  then  as  legate 
a  latere  in  Romagna,  &c.  B.  died  in 
Rome,  1732.  Poetry  had  occupied  the 
leisure  hours  of  the  learned  cardinal. 
Some  sonnets  composed  by  him  are  to  be 
found  in  Gobbi's  collection,  vol.  3,  and  in 
other  collections  of  his  time.  Under  the 
name  of  Selvaggio  Porpora,  he  translated 
the  Thehais  of  Statius  into  Itahan.  He 
delivered  several  addresses  before  socie- 
ties for  the  promotion  of  the  fuie  arts. 
His  discourse  in  defence  of  the  utihty 
and  moral  influence  of  painting,  sculpture 
and  architecture,  delivered  in  the  academy 
of  design,  at  Rome,  1707,  was  reprinted 
by  the  academy  of  the  Arcadians,  m  tlie 
2d  vol.  of  the  Prose  degli  Arcadi. 

Bentivoglio,  Guy  or  Guido,  celebrated 
as  a  cardinal  and  a  historian,  was  born  at 
Ferrara,  in  1579.  He  studied  at, Padua 
with  great  reputation,  and  afterwards,  fix- 


60 


BENTIVOGLIO— BENTLEY. 


ing  his  residence  at  Rome,  acquired  gen- 
eral esteem  by  his  prudence  and  integrity. 
He  was  nuncio  hi  Flanders  from  1(307  to 
1616,  and  afterwards  hi  France  till  1621. 
His  character  stood  so  high,  that,  on  the 
death  of  Urban  VIII,  m  1644,  he  was 
generally  thought  to  be  the  most  likely 
person  to  succeed  him ;  but,  on  entering 
the  conclave,  in  the  hottest  and  most  un- 
healthy season  of  the  year,  he  was  seized 
with  a  fever,  of  which  he  died,  aged  65 
years.  He  had  lived  in  a  magnificent 
style,  and  was  much  embarrassed  at  the 
time  of  his  death — a  circumstance  attrib- 
uted to  his  canvass  for  the  papacy.  Car- 
dinal B.  was  an  able  politician,  and  his 
historical  memoirs  are  such  as  we  should 
expect  from  such  a  man.  The  most  valu- 
able of  these  are  his  History  of  the  Civil 
Wars  in  Flanders,  written  in  Italian,  and 
first  pubUshed  at  Cologne,  1630,  a  trans- 
lation of  which,  by  Heniy  earl  of  Mon- 
mouth, appeared  m  1654  (London,  folio) ; 
an  Account  of  Flanders,  during  his  lega- 
tion, also  translated  by  the  earl  of  Mon- 
mouth (folio,  1652) ;  his  own  Memoirs ; 
and  a  collection  of  lettei-s,  which  are  reck- 
oned among  the  best  specimens  of  epis- 
tolary writing  in  the  Italian  language  (an 
edition  of  which  was  published  at  Cam- 
bridge, in  1727).  All  these,  except  the 
Memoirs,  have  been  pubhshed  together  at 
Paris,  1645 — 1648,  folio,  and  at  Venice, 
1668,  4to. 

Bentlet,  Richard,  a  celebrated  Eng- 
lish divine  and  classical  scholar,  distin- 
guished as  a  polemical  writer,  in  the  lat- 
ter part  of  the  17th  century,  was  bom  in 
1662.  His  father  is  said  to  have  been  a 
blacksmith.  To  his  mother,  who  was  a 
woman  of  strong  natural  abilities,  he  was 
indebted  for  the  first  rudiments  of  his 
education.  At  the  age  of  14,  he  entered 
St  John's  college,  Cambridge.  In  1682, 
he  left  the  univei-sity,  and  became  usher 
of  a  school  at  Spalduig;  and  tliis  situation 
he  reUnquished,  in  the  following  year,  for 
that  of  tutor  to  the  son  of  doctor  Stilling- 
fleet,  dean  of  St.  Paul's.  He  accompanied 
his  pupil  to  Oxford,  where  he  avtiiled 
himself  of  the  literary  treasures  of  the 
Bodleian  library,  in  the  prosecution  of  his 
studies.  In  1684,  he  took  the  degree  of 
A.M.  at  Cambridge,  and,  in  1689,  obtained 
the  same  honor  at  the  sister  university. 
His  first  published  work  was  a  Latin 
epistle  to  doctor  John  Mill,  in  an  edition 
of  the  Chronicle  of  John  Malela,  which 
appeared  in  1691.  It  contained  observa- 
tions on  the  writings  of  that  Greek  histo- 
rian, and  displayed  so  much  profound 
learning  and  critical  acumen,  as  excited 


the  sanguine  antieipations  of  classical 
scholars  from  the  fliture  labors  of  the 
author.  Doctor  StiUingfleet,  having  been 
raised  to  tlie  bishopric  of  Worcester,  made 
B.  his  chaplaui,  and,  in  1692,  collated  him 
to  a  prebend  in  his  cathedral.  The  rec- 
ommendation of  his  patron  and  of  bishop 
Lloyd  procured  him  the  honor  of  being 
chosen  the  first  preacher  of  the  lecture 
instituted  by  the  celebrated  Robert  Boyle 
for  the  defence  of  Christianity.  The  dis- 
courses against  atheism,  which  he  deUv- 
ered  on  this  occasion,  were  published  in 
1694 :  they  have  since  been  often  reprint- 
ed, and  ti'anslated  into  several  foreign 
languages.  In  1693,  he  was  appointed 
keeper  of  the  royal  library  at  St.  James's 
— a  circumstance  which  incidentally  led 
to  his  famous  controversy  with  the  lion. 
Charles  Boyle,  afterwards  earl  of  Orrery, 
relative  to  tlie  genuineness  of  the  Greek 
Epistles  of  Phalaris,  an  edition  of  which 
was  published  by  the  latter,  then  a  stu- 
dent at  Christ-church,  Oxford.  In  this 
dispute,  Bentley  was  completely  victo- 
rious, though  opposed  by  the  greatest 
wits  and  critics  of  the  age,  including  Pope, 
Swift,  Garth,  Atterbury,  Aldrich,  DodweU, 
and  Conyers  Middleton,  who  advocated 
the  opinion  of  Boyle  with  a  degree  of 
wannth  and  ilhberality  which  appears 
veiy  extraordinary.  But  the  motives  of 
B.'s  assailants  were  various.  Swift,  in  his 
Battle  of  the  Books,  took  up  tlie  cudgels 
against  him  in  defence  of  his  friend  sir 
William  Temple ;  doctor  Garth  attacked 
him  probably  from  mere  wantonness,  in 
the  well-known  couplet  in  his  Dispen- 
sary— 

So  diamoucls  owe  a  lustre  to  iheir  foil, 
And  to  a  Bentley  'lis  we  owe  a  Boyle. 
Some  were  actuated  by  personal  consid- 
erations, among  whom  was  Conyers  Mid- 
dleton, whose  persevering  hostility  to  B., 
during  a  long  series  of  years,  seems  to 
have  originated  from  the  latter  having 
ajiplied  to  the  former,  when  a  young  stu- 
dent in  the  univei-sity,  tlie  contemptuous 
epithet  oi' Jiddling  Conyers,  because  he 
jilayed  on  the  violin.  It  does  not  appear 
who  was  the  author  of  a  punning  carica- 
ture, which  was  produced  on  this  occasion, 
representing  B.  about  to  be  thrust  into  the 
brazen  bull  of  Phalaris,  and  exclaiming, 
"  I  had  rather  be  roasted  than  Boyled.^ 
In  1699,  B.,  who  had  three  years  before 
been  created  D.  D.,  published  his  Disser- 
tation on  the  Epistles  of  Phalaris,  in 
which  he  satisfiictorily  proved  that  they 
Avere  not  the  compositions  of  the  tyrant  of 
Agrigentum,  who  lived  more  than  five 
centuries  before  the  Christian  era,  but 


BENTLEY— BENZOIC  ACID. 


Gl 


were  written  by  some  sophist,  under  tlie 
borrowed  name  of  Phalaris,  in  tlie  declin- 
ing age  of  Greek  literature.  Soon  after 
this  piiblicxition,  doctor  B.  was  presented 
by  the  crown  to  the  mastership  of  Trinity 
college,  Cambridge,  Morth  nearly  £1000 
a  year.  He  now  resigned  the  ])rebend  of 
Worcester,  and,  in  1701,  was  collated  to 
the  archdeaconry  of  Ely.  His  conduct  as 
liead  of  the  college  gave  rise  to  accu- 
sations against  iiini  from  the  vice-master 
and  some  of  the  fellows,  who,  among 
vaiious  offences,  charged  him  with  em- 
bezzling the  college  money.  The  con- 
test was  much  protracted,  and  occasioned 
a  lawsuit,  which  was  decided  in  the  doc- 
tor's favor,  about  twenty  yeai-s  after.  In 
1711,  he  pubhshed  an  edition  of  Horace, 
at  Cambridge,  in  4to.,  ^^"llich  was  reprint- 
ed at  Amsterdam ;  and,  in  1713,  appeared 
]iis  remarks  on  Collins's  Discourse  on 
Free-thinking,  under  the  form  of  a  Letter 
to  F.  H.  [Francis  Hare]  D.  D.,  by  Phile- 
leutherus  Lipsiensis.  He  was  appointed 
regius  professor  of  divinity  in  171G,  and, 
in  the  same  year,  issued  proposals  for  a 
new  edition  of  the  Greek  Testament — an 
undertaking  for  which  he  %vas  admirably 
qualified,  but  which  he  was  prevented  from 
executing,  in  consequence  of  the  auimad- 
vei-sions  of  his  determined  adversary,  Mid- 
dleton.  In  1717,  George  I,  visiting  the  uni- 
versity, nominated  by  mandate,  as  is  usual 
on  such  occjisions,  several  persons  for  the 
doctor's  degree  in  divinity.  It  was  tlie 
duty  of  B.,  as  professor,  to  perfoi-m  tlie 
ceremony  called  creation ;  previous  to 
which  he  made  a  demand  of  four  guineas 
from  each  candidate  beyond  the  usual 
fees,  absolutely  refusing  to  create  any  doc- 
tor without  payment.  Some  sul)mitte<i ; 
but  others,  among  whom  was  jWiddleton, 
withstood  the  demand,  and  commeHced  a 
prosecution  against  the  ])rofessor  before 
the  vice-chancellor,  who,  deciding  in  favor 
of  the  complainants,  fii-st  suspended  B., 
and  subsequently  degraded  him  from  his 
honors,  rights  and  offices  in  the  univer- 
sity. These  proceedings  were,  after  con- 
siderable htigauon,  annulled  by  the  court 
of  king's  bench ;  and  the  doctor,  in  1728, 
was  restored  to  all  his  former  honors  and 
emoluments.  In  1726,  he  published  an 
edition  of  Terence  and  Phsedrus;  and 
his  notes  on  the  comedies  of  the  former 
involved  him  in  a  dispute  with  bishop 
Hare,  on  the  metres  of  Terence,  which 
provoked  the  sarcastic  observation  of  sir 
Isaac  Newton,  that  "two  dignified  clergy- 
men, instead  of  minding  their  duty,  liad 
fallen  out  about  a  play-book."  The  last 
work  of  doctor  B.  was  an  edition  of  Mil- 

VOL.    II.  6 


ton's  Paradise  Lost,  with  conjectural 
emendations,  which  appeared  in  1732. 
This  added  notliiug  to  his  reputation,  and 
may,  in  one  word,  be  characterized  a  fail- 
ure. He  died  at  the  master's  lodge  at 
Trinity,  July  14,  1742,  and  was  inten-ed 
in  the  college  chapel.  As  a  scholar  and 
a  critic,  B.  was  veiy  distinguished.  The 
best  informed  of  his  opponents  respected 
his  talents,  while  they  were  loading  him 
with  classical  abuse,  which  he  did  not  fail 
to  retiu-n  with  interest.  Now  that  the  prej- 
udices, excited  apparently  by  his  pei-sonal 
conduct,  have  subsided,  his  preeminence 
in  that  species  of  literature  which  he  cul- 
tivated, is  universally  acknowledged.  The 
celebrated  Gerinan  philologist  J.  A.  Wolf 
Avrotc  an  excellent  biography  of  B.  in  the 
Analeda,  (vol.  1,  Berlin.) 

Benzel-Sternau,  Charles  Christian, 
count,  born  at  Mentz,  1750,  was,  in  1812, 
j)resident  of  the  ministry  for  the  depart- 
ment of  the  interior  in  the  former  grand- 
duchy  of  Frankfort,  and  noAv  hves  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Hanau.  He  is  one  of 
the  most  humorous  writers  of  our  time, 
and,  in  the  character  of  his  writings, 
resembles  J.  Paul  Richter.  His  fume  was 
established  by  tlie  Golden  Calf  (a  biogra- 
phy, 1602 — 1804,  4  vols,  in  the  first  edi- 
tion). B.  has  written  much,  and  all  his 
productions  display  Avit,  richness  of  im- 
agery, and  nice  obsei-vation  of  character. 

Be.xzexberg,  John  Frederic,  born, 
May  5, 1777,  at  SchoUer,  a  village  between 
El?>erfeld  and  Diisseldorf,  studied  theolo- 
gy in  Marburg,  and,  in  Gottingen,  mathe- 
matics and  natural  philosophy.  He  ren- 
dered much  service  to  the  latter  science, 
by  his  observations  on  the  fall  of  bodies, 
and  the  motion  of  the  earth,  which  he 
began  by  experiments  in  the  steeple  of 
the  church  of  St.  Michael,  in  Hamburg, 
and  contiiiHed  in  the  shafl  of  a  mine,  in 
the  county  of  Mark,  having  a  depth  of 
266  feet.  He  was  appointed,  in  1805, 
professor  of  astronomy  and  natural  phi- 
losophy, by  the  then  elector  of  Bavaria, 
in  Diisseldorf.  At  a  later  period,  he  has 
written  much  in  favor  of  the  Pnissian 
government ;  but  the  influence  of  his 
political  ])ieces  has  not  been  so  great  as 
that  of  his  scientific  observations  above- 
mentioned.  B.  hves  now  retired,  near 
Crefeld,  m  the  neighborhood  of  the 
Rhine. 

Benzoic  Acid  is  obtained  by  the  appli- 
cation of  a  moderate  lieat  to  the  balsam 
•of  Pern :  it  rises  in  vapor,  and  condenses 
in  slender  prisms,  which  are  white  and 
briUiant.  It  has  a  peculiar  aromatic  odor. 
When  heated  on  burning  fuel,  it  inflames 


G2 


BENZOIC  ACID— BERBERS. 


and  bums  with  a  clear  yellow  light.  It 
unites  with  alkalies  and  earths,  forming 
salts  called  benzoates,  which  are  unimpor- 
tant, except  the  bcnzoate  of  iron,  which, 
from  its  insolubility,  affords  a  conven- 
ient means  of  separating  iron  from  its  solu- 
tions, so  as  to  ascertain  its  quantit}',  and 
also  of  obtaining  it  free  from  manganese, 
which  forms  with  the  acid  a  soluble  salt 
(See  Benzoiii.) 

Benzoin  is  a  solid,  fragile,  vegetable 
substance,  of  a  reddish-brown  color.  In 
commerce,  two  varieties  are  distinguish- 
ed, viz.  tJie  common  and  the  amyg- 
daloidal  ;  the  latter  con  taming  whitish 
tears,  of  an  almond  shape,  diffused 
tlirough  its  substance.  It  is  imported 
from  Sumatra,  Siam  and  Java,  and  is 
found,  also,  m  South  America.  Benzoin 
is  obtained  from  the  tree  called  styrax 
benzoin,  and  perhaps  fiom  some  others. 
On  mtdting  incisions .  into  the  bark,  it 
flows  out  in  the  form  of  a  balsamic  juice, 
having  a  pungent  taste,  and  an  agreeable 
odor.  The  pure  balsam  consists  of  two 
principal  substances,  viz.  a  resin,  and  a 
peculiar  acid  termed  benzoic  (q.  v.),  which 
is  procured  from  the  mass  by  sublimation. 
It  is  soluble  in  water.  This  acid  is  found, 
also,  as  a  constituent  princijjle  in  storax 
and  the  balsams  of  Tolu  and  Fern :  it  exists 
in  the  urine  of  cows,  camels,  and  even  of 
young  children.  It  is  sometimes  found 
in  a  crj-stalline  form  on  the  pods  of  the 
vanilla.  Benzoin  is  not  soluble  in  water, 
but  is  readily  dissolved  in  alcohol,  by  the 
aid  of  a  gentle  heat.  The  tincture  thus 
made  is  used  in  pharmacy.  A  small 
quantity  of  tliis  tincture,  dropped  into 
water,  forms  a  white,  milky  fluid,  which 
is  used  in  France  as  a  cosmetic,  under 
the  name  of  lait  virginal.  The  gum  is  a 
principal  ingredient  of  the  common  court 
plaster.  The  acid,  as  Avell  as  the  gum,  is 
employed  in  medicine:  tliey  are  stimu- 
lating, and  act  more  particularly  upon 
the  pulmonary  system  ;  whence  they  are 
used  in  asthma  and  chronic  catarrh. 

Beranger,  Pierre,  Jean  de  ;  a  lyric 
poet,  of  that  class  which,  in  modem  Ute- 
rature,  is  almost  pecuhar  to  the  French, 
called  chansonnier ;  bom  Aug.  19,  1780 ; 
educated  by  his  grandfatlier,  a  poor  tailor; 
was  destined  for  the  printing  business, 
when  his  talents  for  poetry  excited  atten- 
tion. Lucien  Bonaparte  became  tlie  pa- 
tron of  the  amiable  poet,  who  gave  zest 
to  his  social  songs  by  allusions  to  the 
politics  of  the  day.  The  imperial  censors- 
spared  Mm  ;  the  royal  suppressed  his 
songs,  wliich,  for  this  reason,  were  read 
and  sung  with  the  greater  eagerness.    In 


1822,  he  was  condemned  to  imprisonment 
for  1.3  months,  and  deprived  of  a  small 
ofiice  in  the  royal  univereity.  Tliis  ])ro- 
cess  increased  his  reputation.  The  las^ 
edition  of  the  Chansons  de  P.  J.  de  Bi- 
ranger,  (1  vol.,  Paris,  182U,  24mo.,)  con- 
tains the,  happiest  specimens  of  wit, 
humor,  gayety,  satire,  and  flasiies  of 
sublime  poetiy,  which  place  him  by  the 
side  of  the  most  distinguished  chanson- 
nicrs  of  France — Blot,  Colle  and  Panard. 
B.  ascends  with  singular  ease  from  the 
lower  sphere  of  poetry  to  a  high  and 
noble  enthusiasm,  and  the  rapidity  of  the 
transition  produces  a  striking  effect.  We 
would  reler  the  reader  to  his  beautiful 
verses  entitled  Mon  Ame.  He  was  never 
a  flatterer  of  Napoleon  when  money  or 
titles  were  to  be  gained  by  flatterj',  and 
has  never  reviled  him  since  reviling  has 
been  a  means  of  rising.  He  is  a  truly 
national  poet,  and  Benjamin  Constant 
has  said  of  him,  Beranger  fait  des  ode^ 
sublimes,  quand  il  ne  croit  /aire  que  de 
simples  chansons  (Beranger  makes  sul>- 
lime  odes,  when  he  thinks  he  is  making 
simple  songs).  Dec.  11,  1828,  B.  was 
sentenced,  by  the  court  of  correctional 
jM)Uce,  to  pay  10,000  francs  (about  1800 
dollai-s),  and  to  undergo  nine  months'  im- 
prisonment, for  having  attacked  the  dig- 
nity of  the  church  and  of  the  Icing  in  his 
poems  the  Guardian  Angel,  Coronation 
of  Chai-les  the  Simple,  and  Gerontocracy. 
His  songs  are  at  once  a  storehouse  of 
gayety  and  satire,  and  a  record  of  the 
history  of  his  time ;  and  happy  is  that 
nation  which  can  boast  of  so  excellent 
and  national  a  poet.  He  ofl;en  sings  of 
wine,  and  we  recollect  no  other  great 
modern,  poet  who  has  written  a  series  of 
songs  on  this  subject,  except  Gothe,  in 
his  Buch  des  Schenken,  one  of  the  12 
books  of  the  fVestdsUicher  Divan.  The 
difference  between  them  is  striking. 
Gothe  mixes  philosophical  reflections 
and  praises  of  the  h«\uor  with  a  boldness 
which  borders  on  ten^erity,  while  B.  is 
gay  almost  to  exti-avagance.  We  doubt 
whetlier  B.'s  poems  in  translation  would 
ever  give  a  fair  idea  of  the  original,  be- 
cause their  beauty  consists,  in  a  great 
measure,  in  the  delicacy  and  p<ingency 
of  the  expression,  which  could  hardly  be 
transferred  to  another  language. 

Berbers  ;  the  name  of  a  people  spread 
over  nearly  the  whole  of  Northern  Africa. 
From  their  name  tlie  appellation  of  Bar- 
bary  is  derived.  (See  Barbary  States.) 
They  are  considered  the  most  ancient 
inhabitants  of  that  country.  Their  dif- 
ferent tribes  are  scattered  over  tlie  whole 


BERBERS— BERCHTOLD. 


G3 


space  intervening  between  the  shores  of 
llie  Atlantic  and  the  confines  of  Eg}'pt ; 
but  the  different  branches  of  mount  Atlas 
are  their  principal  abode ;  while  to  the 
south  they  are  bounded  by  the  Negro 
states  on  the  edge  of  the  great  Sahara,  or 
Desert.  For  most  of  what  we  know  of 
them,  we  are  indebted  to  Leo  Africanus 
and  the  Arabian  writers,  whose  state- 
ments are  corroborated  by  Hornemann 
(q.v.)  and  captain  Lyon,  who  have  visited 
llieni  in  our  own  days.  3Iuch  informa- 
tion concerning  tlieni  is  yet  wanted. 
"\\"hei-e  they  live  by  themselves,  and  are 
not  spread  among  the  Arabians  and  other 
people  of  the  Barbary  states,  they  man- 
ifest very  little  cultivation, — warlike  nom- 
ades,  without  written  laws, — and  ex- 
hibit tJie  chief  traits  which  characterize 
all  the  African  nations.  They  are  ex- 
tremely abstinent.  Their  language  is  a 
matter  of  much  curiosity  for  the  philolo- 
gist. It  has  many  points  of  resemblance 
Mith  the  Teutonic  languages.  (See  iXde- 
jung's  Mith-idates,  vol.  3.,  5tli  part,  page 
42  et  seq.,  and  the  article,  in  volume  2, 
new  series,  p.  438  et  seq.  of  the  Trans- 
actioiis  of  the  American  Philosophical  So- 
ciety.) We  know,  from  trustworthy  ac- 
counts, tliat  iMr.  Hodgson,  attached  to  the 
American  consulate-general  at  Algiers, 
lias  sent  to  an  eminent  scholar  of  the  U. 
States  coimnunicatjons  concerning  the 
Berber  language,  which  will  add  much 
to  the  knowledge  already  i)Ossessed  of 
that  dialect.  (For  further  infonnation  re- 
sj»ecting  the  Berbers,  see  Lyon's  Travels 
in  JVortheni  Africa,  Langle's  translation 
of  Horneinami's  Travels  in  Africa,  and 
almost  all  the  works  which  treat  of  the 
north  of  Africa.)  It  appeai-s  from  the 
Berber  language,  that  the  first  inhaliitants 
of  the  Canary  islands  were  of  tlie  Berber 
race. 

Berbice  ;  a  district  of  Guiana,  formerly 
belonging  to  tlie  Dutch,  but  ceded  to 
Great  Britain  in  1814 ;  watered  by  the 
river  Berbice,  the  Canje,  and  othei-s.  It 
extends  from  Abarry  creek,  on  the  west, 
to  Courantine  i'wgy  on  the  east,  along  the 
roast,  about  150  miles.  The  towns  are 
New  Amsterdam,  the  capital,  and  Fort 
Nassau.  The  productions  are  sugar,  rum, 
cotton,  coflTee,  cocoa  and  tobacco.  The 
coast  is  mai-shy  and  the  air  damp.  Popu- 
lation, in  1815,  29,959;  of  whom  550 
were  whites,  240  people  of  color,  and 
25,1G9  slaves. 

Berchtesgaden  ;  a  market-town  in 
tlie  Salzburg  Alps,  in  the  khigdoin  of  Ba- 
varia, with  3000  inhabitants ;  famous  for 
the  salt  mineg  in  its  neighborhood,  the  salt» 


work  Frauenreith,  and  the  aqueducts 
which  conduct  the  salt  water  to  the  works 
called  ReichenhaU.  The  rock-salt  does 
not  appear  here  in  large,  solid  masses, 
but  ui  small  pieces  mixed  -svith  clay. 
Fresh  water  is  let  into  the  mines,  and, 
having  been  saturated  with  salt,  is  carried 
mto  large  reservoirs,  fi-om  which,  at  the 
works  of  Frauenreith,  130,000  cwt.  of  salt 
are  annually  obtained.  A  large  part  of 
the  water  is  conducted  to  ReichenhalL 
At  this  place  a  large  salt-spruig  was  dis- 
covered in  1613,  and,  on  account  of  a 
deficiency  in  wood  required  in  the  prepa- 
ration of  the  salt,  the  water  was  conveyed, 
by  means  of  an  aqueduct,  to  Traunstcin, 
20  miles  distant.  Another  aqueduct,  .35 
miles  long,  from  ReichenhaU  to  Rosen- 
heim, was  completed  in  1809,  and,  in 
1817,  these  were  again  brought  into 
communication  with  B.  in  a  most  admi- 
rable way.  The  fii-st  machine,  which 
raises  the  brine  coming  from  B.  50  feet 
high,  is  near  this  place.  From  hence,  it 
runs  in  pipes  3500  feet,  with  a  fall  of  17 
feet  only,  into  the  second  reservoir.  A 
hydraulic  machine,  invented  by  von 
Reichenbach,  here  hfts  the  salt  water 
311  feet  high,  in  iron  pipes  934  feet  long. 
The  water  then  runs  in  pipes  7480  feet, 
with  37  feet  fall,  to  a  valley,  over  which 
it  is  led  in  iron  pipes,  1225  feet  long,  and, 
after  running  12,073  feet  farthei",  it  falls 
into  the  third  reservoir.  Here  is  a  second 
hydraulic  machine,  wliich  lifts  the  water 
to  a  ])crpendicular  height  of  1218  feet,  in 
pipes  3500  feet  long ;  and  hence  it  flows, 
in  pipes  73,000  feet  long,  to  ReichenhaU. 
The  pi])es  running  from  B.  to  Reichen- 
haU amoimt  to  104,140  feet.  From 
ReichenhaU  to  Siegsdorf  there  is  but  one 
aqueduct  for  the  salt  water  intended  tor 
Traunstein  and  Rosenheim,  94,800  feet 
long.  From  Siegsdorf  to  Tramistein  the 
brine  flows  without  an  aqueduct.  In 
Traunstein,  140,00ft  cwt.  are  annually 
produced.  The  other  part  of  the  brine 
flows  in  pij)es,  78,000  feet  long,  to  Rosen- 
heim, which  produces  annually  180,000 
cwt.  of  salt.  The  water  required  to  work 
the  numerous  macliines  is  brought  from 
places  many  of  Avhich  are  10 — 19,000 
feet  distant. 

Berchtold,  Leopold,  count,  born  in 
1758,  devoted  his  life  to  the  relief  of  the 
wretched.  He  spent  13  yeai-s  in  travel- 
ling through  Europe,  and  4  in  travelling 
through  Asia  and  Africa,  to  assuage  hu- 
man miseiy.  The  results  of  his  experi- 
ence are  contained  in  his  Essay  to  direct 
and  extend  the  Inquiries  of  patriotic 
Travellers  (London,  1789,  2  vols.)     He 


G4 


BERCHTOLD— BERESFORD. 


wrote  several  pamphlets  on  the  means  of 
refonniug  tlie  police,  which  he  caused  to 
be  printed  in  different  European  coim- 
tries,  at  his  own  expense,  and  to  be  dis- 
tributed gratis.  His  prize-questions  gave 
rise  to  many  pamphlets  and  treatises  on 
the  means  of  saving  the  drowned  and  the 
seemingly  dead.  He  offered  a  prize  of 
1000  florins  for  the  best  treatise  on  be- 
neficent institutions,  and  was  himself  the 
founder  of  many.  From  1795  to  97,  he 
travelled  through  Asiatic  and  European 
Turkey,  chiefly  for  the  purpose  of  coun- 
teracting the  ravages  of  the  plague.  At 
a  later  period,  he  was  engaged  in  making 
vaccination  more  extensively  known. 
During  the  famine  that  raged  in  the  Rie- 
sengebirge  {Giant  mountains),  from  1805 
to  180G,  he  procured  com  and  other  pro- 
visions from  distant  regions.  He  fitted 
up  the  palace  Buchlowitz  on  his  estate 
Buchlau  in  Moravia,  as  an  hospital  for 
tlie  sick  and  wounded  Austrian  soldiers. 
Here  this  patriot  and  philanthropist  was 
canied  off  by  a  contagious  nervous  fever, 
July  26,  1809. 

Berct  ;  a  village  on  the  Seine,  at  its  con- 
fluence with  the  Mame,  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  Palis.  The  Parisian  whie-mer- 
chants  have  here  tlteir  stores  of  wine, 
wine-vijiegar,  distilled  liquors,  &c. ;  so 
tliat  the  intercourse  between  B.  and  the 
capital  is  extremely  active.  It  is  increased 
also  by  several  important  tanneries,  sugar- 
refineries  and  paper-mills.  A  lai'ge  pal- 
ace, Le  grand  Bercy,  was  built  by  Levau 
at  tlie  close  of  the  17th  cent^iry.  The 
park  which  belongs  to  it,  containing  900 
acres,  was  planted  by  Lenotre.  M.  de 
Caionne  was  for  some  time  in  possession 
of  it.  The  present  possessor  is  M.  de 
Nicolai. 

Berengarius,  or  Berenger,  of  Tours, 
a  teacher  hi  the  ])hiloso})liical  school  in 
tliat  citj',  and,  in  1040,  archdeacon  of  An- 
gers, is  renowiied  for  his  philosophical 
acuteness  as  one  of  the  scholastic  writers, 
and  also  for  the  boldness  with  which,  in 
1050,  he  declared  himself  against  the 
doctrine  of  transubstantiation,  and  for  his 
consequent  persecutions.  He  was  several 
times  compelled  to  recant,  but  always 
returned  to  the  same  opinion,  that  the 
bread  in  the  Lord's  supper  is  merely  a 
symbol  of  the  body  of  Christ,  in  which 
he  agreed  with  the  Scotchman  John 
Erigena  (called  Scotus).  The  Catholics 
ranked  him  among  the  most  dangerous 
heretics.  He  was  treated  with  forbear- 
ance by  Gi-egoiy  VH,  but  the  scholastics 
belonging  to  the  party  of  the  great  Lan- 
franc,  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  were 


irritated  against  him  to  such  a  degree, 
that  he  retired  to  the  isle  of  St  Cosnias, 
in  the  neighborhood  of  Toui-s,  in  the  year 
1080,  where  he  closed  his  life  at  a  great 
age,  in  pious  exercises  (1088).  On  the 
history  of  this  controversy,  which  has 
been  very  much  misrepresented  by  the 
Benedictines,  new  light  has  been  shed  by 
Lessing,  hi  his  Berengar  (1770),  and  by 
StiiudUn,  who  has  likewise  published  the 
work  of  B.  against  Lanfranc.  This  B. 
must  not  be  confounded  with  Peter  Be- 
renger  of  Poitiers,  wi»o  wrote  a  defence 
of  his  instructer  Abelard. 

Beren'horst,  Francis  Leopold  von  ; 
one  of  the  first  of  the  WTitere  by  whom 
the  military'  art  has  been  founded  on  clear 
and  ceitain  prmciples.  He  was  a  natural 
son  of  prince  Leopold  of  Dessau,  and 
was  born  in  1733.  In  1760,  he  became 
the  adjutant  of  Frederic  II.  After  the 
seven  years'  war,  he  Uved  at  Dessau.  He 
died  ui  1814. 

Berenice  (Greek,  a bringer  of  victorj'). 
1.  This  was  the  name  of  the  wife  of 
Mithridates  the  Great,  king  of  Pontus. 
Her  husband,  when  vanquished  by  Lu- 
cullus,  caused  her  to  be  put  to  death 
(about  the  year  71  B.  C),  lest  she  should 
fall  into  the  hands  of  his  enemies.  Mo- 
iiima,  his  other  wife,  and  his  two  sisters, 
Roxana  and  Statira,  experienced  the  same 
fate. — 2.  The  wife  of  Herod,  brother  to 
the  great  Agrippa,  her  father,  at  whose 
request  Herod  was  made  king  of  Chalcis, 
by  the  emperor  Claudius,  but  soon  died. 
In  spite  of  her  dissolute  life,  she  insinu- 
ated herself  into  the  favor  of  the  emperor 
Vespasian  and  his  son  Titus.  The  latter 
was,  at  one  time,  on  the  point  of  marrying 
her. — 3.  The  wife  of  Ptolemy  Euergetes, 
who  loved  her  husband  with  rare  tender- 
ness, and,  when  he  went  to  war  in  Syria, 
made  a  vow  to  devote  her  beautifid  hair 
to  the  gods,  if  he  returned  safe.  Upon 
Ills  return,  B.  performed  her  vow  in  the 
temple  of  Venus.  Soon  after,  the  hair 
was  missed,  and  the  astronomer  Conon 
of  Samos  declared  that  the  gods  had 
transferred  it  to  the  skies  as  a  constella- 
tion. From  tliis  circumstance,  the  seven 
stars  near  the  tail  of  the  Lion  are  called 
coma  Berenices  (the  hair  of  Berenice). 

Beresford,  William,  baron,  duke  of 
Elvas  and  marquis  of  Campo  Mayor,  for 
the  ability  .ind  courage  which  he  dis- 
played in  the  war  of  Portugal  against 
France,  is  ranked  among  the  distinguish- 
ed generals  of  Great  Britain.  He  or- 
ganized tlie  Portuguese  army,  and  also 
the  militia  of  tlie  coimtry,  in  so  excellent 
a  manner,  that  they  could  vie  Avith  the 


BERESFORD— BERG. 


65 


best  soldiers  of  the  combined  ai'iiiies  in 
the  wars  of  the  penuisula.  In  1810,  B. 
gained  a  victory  over  Souh,  at  Albufera. 
In  1812,  he  commanded  under  Welling- 
ton, and  took  an  important  part  in  the 
victories  at  Vittoria,  Bayonne  and  Tou- 
louse. He  made  his  entrance  into  Bor- 
deaux, March  13,  1814,  witli  the  duke  of 
Angouleme.  May  6,  he  was  i-aised  to 
the  rank  of  baron  by  tlie  kuig  of  Eng- 
land, and,  soon  after,  sent  to  Brazil, 
wlience  he  returned  to  England  in  1815. 
The  prince  regent  of  Portugal  made  him 
generalissimo  of  the  Portuguese  armies. 
He  had  scarcely  arrived  at  Lisbon,  when 
he  was  sent,  by  the  English  government, 
on  an  important  mission  to  Rio  Janeiro. 
Tlie  rigor  Avith  which  he  punished  a  con- 
sj)ii-acy  of  general  Freyre  against  the 
British  army  and  tlie  regency,  in  Lisbon 
(1817),  rendered  him  odious  to  the  Por- 
tuguese militarj'.  He  was,  therefore,  dis- 
missed by  the  cortes  in  1820.  He  then 
went  again  to  Brazil,  aftenvards  to  Eng- 
land, and,  in  Dec,  1820,  ajjpeared  anew 
in  Lisbon,  at  the  head  of  the  English 
forces  sent  to  aid  ui  quelhng  the  rebellion. 
Berezi.va  ;  a  river  in  the  Russian 
province  of  Minsk,  rendered  famous  by 
the  passage  of  the  French  army  under 
Napoleon,  Nov.  26  and  27,  1812.  Admi- 
ral Tschitschakoff,  with  the  Moldaviiui 
army,  forced  his  way  from  the  south,  to 
join  the  main  arm}',  Avhich,  after  Borizoff 
liad  been  retaken,  was  to  assist  the  army 
led  by  Witgenstein  from  the  Dwina,  and, 
in  this  manner,  cut  off  Napoleon  from 
the  Vistula.  Naj)oleon  was,  therefore, 
ol)liged  to  make  the  greatest  efforts,  not- 
m  withstanding  immense  difRculties  occa- 
^  sjoned  by  the  nature  of  the  countiy,  the 
climate,  and  the  critical  situation  of  his 
troops,  to  reach  Minsk,  or,  at  least,  the 
B.,  and  to  pass  it  earlier  than  the  Rus^ 
sians.  To  effect  this,  it  was  necessary  to 
sacrifice  a  great  part  of  the  baggage  and 
artillery,  Nov.  25.  After  the  advanced 
guard  of  tlie  3Ioldavian  army  had  been 
repelled  to  Borizoff,  by  Oudinot,  and  the 
bridge  there  burnt  by  them,  early  in  the 
moi-uing  of  Nov.  20,  two  bridges  wero 
built  near  Sembin,  about  two  miles  above 
Borizoff,  an  undertaking  tlie  more  diffi-r 
cult,  because  both  banks  of  the  river 
were  bordered  by  extensive  morasses, 
covered,  like  the  river  itself,  with  ice  not 
sufficiently  strong  to  afford  passage  to  the 
army,  while  other  passes  were  already 
threatened  by  the  Russians.  Scarcely 
had  a  few  corps  effected  their  passage, 
when  the  greater  part  of  the  army,  un- 
armed and  in  confusion,  rushed  in  crowds 
6* 


upon  the  bridges.  Discipline  had  long 
Ijefore  disappeared.  The  confusion  in- 
creased with  every  minute.  Those  who 
could  not  hojje  to  escape  over  the  bridges 
sought  their  safety  on  the  floating  ice  of 
the  Berezina,  aa  here  most  of  them  per- 
ished, while  rriany  others  were  crowded 
into  the  river  by  their  comrades.  In  this 
latal  retreat,  the  duke  of  Reggio  (Oudi- 
not) led  the  advanced  guard,  with  the 
Poles  under  Dombrowsky  in  front ;  the 
leai-  guai-d  was  formed  by  the  corps  of 
the  duke  of  BeUuno.  Nov.  27,  at  noon, 
the  dear-bought  end  was  gained,  and  the 
army,  leaving  the  road  to  31insk,  took 
that  of  Wihia  to  Warsaw,  with  the  hojie 
of  providing  for  their  necessities  ui  Wil- 
na. — Besides  the  multitudes  who  were 
obliged  to  remain  beyond  the  B.,  the  di- 
vision of  Partouneaiix,  which  formed  the 
rear  guard,  was  also  lost.  It  was  inti'ust- 
ed  with  the  charge  of  burning  the  bridges 
ui  its  rear,  but  it  fell  into  the  hands  of  the 
enemy.  According  to  the  French  buller 
tins,  oidy  a  detachment  of  2000  men,  who 
missed  their  way,  was  taken ;  accorduig 
to  the  Russian  accounts,  the  whole  corps, 
7500  men  and  5  generals. 

Berg  ;  a  duchy  of  Germany ;  bounded 
on  the  north  by  tlie  dychy  of  Cleves,  on 
the  east  by  tlie  county  of  Mark  and  West- 
phalia, on  the  south  by  tlie  Westerwald, 
and  on  the  west  by  the  Rhine.  It  be^ 
longed,  formerly,  to  the  elector  of  Bava- 
i-ia,  but  has  been  included,  since  1815,  in 
tjie  grand-duchy  of  the  Lower  Rhine, 
which  belongs  to  Prussia.  It  contains 
1188  square  miles,  with  983,000  inhabit- 
ants. There  are  mines  of  iron,  copper, 
lead  and  quicksilver ;  but  the  principal 
o'ljects  of  attention  are  the  manufactures, 
which  render  it  one  of  the  most  populous 
and  flourishing  countries  in  Germany : 
of  these,  the  jirjncipal  are  iron,  steel, 
linen,  woollen,  cotton  and  silk,  The  ex- 
tent of  the  manufactures  of  B.  is,  'in  a 
great  measure,  owing  to  the  multitude  of 
skilful  workmen  whom  tlie.fuiy  of  tlie 
Spaniards,  in  the  war  against  the  Nether-, 
lands,  forced  to  leave  their  country.  The 
richest  fled  to  London  and  Haniburg,  die 
poorer  sort,  which  included  a  great  pro- 
]Jortion  of  the  manufacturers,  to  the 
neighboring  Berg.  At  a  later  period, 
when  Louis  XIV  revoked  the  edict  of 
Nantes,  many  of  tlie  most  industrious  of 
the  French  "Protestants  fled  also  to  this 
duchy,  which  dius  became  the  most  nian^ 
ufacturing  part  of  Germany.  Elberfeld 
is  the  most  important  of  the  manufactur- 
ing places  of  B.  Anotlier  reason  of  tlie 
great  prosperity  of  this  coimtry  is,  that  i% 


m 


BERG— BERGEN. 


has  been  under  the  government  of  rich 
princes ;  and  the  sniallness  of  its  territory 
has  often  enabled  it  to  remain  a  long 
time  neutral,  when  all  the  other  German 
states  were  desolated  by  war.  The  duchy 
of  B.  continued  in  the  possession  of  the 
electora  of  Bavaria  until  1806,  when  it 
was  ceded  to  France,  and  besto'sved  by 
Nai)oleon  on  his  brother-in-law  Miu'at, 
under  the  title  of  the  grand-duchy  of  Berg. 
There  was  at  the  same  time  added  to  it 
jmrt  of  Cleves,  the  counties  of  Homburg, 
Bentheim-Steinfurt,  Hortsmar,  Nassau- 
Dietz,  Dillenburg,  Hadamar,  and  a  num- 
ber of  lordshij)s  and  scattei'ed  bailiwicks 
and  towns.  On  Murat's  receiving  the 
kingdom  of  Naples,  Napoleon  named  his 
nephew  Napoleon  Louis,  eldest  son  of 
the  king  of  Holland,  hereditaiy  grand- 
duke  of  Berg,  with  the  condition  that 
the  coimtry  should  be  under  the  immedi- 
ate management  of  the  French  govern- 
ment until  the  young  prince  should  be 
of  age.  At  the  same  time,  the  Prussian 
part  of  Munster  and  the  county  of  Mark 
were  annexed  to  it,  and  the  whole  was 
divided  into  the  departments  of  the  Rhine, 
the  Ems,  the  Roer  and  tlie  Sieg,  ha^ng 
a  population  of  878,000  on  6908  square 
miles.  At-  the  congress  of  Vienna,  in 
1815,  the  whole  was  giveri  to  the  king  of 
Prussia. 

Berg,  Book  of.  (See  Symbolic  Books.) 
Bergamo,  capital  of  the  district  of  Ber- 
gamo (1150  square  miles  and  306,600  in- 
habitants), in  the  Lombardo- Venetian 
kingdom,  is  situated  on  liills  between  the 
rivers  Brembo  and  Serio,  has  a  castle 
within  the  city,  and  aiwther,  called  la  ca- 
pella,  without  it,  besides  two  subin-bs  en- 
circled by  walls,  and  four  othere  that  are 
open,  containing  together  30,680  inhabit- 
ants. Amongst  many  distinguished  men 
bom  here,  is  the  famous  Tiraboschi,  the 
historian  of  Italian  literature.  B.  export- 
ed, formerly,  more  than  1200  bales  of  silk, 
which  produced,  on  an  average,  £150,000 
sterling  yearly.  In  1428,  the  Bergamese 
j)ut  themselves  under  tlie  repubhc  of 
Venice.  .  In  1796,  Bonaparte  took  B.,  and 
it  was  subsequently  made  the  capital  of 
the  department  of  tlie  Serio,  in  the  king- 
dom of  Italy.  Lon.  9°  38'  E. ;  lat.  4.5° 
42'  N.  The  city  is  the  seat  of  a  bishop 
and  of  the  authorities  of  the  district.  It 
has  an  academy  of  painting  and  sculpture, 
a  museum,  an  athenaemn,  a  public  libra- 
i^,  several  academies,  many  manufacto- 
ries, especially  of  silk.  There  is,  alsoj  a 
email  Protestant  congregation  in  this  city. 
— ^The  comic  character,  Arlechino,  or 
Truffaldino,  and  Brighella,  in  the  Italian 


masqued  comedy,  are  Bergamese,  or  afiect 
the  dialect  of  the  country  people  in  the 
neighborhood  of  this  city. 

Bergamots  are  a  variety  of  citron. 
It  is  said  to  have  been  produced  at  first  by 
grafting  a  citron  on  the  stock  of  a  berga- 
mot  pear-tree.  The  fi-uit  has  a  fine  taste 
and  smell,  and  its  essential  oil  is  in  high 
esteem  as  a  perfume. 

Bergasse,  Nicholas;  a  statesman  and 
author,  born  at  Lyons,  in  1750,  where  he 
was  an  advocate.  He  afterwards  became 
advocate  to  the  parliament  of  Paris.  Here 
he  shoAved  his  talents  in  the  famous  law- 
suit of  Beaumai-chais  (q.  v.)  with  the 
banker  Kornmann.  Upon  the  breaking 
out  of  the  revolution,  he  was  chosen  a 
member  of  the  states-general  by  the  city 
of  Lyons,  but  abandoned  his  seat,  even 
earlier  than  Mounier  and  Lally-ToUendal, 
a  stej)  which,  l)oth  m  his  case  and  theirs, 
was  universally  condemned.  During  the 
reign  of  ten-or,  his  hfe  was  saved  only 
by  the  events  of  the  9th  of  Thermidor. 
Since  that  time,  B.  has  devoted  himself  to 
metaphysical  speculations.  He  is  distin- 
guished among  the  modem  French  ideol- 
ogists by  a  splendid  style  and  richness  of 
ideas.  He  is  the  author  of  Morale  riligi- 
euse,  De  Vlnflueiice  de  la  Volonte  et  stir  V In- 
telligence, and  De  la  PropriM  (1807).  B. 
was  also  one  of  the  most  zealous  adher- 
ents to  the  doctrine  of  Mesmer  respecting 
animal  magnetism.  During  the  abode  of 
the  Russian  emperor  in  Paris,  1815,  this 
monarch  paid  him  a  visit. 

Bergen  ;  a  bishopric  in  the  kingdom 
of  Nonvay,  that  borders  on  Aggerhuus  to 
the  east,  Drontheim  to  the  north,  Chris- 
tiansand  to  the  south,  and  the  German 
ocean  to  the  Avest ;  lon.  4°  45' — 6°  55'  E. ; 
lat.  59°  34'— 62°  .39'  N.  It  contains  about 
13,900  square  miles,  57  parishes,  180 
churches  and  chapels,  137,700  inhabit- 
ants, or  nearly  10  to  a  square  mile. — jBer- 
gen,  the  fortified  capital,  with  a  citadel 
(Bergeuhuus),  the  largest  cit\'^  in  Norvvav, 
is  situated  in  lon.  5°  21'  E.,  lat.  60°  10'  N., 
180  miles  N.  of  Stavanger,  270  S.  W.  of 
Drontheim,  at  the  bottom  of  the  bay  of 
Waag,  that  stretches  far  into  the  countiy, 
forming  a  safe  hariior,  surrounded  by 
high  and  steep  rocks.  The  entrance, 
however,  is  dangerous.  The  wall  of  rocks 
also  makes  the  access  to  the  citj'  on  the 
land  side  diflicult.  The  climate  is  com- 
paratively mild,  on  account'  of  the  shel- 
tered situation  of  the  toAvn.  It  is  re- 
markable for  frequent  rains.  B.  is  well 
built,  yet  several  streets  are  crooked 
and  uneven,  on  account  of  the  rocks. 
The  city  contains  2200  houses,  18,000 


BERGEN— BERG.AUNN. 


67 


inhabitants,  1    Grennan    and    3    Danish 
cliurches :    it  has  a  bishop,  a  classical 
school,  a  seminary,  founded  by  bishop 
Pontoppidan,  for  12  students,  who  are  in- 
stnicted  giatis  in  the  liigher  branches  of 
literature,  a  naval  academy,  an  hospital  for 
such   as  are   infected   with  the   scurvy, 
which  is  common  among  the  fisliernien, 
ainsing  fi-om  tlieir  food,  principally  smoked 
or  salt  meat  and  fish ;  besides  other  use- 
ful institutions.    The  uihabitants  of  the 
middle    coast    of    Norway    bring    their 
boaids,  masts,  latlis,  fire-wood,  tar,  train- 
oil,  hides,  &c.,  and  particularly  dried  fish 
(stock-fisli),  to  B.,  to  exchange  tliem  for 
corn     and    other     necessaries,     brought 
thither  by  tlie  English,  Dutch  and  Ger- 
mans.   B.  tlius  carries  on  its  commerce 
with  but  100  vessels  of  its  own. — In  the 
year  1445,  a  factoiy  and  several  ware- 
liouses    were   established    here    by    the 
Hanseatic    cities  of  GeiTnany,  and  the 
German  traders,   as  they    called    them- 
seLves,  enjoyed,  for  some  time,  the  pro- 
tection of  die  Hanseatic  league.     The 
German  factoiy  consisted  of  about  60 
w{u-ehouscs.    The  roads  leading  uito  the 
interior  of  the  countiy   are   frequented 
only  in  the  winter,  when  they  are  passa- 
ble in  sleds.    B.  is  the  native  place  of  tlie 
poet  Holberg. — Bergen  is  also  the  name 
of  other  places ;  amongst  them  is,  1,  a  town 
in  tlie  Netherlands,  a  post  of  some  conse- 
quence in  the  wai*s  of  1739  and  1814. — 2. 
A  town  in  the  electorate  of  Hesse.  A  bloody 
battle  was  fought  here,  April  13, 1759,  be- 
tween tlie  French  and  allies,  in  the  seven 
yeai"s'  war,  in  which  the  foniier  were  vic- 
torious.    It  is  three  miles  N.  E.  Frankfort. 
— 3.  The  capital  of  the  island  of  Rugen,in 
the  Baltic,  now  subject  to  Prussia.— 4.  A 
small  island  in  the  Indian  ocean,  60  mUes 
W.  of  Sumatra ;  lat.  3°  20'  S. 

Berger,  Louis  von,  was  bom  in  Ol- 
denburg, where  he  held  a  liigh  office  in 
the  administration.  When  the  Russians 
approached,  in  1813,  the  citizens  of  Ol- 
denburg took  up  anns.  The'French  ma- 
gistrates fled,  but  not  until  they  had  ap- 
pouited  a  committee  of  regency,  of  which 
von  Berger  and  Fuik  were  membei"s. 
This  committee  was  afterwards  summon- 
ed before  a  court-martial  in  Bremen,  in 
rwhich  general  Vandamme  ])resided,  and 
these  two  excellent  men  were  condemned 
to  death,  tliough  their  accuser  had  only 
proposed  their  imprisonment.  They  were 
shot,  Ajiril  10, 1813.  The  clearness,  firm- 
ness and  power  of  language,  with  which 
von  Berger  exposed  this  mock-trial,  is 
well  described  in  the  Murder  of  Fink 
and  Berger,  written  by  Gildemeister  of 


Bremen.    The  remains  of  the  two  patri- 
ots are  deposited  in  Oldenburg, 

Bergerac  ;  a  town  of  France,  in  the 
department  of  the  Dordogne,  48  miles  E. 
of  Bordeaux,  which  gives  the  name  to  an 
agreeable  French  wuie,  cultivated  on  the 
banks  of  the  Dordogne.  There  is  a  white 
and  a  red  sort.  In  France,  it  is  some- 
times also  called  petit  Champagne. 

Berghem,  Nicholas,  born  at  Harlem,  in 
1024,  received  his  fii-st  instruction  in 
panning  from  his  father,  Peter  of  Harlem, 
who  was  a  very  indifleient  artist.  He 
then  contuiued  his  studies  under  van 
Goyen,  and  the  elder  Weenix.  It  is  re- 
lated, that  once,  when  pui-sued  by  his 
lather,  he  fled  uito  die  workshop  of  van 
Goyen,  who,  to  protect  him,  called  to  his 
jiupils,  "  Berg  hem"  (conceal  him) :  this,  it 
is  said,  occasioned  his  new  name.  Love 
of  his  art,  and  the  gi-eat  demand  for  his 
])aintings,  as  hkewise  the  avarice  of  his 
wife,  })ronipted  him  to  labor  with  extreme 
jissiduity.  To  buy  engravings,  of  which 
he  was  very  fond,  he  was  often  compelled 
to  borrow  money  fi-om  his  students, 
which  he  could  only  refund  by  deceiving 
his  wife  in  regard  to  the  price  of  liis 
paintuigs.  In  this  manner  he  obtain- 
ed a  rich  collection.  B's.  landscapes  and 
representations  of  animals  adorn  tlie  most 
celebrated  galleries.  The  distinguishuig 
charactei-s  of  the  pictures  of  B.  are  the 
breadth  and  just  distribution  of  the  hglits, 
tlie  gi'andeur  of  his  masses  of  light  and 
shadow,  the  natintil  ease  and  simplicity 
in  the  attitudes  of  his  figures,  the  brillian- 
cy and  hai-mony  as  well  as  transparency 
of  his  coloring,  tJie  correctness  and  tnie 
perspective  of  his  design,  and  the  ele- 
gance of.  his  composition.  Although  he 
hardly  ever  left  his  workshop,  yet  he  had 
closely  observed  nature,  during  a  long 
residence  in  the  palace  of  Benthem.  He 
died  at  Harlem,  1683.  Charles  Dujardin 
and  Glauber  were  among  his  pupils.  At 
the  auction  of  P.  de  Smeth's  collection  of 
j)ainthigs,  Amsterdam,  1810,  four  of  B.'s 
were  sold  for  800,  1000,  1625,  2500 
Dutch  guilders. 

Bergmaxn,  Torbem  Olof,  a  natural 
])hilosopher  and  chemist,  born  at  Catha- 
rineberg,  in  the  Swedish  province  of 
West  Gothland,  March  9,  17-35,  obtained, 
after  many  difiiculties,  the  permission  of 
his  family  to  devote  himself  entirely  to 
the  sciences.  At  that  time,  disciples 
flocked  from  all  quarters  to  Linnaeus  at 
Upsal.  They  were  joined  by  B.,  in  1752, 
who,  by  his  acuteness  and  his  discoveries, 
which  were  facilitated  by  his  attainments 
m  geometry  and  physics,  excited  the  no- 


68 


BERGMANN— BERKELEY. 


tice  of  this  great  man.  In  1758,  he  be- 
came doctor  of  philosophy  and  professor 
of  physics  at  Upsal.  Upon  tlie  resigna- 
tion of  the  celebrated  Wallerius,  B.  was  a 
candidate  for  the  professorehip  of  chemis- 
try and  mineralogy.  His  competitors 
charged  him  with  ignorance  of  the  sub- 
ject, because  he  had  never  written  on  it. 
To  refute  them,  he  shut  himself  up  for 
some  time  in  a  laboratoiy,  and  prepared 
a  treatise  on  the  manufacture  of  alum, 
which  is  still  considered  as  a  standard 
work.  In  1767,  he  became  professor  of 
chemistry,  and  devoted  himself  with  ar- 
dor to  this  science.  He  mveuted  the 
preparation  of  artificial  mineral-waters, 
and  discovered  the  sulphiu-etted  hydro- 
gen gas  of  mineral  springs.  We  are  in- 
debted to  liim  for  a  knowledge  of  the 
characters  which  distinguish  nickel  from 
other  metals.  On  a  number  of  minerals 
he  made  chemical  experiments,  with  an 
accuracy  before  unconrunon.  He  pub- 
lished a  classification  of  minerals,  m 
which  the  chief  divisions  are  based  on 
their  chemical  character,  and  the  subdi- 
visions on  their  external  form.  In  pre- 
paring this  work,  he  was  much  aided  by 
his  former  discovery  6f  the  geometrical 
relations  between  different  crystals  of  the 
same  substance,  which  may  be  deduced 
from  one  primitive  form,  and  are  pro- 
duced by  the  aggregation  of  similai-  par- 
ticles, according  to  fixed  and  obvious 
laws.  His  theory  of  the  chemical  rela- 
tious  is  still  esteemed,  and,  if  it  has  re- 
ceived some  new  developements  from  the 
further  researches  of  Berthollet,  it  has  not 
been  overthrown.  The  order  of  Gusta- 
vus  Vasa  was  bestowed  on  B.  He  de- 
clined the  invitation  of  Frederic  the  Great 
to  remove  to  Berlin.  He  died,  exhausted 
by  his  exertions,  in  1784,  in  the  49th  year 
of  his  age.  Among  his  works,  the  first 
place  is  due  to  Opuscida  Phys,  et  Chem. 
(Stockliolm,  1779,  3  vols.),  and  Physical 
Description  of  the  Globe. 

Bergstrasse  ( Germ.,  mountain  road); 
a  fertile  tract  of  land  on  the  riglit  of  the 
Rhine,  lying  west  of  the  Odenwald  and 
Melilxcus,  and  forming  a  beautiful  road 
about  30  miles  in  length,  planted  Avith 
walnut  and  chestnut-trees  and  vines.  It 
extends  from  Darmstadt  to  the  convent  of 
Neuburg,  about  a  mile  distant  from  Hei- 
delljerg.  All  travellers  on  the  Rhine  are 
delighted  with  this  road. 

Berkeley,  doctor  George ;  bishop  of 
Cloyne,  in  Ireland;  celebrated  for  his 
ideal  theory.  He  mauitains  that  the  be- 
lief in  the  existence  of  an  exterior  mate- 
rial world  is  false  and  inconsistent  with 


itself;  that  those  things  which  are  called 
sensible  material  objects  are  not  external, 
but  exist  ui  the  mind,  and  are  merely  im- 
j)ressions  made  on  our  minds  by  tlie  im- 
mediate act  of  God,  according  to  certain 
rules  tenned  laws  ojf  nature,  from  which 
he  never  deviates;  and  that  the  steady  ad- 
herence of  the  Supreme  Spirit  to  these 
rules  is  what  constitutes  tlie  reality  of 
things  to  his  creatures ;  and  so  eftectually 
distinguishes  the  ideas  perceived  by  sense 
fi'om  such  as  are  the  work  of  the  mind 
itself  or  of  dreams,  that  there  is  no  more 
danger  of  confounding  tliem  together  on 
this  hypothesis  than  on  that  of  the  ex- 
istence of  matter.  He  was  bom  at  Kil- 
crin,  Ireland,  in  1684 ;  became  fellow  of 
Trinity  college,  Dubhn,  in  1707 ;  travelled 
in  Italy  as  far  as  Leghorn,  in  1713  and 
1714,  and,  at  a  later  period,  accompanied 
Mr.  Ashe,  son  of  the  bishop  of  Clogher, 
on  a  tour  through  Italy,  Sicily  and  France. 
In  1721,  he  was  appointed  chaplain  to  the 
lord  lieutenant  of  Ireland,  the  duke  of 
Grafton.  He  appeared  with  much  aj>- 
l)lause  as  an  author  before  he  was  '20 
years  old.  His  works  on  philoso])hy  and 
mathematics  (among  which  his  Theoiy 
of  Vision,  published  in  1709,  is  the  most 
l)rilliaut  proof  of  the  author's  acuteness) 
procured  him  a  wide-spread  fame.  By  a 
legacy  of  Mrs.  Vanhomrigh,  the  celebrat- 
ed Vanessa,  who  has  become  so  generally 
known  through  her  love  to  Swift,  his 
fortune  was  considerably  increased.  In 
1724,  he  was  promoted  to  the  deanery  of 
Deny,  and  resigned  his  fellowship  He 
now  published  his  Proposals  for  the  Con- 
version of  the  American  Savages  to  Chris- 
tianity by  the  Establishment  of  a  College 
in  the  Bermuda  Islands.  The  project 
was  very  favorably  received,  and  pci-sons 
of  the  fii-st  i-ank  raised  considerable  sums 
by  subscription  to  aid  it ;  and  B.,  having 
resigned  his  preferment,  set  sail  for  Rhode 
Island,  with  sevei-al  other  persons  of  sim- 
ilar views,  to  make  arrangements  for  car- 
rying on  his  college.  The  assistance  of  par- 
liament, which  had  been  promised,  not  be., 
ing  afforded,  bis  undertaking  miscarried, 
after  he  had  spent  seven  yeai-s  and  a  con- 
siderable part  of  his  fortune  in  his  eftbrts 
to  accomplish  it.  He  afterAvard  wrote 
numerous  philosophical,  religious  and  po- 
litico-economical works.  Towards  his 
60th  year,  he  was  attacked  by  a  nervous 
colic,  which  he  attempted  to  cure  by  the 
use  of  tar- water,  whereby  he  was  induced 
to  pubUsh  rsvo  treatises  on  the  utility  of 
this  water.  He  died  suddenly  at  Oxford, 
in  1753.  B.  is  said  to  have  been  acquaint- 
ed with  ahnost  all  branches  of  human 


BERKELEY— BERLIN. 


69 


knowledge.  His  character  commanded 
die  respect  aud  love  of  all  who  knew  him. 
Pope,  his  constant  friend,  describes  hiin  as 
possessed  of  "  every  viitue  under  heaven." 
His  most  celebrated  philosophical  works 
are,  a  Treatise  on  the  Principles  of  Human 
Knowledge  (London,  1710) ;  Three  Dia- 
logues between  Hylasand  Pliilonous  (Lon- 
don, 1713) ;  Alciphron,  or  the  Minute  Phi- 
losopher (London,  1732).  His  Works  ap- 
peared m  London,  1784,  2  vols.  4to.,  pre- 
ceded by  a  biogi'aphy  written  by  Arbuthnot. 

Berlichingen,  Gotz,  or  Godfrey,  von, 
with  the  iron  hand;  boni  at  Jaxthausen, 
in  Suabia ;  a  bold,  restless,  warlike  and 
honorable  German  knight,  of  the  middle 
ages.  He  placed  himself  at  the  head  of 
the  rebellious  peasants,  in  the  war  which 
they  waged  against  their  oppressors  (see 
Peasant  IVar,  m  Germany),  but  was  soon 
made  prisoner.  Before  tJiat  time,  he  had 
lost  his  right  hand,  and  therefore  wore 
one  made  of  iron.  He  died  July  2^3, 
15G2.  His  biography,  written  by  himself, 
was  printed  at  Nuremberg,  in  1731  and 
1775,  and,  for  the  third  time,  at  Breslau, 
in  181-3.  This  book  contains  an  excellent 
picture  of  the  social  life  and  customs  of 
the  middle  ages,  and  has  furnished 
Gothe  witli  the  subject  for  his  beautiful 
drama,  G.  von  Berlichingen. 

Berlin;  the  capital  of  the  Prussian 
dominions ;  principal  residence  of  the 
king,  and  seat  of  the  highest  councils  of 
the  kingdom ;  situated  in  the  province  of 
Brandenburg,  on  the  Spree,  127  feet  above 
the  level  of  the  sea;  Ion.  13°  22'  E.;  lat. 
52°  31'  N. ;  one  of  the  lai'gest  and  hand- 
somest cities  of  Europe.  It  is  about  12 
miles  in  circumference,  and  consists  of  5 
towns — Berlin  Proper,  Koln,  or  Cologne, 
on  the  Spree,  Friedrichswerder,  Neu-  or 
Dorotheenstadt  and  Friedrichsstadt ;  and 
5  suburbs — Louisenstadt,  the  King's  sub- 
urb, those  of  S{)andau  and  Stralau,  and, 
outside  of  the  walls,  Orauienburg  suburb. 
B.  has  22  squares  and  market-places,  15 
gates,  27  parish  churches,  37  bridges, 
&c.  In  tJie  year  1817,  there  were  7133 
houses,  including  the  churches,  the 
other  public  buildings  (174),  the  manu- 
factories (61),  the  stables  and  bams  (483). 
At  the  close  of  the  year  1825,  B,  contain- 
ed (tlie  military  included)  220,000  inhab- 
itants, among  whom  were  about  3700 
Jews,  4000  Catholics,  and  more  tlian 
10,000  Calvinists. — 1.  Berlin  Proper,  con- 
sisting of  39  streets,  was  built,  in  1163,  by 
margrave  Albert  the  Bear.  It  received 
its  name  from  the  wildness  of  the  countiy, 
and  was  settled  by  emigrants  from  Hol- 
land.    It  contains  the  royal  post-office, 


the  town-house,  the  general  military  acad- 
emy, the  academy  for  cadets,  the  royal 
school  of  the  gray  convent,  that  of  Joa- 
chimsthal,  the  Lutheran  parish  church  of 
St.  Nicholas  (the  oldest  church  in  B.),  the 
Frederic  orphan  asylum  (established  in 
1818,  for  1009  orphans),  with  a  church,  and 
a  royal  institution  for  vaccination  (where, 
since  1802,  25,332  children,  beside  adults, 
have  been  vaccinated  gratuitously),  the 
synagogue  of  the  Jews,  the  new  market, 
and  many  other  ])ub]ic  buildings.  The 
suburbs  of  B.,  takhig  the  name  in  its  most 
limited  sense,  are,  the  King's  suburb  (K6- 
nigsvorstadt),  containing  the  new  theatre, 
where  the  famous  JNIUe.  Sontag  perform- 
ed before  she  went  to  Paris ;  the  suburb  of 
Spandau,  where  are  the  royal  palace  Mon- 
bijou,  the  veterinai-y  college,  the  great 
hospital  La  Charity,  with  which  a  clmical 
institution  is  connected  (numbering,  in 
1816,  5144  patients,  among  whom  were 
419  with  mental  disorders),  the  new  royal 
mint,  &c.  and,  finally,  Stralau.  Outside 
of  the  walls,  the  Rosenthal-suburb,  or 
Neuvoigdand,  is  situated.  Before  the 
Oranienburg  gate  are  the  iron  foundery, 
where  cast-iron  ware,  of  every  description, 
is  made ;  the  royal  hospital  of  invalids, 
which  receives  upwards  of  1000  inmates, 
officers,  soldiers,  women  and  childi-en. — 

2.  Koln,  or  Cologne,  on  the  Spree,  which 
received  this  name  when  it  was  built 
from  the  Kollnen  (piles),  on  which  the 
Vandals  (Wenden),  driven  out  by  Albert 
the  Bear,  had  built  their  huts  in  the  midst 
of  bogs  and  morasses,  contains  25  streets, 
enclosed  by  two  branches  of  the  Spree ; 
a  bridge  100  feet  long,  of  stone,  resting 
upon  5  arches,  and  adorned  with  a  colos- 
sal equestrian  statue  of  the  great  elector 
Frederic  William,  in  bronze,  planned  by 
Schliiter,  and  cast  by  Jacobi;  the  royal 
palace,  460  feet  in  lengdi,  276  in  breadth, 
and  lOlh  ui  height,  containing  the  gallery 
of  paintings,  the  cabmet  of  artificial  and 
natural  curiosities,  the  collection  of  med- 
als, &c. ;  the  museum  of  art,  a  most  mag- 
nificent building,  newly  erected  by  Schhi- 
kel ;  the  royal  riding  academy.  A  part 
of  Koln  is  called  J\'eu-K6ln,  and  con- 
sists of  4  streets,  built  along  the  Spree. — 

3.  Friedrichswerder,  including  19  streets, 
was  founded  by  the  elector  Frederic 
William  the  Great.  Here  are  situated 
the  palace,  inhabited  by  the  present 
king,  originally  intended  for  the  crown- 
jirince ;  the  splendid  arsenal,  in  the  yard 
of  which  the  365  famous  heads  of  dying 
warriors,  in  relief,  by  Schliiter,  sen^e  as 
key-stones  in  the  arches  of  the  windows ; 
the  royal  fomidery ;  the  new  guard-house. 


70 


BERLIN. 


built  by  Schinkel,  near  which  are  tlie 
statues  of  Schanihorst  and  Biilow,  by 
Rauch,  and  tliree  pieces  of  ordnance  of 
the  largest  caliber,  two  of  which  were 
taken  from  the  French ;  opposite  to  it 
stands  the  colossal  statue  of  Blucher,  in 
bronze,  a  work  of  Rauch. — 4.  JVeu-  or 
Dorotkeenstadt,  likewise  built  by  the  elect- 
or Frederic  William  the  Great,  and  named 
after  his  second  wife,  has  but  5  regular 
streets,  among  which  is  the  stately  street 
<'  beneath  the  limes,"  2088  feet  in  length, 
and  170  in  breadth,  affording  the  most 
beautiful  Avalk  in  the  city,  and  a  part  of 
Frederic-street,  which  is  4250  paces  in 
length.  The  principal  buildings  in  this 
quarter  are,  the  univereity  edifice ;  the 
Catholic  church,  built  on  the  plan  of  the 
Pantheon  in  Rome ;  the  fine  opera-house ; 
tlie  royal  library,  the  style  of  which  is  bad ; 
the  academy  building,  destined  for  a  mu- 
seum, with  an  observatory  whose  platform 
rises  84  feet  from  the  pavement  of  the 
street ;  the  great  singing-academy,  erected 
by  Schinkel,  and  devoted  only  to  church 
music ;  the  Paiis-place,  &c.  The  Bran- 
denburg gate,  which  is  195  feet  in  width, 
was  built,  in  1789,  by  Langhans,  in  imi- 
tation of  the  Propylaeum  at  Athens,  but 
on  a  much  larger  scale.  Above  it  is  the 
famous  Victoria  in  a  quadriga,  which  was 
carried  away  by  the  French,  in  1807,  and, 
in  1814,  brought  back  from  Paris  by  the 
Prussians :  before  it  lies  the  park,  880 
acres  in  extent,  containing,  besides  vari- 
ous walks,  tlie  royal  palace  Bellevue, 
and  several  country-seats,  belonging  to 
wealthy  individuals. — 5.  Fiiedrichsstadt, 
founded,  in  1688,  by  the  elector  Frederic 
III  (king  Frederic  I),  suqiasses  the  four 
other  divisions  of  the  city  in  extent,  and 
consists  of  23  wide  streets,  among  which 
the  above-mentioned  Frederic-street  is 
distinguished.  Worthy  of  notice  are,  the 
Gendarmes  mai'ket ;  also  WiUiam-place, 
a  quadrangle  190  paces  in  length  and  90  in 
breadth,  containing  the  marble  statues  of 
the  generals  Schwerin,  Winterfeld,  Seyd- 
litz,  Keith  and  Ziethen,  who,  in  the  gro- 
tesque taste  of  the  last  century,  are  rejire- 
sented  in  Roman  costume  and  periwigs ; 
the  Leipsic-place ;  the  place  of  Belle-Al- 
liance; the  Bohemian  church;  the  Trinity 
church ;  the  French  and  the  new  church, 
with  two  famous  steeples ;  the  royal  porce- 
lain manufactoiy ;  the  academy  of  Freder- 
ic William,  Avith  the  Realschule  (which  be- 
longs to  the  class  of  high  schools,  and  con- 
tained, in  the  year  1816, 650  scholars) ;  the 
Collegien  or  council-house,  where  the  legis- 
lative committee,  the  chief  court  of  jus- 
tice, also  the  Kammergericht,mid  council  for 


minoi-s,hold  their  sessions,  and  the  archivcf 
of  the  Brandenburg  fiefs  are  kept;  the 
bank ;  the  house  of  the  society  for  foreign 
commerce ;  the  theatre,  which,  in  1817, 
was  consumed  by  fire,  and  was  afterwards 
rebuilt  under  the  direction  of  Schinkel ; 
several  handsome  buildings  belonging 
to  private  persons,  &.c. — Louisenstadt, 
for  the  greater  part,  consists  of  fields  and 
gardens.  Before  the  Cottbus  gate,  upon 
a  rising  ground  covered  with  wood,  called 
Hasenhaide,  was  the  firet  spot  devoted  to 
the  new  gymnastic  exercises  in  Germany, 
invented  by  doctor  Jahn,  On  the  top  of 
the  mountain  of  tlie  cross,  formerly  Tem- 
pelliof  mountain,  before  the  Halle  gate,  is 
a  monvmient  of  iron,  erected,  in  1820,  irt 
commemoration  of  the  ware  against 
France. — B.  contains  upwards  of  100 
public  and  50  private  elementary  schools: 
of  burgher  or  intermediate  schools,  10 
public,  60  private,  and  13  sj)ecial  schools 
(schools  in  which  youth  are  educated 
for  particular  employments) :  5  gymnasia 
or  classical  schools,  7  higher  special 
schools  or  colleges,  and  the  univei-srty: 
also  several  academies  and  literary  soci- 
eties, as  the  royal  academy  of  science  (see 
Academy) ;  the  academy  of  fine  arts,  me- 
chanical sciences  and  architecture,  with 
the  schools  of  art  appertaining  to  this 
academy ;  the  society  for  natural  histoiy 
and  natural  philosophy ;  the  medico-chi- 
rurgicaJ,  the  phannaceutic,  the  philomath- 
ic,  the  physico-medical  societies ;  the  soci- 
ety for  cultivating  the  German  language ; 
the  association  of  artists.  There  are  also,  in 
this  city,  a  museum  of  antiquities,  estal>- 
lished  in  1820 ;  the  royal  medico-chirur- 
gical  academy,  for  the  military ;  two  roj'al 
medico-chirtirgical  seminaries,  intended 
to  educate  surgeons  for  the  army ;  the 
royal  veterinaiy  school;  two  seminaries 
for  the  education  of  town  and  country 
school-masters ;  the  seminary  for  mission- 
aries, destined  to  convert  the  heathens  in 
tire  western  parts  of  Africa ;  several  insti- 
tutions for  the  deaf  and  dumb  and  the 
blind ;  a  free  school  for  Jewish  children ; 
an  academy  for  foi-esters  (an  institution  in 
which  the  knowledge  relating  to  the  cul- 
tivation of  woods  and  forests  is  acquired) ; 
a  singing  academy ;  a  military  swimming- 
school  ;  a  Bible  society ;  a  society  for  the 
advancement  of  Christianity  among  the 
Jews ;  an  association  for  the  cultivation  of 
gardens ;  an  institution  for  preparing  arti- 
ficial mineral  waters,  &c.  There  are 
many  charitable  institutions  in  B.,  the 
]X)or,  who  cannot  subsist  without  help, 
being  about  12,000.  Among  them,  the 
female  charitable  association,  under  83 


BERLIN— BERMUDAS'  ISLANDS. 


71 


directresses,  provided,  December,  1816, 
for  1200  poor  persons,  dispersed  in  180 
families.  Tlie  most  bouevolent  institution 
is  that  establisiied,  in  1794,  by  Kranz, 
counsellor  of  war,  for  relieving  impover- 
ished <;itizens,  and  which  has  since  num- 
bered some  of  its  former  beneficiaries 
among  its  members.  B.  has  a  consider- 
able commerce  and  some  important  man- 
utactories ;  a  royal  bank ;  a  royal  society 
for  foreign  commerce ;  a  wool-market ; 
upwards  of  .300  machines  for  spinning 
wool  and  cotton,  with  29,000  spindles, 
4634  looms  for  weaving  cloths,  silk,  wool- 
len, cotton  and  linen,  carpets,  &c. ;  nu- 
merous manufactories  of  silk,  woollen  or 
cotton  ribands,  326  lace-makers,  44  man- 
ufactories for  coloring  and  prindng  stuffs, 
60  dye-houses,  5  sugar  retineries,  4  manu- 
factories of  ornamental  tin-ware,  porcelain 
and  stone- ware  factories,  the  royal  bronze 
manufactories,  important  manufactories 
of  gold  and  sdver  ware,  of  fine  cabinet 
work,  of  pednet,  straw  hats,  artificial  flow- 
ers and  feathers ;  about  25  printing  houses, 
8  powder  mills,  &c. ;  also  Mr.  Jacobi's 
valuable  collection  of  works  of  art.  The 
pavement  of  B.  is  extremely  bad ;  the  illu- 
mination of  the  streets  imperfect.  Though 
some  parts  of  this  city  are  beautiful,  yet, 
on  tlie  other  hand,  its  flat  and  sandy  envi- 
rons are  extremely  unpleasant.  The  uni- 
vei-sity  of  B.  was  founded  in  1809,  when 
Prussia  was  groaning  beneath  the  heavy 
yoke  of  the  French.  It  proceeded  from 
the  noble  efforts  of  those  men  who,  at 
that  time,  conducted  the  public  concerns 
of  the  kingdom  (Stein  was  one  of  the 
most  distinguished  among  them),  and 
were  convinced  that  the  only  effectual 
preparation  for  a  fuUn-e  deliverance  from 
the  French  was  a  moral  regeneration  of 
the  people ;  at  the  same  time  thinking  all 
diat  diffuses  knowledge  and  intellectual 
light  an  excellent  means  of  producing  this 
moral  change — an  idea  which  was  real- 
ized by  the  result.  Although  the  univer- 
sity of  B.  is  so  young  an  establishment, 
yet  it  ranks  among  the  fii-st  in  the  world, 
and  is,  in  one  branch  of  science — in  philol- 
ogy— the  very  first.  By  means  of  this  and 
many  other  scientific  institutions,  a  literaiy 
spirit  has  been  awakened  among  tlie  citi- 
zens, by  which  they  are  very  advanta- 
geously distinguished  fi'om  the  inhabitants 
of  other  cities ;  but,  on  the  other  hand, 
the  society  of  B.  has  neither  the  refined 
manners  of  a  royal  residence,  nor  the  easy 
manners  of  many  other  cities.  To  the 
imiversity  belong  the  botanical  garden 
without  the  city,  near  Schonberg,  the 
anatomical  theatre,  the  anatomical  and 


zoological  museum,  the  theological  and 
philological  seminary,  the  cabinet  of  min- 
erals, tiie  clinical  institution,  the  Ij'ing-in 
hospital,  &c.  In  the  year  1826,  there 
were  1640  students  in  the  university  of 
B.,  among  whom  were  400  foreigners. 
jMore  than  90  professoi-s  ai"e  employed  in 
the  univei-sity.  In  the  yeai- 1828,  the  an- 
nual meeting  of  Gennan  naturahsts,  for 
tlie  promotion  of  natural  science,  was  held 
at  B.,  under  tlie  direction  of  Alexander 
von  Humboldt.  It  furnished  a  splendid 
array  of  talent,  and  many  discourses  of 
great  interest  were  delivered. 

Bermudas'  Islands,  or  Somers' 
Islands  ;  a  cluster  of  small  islands  in 
the  Atlantic  ocean.  They  are  in  number 
about  400,  but  for  the  most  part  so  small 
and  so  bairen,  that  they  have  neither  in- 
habitants nor  name.  They  were  first  dis- 
covered by  Juan  Bennudas,  a  Spaniard, 
in  1522;  in  1609,  sir  Greorge  Somers,  an 
Englishman,  was  wrecked  here,  and, 
after  his  shipwreck,  formed  the  first  set- 
tlement. The  most  considerable  of  these 
islands  are  St.  George,  St.  David,  Cooper, 
Ireland,  Somerset,  Long  island.  Bird 
island,  and  Nonesuch.  The  first  contains 
a  to^Ti  (St.  George's  Town);  the  two 
following,  some  villages ;  the  others,  only 
farms  dispersed. — The  air  is  so  healthy, 
that  sick  people,  from  the  continent  of 
America,  frequently  go  thither  for  tlie  re- 
covery of  their  health.  The  winter  is 
hardly  perceptible  ;  it  may  be  said  to  be 
perpetually  spring:  the  trees  never  lose 
their  verdure,  and  the  leaves  only  fall 
Avlien  new  ones  begin  to  appear.  Birds 
sing  and  breed  without  intermission. — 
But  these  advantages  are  counterbalanced 
by  frightful  storms,  accompanied  by  for- 
midable thunder,  which  are  announced 
by  a  circle  round  the  moon.  Some  fertile 
plains  are  seen,  but,  in  general,  the  coun- 
tiy  is  mountainous.  The  soil  is  of  divers 
coloi*s,  brown,  w  hite  and  red,  of  which 
the  first  is  the  best ;  although  light  and 
stony,  it  is,  in  general,  rich  and  fertile. 
The  water  is,  in  general,  salt ;  there  is  but 
little  fresh,  except  rain  water,  presented 
in  cisterns.  The  inhabitants  gather  t\vo 
hart^ests  of  Indian  com  in  a  year,  one  in 
July,  and  the  other  in  December:  this 
forms  their  principal  food.  They  like- 
wise cultivate  tobacco,  legumes,  and  fruit 
sufficient  for  their  wants.  Their  trees  are 
principally  the  cedar  and  pahnetto.  Be- 
sides these,  they  have  orange-trees,  oUve, 
laurel,  pear-trees,  &c.  The  red- wood 
is  peculiar  to  tliese  islands:  its  colored 
fruit  feeds  worms,  which  become  flies,  a 
little  larger  tlian  the  cochineal  bug,  instead 


72 


BERMUDAS'  ISLANDS— BERN. 


of  whicli  tliey  are  used.  There  are  no 
venomous  reptiles.  Building  of  vessels  is 
the  principal  trade  of  the  inhabitants. 
These  islands  extend  from  N.  E.  to  S.  W., 
about  45  miles.  The  whole  shore  is  sur- 
rounded with  i-ocks,  most  of  which  are 
dry  at  low  water,  but  covered  at  flood. 
They  arc  230  leagues  S.  E.  cape  Fear,  in 
North  CaroUna.  The  north  point  of  these 
islands  lies  in  Ion.  64°  SS'  W. ;  laL  32°  22' 
N.  Pop.  a  few  years  since,  10,381 ;  whites, 
5,462 ;  slaves,  4,919. 

Bern  ;  the  largest  canton  of  Switzer- 
land (36G7  squai-e  miles,  338,000  inhabit- 
ants, among  whom  are  40,000  Catholics, 
and  250,300  Calvinists),  with  a  capital  of 
the  same  name.  Cuno  von  Bubenberg, 
in  the  12th  century,  enclosed  the  small 
place  Bern,  in  the  vicinity  of  the  fortress 
of  Nydeck,  with  a  moat  and  walls,  and 
the  duke  of  Zahringen,  to  whom  Nydeck 
belonged,  gave  the  new  city  laws.  Its 
population  was  much  mcreased  in  the 
13th  century.  The  lower  nobihty  of  the 
adjacent  country  fled  to  it  for  protection 
against  the  oppressions  of  the  higher, 
and  were  joined  by  the  country  people, 
and  particulai'ly  by  the  citizens  of  Fri- 
burg  and  Zurich.  The  emperor  Fred- 
eric II  declared  it  a  free  city  of  the  em- 
pire, in  1218,  and  confirmed  its  privileges 
by  a  charter,  which  is  still  preserved  in 
the  archives.  In  1288,  B.  was  besieged 
by  Rodolph  of  Hapsburg,  but  not  taken ; 
and,  in  1291,  the  citizens  of  B.,  under 
Ulrich  von  Bubenberg,  made  war  against 
their  owii  nobility,  commanded  by  Ulrich 
von  Eriach.  B.  now  became  an  asylum 
for  all  tliose  who  suffered  under  tlie  op- 
pression of  the  nobles  of  Austria,  and 
rose  to  a  height  of  power  that  excited 
the  en\\  of  othei:  cities,  as  well  as  of  its 
own  nobihty.  The  latter,  therefore,  en- 
tered into  an  alliance  with  the  hostile 
cities,  for  the  purpose  of  destroying  it. 
Their  army,  consisting  of  18,000  men, 
headed  by  700  of  the  liigher  nobility,  with 
1200  knights,  was  totally  vanquished  at 
Laupen,  June  21,  1339,  by  the  citizens 
of  B.,  led  by  Rodolph  von  Eriach,  though 
these  were  only  one  third  of  their  number. 
After  this  victorj',  the  city  continued  to 
increase,  and,  in  1.353,  entered  into  the 
pcipetual  league  of  the  Helvetic  confed- 
eracy, in  which  it  held  a  rank  inferior 
only  to  Zurich.  Until  the  close  of  that 
century,  B.  enlarged  its  dominions,  partly 
by  purchase,  and  partly  by  conquest.  In 
1405,  the  greater  part  of  the  city  was  de- 
stroyed by  fire,  but  was  afterwards  regu- 
larly rebuilt.  The  long  wars  with  Austria, 
Milan,  Burgundy  and  Savoy  soon  after 


broke  out,  from  all  which  the  confederacy 
came  off"  victorious,  and  in  which  B.  con- 
quered Aargau.  In  1528,  the  citizens  of 
B.  embraced  the  cause  of  the  Reforma- 
tion. In  the  subsequent  war  with  the  duke 
of  Savoy,  they  conquered  the  Pays  de 
Vaud.  The  countries  gained  by  conquest 
were  governed  by  bailiffs,  who  resided  in 
mountain  castles.  From  that  time  to 
March  5,  1798,  the  prosperity  and  wealth 
of  B.  was  constantly  increasing,  as  may 
be  clearly  perceived  from  the  large  sums 
spent  for  the  public  administration.  At 
that  time,  the  canton  contained  over  5000 
square  miles,  and  about  380,000  inhabit- 
ants. Upon  the  day  above-mentioned, 
30,000  French  troops  marched  against  B. 
It  was  again  an  Eriach  who  led  18,000 
citizens  of  B.,  together  with  8000  auxilia- 
ry troops  of  the  confederate  cantons,  into 
the  field  ;  but  the  memory  of  Morgarten, 
of  Laupen  and  Murten,  no  longer  inspired 
them  to  victory :  the  troops  of  the  con- 
federates, on  their  retreat,  slew  their  o^vn 
commander.  B.,  for  the  first  time,  opened 
its  gates  to  an  enemy,  and  lost  about  half 
of  its  possessions.  The  northern  part  was 
united  with  the  present  canton  of  Aar- 
gau, and  out  of  the  south- westt^-n  (Pays 
de  Vaud)  the  present  canton  of  Vaud  was 
formed.  By  the  decrees  of  the  congress 
at  Vienna,  however,  the  greater  pait  of 
the  bishojjric  of  Bale  was  joined  to  the 
canton  of  B.  Accortiing  to  tlie  new  aris- 
tocratic constitution  of  the  canton,  the 
sovereign  power  is  exercised  by  a  bailiflT, 
and  the  great  and  lesser  councils  of  the 
city  and  republic  of  B.,  consisting  of  200 
members  chosen  from  the  city  of  B.,  and 
99  from  the  towns  and  the  coimtiy. 
The  former  are  chosen  from  the  citizens, 
over  29  years  old,  by  an  elective  assembly 
composed  of  the  membere  of  the  lesser 
council,  and  a  committee  of  the  great. 
The  99  members  from  the  towns  and 
countiy  are  chosen  partly  from  the  towns, 
by  the  municipal  authorities ;  partly  from 
each  of  the  22  districts,  into  which  the 
country  is  divided,  by  elective  assemblies ; 
and  pardy  by  the  great  council.  Two 
baihffs  preside  in  turn,  each  for  the  space 
of  a  year,  in  the  great  and  lesser  councils. 
The  former  has  tlie  legislative,  the  latter 
the  executive  power.  The  latter  consists 
of  the  two  bailiflfs,  23  members,  and  2 
secretaries,  and  is  chosen  by  the  fonner 
from  among  its  own  members. — The 
northern  part  of  the  canton  is  hilly,  witli 
beautiful  plains  and  valleys,  and  has  a 
fertile  and  highly  cultivated  soil,  produc- 
ing com,  wine  and  fruits.  Here  is  situated 
Emmentlial,  one  of  tlie  richest  and  most 


BERN— BERNARD. 


73 


fertile  valleys  in  Switzerland,  where  the 
finest  cattle  are  raised,  aiid  the  well-known 
Eininentlial  cliecse  made.  Neat  houses, 
coiiifoituble  dresses,  and  cheerfulness,  i)i- 
dicatetho  prosf)enty  of  the  hihabitaiits  of 
this  valley.  The  southern  part  of  the 
canton,  the  Oberland  (Upperland),  (to 
which  the  valleys  of  Hasli,  Grindervald, 
Lauierbrnn,  Caiider,  Frutinj,'en,  Adcll)o- 
den,  Simmen  and  Saanen,  with  numerous 
smaller  valleys,  belong),  begins  at  the 
foot  of  the  high  mountain  chain  towards 
tlie  Valais,  and  extends  to  its  summit.  The 
lower  valleys  produce  good  fi-uits,  and 
are  fertile  and  agreeable :  higher  up  are 
excellent  Al{)ine  pastures ;  then  succeed 
bare  rocks,  extensive  glaciers  (the  source 
of  magnificent  water-falls),  and  the  highest 
mountains  of  Switzerland,  as  the  Finster- 
aarhorn,  the  Schreck-liorn  and  Wetter- 
honi,  the  Eiger,  the  Jungfrau.  The  in- 
habitants of  the  Oberland  live,  principal- 
ly, by  raising  cattle. — ^The  chief  trade  is 
in  linen  and  woollen  manufactures,  es- 
pecially in  Emmenthal.  The  revenues 
of  the  state  amount  to  about  600,000  dol- 
lai-s.  The  canton  fimiishes  5824  men  to 
the  army  of  tlie  confederacy,  and  con- 
tributes i04,0i?0  Swiss  francs  to  its  sup- 
port.— ^B.  (1062  houses,  with  17,620  in- 
iial)itants),  one  of  the  best  built  cities  in 
Switzerland,  is  situated  upon  the  dechvity 
of  a  hill,  on  a  peninsula,  washed  on  three 
sides  by  the  Aar.  The  streets  are,  for 
the  greater  part,  straight,  wide  and  well 
paved,  and  the  houses  partly  provided  with 
piazzas.  Among  the  public  buildings 
are  the  great  Gothic  cathedral,  the  cimrch 
of  the  Holy  Spirit,  the  university  build- 
ings, the  handsomely  built  hospital,  &c. 
B.  has  an  academy,  and  several  literary 
societies.  The  economical  society,  in 
j>articular,  has  done  much  for  the  im- 
provemejit  of  agriculture,  as  well  as  for 
the  better  knowledge  of  the  natural  his- 
tory of  Switzerland.  The  historical  so- 
ciety of  Switzerland,  of  which  the  mayor 
of  B.,  von  Muhnen,  is  president,  has  pub- 
lished several  chronicles  relating  to  the 
former  times  of  B.,  as  that  of  Justineer 
(till  1421),  181'J,that  of  Schachtlan,  1820, 
and  that  of  Anshelm  (till  1526),  1825. 
The  galleiy  for  native  specimens  of  natu- 
ral history,  founded  in  1802,  contains  vi- 
viparous animals,  birds,  butterflies,  insects 
and  plants.  The  public  libraiy  possesses 
great  treasures,  both  of  printed  books  and 
manuscripts.  Several  private  persons 
have  museums,  which  are  generally  open 
to  strangers.  Trade  and  commerce  are 
lively :  the  manufactories  furnish  woollen 
cloth,  printed  linen,  silk  stuffs,  stockings, 

VOL.   II.  7 


&c.  There  are  fcAv  cities  with  finer 
promenades,  or  where  they  are  kept  in 
better  repair.  One  of  the  favorite  walks, 
for  instance,  is  near  the  cathedral,  raised 
at  great  expense,  and  planted  with  four 
rows  of  trees.  The  side  towards  the  Aar 
is  108  feet  above  the  river,  which  here 
forms  a  beautiful  cascade,  equalling  that 
of  the  Rhine  at  Lauffen,  if  not  in  lieight, 
at  least  in  breadth. 

Ber>-adottk.  (See  Charles  XIV.) 
Berxard,  PieiTe  Joseph  ;  son  of  a  stat- 
uaiy,  born  at  Gi'cnoble,  1710;  died  at 
Choisy,  near  Paris,  1775;  studied  with 
the  Jesuits  in  Lyons,  and  entered  as  a 
clerk  into  the  service  of  a  notary  in  Paris. 
He  was  afterwards  admitted  into  the  ser- 
vice of  the  marshal  de  Coignj'  as  secreta- 
ry, and,  by  Louis  XV,  a[)pointed  treasui-er 
of  the  dragoons,  and,  afterwards,  hbrarian 
of  Choisy.  In  1771,  he  lost  his  memory 
by  the  apoplexy,  and  remained  in  this 
condition  till  his  death.  Among  the  poets 
who  have  sung  in  praise  of  pleasure,  of 
whom  the  French  nation  possesses  so 
many,  B.  is  esteemed.  In  1737,  he  brought 
the  opera  Castor  and  Pollux  on  the  stage, 
which  is  a  masterpiece  of  lyric-dramatic 
poetry.  Rameau's  music  contributed  to 
heighten  the  general  applause  with  which 
it  was  received.  UArt  d'Aimer  was  not 
published  until  afi;er  his  death,  but  had 
been  before  communicated  to  his  friends: 
it  is,  in  part,  an  imitation  of  Ovid.  Voltaire 
called  B.  le  gtntil.  The  whole  of  his 
works  appeared  at  Paris,  1796. 

Bernard,  duke  of  Weimar,  general  in 
the  thirty  years'  war,  born  Aug.  6, 1604, 
the  fourth  son  of  duke  John  of  Saxe- 
Weimar,  entered  into  the  service  of  Hol- 
land, at  that  lime  the  best  school  for  a 
soldier,  where  prince  Maurice  of  Nassau 
(the  creator  of  a  better  system  of  tactics)," 
his  brother  Frederic  Henry,  the  marquis 
Spinola,  and  other  great  generals,  were 
ojjposed  to  one  another.  B.  afterwards 
entered  the  Danish  army  employed  in 
Holstein  against  the  troops  of  the  empe- 
ror, and  commanded  by  the  margrave  of 
Baden-Durlach,  and  was  present  at  the 
conference  of  Lubeck,  1629,  for  negotia- 
ting peace.  When  Gustavus  Adolphus 
entered  Gennany,  B.  joined  him,  and  was 
present  at  the  attack  upon  Wallenstein'a 
camp,  in  the  neighborhood  of  Nuremberg, 
Aug.  24,  16-32.  In  the  battle  of  Lutzeu, 
Oct.  6, 1632,  he  commanded  the  lefi;  vnng 
of  the  Swedish  army,  avenged  the  death 
of  Gustavus  Adolphus,  and,  although  him- 
self severely  wounded,  put  the  right  wing 
of  the  imperial  troops  to  flight.  Chan- 
cellor Oxenstiem,  the  Swedish  director 


* 


74 


BERNARD. 


of  the  war  in  Germany,  after  the  death  of 
tlie  king,  committed  the  command  of 
lialf  the  army  to  him.  B.,  in  1633,  took 
Bamberg,  Cronach,  Ilochstadt  and  Aich- 
stadt;  but  his  attempt  upon  Ingolstadt 
miscarried.  He  also  brougJit  the  cities  of 
Ratisbon  and  Straubing  into  his  power, 
and  frustrated  Wallenstein's  intentions. 
The  king  of  Sweden  made  liim  duke  of 
Franconia.  His  impetuosity  caused  the 
defeat  at  NordUngen  (q.  v.),  Aug.  24, 1634. 
He  huiiself  narrowly  escaped  being  made 
pri:«oner.  The  pnidence  of  Oxenstiem 
and  the  valor  of  B.  soon  made  amends 
for  this  fault.  France,  now  entering  into 
a  closer  alliance  with  Sweden,  concluded 
a  separate  treaty  with  B.,  who  went  to 
Paris,  Oct.  16,  1634.  B.  promised,  for 
4,000,000  hvres,  to  raise  an  anny  of  18,000 
men  on  the  Rhine,  to  act  against  Austria. 
He  now  earned  on  the  war  in  the  country 
adjoining  to  the  Rhine,  took  the  fortress 
of  Zabern,  in  Alsace,  spread  his  arniy  over 
Lorraine  and  Burgundy,  and  vanquished 
tlie  forces  of  the  emperor  in  several  bat- 
tles. At  the  commencement  of  the  year 
1638,  he  laid  siege  to  Rheinfelden,  not  far 
from  Bale.  Here  he  was  unexpectedly 
attacked  in  his  camp,  Feb.  18,  by  an  Aus- 
trian army  that  had  advanced  to  raise  the 
siege.  B.  was  obliged  to  reti-eat  before  su- 
perior numbei-s ;  but,  having  soon  collected 
his  forces,  he  attacked  the  Austrians  by 
surprise,  Feb.  21,  and  obtained  a  complete 
victory.  Several  Austrian  generals  were 
made  prisoners,  and  the  fortress  of  Rhein- 
felden was  obliged  to 'surrender,  May  13. 
He  then  undertook  the  siege  of  Brisach, 
the  possession  of  which  was  necessaiy 
for  m;untaining  himself  in  Alsace.  An 
imperial  army,  under  tlie  command  of 
general  Goetze,  that  approached  with  the 
intention  of  raising  the  siege,  was  defeated 
wth  a  great  loss  by  B.,  July  30.  B.  captur- 
ed several  places  of  inferior  unportance, 
during  the  siege  of  Brisach,  which,  how- 
ever, did  not  suiTender  until  he  had  repeat- 
edly defeated  the  Austrians,  and  then  upon 
very  moderate  conditions,  which  B.  sign- 
ed in  his  own  name,  without  mention- 
ing France.  The  possession  of  Alsace, 
which  he  had  before  ceded  to  France 
under  certain  conditions,  was  now  secur- 
ed ;  but  he  also  demanded  Brisach  as  an 
appurtenance  to  Alsace.  He  gai-risoned 
all  the  conquered  places  with  German 
troops,  and  ordered  money  to  be  coined 
with  the  Saxon  coat  of  anns  and  that  of 
Brisach.  In  vain  were  the  efforts  of 
France  to  deprive  the  duke  of  the  posses- 
sion of  Brisach,  by  proposing  to  place  a 
French  garrison  in  the  fortress :  tlie  duke 


declined  not  only  this  proposal,  but  also 
an  invitation  to  Paris,  and  the  offer  of  a 
marriage  with  the  duchess  d'Aiguillon, 
niece  of  cardinal  Richelieu.  Instead  of 
that  match,  he  proposed  one  with  tiie 
princess  of  Rohan,  to  which,  however, 
the  French  court  would  not  accede,  lest 
the  pai-ty  of  the  Huguenots  should  be 
strengthened.  It  is  probable  that  Riche- 
lieu had  recourse  to  secret  means,  in  order 
to  rid  France  of  the  duke,  who  was  be- 
come formidable  by  his  gi-owing  power. 
He  was  suddenly  seized  with  a  disorder, 
which  terminated  his  life,  July  8,  1639. 
Most  of  the  contemporarj' WTitei-s  conjec- 
tured that  Richelieu  caused  him  to  be 
poisoned:  the  duke  himself  had  no  doubt 
that  he  had  swallowed  poison.  Immedi- 
ately after  his  death,  several  French  com- 
missioners appeared,  who  enlisted  his 
troops  into  the  French  army:  the  com- 
mand of  them  was  committed  to  marshal 
Guebriant.  With  B.  fell  one  of  the  chief 
supports  of  tlie  Protestants.  His  succes- 
sors, Baner  and  Torstensohn  (q.  v.),  pur- 
sued his  victorious  course,  and  France 
seriously  exerted  herself,  in  the  war  \^  hich 
continued,  for  the  benefit  of  the  Protest- 
ants. In  B.  a  graceful  person,  intelligence 
and  valor  were  united  with  a  magnanim- 
ity which  could  not  be  shaken  by  adverse 
events :  his  only  fault  was  too  great  im- 
petuosity. 

Bernard  of  Clairvaux ;  one  of  the  most 
influential  ecclesiastics  of  the  middle  ages, 
born  at  Fontaines,  in  Burgundy,  1091,  of 
a  noble  family.  In  1113,  he  became  a 
monk  at  Citeaux ;  in  1115,  first  abbot  of 
Clairvaux,  near  Langres.  An  austere 
manner  of  hving,  solitary  studies,  an  in- 
spiring eloquence,  boldness  of  language, 
and  the  reputation  of  a  prophet,  rendered 
hull  an  oracle  to  all  Christian  Europe. 
He  was  named  the  honeyed  teacher,  and 
his  writings  were  styled  a  stream  from 
paradise.  The  doctrine  of  the  immacu- 
late conception  of  IWaiy  was  rejected  by 
him.  He  principally  promoted  the  cru- 
sade in  1146,  and  quieted  the  fermenta- 
tion, caused  at  that  time  by  a  party  of 
monks,  against  the  Jews  in  Germajiy. 
He  declined  all  promotion,  and,  in  the 
rank  of  abbot  of  his  beloved  Jerusalem  (as 
he  used  to  call  Clairvaux),  he  continued 
with  aU  humility,  but  with  great  boldness, 
his  censures  of  the  clergy  and  his  coun- 
sels to  the  popes.  Innocent  II  owed  to 
him  the  possession  of  the  right  of  investi- 
ture in  Germany,  and  Eugenius  III  his 
education.  He  was,  at  the  same  time,  the 
umpire  of  princes  and  bishops,  and  liis 
voice    in    the  synods  was  regarded  as 


BERNARD— BERNARDI. 


75 


divine.  By  his  rigid  orthodoxy  and  his 
mystical  doctrines,  wliich,  though  at  times 
enthusiastic,  were  always  directed  to 
the  promotion  of  practical  Christianity, 
he  refuted  the  suhtletics  and  dialectics  of 
the  scholastic  philosophers,  although  his 
severity  against  Abelard  and  Gilbert  of 
Poree  can  by  no  means  be  justified.  Lu- 
ther says  of  him,  "  If  there  has  ever  been 
a  pious  monk  who  feared  God,  it  was  St. 
Bernard;  whom  alone  I  hold  in  much 
higher  esteem  than  all  otlier  monks  and 
jiriests  throughout  the  globe."  E.  died  in 
1153,  and  was  canonized  by  Alexander 
III,  in  1174.  (See  Aug.  Neander's  St. 
Bernard  and  his  Times,  Berlin,  1813.)  His 
works  have  been  translated  from  the 
Latin,  and  ])ublished  by  professor  Silbert 
(Vienna,  1S20). 

Berxard,  Great  St.;  a  mountain  be- 
tween the  Valais  and  the  valley  of  Aosta, 
11,006  feet  high.  On  its  top  is  the  boun- 
dary' between  the  Valais  and  Piedmont. 
The  road  from  the  lake  of  Geneva  through 
tlie  Valais,  into  the  valley  of  Aosta,  pa«ses 
over  it.  The  Little  St.  B.,  7194  feet  high, 
separates  Piedmont  from  Savoy.  Over 
this  Hannibal  chrected  his  march.  Ber- 
nard de  Menthon,  a  Savoyard  nobleman, 
who  lived  from  923  to  1008,  built  here, 
in  962,  two  hospitia,  for  the  benefit  of 
those  on  a  pilgrimage  to  Rome,  one  upon 
mont  Joux,  where  a  temple  of  Jupiter 
stood,  the  other  on  the  road  that  leads 
over  the  Grison  Alps,  at  a  place  called 
Colonne  Jou,  from  a  pillar  wliich  was  an 
object  of  idolatrous  worship.  Animated 
by  a  pious  zeal,  Bernard  destroyed  tlie 
pillar  and  temple,  and,  with  their  niins, 
built  the  tv.o  hospitia  on  the  Great  and 
Little  St.  Bernard,  so  called  after  him. 
He  committed  the  care  of  both  these 
establishments  to  monks  of  the  order  of 
St.  Augustine,  who,  with  an  almost  unex- 
ampled self-devotion,  exercised  the  most 
generous  hospitality  towards  travellei"s, 
down  to  the  time  of  Charles  Emanuel  III 
of  Sardinia.  This  king,  falling  into  a 
dispute  with  the  cantons  of  Switzerland 
about  the  nomination  of  a  provost,  seques- 
trated the  possessions  of  the  monks,  and 
gave  the  administration  of  the  hospitia  to 
regular  cemons  of  the  Augustine  order, 
who,  with  equal  humanity  and  devotion, 
discharge  the  duties  of  their  pious  calling. 
Upon  the  barren  height  (7668  feet),  where 
the  hospitium  of  the  Great  St.  Bernard 
stands,  which  is  considered  to  be  the 
highest  inhabited  place  in  Europe,  an 
almost  everlasting  winter  reigns ;  in  vain 
do  we  look  for  a  tree  or  bush  ;  the  glitter- 
ing snow  dazzles  the  eye  of  the  wanderer. 


Assisted  by  the  servants  of  the  convent, 
the  heroic  ecclesiastics,  provided  with 
wine  and  bread,  devote  themselves  to  the 
guidance  of  travellers ;  and,  in  order  to 
defend  the  poor  against  the  cold,  they  lend 
or  give  them  clothes,  which  are  kept  for 
that  purjjose.  Upwards  of  9000  persons 
annually  pass  over  the  mountain,  who  are 
refreshed  in  the  hospitium.  In  the  midst 
of  tempests  and  snow-storms,  the  monks, 
accompanied  by  dogs  (called  marons),  set 
out  for  the  pui-pose  of  tracking  tliose  who 
have  lost  their  way.  If  they  find  the 
body  of  a  traveller  who  has  perished,  they 
carry  it  into  the  vault  of  the  dead,  where 
it  is  wrapped  in  linen,  and  remains  lying 
on  a  table  till  another  victim  occupies  the 
])lace.  It  is  then  set  up  against  the  wall, 
among  the  other  dead  bodies,  which,  on 
account  of  the  cold,  decay  so  slowly,  that 
they  are  often  recognised  by  their  friends 
after  the  lapse  of  yeai-s.  Adjoining  this 
vault  is  a  kind  of  burying-ground,  where 
the  bones  are  deposited,  when  they  accu- 
mulate too  much  in  the  vault.  It  is  im- 
possible to  bury  them,  because  there  is 
nothing  around  the  hospitium  but  naked 
rocks.  In  the  church  is  the  monumejit 
of  general  Dessaix,  who  fell  in  the  battle 
of  Marengo.  Tlie  firet  consul  ordered 
him  to  be  embalmed,  and  assigned  him  a 
resting  place  on  the  summit  of  the  Alps. 
The  monument  of  marble  represents  Des- 
saix in  relief,  wounded,  and  sinking,  from 
his  horse  into  the  arms  of  his  aid  Le 
Bi-un.  On  the  stairs  of  the  convent  stands 
his  statue  of  marble.  Opposite  to  it  there 
is  a  slab  of  marble,  on  which  the  republio 
of  Valais  commemorated  Napoleon's 
passage  over  the  St.  B.,  May  15,  1800, 
with  an  inscrijjtion  in  lettei-s  of  gold.  By 
means  of  a  contribution  raised  through 
Emope,  a  short  time  ago,  the  habitations 
of  the  9  or  10  ecclesiastics  have  been 
made  more  comfortable. 

Berxardi,  Augustus  Frederic,  a  Ger- 
man scholar,  born  in  Berlin,  in  1768,  died 
there  in  1820.  In  his  youth,  his  attention 
was  directed  to  univei-sal  language  (that 
is,  to  language  as  far  as  it  is  commori 
to  all  rational  beings),  to  the  mysterj'- 
of  its  construction,  the  mathematics,  as  it 
were,  of  language.  B.,  considering  all 
different  languages  as  a  whole,  endeavored 
to  discover  a  univei-sal  grammar  common 
to  them  all.  The  result  of  his  researches 
api)ears  in  his  works,  Rdne  Sprachlehre 
(Abstract  Grammar),  1801,  2  vols.; 
Angeicandte  Sprachlehre  (Grammar  in 
its  Application),  1803;  and  Anfangs- 
griinde  der  Sprachwissenschqft  (Elements 
of  the  Science  of  Language),  in  which 


76 


BERNARDI— BERNINI. 


many  philosophical  principles  of  language 
are  laid  down.  B.  was  a  man  of  cidti- 
vated  mind  and  extensive  knowledge. 
He  was  also  a  professor  and  director  of  a 
classical  school  in  Berlin. 

Bernardin  de  St.  Pierre.  (See 
Pierre,  St.)  . 

Ber>-ardine  Monks.  (See  Cister- 
cians.) 

Berptburg,  Anhalt ;  one  of  the  three 
dukedoms  of  Anhalt  (253  square  miles, 
7  towns,  51  villages,  with  38,400  inhabit- 
ants. The  uiconie  is  valued  at  450,000 
guilders.  Its  contingent  to  the  army  of 
the  German  confederation  is  370  men. 
In  1820,  the  Lutheran  and  Calvinistic 
parts  of  the  population  were  united.  The 
capital  of  this  dukedom  is  Bemburg,  on 
the  Saale,  with  4900  inhabitants.  The 
public  debt  amounts  to  1,034,500  guildei-s. 
Napoleon  made  the  princes  of  Bemburg 
dukes. 

Berners,  or  Barnes,  Juliana;  an 
English  lady  of  .the  15th  century,  of 
whom  little  more  is  known  than  that  she 
■was  prioress  of  the  nunnery  of  Sopewell, 
near  St.  Alban's,  and  has  her  name  pre- 
fixed, as  the  writer  or  compiler,  to  one  of 
the  earliest  and  most  curious  productions 
of  the  English  press.  The  title  of  the 
second  edition,  printed  in  the  abbey  of  St. 
Albaa's,  m  148G,  is,  The  Boke  of  Hawkyng 
and  Huntyng,  with  other  Pleasures  dy- 
verse,  and  also  Cootarmuries.  The  fii-st 
edition  (1481)  does  not  ti-eat  of  coat-armor 
or  heraldiy.  This  work,  under  the  title  of 
tlie  Book  of  St.  Alban's,  became  a  popu- 
lar manual  of  sporting  science,  and  was 
several  times  reprinted  in  the  IGth  centu- 
ry. As  a  typographical  curiosity,  a  small 
impression  of  it  was  pubhshed,  in  1811, 
by  Mr.  Haslewood. 

Berni,  Francesco  (also  Bema,  and 
Bemia) ;  a  poet  of  the  KJth  ceutuiy,  bom 
at  Lamporecchio,  hi  the  territory  of  Tus- 
cany, towards  the  close  of  the  15th  cen- 
tury, of  a  noble  but  poor  Florentine  fami- 
ly ;  went  to  Florence,  and,  at  the  age  of 
19,  to  Rome,  whei*e  he  lived  under  the 
care  of  his  relation,  cardinal  Bibiena, 
who,  as  he  himself  says,  did  him  neither 
good  nor  harm,  and  he  was  at  length 
obliged  to  enter  the  service  of  the  bishop 
of  Verona,  Ghiberti,  datary  of  the  papal 
chancery,  as  secretaiy.  In  the  hope  of 
promotion,  he  took  orders ;  but,  disgusted 
with  the  duties  of  his  office,  he  sought 
recreation  in  amusements,  which  dis- 
pleased the  prelate.  A  society  had  been 
estabhshed  at  Rome,  consisting  of  young 
ecclesiastics  of  a  jovial  temper,  hke  B., 
and  a  poetical  vein,  who,  in  order  to  de- 


jiote  their  love  for  wine,  and  their  care- 
less gayety,  called  themsehes ivignajuoli 
(vine-dressers).  Mauro,  Casa,  Firenzuo- 
la,  Capilupi,  &c.  were  of  the  number. 
They  laughed  at  every  thing,  and  made 
sport,  in  verse,  of  the  most  serious,  nay, 
the  most  tragic  matters.  B.'s  verses  were 
tlie  most  successful,  and  were  written 
in  so  pecuhar  a  style,  that  his  name  has 
been  given  to  it  {rnaniera  Bemesca,  or 
Bcrniesca).  When  Rome  was  sacked  by 
the  troops  of' the  constable  Bourbon,  1527, 
B.  lost  all  that  he  possessed.  He  after- 
wards made  several  journeys,  with  his 
patron  Ghiberti,  to  Verona,  Venice  and 
Padua.  At  length,  wearied  with  serving, 
and  satisfied  with  a  canonship  in  the 
cathedral  at  Florence,  in  the  possession 
of  which  he  had  been  for  some  years,  he 
retired  to  that  place.  The  favor  of  the 
great,  however,  which  he  was  weak 
enough  to  court,  brought  him  into  difB- 
culties.  He  was  required  to  commit  a 
crime,  and  his  refusal  cost  him  his  life. 
Alessandro  de'  Medici,  at  that  time  duke 
of  Florence,  lived  in  open  enmity  wth 
the  yomig  cardinal  Ippolito  de'  Medici. 
B.  was  so  intimate  with  both,  that  it  is 
doubtful  which  first  made  him  the  pro- 
posal to  poison  the  other.  Certain  it  is, 
that  the  cardinal  died  by  poison,  in  1535. 
B.  died  July  26, 1536 ;  and  if,  as  is  assert- 
ed, his  hfe  was  tenninated  by  poison,  then 
the  crime  must  be  imputed  to  duke  Ales- 
sandro.— In  the  burlesque  style  of  poetrj', 
B.  is  still  considered  the  best  model. 
His  satire  is  often  very  bitter,  and  fre- 
quently unites  the  good  humor  of  Horace 
with  the  causticity  of  Juvenal.  The  ex- 
treme hcentiousness  of  his  writings  is  his 
greatest  fault.  It  should,  however,  be  con- 
sidered that  he  wrote  for  his  friends  only, 
and  that  his  works  were  not  printed  until 
after  his  death.  The  admirable  ease,  for 
which  his  writings  are  distinguished,  was 
the  result  of  great  efforts,  since  he  repeat- 
edly amended  and  corrected  his  vei-ses. 
The  same  is  asserted  of  Ariosto ;  and  yet 
they  are  the  most  distinguished,  among 
the  Itahan  poets,  for  the  ease  and  fluency 
of  their  style.  B.  also  wrote  Latin 
verses  verj-^  correctly,  and  was  well  ac- 
quainted with  Greek.  His  Rime  Bur- 
leschc  (Burlesque  Verses)  have  great  merit. 
So  has  also  his  Orlando  Innamorato,  com- 
posto  gia  dal  Sig.  Bojardo  Conte  di  Scan- 
diuno,  ed  ora  rifatto  tutto  di  nuovo  da  M. 
Fr.  Bemi. — Another  Berai  (count  Fran- 
cesco B.,  who  was  bom  in  1610,  and  died 
in  1673)  has  written  11  dramas,  and  also 
several  lyric  poems. 

Bernini,  Giovanni  Lorenzo,  called  B 


BERNINI— BERNIS. 


77 


cavdiere  Bernini,  born  in  Naples,  1598, 
is  praised  by  his  contemporaries  as  the 
Michael  Angelo  of  modem  times,  on  ac- 
count of  his  success  as  a  painter,  a  statua- 
ry, and  an  architect ;  but  he  deserves  his 
fame  pruicipally  in  the  latter  character. 
Richly  endowed  by  nature,  and  favored 
by  circumstances,  lie  rose  superior  to  the 
rules  of  art,  creating  for  himself  an  easy 
manner,  the  faults  of  which  heknewJiow 
to  disguise  by  its  brilliancy.  From  his 
early  youth,  he  manifested  a  great  J)o^^■er 
to  excel  in  the  arts  of  design,  and,  at  the 
age  of  eight  years,  executed  the  head  of  a 
child  in  marble,  which  was  considered  a 
remarkable  production.  That  such  rare 
endowments  might  be  suitably  cultivated, 
his  father  canned  him  to  Rome.  One  of 
B.'s  first  works  was  the  marble  bust  of  the 
prelate  Montajo  ;  after  which  he  made  the 
bust  of  the  pope,  and  of  several  cardinals ; 
also  sundry  figures  of  the  natural  size. 
He  was  not  yet  18,  when  he  produced 
the  Apollo  and  Daphne,  in  marble,  a  mas- 
terpiece of  grace  and  execution.  Looking 
at  this  group  near  the  close  of  his  life,  he 
declared  that  he  had  made  very  little  prog- 
ress since  the  time  when  that  was  pro- 
duced. His  manner  was  mdced  more 
chaste  and  less  affected,  in  the  early  part 
of  his  career,  than  at  a  later  period.  After 
the  death  of  Gregory  XV,  cardinal  Maf- 
feo  Barberini,  his  successor,  employed  B. 
to  prepare  plans  for  the  embelhshment 
of  the  Basihca  of  Sl  Peter,  assigning  to 
him  a  monthly  pension  of  300  crowns, 
which  was  afterwards  augmented.  With- 
out forsaking  sculpture,  B.'s  genius  em- 
braced architecture,  and  he  furnished  the 
design  for  the  canopy  and  the  pulpit  of 
St.  Peter,  as  well  as  for  the  circular  place 
before  the  church.  Among  his  numerous 
works,  were  the  palace  Barberini,  the  bel- 
fry of  St.  Peter,  the  model  of  the  monu- 
ment of  the  countess  Matilda,  and  the 
monument  of  Urban  VIII,  his  benefac- 
tor.— In  the  year  1644,  cardinal  Mazarin, 
in  the  name  of  the  king  of  France, 
offered  him  a  salary  of  12,000  crowns; 
but  he  decUned  the  invitation.  Urban 
had  scarcely  closed  his  eyes,  and  Inno- 
cent X  ascended  the  papal  throne,  when 
the  envy  engendered  by  the  merits  of 
the  artist  and  the  favor  bestowed  on  him 
broke  forth.  His  enemies  triumphed; 
but  lie  regained  the  favor  of  the  ])ope  by 
a  model  for  a  fountain.  About  the  same 
time,  he  erected  the  palace  of  Monte  Ci- 
torio.  Alexander  VII,  the  successor  of 
Innocent  X,  displayed  much  taste  for  the 
arts,  and  favor  to  this  artist,  and  required 
of  him  a  plan  for  the  embellishment  of 


the  piazza  di  San  Pietro.  The  admirable 
colonnade,  which  is  so  beautifully  pro- 
portioned to  the  Basilica,  was  built  under 
the  direction  of  B.  We  may  also  men- 
tion the  palace  Odescalchi,  the  rotunda 
della  Riccia,  the  house  for  novices,  belong- 
ing to  the  Jesuits,  on  Monte  Cavallo,  &c. 
Louis  XIV  having  invited  him,  in  the 
most  flattering  terms,  to  Paris,  he  set  out 
from  Rome,  in  1665,  at  the  age  of  68,  ac- 
companied by  one  of  his  sons,  and  a 
numerous  retinue.  Never  did  an  artist 
travel  with  so  great  pomp,  and  under  such 
flattering  circumstances.  The  reception 
which  he  met  with  in  Paris  was  highly 
honorable.  He  was  first  occupied  in  pre- 
pai'ing  plans  for  the  restoration  of  the 
Louvre,  which,  however,  were  never  exe- 
cuted. But,  notwithstanding  the  esteem 
which  he  enjoyed  in  Paris,  some  disa- 
greeable circumstances  induced  him  to 
return  to  Rome :  he  left  Paris  loaded  with 
presents.  Cardinal  Rospigliosi  having  be- 
come pope,  B.  was  admitted  to  an  inti- 
mate intercouree  with  him,  and  charged 
with  several  works ;  among  others,  with 
the  decoration  of  the  bridge  of  St.  Angelo. 
In  his  70th  year,  this  indefatigable  artist 
executed  one  of  his  most  beautiful  works, 
the  tombof  Alexander  VII.  He  still  con- 
tinued to  devote  hunself  to  several  works 
of  architecture,  as  well  as  of  statuary, 
wdth  such  ardor,  that,  exhausted  by  his 
labors,  he  died,  Nov.  28, 1680,  at  the  age 
of  82.  He  was  buried,  with  great  mag- 
nificence, in  the  church  of  St.  3Iaria  Mug- 
giore.  To  his  children  he  left  a  fortune 
amounting  to  about  .3,300,000  francs.  B.'s 
fiivorite  maxim  was,  Chi  non  esce  talvolta 
della  regola,  non  passa  mai.  Thus  he  was 
of  opinion,  that,  in  order  to  excel  in  the 
arts,  one  must  rise  above  all  rules,  and 
create  a  manner  peculiar  to  one's  self. 
This  B.  has  accomplished  with  a  rare 
good  fortune,  but  the  influence  of  his  style 
has  been  transient.  His  most  eminent 
disciples  are  Pietro  Bernini,  his  brother, 
a  statuarj",  architect  and  mathematician ; 
Matthia  Rossi,  FranQois  Duquesnoi,  sur- 
named  the  Fleming,  and  Borromini. 

Bernis  (Francois  Joachim  de  Pierres, 
comte  de  Lyon)  cardinal  de,  bom  at 
St.  Marcel  de  i'Ardeche,  in  1715,  was  de- 
scended of  an  ancient  family,  but  Uttle  fa- 
vored by  fortune,  for  which  reason,  his 
parents  destined  him  for  the  clerical  pro- 
fession. Me.  de  Pompadour,  whom  he 
had  known  as  Me.  d'Etioles,  presented 
him  to  Louis  XV,  who,  being  pleased  with 
him,  assigned  to  him  an  apartment  in  the 
Tuileries,  with  a  pension  of  1500  livres. 
His  wishes  were  directed  towards  raising 


78 


BERNIS— BERNOUILLL 


his  income  to  6000  liVres.  Not  succeeding 
liowever,  in  attaining  this  moderate  for- 
tune, lie  resolved  to  aim  at  a  larger  one. 
He  went  as  ambassador  to  Venice,  and 
obtained  great  niSi)eot  in  this  difficult 
l>ost.  After  his  return,  he  enjoyed  the 
highest  favor  at  court,  and  soon  became 
minister  of  foreign  affaii-s.  The  political 
system  of  Europe  was  changed  at  that 
time.  France  and  Austria,  hitherto  ene- 
mies, united  in  an  offensive  and  defensive 
alliance,  which  was  succeeded  by  the  sev- 
en years'  war,  so  unfortunate  for  I'l-ance. 
B.  has  been  designated,  by  several  wiiters, 
as  the  chief  author  of  this  alliance.  Dii- 
clos,  however,  asserts,  that  it  was  the  in- 
tention of  B.  to  maintain  the  old  system, 
which,  since  the  time  of  Henry  IV,  and 
especially  since  the  time  of  Richelieu, 
had  made  France  the  protectress  of  the 
less  powerful  states  of  Germany,  and  the 
rival  of  Austria.  Oppressed  by  tlie  mis- 
fortunes of  his  country,  which,  in  part,  at 
least,  were  ascribed  to  him,  B.  sun-en- 
dered  his  post,  and  was  soon  after  ban- 
ished frpm  court.  His  disgrace  lasted  till 
the  year  17G4,  when  the  king  appointed 
him  archbishop  of  Alby,  and,  five  yeai*s 
later,  ambassador  to  Rome.  Here  he  re- 
mained till  his  death.  In  the  name  of 
his  coiu't,  and  against  his  own  opinion, 
he  labored  to  effect  the  abolition  of  the 
order  of  the  Jesuits.  When  the  aunts  of 
Louis  XVI  left  France,  in  1791,  they  fled 
to  him  for  refuge,  and  lived  in  his  house. 
The  revolution  deprived  him  of  his  for- 
tune, and  the  means  of  indulging  his 
generous  disposition.  He  was  reduced 
to  a  state  of  poverty,  from  which  he  Avas 
relieved  by  a  pension  from  the  Spanish 
court.  B.  died  in  Rome,  Nov.  2,  1794, 
nearly  80  years  old.  The  easy  poetry  of 
his  youth  had  procured  him  a  place  in 
the  French  academy.  He  liimself  is  its 
severest  critic.  His  verses  have  been  re- 
proached Avith  affectation,  neghgence,  and 
an  excess  of  ornament  and  mytliological 
images.  Voltaire  called  him  Babet-la- 
Bovquetihe,  from  a  fat  flower- woman,  who 
sold  her  nosegays  before  die  opera  house. 
Nevertheless,  Voltaire  had  a  great  esteem 
for  his  talents,  his  judgment,  his  criticisms, 
and  his  character,  as  is  evident  fi'om  their 
correspondence  (published,  in  1799,  by 
Bourgoing),  which,  in  every  respect,  is 
very  honorable  to  B.  Another  corre- 
spondence, between  B.  and  Paris  du  Ver- 
ney,  appeared  in  print  in  1790.  After 
his  death,  Azara  published  his  poem 
La  Religion  vtngee  (Rehgion  avenged), 
which,  though  it  contains  many  beautiful 
verses  and  sublime  ideas,  is  deficient  in 


fire  and  animation.  A  collection  of 
B.'s  works  was  pubUshed  in  1797,  by 
Didot. 

Bernouilli  ;  a  family  which  has  pro- 
duced eight  distinguished  men,  who  have 
all  cultivated  the  mathematical  sciences 
with  success.  The  family,  emigrating  from 
Antwei-p  on  account  of  religious  persecu- 
tions, under  the  administration  of  the  duke 
of  Alva,  fled  first  to  Frankfort,  and  after- 
wards removed  to  Bale,  where  it  was 
elevated  to  the  highest  dignities  of  the 
rejiubiic. — 1.  James  B.,  born  at  Bale,  1654, 
became  professor  of  matliematics  there 
1G87,  and  died  1705.  The  differential 
calculus,  discovered  by  Leibnitz  and  New- 
ton, was  apjilied  by  him  to  tlie  most  dif- 
ficult questions  of  geometrj'  and  mechan- 
ics: he  calculated  the  loxodromic  and 
catenaiy  curve,  the  logarithmic  spirals, 
the  evolutes  of  several  curved  lines,  and 
discovered  the  numbers  of  Bemouilli,  as 
they  are  called. — 2.  John  B.,  bom  at 
Bale,  1667,  was  one  of  the  greatest  mathe" 
maticians  of  his  time,  and  the  worthy 
rival  of  Newton  and  Leibnitz.  He  was 
destined  for  commerce,  but  his  inclina- 
tion led  him  to  the  sciences,  and,  from  the 
year  1683,  he  principally  devoted  himself 
to  medicine  and  mathematics.  To  him, 
and  his  brother  James,  we  are  indebtetl 
for  an  excellent  treatise  on  the  differential 
calculus.  He  also  developed  the  method 
of  proceeding  from  infinitely  small  num- 
bers to  the  finite,  of  which  the  former 
are  the  elements  or  differences,  and  called 
this  method  the  integral  ccdculiis.  In 
1690 — 92,  he  made  a  journey  to  France, 
where  he  instructed  the  marquis  de 
I'Hopital  in  mathematics.  At  this  time, 
he  discovered  the  exponential  calculus, 
before  LeilMiitz  had  made  any  communi- 
cations respecting  it,  and  made  it  known 
in  \CQ7.  In  1694,  he  became  doctor  of 
medicine  at  Bale,  and,  in  1695,  went,  as 
professor  of  mathematics,  to  Groningen, 
where  he  discovered  the  mercurial  phos- 
phorus or  luminous  barometer,  for  which 
he  received,  from  king  Frederic  I  of 
Prussia,  a  gold  medal,  and  was  made  a 
member  of  the  academy  in  BerUn,  after- 
wards of  that  in  Paris,  &c.  After  the  death 
of  his  brother,  in  1705,  he  received  the 
professorship  of  mathematics  at  Bale, 
which  he  held  until  his  death,  January 
1,  1748.— 3.  Nicholas  B.,  nephew  of  the 
former,  bom  at  Bale,  in  1687,  studied  law, 
but  more  particularly  devoted  himself  to 
mathematics;  in  1705,  went  to  Gronin- 
gen, to  John  B. ;  returned,  however,  with 
hhn  to  Bale  towards  the  close  of  the 
year,  and    became    there    professor  of 


BERNOUILLI— BERRI. 


70 


mathematics.  He  travelled  through  Swit- 
zerland, France,  Holland  and  England, 
and,  in  1713,  became  a  member  of  the 
academies  of  science  in  London  and  Ber- 
lin. On  the  recommendation  of  Leibnitz, 
he  went,  as  professor  of  mathematics,  to 
Padua,  in  1716,  but  returned  to  his  native 
city,  m  1722,  as  ])rofessor  of  logic.  In 
1731,  he  became  professor  of  the  Roman 
and  feudal  law  in  that  place,  and  died  in 
1759.  The  three  following  were  sons  of 
the  above-mentioned  John  B. — 4.  Nicho- 
las B.,  bom  at  Bale,  1695,  became  profes- 
sor of  law  there  in  1723,  and  died  in 
Petersburg,  hi  1726. — 5.  Daniel  B.,  born 
at  Groningen,  Feb.  9,  1700.  He  studied 
medicine,  in  which  he  took  the  doctor's 
degree,  and,  at  the  same  time,  was  en- 
gaged in  mathematical  studies,  in  which 
his  father  had  been  his  instructor.  He 
visited  Bale,  Heidelberg,  Strasburg,  Ven- 
ice and  Padua.  At  the  age  of  24,  he  was 
offered  the  presidency  of  an  academy 
about  to  be  established  at  Genoa,  but,  in 
tlie  following  year,  accepted  an  invita- 
tion to  Petersburg.  Accompanied  by  his 
younger  brother,  John,  he  returned  to 
Bale  in  1733 ;  became  there  professor  of 
anatomy  and  botany  ;  in  1750,  professor 
of  natural  philosophy ;  resigned  this  place, 
because  of  his  advanced  age,  to  his  broth- 
er's son,  the  younger  Daniel  B.,in  1777,  and 
died  m  1782.  He  was  one  of  the  greatest 
natural  pliilosophers,  as  well  as  mathema- 
ticians, of  his  time.  At  10  different  times, 
he  received  a  prize  from  the  academy  of 
Paris.  In  1734,  he  shared  with  his  father 
a  double  prize,  given  l)y  this  academy, 
for  their  joint  essay  on  the  causes  of  the 
different  inclinations  of  the  planetaiy  or- 
bits. Most  of  his  writings  are  contained 
in  the  transactions  of  the  Petei-sburg, 
Paris,  Berlin,  &c.  academics,  of  which  he 
was  a  member. — 6.  John  B.,  born  at 
Bale,  in  1710,  went  to  Petei-sburg  in  1732, 
became  professor  of  rhetoric  at  Bale  in 
174-3,  and,  in  1748,  professor  of  mathe- 
matics. He  died  in  1790.  The  two  fol- 
lowing were  his  sons. — 7.  John  B.,  licen- 
tiate of  law  and  royal  astronomer  in 
Berlin,  was  born  at  Bale,  in  1744,  and 
died,  1807,  in  BcrUn,  whither  he  had 
been  invited  in  the  19th  year  of  his  age. 
He  had  travelled  through  all  the  coun- 
tries of  Europe,  and  lived,  after  1779,  in 
Berlin,  where  he  had  become  director 
of  the  mathematical  department  of  the 
academy.  He  is  the  author  of  numerous 
works.-— 8.  James  B.  was  bom  at  Bale,  in 
1759  ;  went  to  Petersburg,  where  he  be- 
came professor  of  mathematics,  married 
a  grand-daughter  of  Euler,  but  died  in 


1789,  in  the  30th  year  of  his  age,  of  an 
apoplexy,  Avhile  bathing  in  the  Neva. 

Ber.nstouff  ;  the  name  of  a  Gennan 
noble  family,  many  members  of  which 
have  been  distinguished.  The  most  so 
was  John  Hartwig  Ernst,  count  of  B., 
Danish  secretary  of  foreign  aftiiirs.  He 
was  bom  in  Hanover,  May  13,  1713.  His 
father  was  also  secretary  of  state  in  Den- 
mark. In  1750,  he  was  made  member 
of  the  council  of  state,  after  liaving  sensed 
for  a  long  time  as  foreign  minister.  He 
soon  became  the  most  influential  member 
of  the  government,  which  distinguished 
itself^  under  his  direction,  by  a  wise  neu- 
trality during  tlie  seven  years'  war,  and 
other  political  disturbances  in  Europe  ;  by 
liberal  measures  for  improving  the  condi- 
tion of  the  Danisli  peasantiy,  who  were 
even  then  in  a  state  of  bondage  ;  by  pro- 
moling  science,  and  sending  an  expedi- 
tion to  Asia,  which  tlie  famous  traveller 
Niebuhr  accompanied.  He  himself  set 
the  example  of  manumitting  the  peasants, 
and  gave  the  fourth  jjart  of  his  income  to 
the  poor.  By  his  efforts,  Denmark  ac- 
quired Holstein,  B.  is  described,  by  all 
historians,  as  a  model  of  wisdom,  benevo- 
lence and  intelligence.  Frederic  V  (q.  v.), 
whose  government  he  directed  so  well, 
died  in  1766,  and  he  continued  in  his 
office,  under  Christian  VII,  until  1770, 
when  Struensee  (q.  v.)  contrived  to  dis- 
])lace  him.  After  the  fall  of  Struensee, 
he  was  recalled,  !)Ut  died  when  preparing 
for  his  return  to  Denmark  from  Hamburg, 
in  1772,  Feb.  19.  Christian  VII  had  made 
him  count. — Andrew  Peter,  count  of  B., 
his  cousin,  was  also  a  voiy  distinguished 
statesman,  successor  of  the  preceding, 
and  deserves  great  praise,  among  other 
things,  for  his  endeavors  to  emancipate 
the  peasantry.  He  was  bom  Aug.  28, 
1735,  and  died  June  21,  1797.  His  son 
is  now  PiTissian  minister  of  foreign  affairs. 
Berri,  or  Berry,  Charles  Ferdinand, 
duke  of;  second  son  of  the  count  d'Ar- 
tois  (now  Charles  X)  and  Maria  Theresa 
of  Savoy,  born  at  Versailles,  Jan.  24, 
1778.  Together  with  the  duke  of  An- 
goulemc,  he  received  an  inadequate  edu- 
cation under  the  duke  of  Serent :  never- 
theless, in  his  early  youth,  he  displayed 
some  talents  and  a  good  heart.  In  1792, 
he  fled  with  his  father  to  Turin,  served 
under  him  and  Conde  on  the  Rhine,  and 
early  learned  the  ait  of  winning  the  love 
of  the  soldiers.  With  his  family,  he  re- 
paired to  Russia,  and,  in  1801,  to  Eng- 
land, where  he  lived  alternately  at  Lon- 
don and  Hartwell,  continually  occupied 
witli  plans  for  the  restoration  of  the  Bour- 


80 


BERRI— BERTHIER. 


bong.  April  13, 1814,  B.  landed  at  Cher- 
bourg, and  passed  through  the  cities  of 
Bajeux,  Cafcn,  Rouen,  &c.,  gaining  over 
the  soldiers  and  national  guards  to  the 
cause  of  the  Bourbons,  distributing  alms, 
and  delivering  prisoners.  He  made  his 
entrance  into  Paris  April  21,  where  he 
gained  popularity  by  visiting  the  mer- 
chants, manufacturers  and  artists.  May 
15,  he  was  appointed  colonel-general, 
receivbig  a  civil  list  of  1,500,000  francs. 
Aug.  1,  he  set  out  on  a  visit  to  the  de- 
partment of  the  North,  and  the  fortified 
places  in  Lon-aine,  Franche-Comte  and 
Alsace.  When  Napoleon  landed  from 
Elba,  the  king  committed  to  B.  the  chief 
command  of  all  the  troops  in  and  roimd 
Paris.  All  his  efforts  to  secure  their 
fidelity  proving  ineffectual,  he  was  obliged 
to  retreat,  on  the  night  of  March  19,  with 
the  troops  of  the  household,  to  Ghent,  and 
Alost,  where  the  king  then  was.  The 
battle  of  Waterloo  enabled  him  to  return 
to  Paris,  where  he  arrived  July  8,  and 
surrendered  his  command  over  the  troops 
of  the  household  into  the  hands  of  the 
king.  In  August,  he  was  made  president 
of  the  electoral  college  of  the  department 
of  the  North.  At  the  opening  of  the 
chambers  hi  Paris,  he  took  the  oath  to 
maintain  the  constitution,  and  was  ap- 
pointed president  of  the  fourth  bureau  ; 
but  he  soon  retired  from  pulilic  hfe. 
LouvqI  (q.  V.)  had  been,  fon  several  years, 
meditating  the  extirpation  of  the  house 
of  Bourbon,  by  the  assassination  of  the 
duke.  Feb.  13,  1820,  he  attacked  him 
just  as  he  had  left  the  opera-house,  and 
was  on  the  point  of  stepping  into  his  car- 
riage, and  gave  him  a  mortal  blow.  The 
duke  showed  the  greatest  firmness  and 
Christian  resignation  even  to  the  moment 
of  liis  death  (Feb.  14,  at  6  o'clock  in  the 
morning).  He  had  been  carried  into  the 
saloon  of  the  opera-house.  Here  he  con- 
soled his  wife,  and  said,  Minagez-vous 
pour  Penfant  que  vous  portez  dans  voire 
sein!  (Take  care  of  yourself,  for  the  sake 
of  the  child  in  your  bosom  I)  He  then 
caused  the  children,  whom  he  had  in 
London  before  his  maiTiage,  to  be  called, 
and,  after  recommending  them  to  his 
wife,  prepared  himself  for  death,  forgave 
his  murderer,  confessed  himself,  and  re- 
ceived the  sacrament.  Benevolence,  grat- 
itude and  generosity  were  the  best  fea- 
tures in  the  character  of  this  prince,  by 
whose  death  all  France  was  plunged  into 
consternation.  (See  Chateaubriand's  Me- 
moires  touchant  la  Vie  et  la  Mart  du  Due 
dt  Bern,  Paris,  1820.)  The  duke  left  by 
his  wife,  Carolina  Ferdinanda   Louisa, 


eldest  daughter  of  prince,  afterwards  king 
Francis  I,  ruler  of  the  Two  Sicihes,  whom 
he  married  June  17, 1816,  only  a  daughter, 
Louisa  Maria  Theresa  of  Artois,  made- 
moiselle de  France,  bom  Feb.  21,  1819, 
Great  was  the  joy  of  the  royal  family, 
when  the  duke's  widow  was  delivered, 
Sept.  29,  of  a  prince,  who  bears  the  name 
of  Henry,  duke  of  Bordeaux  (Henri 
Charles  Ferdinand  Dieudonn^  d'Artois, 
petit-fils  de  France).  (See  Chambord.) — 
Although  Louvel's  deed  had  no  connex- 
ion with  a  conspiracy,  not  the  slightest 
trace  of  an  accomphce  being  discovered, 
yet  the  mutual  denunciations  to  which  it 
gave  rise  produced  much  party  excite- 
ment, and  occasioned  some  laws  of  ex- 
ception. (See  France,  and  ExcepliotL, 
laws  of.)  The  opera-house,  near  which 
the  crime  was  committed,  and  in  which 
the  duke  died,  was  pulled  down,  and  a 
column  erected  on  the  spot.  A  new 
opera-house  was  built  in  another  place. 

Berri,  or  Berry  ;  before  the  revolu- 
tion of  France,  a  province  and  dukedonj 
of  that  country-,  of  which  Bourges  was 
the  caj)ital,  almost  in  llie  centre  of  France. 
(See  Department.) 

Berserker,  a  descendant  of  the  eight- 
handed  Starkader  and  the  beautiful  Alf- 
hilde,  was,  according  to  the  Scandinavian 
inytholog}',  a  famous  warrior.  He  dis- 
dained the  protection  of  armor,  whence 
he  received  his  name,  which  signifies, 
according  to  Ihre,  armorless.  He  raged 
like  a  madman  in  battle.  He  killed  king 
Swafurlam,  and  married  his  daughter,  by 
whom  he  had  12  sons,  as  untameable  as 
himself  They  were  also  called  B.,  and, 
since  their  time,  the  name  has  been  com- 
monly given  to  men  of  headstrong  violence. 

Berthier,  Alexander;  prince  ofNeuf- 
chatel  and  Wagram,  marshal,  vice-consta- 
ble of  France,  &c. ;  born  in  Paris,  Dec 
30,  1753;  son  of  a  distinguished  officer; 
was,  while  yet  young,  employed  in  the 
general  staff,  served  in  America,  and 
fought  with  Lafayette  for  the  liberty  of 
the  U.  States.  In  the  first  years  of  the 
revolution,  he  was  appointed  major-gen- 
eral in  the  national  guard  of  Versailles, 
and  conducted  himself  in  this  post  with 
uniform  moderation.  Dec.  28,  1791,  he 
was  appointed  chief  of  the  general  staff 
in  the  army  of  marehal  Luckner,  marched 
against  La  Vendee  in  1793,  and  joined 
the  army  of  Italy  in  1796,  with  the  rank 
of  general  of  division,  where,  as  chief  of 
the  general  staff,  he  contributed  much  to 
the  success  of  the  campaign.  In  Octo- 
ber, 1797,  general  Bonaparte  sent  him  to 
Paris  to  deliver  to  the  directory  the  treaty 


BERTHIER— BERTHOLLET. 


81 


of  Carapp-Fomiio.  In  January,  1798,  he 
received  the  chief  command  of  die  army 
of  Italy,  and  was  ordered  by  the  directoiy 
to  niarcli  against  the  dominions  of  the 
pope.  In  the  beginning  of  February,  he 
made  his  entrance  into  Rome,  abohshed 
tlie  papal  government,  and  establislied  a 
consular  one.  Being  much  attached  to 
general  Bonaj^arte,  he  followed  him  to 
Egypt  as  chief  of  the  general  staif.  After 
the  Ibth  of  Brumaire,  Bonaparte  appoint- 
ed him  minister  of  war.  He  afterwards 
became  general-in-chief  of  the  amiy  of 
reserve,  accomjjanied  Bonaparte  to  Italy, 
in  1800,  and  contributed  to  the  passage 
of  St.  Bernard  and  the  victorj'  at  Maren- 
go. He  signed  the  armistice  of  Alessan- 
dria, formed  the  provisional  govennnent 
of  Piedmont,  and  went  on  an  extraordi- 
naiy  mission  to  Spain.  He  then  received 
again  the  department  of  war,  which,  in  tho 
mean  time,  had  been  in  the  hands  of 
Carnot.  He  accompanied  Napoleon  to 
IWilan,  June,  1805,  to  be  present  at  his 
coronation,  and,  in  October,  was  appoint- 
ed chief  of  the  general  staff  of  the  grand 
army  in  Germany.  Oct.  19,  he  signed 
the  capitulation  of  Ulm,  with  I\Iack,  and, 
Dec.  6,  the  armistice  of  Austerlitz.  Hav- 
ing, in  1806,  accompanied  the  emperor  in 
his  campaign  against  Prussia,  he  signed 
the  armistice  of  Tilsit,  June,  1807.  He 
afterv/ards  resigned  his  post  as  minister 
of  war,  and,  having  been  appointed  vice- 
constable  of  France,  married,  in  1808, 
Maria  Elizabeth  Amalia,  daughter  of  duke 
William  of  Bavaria-Birkenfeld,  and  con- 
tinued to  be  the  companion  of  Napoleon 
in  all  his  expeditions.  In  the  campaign 
against  Austria,  in  1809,  he  distinguished 
himself  at  Wagram,  and  received  the  title 
of  prince  of  Wagram.  In  1810,  as  proxy 
of  Napoleon,  he  received  the  hand  of 
Maria  Louisa,  daughter  of  the  emperor 
Francis  I,  and  accompanied  her  to  France. 
Somewhat  later.  Napoleon  made  him 
colonel-general  of  the  Swiss  troops.  In 
1812,  he  was  with  the  army  in  Russia,  as 
chief  of  the  general  staff,  which  post  lie 
also  held  in  1813.  After  Na})oleon's  ab- 
dication, he  lost  his  principality  of  Neuf- 
chatel,  but  retained  his  other  honors,  and 
possessed  the  favor  and  conlidence  of 
Louis  XVIII,  whom,  after  Napoleon's 
return,  he  accompanied  to  the  Nether- 
lands, whence  he  repaired  to  his  family 
at  Bamberg,  where  he  arrived  May  30. 
After  his  amval  at  this  place,  he  was 
observed  to  be  sunk  in  a  profound  mel- 
ancholy ;  and  when,  on  the  afternoon  of 
June  1,  the  music  of  the  Russian  troops, 
on  theii-  march  to  tlie  French  borders, 


was  heard  at  the  gates  of  the  city,  he  put 
an  end  to  his  life  by  throwing  himself 
from  a  window  of  the  third  stoiy  of  his 
palace.  (See  Mhnoires  (T Alexandre  Ber- 
thier,  Pr.  de  JWiifchatel  et  de  Wagram, 
Paris,  1826.)  He  left  a  son,  Alexander 
(born  in  1810),  and  two  daughters. 

Berthollet,  Claude  Louis,  count ; 
member  of  the  scientilic  academies  at 
Paris,  London,  Turin,  Haerlem,  &c. ;  ono 
of  the  most  eminent  theoretical  chemists 
of  our  times*,  born  at  Talloire,  in  Savoy, 
Dec.  9,  1748 ;  studied  medicine  at  Turin ; 
went,  in  1772,  to  Paris,  where  he  became 
connected  with  Lavoisier  ;  was  admitted, 
in  1780,  a  member  of  the  academy  of 
sciences  in  that  city  ;  was  made,  in  1794, 
professor  in  the  normal  school  there,  and 
was  sent  to  Italy,  in  1796,  in  order  to  se- 
lect the  monuments  that  were  to  be  ear- 
ned to  Paris.  He  followed  Bonaparte  to 
Egy[)t,  and  returned  with  him  in  1799. 
After  the  18th  of  Brumaire,  he  was  made 
a  member  o{  the  stnat-conservatcur ;  after- 
wards, count  and  grand  officer  of  the  le- 
gion of  honor.  In  1804,  Napoleon  ap- 
pointed him  senator  for  the  district  of 
Montpellier.  In  1813,  he  received  the 
grand  cross  of  the  order  of  the  Reunion. 
April  1,  1814,  however,  he  voted  for  the 
establishment  of  a  provisional  govern- 
ment and  the  dethronement  of  Napoleon. 
Louis  XVIII  made  him  a  peer ;  but  Na- 
poleon passed  him  by  in  1815.  After 
the  restoration  of  Louis,  he  took  his  seat 
again  in  the  chamber  of  peers.  Among 
the  inventions  and  new  processes  with 
which  the  sciences  and  the  arts  were  en- 
riched by  him,  the  most  important  aro 
those  for  the  charring  of  vessels  to  pre- 
serve water  in  ships,  for  the  stiffening  and 
glazing  of  linen,  &c.,  but  principally  that 
for  the  bleaching  of  vegetable  substances 
by  means  of  oxymuriatic  acid,  which, 
since  1786,  has  been  in  general  use  in 
France.  Besides  different  essays  in  the 
collections  of  the  academy  and  the  insti- 
tute, he  has  written  several  larger  works, 
among  which  his  Essai  de  Siatique  Chi- 
viique  (1803, 2  vols. ;  translated  into  Eng- 
hsli,  German  and  Italian)  must  be  consid- 
ered as  the  most  imj)oitant,  and  as  one  of 
the  finest  productions  of  our  times.  The 
complicated  phenomena  of  chemistry  are 
reduced,  in  this  work,  to  the  strict  and 
simple  laws  of  mechanics.  He  had  also 
a  large  share  in  the  reformation  of  the 
chemical  nomenclature,  as  well  as  in  the 
publication  of  the  work  that  ap|>eared  on 
this  subject  in  Paris,  1787 — Mithode  de 
JVomenclature  Chimique.  He  died  in 
Paris,  Nov.  7, 1822. 


63 


BERTHOUD— BERVIC. 


Berthodd,  Ferdinand,  celebrated  for 
his  marine  chronometers,  bom  at  Plance- 
mont,  in  the  county  of  Neufchatel,  in 
1727,  was  destined  for  the  church,  but, 
at  the  age  of  16,  conceived  an  in-esistible 
inclination  for  mechanics.  His  father 
caused  him  to  be  instructed  in  the  art  of 
watchmaking,  and,  to  afford  him  an  op- 
jjortunity  of  perfecting  his  knowledge, 
sent  iiim  to  Paris.  He  resided  in  that 
city  from  1745,  and  there  made  his  fii-st 
marine  chronometers,  which  have  been 
used,  by  French  navigators,  on  so  many 
occasions,  for  extending  and  correctii^g 
geographical  knowledge.  He  left  several 
works  relating  to  his  art.  He  died  in 
1807.  His  nephew,  Louis  B.,  his  pupil, 
and  the  heir  of  his  talents,  has  extended 
his  improvements  still  further.  His  chro- 
nometers are  in  the  hands  of  almost  all 
navigators,  and  are  even  more  convenient 
than  those  of  his  uncle.  They  are  fa- 
mous for  accuracy. 

Bertoli,  Giovanni  Domenico,  count 
of;  born,  in  1676,  at  Moreto,  in  Friuli ;  the 
patriarch  of  Aquileia,  a  place  where 
many  antiquities  existed,  of  which  nobody 
had  taken  notice.  The  inhabitants  had 
even  been  in  the  habit,  for  a  long  lime, 
of  building  their  houses  with  ruins  and 
remains  of  art.  To  prevent  further  de- 
struction, B.,  in  conjunction  with  other 
men  of  learning  and  taste,  bought  all  the 
ancient  marbles  which  were  excavated. 
Muratori  and  Apostolo  Zeno  encouraged 
him  in  his  antiquarian  researches  and 
publications.  B.  died  in  1758.  His  most 
important  work  is  Le  Antichita  di  AquUeja 
profane  e  sacre,  Venice,  1739,  fol.  Some 
of  his  treatises  are  to  be  found  in  the  col- 
lection of  P.  Calogera ;  others  in  the  me- 
moirs of  the  Societa  Columbana  at  Flor- 
ence. 

Berton,  Henry  Montan ;  son  of  Peter 
Berton,  who,  when  director  of  the  opera 
at  Pai-is,  induced  Gluck  and  Piccini  to 
come  to  Paris.  B.  was  born  Dec.  17, 
1767,  in  Paris,  and  formed  himself  under 
the  great  mastere  Gluck,  Piccini,  Paesi- 
cllo  and  Sacchini.  When  19  years  old, 
he  first  appeared  before  the  public,  as  a 
composer,  in  the  Concert  spirituel.  When 
the  conservatory  Avas  established,  he  was 
appointed  professor  of  harmony.  In  1807, 
he  was  made  director  of  the  Italian  opera, 
and  afterwards  leader  of  the  choir  [chtf 
du  chant)  at  the  great  imperial  opera.  He 
was  afterwards  employed  in  Russia  by  the 
emperor,  but  soon  returned  to  France. 
His  most  famous  opera  is  Aline  Reine  de 
Golconde.  His  Montana  and  Stephanie, 
also,  are  distinguished. 


Bertrand,  Henri  Gratien,  count ;  gen- 
eral  of  division,  aid-de-camp  of  Napoleon, 
grand  marshal  of  the  palace,  &c. ;  famous 
for  his  attachment  to  Napoleon,  whom  he 
and  his  family  volimtarily  accompanied 
to  St.  Helena.  He  was  born  of  parents 
in  the  middle  ranks  of  life,  entered  the 
military  service,  distinguished  himself  in 
the  corps  of  engineers,  and  rose  to  the 
post  of  general  of  brigade.  In  the  camp 
at  Boulogne,  in  1804,  Napoleon  had  oc- 
casion to  become  acquainted  with  his 
worth.  From  that  time  B.  was  with  him 
in  all  his  campaigns,  signalizmg  himself 
every  where,  especially  at  Austerlitz, 
where  he  was  one  of  the  emperor's  aides- 
de-camp.  In  1806,  he  took  Spandau,  a 
fortress  about  6  or  7  miles  from  Berlin, 
after  an  attack  of  a  few  days ;  and,  in 
1807,  contributed  to  the  victory  over  the 
Russians  at  Friedland,  and  excited  the 
admiration  of  the  enemy  by  his  masterly 
conduct  in  building  two  bridges  over  the 
Danube,  after  the  battle  at  Aspem,  in  the 
war  of  1809  against  Austria.  He  distin- 
guished himself  equally  in  the  campaigns 
of  1812  and  1813,  particularly  at  Lutzen 
and  Bautzen.  In  October,  1813,  he  de- 
fended several  important  posts  against 
superior  numbers,  and,  after  the  battle  of 
Leipsic,  in  which  he  defended  Lindenau 
against  Giulay,  conducted  the  retreat  in 
good  order.  After  the  battle  of  Hanau, 
he  covered  Mentz  till  the  army  had  passed 
the  Rhine.  He  took  part  in  the  campaign 
of  1814,  by  the  side  of  Napoleon,  whom 
he  accompanied  to  Elba,  returned  with 
him,  and  finally  shared  his  residence  in 
St.  Helena.  AfterNapoleon's  death  (1821), 
he  returned  from  this  island  to  France. 

Bertjch,  Frederic  Justin,  born  at 
Weimar,  in  1747,  since  1785  counsellor 
of  legation  in  the  service  of  the  duke 
of  Weimar,  has  done  much  in  several 
branches  of  literature  and  the  arts,  in  the 
study  of  which  he  has  been  engaged  from 
his  early  youth.  He  is  principally  known, 
in  foreign  countries,  by  the  Geographical 
Institute  [Geographisches  Institut)  which 
he  established  at  Weimar.  This  society 
has  published  numerous  maps,  and,  in 
connexion  with  the  periodical  paper  Ge- 
ographische  Ephemeriden,  conducted  by 
B.  and  others,  has  been  of  much  service 
to  geography.  B.,  together  with  Wieland 
and  Schiitz,  also  projected  the  AUgemeine 
Literaiurzettung,  which  now  appears  at 
Halle  on  the  Saale.  In  1817,  he  began 
the  Oppositiotisblatt,  which  was  suppressed 
by  government  in  1820. 

Bervic,  Charles  Clement,  one  of  the 
most    distinguished    engravers    of    the 


BERVIC— BERYL. 


83 


li'rench  school,  bom  at  Paiis  in  1756, 
studied  his  art  under  George  Wille,  and 
may  be  considered  liis  most  eminent 
pupil.  The  works  of  B.  are  among  the 
best  of  the  French  school,  but  are  not 
numerous.  The  most  celebrated  of  them 
is  the  full  length  figure  of  Louis  XVI, 
after  a  picture  of  Callot.  The  copies  are 
veiy  rare  and  dear,  because  the  plate  was 
broken  to  pieces  in  the  revolutionaiy  tu- 
mults of  1793.  The  exactness  of  his 
drawing,  the  firmness  and  brilliancy  of 
his  touch,  the  pui-ity  and  correctness  of 
his  design,  and  the  happiness  with  whicli 
lie  trausfen-ed  to  liis  plate  the  beauties  of 
the  original,  give  a  high  character  to  his 
productions.     He  died  in  1822. 

Berwick,  James  Fitz-James,  duke  of, 
commanded  the  armies  of  England, 
France  and  Spain,  was  a  peer  of  Eng- 
land and  France,  as  well  as  a  grandee  of 
Spain,  and  was  knighted  by  the  sovereign 
of  each  of  these  countries.  He  was 
the  natui-al  son  of  the  duke  of  York,  af- 
terwards king  James  II,  and  Arabella 
Churchill,  sister  of  the  duke  of  Marlbor- 
ough ;  was  born  in  1G70,  and  first  went 
by  the  name  of  Fitz-James.  He  received 
liis  education  in  France,  and  served  his 
first  campaigns  in  Hungary,  under  Charles 
duke  of  Lorraine,  general  of  Leopold  I. 
A  short  time  after,  the  EngUsh  revolution 
broke  out.  B.  followed  his  father  in  the 
expedition  against  Ireland,  and  was 
wounded  in  a  battle  in  1689.  He  after- 
wards served  under  Luxemburg,  in  Flan- 
ders ;  in  1702  and  1703,  under  the  duke 
of  Burgundy ;  then  undermarshal  Villeroi ; 
and  was  naturalized  in  France.  In  1706, 
he  was  made  mai-shal  of  France,  and  was 
sent  to  Spain,  where  he  gained  the  battle 
of  Ahnanza,  which  rendered  king  Philip 
V  again  master  of  Valencia.  -  In  1718 
and  1719,  however,  he  was  obliged  to 
serve  against  Philip  V,  who,  from  grati- 
tude to  the  marehal,  had  taken  a  son 
of  his  into  his  service.  On  his  entrance 
into  the  Spanish  dominions,  he  wrote  to 
liis  son,  the  duke  of  Liria,  admonishing 
him  to  do  his  duty  to  his  sovereign.  At 
the  siege  of  Philipsburg,  in  1734,  liis  Jife 
was  termuiated  by  a  cannon  ball. 

Berwick-upon-Tweed  (anciently  Tu- 
esis) ;  a  town  of  England,  on  the  north 
or  Scotch  side  of  the  Tweed,  within  half 
a  mile  of  its  confluence  with  the  German 
ocean.  It  is  a  county  of  itself,  regularly 
fortified  with  walls,  bastions  and  ditches  ; 
54  miles  S.  E.  Edinburgh,  335  N.  W. 
London  ;  Ion.  2°  W. ;  lat.  55°  47'  N. ;  pop. 
7746.  It  exports  com,  pork,  eggs  and 
salmon.     The  town  has  been,  of  late, 


much  improved,  and  the  streets  are  well 
paved.  The  bridge  over  the  Tweed  is 
1164  feet  long,  and  contains  6  arches. 
The  barracks  can  accommodate  600  men. 
B.  sends  two  members  to  parliament,  and 
has  markets  on  Wednesday  and  Saturday. 
It  was  formerly  the  chief  town  in  the 
county  of  Bermck,  and  the  theatre  of 
many  sanguinary  conflicts  between  the 
English  and  Scottish  armies.  Both  na- 
tions considering  it  a  fortress  of  great  im- 
portance, the  town  and  its  neighborhood 
were  a  constant  scene  of  bloodshed.  Af- 
ter repeated  sieges,  it  was  finally  ceded  to 
England  in  the  year  1502 ;  and,  by  a  treaty 
between  Edward  VI  and  Mary  queen  of 
Scotland,  it  was  declared  to  be  a  free 
town,  indejjendent  of  both  states.  Upon 
the  death  of  Ehzabeth,  in  1603,  James  VI 
of  Scotland  was  proclaimed  at  B.  king 
of  England,  France  and  Ireland ;  and 
when  that  monarch  entered  into  his  new 
dominions,  the  constituted  authorities  of 
the  town  received  him  with  every  dem- 
onstration of  joy  and  respect.  In  return, 
the  king  confiimed  all  their  ancient  char- 
ters, adding  many  privileges,  which  still 
remain  pecuhar  to  the  town  and  its  hb- 
eities.  The  peculiar  privileges  of  B.,  and 
the  ch'cumstance  that  it  was  once  inde- 
jiendent  of  England  and  Scotland,  are  the 
occasion  why  it  was  formerly  the  custom  to 
extend  the  provisions  of  English  statutes 
to  B.  by  name.  The  statute  20  Geo.  II, 
c.  42,  provides,  that,  where  England  only 
is  mentioned  in  an  act  of  parliament,  the 
same  shall  be  deemed  to  comprehend  the 
dominion  of  Wales  and  the  town  of  B. 

Beryl,  or  Emerald  ;  a  well-knoAvn 
species  in  mineralogy,  sometimes  massive 
in  its  structure,  though  commonly  found 
crystallized  in  regular,  six-sided  prisms, 
often  deeply  striated  longitudinally,  and 
tenninated  at  one  or  both  extremities  by 
a  rough,  imperfect  plane,  or,  more  rarely, 
by  a  veiy  flat,  six-sided  pyramid,  of  which 
the  summit  is  replaced.  Its  crystals  are 
of  vai'ious  dimensions,  being  fi-om  half  an 
inch  to  upwards  of  a  foot  in  length,  and 
from  a  quarter  of  an  inch  to  10  inches 
in  diameter.  The  larger  crj'stals,  how- 
ever, are  inferior  to  the  smaller,  in  regard 
to  those  qualities  for  which  this  species  is 
esteemed.  The  lustre  of  the  beryl  is 
vitreous ;  its  color,  green,  passing  into 
blue,  yellow  and  white.  The  brightest  of 
these  colors  is  emerald  green,  which,  as  it 
is  rarely  known  to  pass  insensibly  into 
the  paler  hues,  has  been  made  the  basis 
of  a  distinct  species  in  those  specimens  in 
which  it  occurs  under  the  name  of  emer- 
ald.    This  distinction  of  species  is  not 


84 


BERYL— BESSEL. 


considered,  at  present,  as  well  founded; 
and  the  beryl  and  emenild  are  looked 
upon  as  identical  by  most  niineralogi<<ts. 
It  is  translucent  or  transparent,  and  its 
hardness  enables  it  to  scratch  quartz.  Its 
speciric  gravity  is  from  2.6  to  2.7.  It  is 
composed  of  silex,  ()8.35;  aluniine,  17.60; 
glucine,  13.13 ;  oxyde  of  iron,  .72,  with  a 
trace  of  lime  and  oxyde  of  chrome. — The 
beryl  is  widely  diffused.  It  belongs  to  the 
primitive  rocks,  and  is  embedded  in  veins 
of  quartz  and  feldspar,  which  travei-se 
granite  and  mica  slate.  It  is  also  found  in 
great  abimdance  in  a  compact  ferruginous 
clay  in  Daouria,  and  in  fractured  crystals 
and  rolled  masses  in  secondary  deposits, 
where  it  is  not  supposed  to  have  had  its 
origin.  Some  of  the  most  remarkable 
localities  of  beryl  are  found  in  Siberia, 
Lunoges  in  France,  and  in  Massachusetts, 
Maine  and  New  Hampshire  in  the  U. 
States.  The  deep-green  variety,  emerald, 
so  much  valued  as  a  gem,  comes  from 
Peru  and  Upper  Egypt :  a  few  fine  crys- 
tals have  also  been  obtained  from  gi'anite 
veins  at  Topsham  in  IMaine. 

Berzelios,  James;  bom  at  Linkioping, 
in  East  Grothland,  in  1779.  As  early  as 
1 796,  he  began  the  study  of  medicine  and 
the  natural  sciences,  particularly  chemis- 
try, for  the  prosecution  of  which  he  has 
since  made  some  scientific  journeys.  He 
is,  at  present,  professor  of  chemistry  and 
})harmacy,  secretary  of  the  royal  academy 
of  sciences  at  Stockholm,  &c.  Charles 
XIV  (Bernadotte)  has  made  him  a  noble- 
man. He  has  done  much  towards  estab- 
lishing the  electro-chemical  system,  which 
at  present  prevails,  and  according  to 
which  no  chemical  process  can  take 
place  without  the  intervention  of  electri- 
citj\  He  has  enriched  chemistry,  which, 
in  our  times,  has  become  a  perfectly  new 
science,  by  the  most  important  discoveries 
and  profound  works.  In  particular,  he 
has  distinguished  himself  by  researches 
into  the  laws  of  definite  proportions,  dis- 
covered by  Richter,  and  has  proved  him- 
self one  of  the  best  chemical  analysts.  His 
system  of  mineralogy  is  founded  on  his 
chemical  principles.  jMost  of  his  works 
have  been  translated  into  English  and 
French. 

Besanqon  (in  old  German,  Bisanz); 
Ion.  6°  3'  E. ;  lat.  47°  14'  N. ;  48  miles  from 
Paris ;  a  large,  old,  well-built  city,  much 
fortified  by  Louis  XIV;  was  transferred, 
by  the  peace  qf  Nimwegen,  with  Franche- 
Compt6  to  France ;  at  present,  is  the  chief 
place  of  the  sixth  military  division ;  has 
29,000  inhabitants,  and  is  situated  in  the 
department  Doubs.     There  is  an  arch- 


bishop in  B.,  under  whom  are  tlie  bishops 
of  Autun,  Metz,  Nancy,  Strasburg  and 
Dijon.  The  academy  of  sciences  at  B. 
was  established  in  1752 :  there  is  also  iiere 
an  academy  of  fine  arts,  a  school  lor  artil- 
lery, one  for  watch-makei-s,  containing  200 
pupils  and  a  fine  librarj',  besides  several 
museums,  a  botanical  garden,  an  agricul- 
tural society,  &c.  B.  is  a  great  majuifac- 
turing  place.  It  was  called,  in  ancient 
times,  Visontium,  and  was  a  fortified  place 
as  early  as  tin;  time  of  Ca'sar,  who  drove 
from  hence  the  Sequani.  Here  also  he 
conquered  Ariovistus.  Several  streets 
have  still  the  old  Roman  names.  The 
ruins  of  a  triumphal  arch  are  yet  to  be 
seen.  The  river  Doubs  divides  the  city 
into  two  parts,  the  upper  and  lower.  B. 
contains  3300  houses,  8  churches,  8  hos- 
l)itals,  a  citadel,  &c.  The  former  univer- 
sity was  changed,  in  1801,  into  a  lyceum. 
It  is  the  chief  place  of  an  arrondissement, 
which  contains  93,211  inhabitants. 

Bessarabia  ;  since  the  peace  of  Bucha- 
rest, in  1812,  between  Turkey  and  Russia, 
a  Russian  province,  between  45°  and  48° 
N.  lat,  and  28°  and  31°  E.  Ion. ;  containing 
about  8800  square  miles  (according  to  some 
accounts,  more  than  double  this  amount), 
with  315,000  inliabitants;  situated  on  the 
Black  sea,  between  the  northern  arm  of 
the  Danube,  the  Prulh  and  the  Dniester. 
B.  is  a  plain  country,  fertile  in  grain,  but 
is  mostly  used  for  the  pasturage  of  sheep 
and  horses.  ]\Iost  of  the  inhabitants  are 
Walachians,  Gipsies  and  Tartars.  The 
capital  is  Chotzym,  a  fortress.  Bender, 
Ismail,  Ackerman  and  Kilia  Nova  are  also 
fortresses.  Kischenau,  the  seat  of  a  Greek 
bishop,  has  a  large  nurser}'  of  trees.  The 
population  has  been  much  increased  by 
colonists  from  Poland,  Germany,  France, 
&c.  These  aznount  already  to  8300, 
mostly  Lutherans.  A  considerable  num- 
ber of  troops  are  kept  in  B.  to  protect  the 
frontiers.  Many  mechanics  are  thus 
drawn  there  to  supply  the  wants  of  tlie 
army. 

Bessel,  Frederic  William;  considered 
by  many  the  best  astronomical  observer 
of  the  present  age ;  has  been  professor  of 
astronomy  in  Koni^berg  since  1810;  was 
bom  in  Minden,  July  22, 1784 ;  entered,  at 
the  age  of  15  years,  one  of  the  first  com- 
mercial houses  in  Bremen.  The  mari- 
time intercourse  of  tliat  place  with  foreign 
countries  excited  in  him  an  inchnation  for 
geography,  and  afterwards  for  the  science 
of  navigation,  and  induced  him  to  attempt 
the  acquisition  of  mathematical  knowl- 
edge from  books.  He  soon  passed  to 
astronomy,  and,  as  his  days  were  other- 


BESSEL— BETHLEHEM. 


85 


wise  occupied,  he  devoted  his  nights  to 
tliose  labors.  An  astronomical  work 
which  he  wrote  procured  him  the  ac- 
quaintance of  Olbers  (q.  v.),  who,  from 
that  time,  became  iiis  adviser.  In  1806, 
he  joined  Scrdter  at  Lilieuthal,  with  rec- 
ommendations from  Olbers,  and  was  em- 
ployed for  four  years  as  inspector  of  the 
instruments  belonging  to  the  university  of 
Gottingen.  From  thence  he  was  invited 
to  Konigsberg,  where  he  built,  in  1812 — 
13,  the  observatorv',  which  is  a  monument 
of  the  scientific  enterprise  of  the  north  of 
Germany,  since  it  was  erected  when  Prus- 
sia was  almost  exhausted  by  war,  and 
Konigsberg  was  situated  on  the  great 
tlieatre  of  Napoleon's  operations  against 
Russia.  The  observations,  uninterrupted- 
ly contirmed  at  this  observatory,  are  con- 
tained in  5  vols.,  folio.  The  observatory 
of  Konigsberg  was,  till  1819,  provided 
with  English  instruments,  wlien  the  min- 
istry supplied  it  with  the  means  of  pro- 
curing new  instruments,  made  by  Reich- 
enbach  (q.  v.),  of  the  best  workmanship. 
Besides  these  observations  and  separate 
treatises,  B.  published,  in  his  work  on 
the  comet  of  1807,  a  tlieory  of  the  dis- 
turbances of  these  celestial  bodies,  and 
FundameiUa  AstronomicE  pro  an.  1755 — a 
work  in  which  he  has  reduced  Bradley's 
observations,  and  given  their  results.  He 
treats  also  of  the  various  subjects  con- 
nected with  these  observations,  namely, 
the  instruments  used  and  the  corrections 
to  be  made  in  them.  For  the  present 
period,  B.  has  endeavored,  by  his  own 
observations  and  a  strict  criticism  of  meth- 
ods and  instruments,  to  attain  the  necessary 
ceitainty.  Of  his  Astronomical  Observa- 
tions at  the  Observatory  of  Konigsberg, 
tlie  10th  No.,  from  Jan.  1  to  Dec.  31, 
1824,  appeared  at  Konigsberg,  1826. 

Betel  is  the  leaf  of  a  chmbing  East 
Indian  plant  (piper-betel),  which  belongs 
to  the  same  tribe  as  pepper,  and,  in  shape 
and  appearance,  is  not  much  unlike  ivy, 
but  is  more  tender,  and  full  of  juice. 
There  is  an  almost  incredible  consump- 
tion of  betel  throughout  India,  and  other 
parts  of  the  East.  The  inhabitants  chew 
it  almost  incessantly,  and  in  such  quantity 
tliat  their  Ups  become  quite  red,  and  their 
teeth  black — a  color  greatly  preferred  by 
tliem  to  the  whiteness  which  the  Europe- 
ans so  nmch  affect.  They  carry  it,  in  lit- 
tle white  boxes,  about  their  persons,  and 
present  it  to  each  other,  by  way  of  com- 
pliment and  civility,  in  the  same  manner 
as  Europeans  do  snufF.  This  is  done  by 
the  women  as  well  as  by  the  men ;  and  it 
would  be  considered  an  offence,  if  those 

VOL.  II.  8 


to  whom  it  is  offered  should  refuse  to  ac- 
cept of  and  chew  it.  The  leaves  are 
sometimes  used  alone,  but  much  more 
commonly  when  covered  with  a  kind  of 
lime  made  of  sea-shell,  and  wrapped  round 
slices  of  the  areca  nut,  the  fruit  of  the 
areca  palm,  of  the  size  of  a  small  egg,  and 
resembling  a  nutmeg  deprived  of  its  husk. 

Bethania,  or  Bethany  ;  a  village  at  the 
foot  of  mount  Olivet,  on  the  west  side, 
about  two  miles  east  of  Jerusalem,  where 
Lazarus  dwelt,  and  was  raised  from  the 
dead,  and  where  the  ascension  of  Christ 
is  related  to  have  taken  place.  The 
house  and  grave  of  Lazarus  and  the 
house  of  Maiy  Magdalene  are  still  shown 
to  curious  travellers.  The  name  of  B. 
was  sometimes  extended  to  the  whole 
tract  from  the  village  itself  to  Bethphage. 

Bethesda  ;  a  pool  in  Judea,  the  name 
of  which  signifies  liouse  of  mercy.  In  the 
five  halls  or  porticos  near  it  many  patients 
lay  waiting,  according  to  the  account  of 
John  (ch.  v),  for  the  moving  of  the  waters, 
to  bathe  in  it.  According  to  the  opinion 
of  the  Jews,  an  angel  descended,  at  a  cer- 
tain time,  uito  the  pool,  and  troubled  the 
water,  and  whoever  first  entered  the  wa- 
ter, after  this  agitation,  was  cured.  This 
pool  seems  to  have  been  composed  of  a 
red-colored  mineral  water,  which  received 
its  healing  power  from  the  red  earth  at 
the  bottom.  If  the  healing  fountain,  after 
having  been  obstructed  for  a  time,  began 
to  bubble  up  anew,  and  the  patient  made 
use  of  it  before  the  motion  ceased,  it 
healed  his  disease. — To  lie  at  the  pool  of 
Bethesda,  is  used  proverbially,  in  Germany, 
in  speaking  of  the  theological  candidates 
who  are  waiting  for  a  benefice. 

Bethlehem  ;  the  birth-place  of  David 
and  Christ ;  a  village,  formerly  a  town,  in 
Palestine,  a  part  of  Syria,  in  the  pachalic 
of  Damascus,  five  miles  from  Jeitisalem, 
at  the  foot  of  a  hill  covered  with  vines 
and  olive-trees,  which,  however,  is  not  the 
mount  of  OUves  mentioned  in  the  Bible. 
An  aqueduct  conveys  water  from  the  hill 
to  the  village.  It  has  300  houses,  and 
2400  Greek  and  Armenian  mhabitants, 
who  make  wooden  rosaries  and  cruci- 
fixes, inlaid  with  mother  of  pearl,  for  pil- 
grims ;  also  excellent  white  wine.  In  a 
rich  grotto,  furnished  with  silver  and 
crystal  lamps,  under  the  choir  of  the 
church  of  a  convent  in  this  village,  a 
trough  of  marble  is  shown,  which  is  said 
to  be  the  manger  in  which  Jesus  was 
laid  after  his  birth.  There  are  three  con- 
vents there,  for  Catholics,  Greeks  and  Ar- 
menians. The  greatest  ornament  of  tlie 
place  is  tlie  stately  church  erected  by  the 


BETHLEHEM— BETTERTON. 


empress  Helena  over  the  place  where 
Christ  is  said  to  liave  been  born,  and 
bearing  licr  name.  It  is  built  in  the  form 
of  a  cross,  and  the  top  commands  a  fine 
view  over  the  surrounding  countr)'.  Sev- 
eral spots  mentioned  in  the  Bible  ai*e 
shown  there. 

Bethlehem.  There  are  many  places 
in  the  U.  States  with  tliis  name.  One  of 
the  most  important  is  the  borough  and 
post-town  in  Northampton  county,  Penn- 
sylvania, on  the  Lehigh,  12  miles  S.  W. 
Easton,  54  N.  N.  W.  Pliiladelphia.  Pop- 
ulation in  1810,  1436 ;  in  1820,  1860.  It 
is  pleasantly  situated,  regularly  laid  out, 
built  chiefly  of  stone,  and  inhabited  whol- 
ly by  Moravians,  who  have  a  bishop  there. 
B.  contains  two  academies,  one  for  young 
ladies,  and  another  for  boys. 

Betrothment,  in  law ;  a  mutual  prom- 
ise or  compact  between  two  parties,  by 
which  they  bind  themselves  to  marry. 
The  word  imports  giving  one's  troth, 
i.  e.,  true  faith  or  promise.  Betrothment 
amounts  to  the  same  with  what  is  call- 
ed, by  civilians  and  canonists,  sponsalia 
or  espousals,  sometimes  desponsation, 
and,  by  the  French,^anpm7Zes.  Betroth- 
ment is  either  solemn  (made  in  the  face 
of  the  church),  or  private  (made  befoi'e 
witnesses  out  of  the  church).  According 
to  the  Roman  law,  betrothment  ought  to 
be  made  by  a  stipulation,  i.  e.,  a  contract, 
in  which  one  binds  himself,  by  an  answer 
to  a  question  put  to  him,  to  the  fulfilment 
of  a  contract.  As  betrothments  are  con- 
tracts, they  are  subject  to  the  same  rules 
as  other  contracts ;  for  mstance,  that  they 
are  valid  only  between  persons  whose  ca- 
pacity to  contract  is  recognised  by  law ; 
and  the  use  of  fraud,  violence  or  intimida- 
tion vitiates  the  contract.  The  consent 
of  both  parties,  of  course,  is  required. 
This  may  be  expressed  either  verbally,  or 
by  vvTiting,  or  by  action.  In  Gei-many, 
the  consent  of  the  parents  is  always  ne- 
cessary, if  tlie  parties  are  under  age,  not 
yet  sui  juris.  But  if  the  parents  withhold 
their  consent  unreasonably,  the  permis- 
sion of  the  judge  is  allowed  to  sanction 
the  contract.  If  the  opinions  of  the  pa- 
rents are  diverse,  the  law  gives  effect  to 
that  of  the  father.  Some  provincial  laws 
require  the  consent  of  the  relations,  and 
the  presence  of  witnesses.  Betroth  ments 
contracted  thus,  according  to  law,  are 
called  sponsalia  publica ;  others  are  called 
sponsalia  clandestina.  The  latter  are,  in 
some  places,  utterly  invaUd ;  in  others,  on- 
ly punishable.  By  the  common  German 
law,  however,  they  are  valid  in  every  case 
in  wliich  consummation  or  consecration 


by  the  priest  has  taken  place.  The  pa- 
rents, in  these  cases,  are  not  allowed  to 
apply  for  a  dissolution  of  the  contract,  nor 
can  they  refuse  their  consent,  except  for 
highly  important  reasons.  Public  be- 
trothment induces  the  obligation  to  marry. 
In  case  of  refusal  to  complete  the  contract 
by  marriage,  the  injured  party  is  allow- 
ed an  action  at  law  to  compel  its  perform- 
ance ;  but,  since  unhappy  marriages  are 
among  the  greatest  misfortunes,  the  means 
of  compulsion  applied  by  the  law  are 
never  great,  amounting  only  to  a  small 
fine,  or  a  short  imprisonment.  If  circum- 
stances take  place  which,  if  haj)pening 
before  the  betrothment,  would  have  neces- 
sarily prevented  it,  the  paity  affected  by 
them  is  allowed  to  recede  from  the  en- 
gagement, and  the  modem  laws  allow 
only  an  action  for  damages.  In  Germany, 
betrothment  generally  takes  place  in  a 
small  company  of  relations  and  friends. 
In  Russia,  it  was  once  binding  and  indis- 
soluble, like  marriage,  but  is  now  a  mere 
form  accompanying  the  marriage  cere- 
mony. 

Betterment  is  a  term  used,  in  some 
of  the  U.  States,  to  signify  the  improve- 
ments made  on  lands  by  the  occupant,  in 
building,  fencing,  draining,  &c. ;  and  the 
statutes  of  some  of  the  U.  States  provide, 
that  where  a  purchaser  comes  into  posses- 
sion under  what  he  supposes  to  be  a  good 
title,  and  the  land  is  aflenvards  recovered 
against  him  by  virtue  of  a  better  title,  in 
case  he  or  those  under  whom  he  claims 
have  been  in  possession  of  it  a  certain 
number  of  yeai-s,  he  shall  be  entitled  to 
claim  against  the  owner  who  so  recovei-s 
possession  of  the  land,  tlie  value  of  the 
improvements  or  betterments.  This  is  a 
very  equitable  provision  of  the  laws  in 
states  where,  as  in  many  parts  of  the  U. 
States,  titles  are  not  fully  established  and 
confirmed  by  a  long  period  of  possession, 
and  where,  in  newly-settled  territories,  the 
improvements  may,  in  a  few  years, 
amount  to  more  than  the  original  value 
of the  land. 

Betterton,  Thomas,  a  celebrated  act- 
or in  tlie  reign  of  Charles  II,  was  born  in 
Westminster,  in  1635,  and  excelled  in 
Shakspeare's  characters  of  Hamlet,  Othel- 
lo, Brutus  and  Hotspur.  In  1635,  he 
opened  a  new  play-house  in  Lincoln's- 
inn-fields,  but  did  not  succeed.  He  died 
in  1710,  and  was  buried  in  Westminster 
abbey.  He  wrote  the  Woman  made  a 
Justice,  a  comedy;  tlie  Amorous  Wid- 
ow, or  the  Wanton  Wife;  Diocletian,  a 
dramatic  opera,  &c.  The  Unjust  Judge, 
or  Appius  and  Virginia,  a  tragedy,  was 


BETTERTON— BEZA. 


87 


written  originally  by  Mr.  John  Webster, 
and  altered  by  B. 

Bettinelli,  Saverio,  an  Italian  author, 
born  at  Mantua,  in  1718,  studied  there  and 
at  Bologna,  under  the  Jesuits ;  entered,  in 
1736,  the  novitiate  of  tliis  order,  and 
taught,  from  1739  to  44,  belles-lettres  at 
Brescia,  where  he  made  himself  known 
by  some  poems  composed  for  the  use  of 
schools.  In  Bologna,  where  he  studied 
theology,  he  continued  to  cultivate  his 
poetical  talents,  and  wrote  for  the  theatre 
of  the  college  his  ti*agedy  of  Jonathan. 
In  1751,  he  was  intrusted  with  the  direc- 
tion of  the  college  of  nobles  at  Parma. 
After  having  remained  there  eight  years, 
he  travelled  in  France  and  Germany,  and 
returned  to  Verona,  where  he  remained 
till  1767,  engaged  in  preaching  and  in- 
struction. After  the  suppression  of  the 
Jesuits,  in  1773,  he  returned  to  his  native 
city,  where  he  resumed  his  literary  la- 
bors with  renewed  zeal.  He  published 
several  works,  among  which  some  were 
intended  for  ladies;  as,  his  Coirespond- 
ence  between  two  Ladies,  his  Letters  to 
Lesbia  on  Epigrams,  and  likewise  his 
Twenty-four  Dialogues  on  Love.  He  be- 
gan, in  1799,  a  complete  edition  of  his 
works  (Venice,  1801, 12  vols.  12mo.)  He 
preserved  the  cheerfulness  and  serenity 
of  his  spirit  to  the  age  of  90  years,  and 
died  in  1808,  with  the  composure  of  a 
philosopher,  and  the  devotion  of  a  Chris- 
tian. Besides  his  works  already  men- 
tioned, we  cite  his  DelV  Entusiasmo  delle 
belle  Jlrti,  Risorgimento  negli  Studj,  nelle 
Arti  e  ne*  Costumi  dopo  il  Milk  (3  vols.), 
a  superficial  work,  which  is,  however,  not 
destitute  of  new  and  just  views.  The 
Lettere  died  di  Virgilio  agli  Arcadi  at- 
tracted great  attention.  The  ideas  ex- 
pressed in  this  work  of  the  two  great 
names  of  Italian  poetrj',  particularly  of 
Dante,  involved  him  in  many  contests. 
His  Poesie  (3  vols.)  contain  7  poemetti,  16 
letters  in  blank  verse,  sonnets,  canzoni, 
&c.  Although  this  collection  does  not 
show  any  great  poetical  power,  yet  it  is 
always  elegant  and  ingenious.  It  is 
preceded  by  a  treatise  on  Italian  po- 
etry. 

Bey,  among  the  Turks,  signifies  a  gov- 
ernor of  a  town,  seaport  or  small  district. 
The  Turks  write  the  word  beg.  (q.  v.) 
(See  also  Beglerbeg.) 

Beza  (properly,  de  Beze),  Theodore;  next 
to  Calvin,  the  most  distinguished  for  genius 
and  influence  among  the  preachers  of  the 
Calvinistic  church  in  the  16th  century. 
Bom  of  a  noble  family  at  Vezelay,  in  Bur- 
gundy, June  24, 1519 ;  educated  in  Orleans, 


under  MelchiorVohnar,  a  German  philolo- 
ger  devoted  to  the  refonnation  ;  and  early 
faniihar  with  the  ancient  classical  literature, 
he  became  known,  at  the  age  of  20  years, 
as  a  Latin  poet,  by  his  petulant  and  witty 
Juvenilia  (a  collection  of  poems  of  which 
he  was  afterwards  ashamed).  In  1539,  he 
was  made  a  licentiate  of  law,  and,  in  the 
same  year,  invited  by  his  family  to  Paris, 
He  received  from  liis  uncle  the  reversion 
of  his  valuable  abbey  Froidmond,  and 
lived  on  the  income  of  two  benefices  and 
the  property  which  he  had  inherited  from 
a  brother.  His  habits,  at  this  time,  were 
dissipated.  His  handsome  figure,  his  tal- 
ents, and  his  connexion  with  the  most 
distinguished  families,  opened  to  him  the 
most  splendid  j)rospects.  But  a  clandes- 
tine maiTiage,  in  1543,  recalled  him  from 
his  excesses,  and  a  dangerous  illness  con- 
firmed the  intention,  which  he  had  formed 
at  Orleans,  of  devoting  himself  to  the  ser- 
iice  of  the  reformed  church  ;  so  that,  after 
his  recoveiy,  he  forsook  all  the  advan- 
tages of  his  situation  in  Paris,  and  repair- 
ed, with  his  wife,  to  Geneva,  in  1547. 
Soon  after,  he  accepted  a  professoi-ship  of 
the  Greek  language  at  Lausanne.  Dur- 
ing the  10  yeare  of  his  continuance  in 
this  ofiice,  he  wrote  a  tragi-comic  drama, 
in  French, — the  Sacrifice  of  Abraham,-^ 
which  was  received  with  much  approba- 
tion ;  delivered  lectiu-es  (which  were  nu- 
merously attended)  on  the  Epistle  to  the 
Romans  and  the  Epistles  of  Peter  (which 
served  as  the  basis  of  his  Latin  transla- 
tion of  the  New  Testament,  of  which  he 
aftenvards  pubhshed  several  editions,  al- 
ways with  improvements) ;  finished  Ma- 
rot's  translation  of  the  Psalms  in  French 
vei-se ;  and  obtained  to  such  a  degree  the 
confidence  of  tlie  Swiss  Calvinists,  that 
he  was  sent,  in  1558,  on  an  embassy  to 
the  Protestant  princes  of  Germany,  to  ob-. 
tain  their  intercession  at  the  French  court 
for  the  release  of  the  Huguenots  impris- 
oned in  Paris.  In  the  following  year,  he 
went  to  Geneva  as  a  preacher,  and,  soon 
after,  became  a  professor  of  theology,  and 
the  most  active  assistant  of  Calvin,  to 
whom  he  had  already  recommended  him- 
self by  several  works  (on  the  punishment 
of  heretics  by  the  magistrate,  the  vindica^ 
tion  of  the  burning  of  Servetus,  and  some 
violent  controvei-sial  writings  on  the  doc- 
trine of  predestination  and  the  commun- 
ion, against  Castalio,  Westphal  and  Hess- 
huss).  His  talents  for  negotiation  werQ 
now  often  put  in  requisition  by  the  Cal-r 
vinists.  He  was  sent  to  the  court  of 
Anthony,  king  of  Navarre,  at  Nerac,  to 
obtain  the  toleration  of  the  French  Hu- 


BEZA— BEZOAR. 


guenots,  and,  at  his  desire,  he  appeared, 
1561,  at  the  religious  conference  at  Pois- 
sy,  where  he  spoke  in  behah'  of  his  party 
with  a  boldness,  presence  of  mind  and 
energy,  which  gained  him  the  esteem  of 
the  French  court.  He  often  preached  in 
Paris  before  the  queen  of  Navarre  and 
tlie  prince  of  Cond6 ;  also  in  the  suburbs. 
At  the  conference  of  St.  Germain,  in  1562, 
he  spoke  strongly  against  the  worship  of 
images,  and,  after  the  commencement  of 
the  civil  war,  accompanied  the  prince  of 
Cond6  as  chaplain,  and,  on  the  capture 
of  the  prince,  joined  the  admiral  Co- 
ligny.  After  the  restoration  of  peace,  he 
retunied  to  Geneva,  in  1563,  where,  be- 
sides discharging  the  duties  of  his  offices, 
he  continued  to  engage  in  theological 
controversies  in  support  of  the  Calvinists ; 
and,  after  Calvin's  death,  in  1564,  became 
liis  successor,  and  was  considered  the  fii-st 
tlieologian  of  this  church.  He  presided  in 
the  synods  of  the  French  Calvinists  at  La 
Rochelle  (1571)  and  at  Nismes  (1572), 
where  he  opposed  Morel's  proposal  for 
tlie  alteration  of  clerical  discipline ;  was 
sent  by  Conde  (1574)  to  the  court  of  the 
elector  palatine  ;  and,  at  the  religious  con- 
ference at  Montpellier  (1586),  opposed  the 
theologians  of  Wurtemberg,  particularly 
James  Andreas.  At  the  age  of  69  yeare, 
he  man-ied  his  second  wife  (1588),  and 
still  continued  to  repel,  with  the  power 
of  truth  and  wit,  the  attacks  and  calum- 
nies which  his  enemies,  apostatized  Cal- 
vinists (such  as  Volsec),  Lutherans,  and 
particularly  the  Jesuits,  heaped  upon  him. 
They  reported,  in  1597,  that  he  had  died, 
and  returned  before  his  death  to  the 
Catholic  faith.  B.,  now  78  years  old,  met 
his  assailants  in  a  poem  fidl  of  youthful 
enthusiasm,  and  resisted,  in  the  same  year, 
tlie  attempts  of  St.  Francis  de  Sales  to 
convert  him,  and  the  alluring  offers  of  the 
pope.  In  1600,  he  visited  Henr}'  IV,  in 
the  territorj'  of  Geneva,  who  presented 
him  with  500  ducats.  After  having  en- 
joyed excellent  health  during  almost  his 
whole  life,  he  died,  Oct.  13,  1605,  of  old 
age.  By  a  rigorous  adherence  to  the 
principles  of  Calvin,  in  whose  spirit  he 

5)resided  over  the  church  of  Geneva,  he 
lad  become  the  chief  of  his  party,  and 
enjoyed  for  40  years  the  reputation  of  a 
patriarch,  without  whose  approbation  no 
important  step  was  taken.  In  order  to 
preserve  the  unity  and  permanency  of 
his  church,  he  sacrificed  his  own  opinions 
to  the  established  dogmas  of  Calvin,  and 
rendered  tlie  most  important  services  by 
his  various  erudition,  his  constant  zeal, 
)iis  active  spirit,  his  brilliant  eloquence. 


and  even  by  the  impression  of  his  person- 
al appearance,  which  age  made  still  more 
striking.  He  defended  his  doctrines  with 
ability  and  enthusiasm,  and  often  with 
merciless  severity  and  obstinacy.  Among 
his  many  works,  his  exegetic  writings, 
and  an  able  and  correct  History  of  Ga\- 
vinism  in  France,  from  1521  to  63,  which  is 
ascribed  to  him,  are  still  much  esteemed. 
His  correspondence  with  Calvin  is  to  be 
found  in  the  ducal  library  at  Gotha.  A 
catalogue  of  his  works  is  given  by  Antho- 
ny la  Faye,  who  has  written  an  account 
of  his  life. 

Bezakt  ;  round,  flat  pieces  of  pure 
gold,  without  any  impression,  su])])osed 
to  have  been  the  current  coin  of  Byzan- 
tium. This  coin  was  probably  introdviced 
into  coat-armor  by  the  crusaders.  Doc- 
tor Henry,  in  his  History  of  England,  es- 
timates its  value  at  9s.  4td.  sterling.  The 
gold  offered  by  the  king  of  England  on 
the  ahar,  at  the  feast  of  the  Epiphany  and 
the  Purification,  is  called  bezant. 

BiizoAR  (Persian,  parar,  a  goat,  or  pa- 
zachar,  against  poison) ;  a  concretion  or 
calculus,  of  an  orbicular  or  oval  form,  met 
with  in  the  bodies  of  various  animals. 
These  substances  are  found  in  the  stom- 
ach, gall-bladder,  salivary  ducts,  and 
pineal  gland,  but  especially  in  the  intes- 
tines of  certain  animals  of  the  order  rumt- 
nantia.  They  were  formerly  celebrated 
for  their^  supposed  medicinal  virtues,  and 
distinguished  b)'  the  name  of  the  coun- 
tries from  which  they  came,  or  the  ani- 
mals in  which  they  were  found.  They 
were  considered  as  highly  alexipharmic  ; 
so  much  so,  that  other  medicines,  suppos- 
ed to  possess  the  same  virtues,  obtained 
the  name  of  hezoardics.  So  efficacious 
were  these  once  thought,  that  they  were 
eagerly  bought  for  10  times  their  weight 
in  gold.  Besides  being  taken  intenially, 
they  were  worn  around  the  neck,  as  pre- 
senatives  from  contagion.  For  this  pur- 
pose, it  is  said,  that  in  Portugal  it  was 
customary  to  liire  them  at  the  price  of 
about  10  shillings  per  day.  On  analysis, 
these  substances  are  found  to  contain,  for 
the  most  part,  bile  and  resin.  It  is  almost 
needless  to  add,  that  the  accounts  of  their 
extraordinary  virtues  must  now  be  con- 
sidered as  totally  fabulous. — ^A  strange  ori- 
gin was  assigned  to  the  bezoar  by  some 
of  the  old  naturalists.  The  Oriental  stags, 
when  oppressed  Avith  age  and  infirmity, 
were  said  to  feed  upon  serpents,  which 
restored  their  youthful  vigor.  To  coun- 
teract the  poison  which  by  tliis  means 
was  absorbed  into  tlieir  system,  they 
plunged  into  gome  running  stream,  leav- 


BEZOAR— BIAS. 


!ng  their  heads  only  above  water.  In 
this  situation,  a  viscous  fluid  distilled 
from  their  eyes,  which  was  indurated  by 
the  heat  of  the  sun,  and  formed  the  be- 
zoar. — The  great  value  of  the  bezoar  at 
one  time  gave  birth  to  many  imitations 
of  it,  and  various  tests  have  been  proposed 
to  detect  the  artificial  stones.  The  fol- 
lowing cruel  and  absurd  one  is  given  by 
Clusius : — Thread  a  needle,  and  draw  the 
thread  through  a  leaf  plucked  from  a  yew- 
tree  ;  then  pass  the  needle  through  a  dog's 
foot,  and  leave  the  thread  in  the  wound  ; 
when  tlie  dog  becomes  convulsed,  and 
appears  dying,  mix  some  scrapings  of  be- 
zoar with  water,  and  moisten  the  animal's 
mouth  with  it ;  if  he  recover,  the  stone  is 
genuine.  Simpler  methods,  perhaps,  are, 
immersion  in  warm  water,  which  neither 
loses  its  own  color,  nor  diminishes  the 
weight  of  tlie  bezoar :  or  rubbing  it  over 
paper  smeared  with  chalk  or  quick-lhne  ; 
tlie  genuine  stone  leaves  a  yellow  hue  on 
the  first,  a  green  one  on  the  last. 

BiA ;  a  name  given  by  the  Siamese  to 
those  small  shelfi  wliich  are  called  cow- 
ries throughout  almost  all  the  other  parts 
of  the  East  Indies.    (See  Cowries.) 

BiAGioLi,  Josaphat ;  a  learned  Italian 
linguist  at  Paris.  Before  the  invasion  of 
Italy,  by  the  joint  forces  of  Austria 
and  Russia,  in  1798,  he  was  professor  of 
Greek  and  Latin  literature  at  the  univer- 
sity of  Urbino.  As  B.  had  shown  hun- 
self  a  friend  to  the  cause  of  hberty,  he 
took  refuge  in  Paris,  and  was  appointed 
professor  of  Italian  literature  at  a  pnjta- 
neum,  and  delivered  lectures  before  a 
splendid  audience.  He  is  the  editor  of 
the  Lettere  del  Card.  Bentivoglio  (Paris, 
1808 — 12),  and  author  of  a  Grammaire 
raisonnee  de  la  Langue  Italienne  a  V  Usage 
des  Francois,  suivie  d'un  Traite  de  la  Po- 
^sie  Italienne  (Paris,  1809),  which  obtained 
the  approbation  of  the  French  institute, 
and  has  passed  through  four  editions.  He 
has  also  prepared  a  Grammatica  ragionata 
delta  Lingua  Francese  alV  Uso  degV  Ilali- 
uni  (1812).  His  edition  of  the  Divina 
C'ommedia  del  Dante  Alighicri  (Paris,  1818, 
3  vols.),  for  the  correctness  of  the  text 
and  the  excellence  of  the  commoitaiy,  is 
held  in  great  esteem  ;  but  it  has  also  con- 
tributed to  the  propagation  of  many  new 
errors  relating  to  Dante,  partly  from  the 
editor's  violent  spirit  of  opposition  to 
Lombardi.  It  obtained  the  honor  of  be- 
ing reprinted  in  Italy  (Milan,  1820,  lOmo.) 
B.  has  published,  at  Paris,  Petrarca,  and 
the  poems  of  Michael  Angelo  Buonarotti, 
with  a  commentary  similar  to  that  of 
Dante,  and  is  now  occupied  with  the 
8* 


composition  of  an  Italian-French  and 
French- ItaUan  dictionary. 

BiAKCHiNi,  Francesco,  bom  at  Verona, 
1662,  studied  mathematics,  physics,  anat- 
omy and  botany,  at  first  under  the  Jesuits, 
afterwards  (1680)  at  Padua.  He  was  in- 
tended for  the  clerical  profession,  repair- 
ed to  Rome,  and  there  appUed  himself  to 
jurisprudence,  but  continued  at  the  same 
time  the  study  of  experimental  physics, 
astronomy,  &c.,  as  well  as  of  Greek,  He- 
brew, &c.  Antiquities  also  became  one 
of  his  favorite  studies.  He  passed  whole 
days  amidst  ancient  monuments,  was 
present  at  all  the  excavations  in  search  of 
them,  visited  all  the  museums,  and  made 
drawings  of  the  remains  of  antiquity  with 
as  much  taste  as  skill.  At  the  death  of 
Innocent  XI,  cardinal  Ottoboni  ascend- 
ed the  papal  throne  under  the  name 
oi  Alexander  VIII,  and  bestowed  on  B.  a 
rich  benefice,  with  the  appointment  of  tu- 
tor and  librarian  to  his  nephew,  the  cardi- 
nal Pietro  Ottoboni.  Pope  Clement  XI 
also  patronised  him,  and  appointed  him 
secretary  to  the  commission  employed  in 
the  correction  of  the  calendar.  B.  was 
commissioned  to  draw  a  meridian  in  the 
church  of  St.  Maria  degli  Angeli,  and  to 
erect  a  sun-dial.  He  successfully  accom- 
plished this  difficult  undertaking,  with  the 
assistance  of  Maraldi.  Being  on  a  tour 
througli  France,  Holland  and  England, 
he  formed  the  idea  of  drawing  a  meridian 
in  Italy  from  one  sea  to  the  other,  in  imi- 
tation of  that  which  Cassini  had  dra^vn 
through  France.  He  was  occupied  eight 
years  at  his  own  expense  in  that  work ; 
but  other  employments  withdrew  his  at- 
tention from  it,  and  it  remained  unfinished. 
He  concluded  his  career  with  two  impor- 
tant works  (1727),  on  the  planet  Venus  and 
on  the  sepulchre  of  Augustus.  He  died  in 
1729.  A  monument  was  erected  to  hia 
memory  in  the  cathedral  at  Verona.  He 
imited  the  most  extensive  learning  witli 
modesty  and  the  most  amiable  mannere. 

Bias  ;  son  of  Teutamus ;  bom  at  Priene, 
one  of  the  principal  cities  of  Ionia,  about 
570  B.  C.  He  was  a  practical  philoso- 
pher, studied  the  laws  of  his  country,  and 
employed  his  knowledge  in  the  service 
of  his  friends ;  defending  them  in  the 
courts  of  justice,  or  settling  their  disputes. 
He  made  a  noble  use  of  his  wealth.  His 
advice,  that  the  lonians  should  fly  before 
the  victorious  Cyrus  to  Sardinia,  was  not 
followed,  and  the  victory  of  the  army  of 
Cyrus  confirmed  the  correctness  of  hia 
opinion.  The  hihabitants  of  Priene,  when 
besieged  by  Mazares,  resolved  to  abandon 
the  city  with  their  property.    On  this  oc- 


90 


BIAS— BIBLE. 


casion,  B.  replied  to  one  of  his  fellow- 
citizens,  who  expressed  his  astonishment 
that  he  made  no  preparations  for  his  de- 
parture,— "  I  carry  every  thing  with  me." 
B.  remained  in  his  native  countrj',  where 
he  died  at  a  very  advanced  age.  His  coun- 
trj'men  buried  him  with  splendor,  and  hon- 
ored his  memory.  Some  of  his  sayings  and 
])recepts  are  yet  preserved.  He  was  num- 
bered among  the  seven  sages  of  Greece. 

BiBBiENA,  Fernando ;  a  painter  and 
architect.  His  father,  Giovanni  Maria 
Galli  (a  less  distinguished  painter  and 
architect),  named  his  son  B.  from  his  na- 
tive town  in  Tuscany.  The  son  was  born 
at  Bologna,  1657.  Carlo  Cignani  (q.  v.) 
directed  his  studies.  B.  was  afterwards 
invited  to  Barcelona.  The  duke  of  Par- 
ma subsequently  made  him  director  of  his 
theatres.  Charles  VI  afterwards  invited 
him  to  Vienna.  Several  beautiful  build- 
ings were  erected  in  Austria  from  his 
plans.  In  his  theatrical  paintings,  he  has 
continued  the  vicious  style  of  Borromini 
and  others.  His  writings  display  extent 
and  accuracy  of  knowledge.  When  con- 
sidei-ably  advanced  in  life,  his  weak  sight 
prevented  him  from  painting,  and  he 
occupied  himself  with  the  revision  of  his 
works,  which  he  pubhshed  anew  at  Bo- 
logna, 1725  and  1731,  in  2  vols. ;  the  first, 
under  the  title  Direzioni  a'  giovani  Stu- 
dcnti  nel  Disegno  dell  Architettura  civile : 
in  the  second,  he  treats  of  perspective. 
He  finally  became  blind,  and  died  1743. 
His  three  sons  extended  their  father's  ait 
through  all  Italy  and  Germany.  Antonio 
succeeded  to  his  father's  place  at  the  court 
of  the  emperor  Charles  VI.  Giuseppe 
died  at  Beriin,  and  Alessandro  in  the  ser- 
vice of  the  elector  palatine.  A  collection 
of  B.'s  decorations  has  been  published  at 

Bible  ;  a  book,  from  the  Greek  i3i/3Xoy, 
which  signifies  the  soft  bark  of  a  tree,  on 
which  the  ancients  wrote.  The  collection 
of  the  Sacred  Writings,  or  Holy  Scriptures 
of  the  Christians,  is  called  the  Bible,  or 
the  Book,  by  way  of  excellence.  Some 
of  these  writings,  which  are  also  received 
by  the  Jews  as  the  records  of  their  faith, 
are  called  the  Old  Testament,  or  writings 
of  the  old  covenant,  because  the  Jewish 
religion  was  represented  as  a  compact  or 
covenant  between  God  and  the  Jews,  and 
the  Greek  word  for  covenant  (&iae,;Krj)  signi- 
fies also  last  wUl,  or  testament.  The  same 
figure  was  applied  to  the  Christian  religion, 
which  was  considered  as  an  extension  of 
the  old  covenant,  or  a  covenant  between 
God  and  the  whole  human  race.  The 
sacred  writings  peculiar  to  the  Christians 


are,  therefore,  called  the  Scriptures  of  the 
JVew  Testament.    (See  Testament.)    The 
order  of  the  books  of  the  Old  Testament, 
as  they  are  arranged  in  the  editions  of  the 
Latin  version,  called  the   Vulgate  (q.  v.), 
according  to  tlie  decree  of  the  council  of 
Trent  (sess.  4),  is  as  follows: — Genesis, 
Exodus,  Leviticus,  Numbers,  Deuterono- 
my, Joshua,  Judges  and  Ruth  ;  I  Samuel, 
or  I  Kings ;   II  Sanuiel,  or  II  Kings ;   I 
Kings,  otherwise   called   III  Kings;  II 
Kings,  otherwise  called  IV  Kings ;  I  Es- 
dras  (as  it  is  called  in  the  Septuagint  (q.  v.) 
and  \\ilgate),  or  Ezra;  II  Esdras,  or  (as 
we  call  it)  Nehemiah;  *Tobit,  *Judith, 
Esther,  Job,  Psalms,  Proverbs,  Ecclesi- 
astes.  Song  of  Solomon,  *The  Book  of 
Wisdom,  *Ecclesiasticus,  Isaiah,  Jeremi- 
ah and  *Baruch ;  Ezekiel,  Daniel,  Hosea, 
Joel,  Amos,  Obadiah,  Nahum  (which,  in 
our  editions,  is  placed  after  Micah  and 
before  Habakkuk),  Jonah  (wliich  we  place 
after  Obadiah),  ftlicah,  Habakkuk,  Zeph- 
auiah,   Haggai,    Zechariah,   Malachi,  *I 
Maccabees  and  *II  Maccabees.    (Those 
to  which  an  asterisk  is  prefixed  are,  by 
Protestants,  considered  apocryphal,  q.  v.) 
The  books  received  by  the  Jews  were 
divided  by  Ezra'  into  three  classes : — 1. 
The  Law,  contained  in  the  Pentateuch, 
(q.v.)  or  five  books  of  Moses.     2.  The 
Prophets,  comprising  Joshua,  Judges  and 
Ruth,  I  and  II  Samuel,  I  and  II  Kings,  I 
and  II  Chronicles,  Isaiah,  Jeremiah  and 
Lamentations,  Ezekiel,  Daniel,  the  12  mi- 
nor prophets,  Ezra,  Nehemiah  and  Esther. 
3.  The  Cetubim,  or  Hagiographa,  that  is, 
holy  wntings,  containing  the  Psalms,  the 
Proverbs,  Ecclesiastes  and  the  Song  of 
Solomon.    These  books  were  written  in 
the  Hebrew  language  (q.  v.),  while  tliose 
which   are   rejected   from  the  canon  as 
apocryphal,  by  the  Protestants,  are  found 
only  in  Greek  or  Latin.    The  books  of 
Moses  were  deposited,  according  to  the 
Bible,  after  his  death,  in  the  tabernacle, 
near  the  ark :  the  other  sacred  writings,  it 
is  further  said,  were  successively  deposit- 
ed in  the  same  place,  as  they  Avere  written. 
After  tlie   building  of  the  temple,  they 
were  removed  by  Solomon  to  that  edifice : 
on  the  capture  of  Jerusalem  by  Nebu- 
chadnezzar, the  autograpJis  probably  per- 
ished, but  munerous  copies  were  preserv- 
ed, as  is  inferred  from  allusions  in  writers 
subsequent  to  the   Babylonish  captivity. 
It  is  generally  admitted,  that  tlie  canon  of 
the  Old  Testament  Avas  settled  soon  after 
the  return  from  Babylon,  and  the  reSstab- 
lishment  of  the  Jewish   religion.      This 
work  was  accomplished,  according  to  the 
traditions  of  the  Jews,  by  Ezi-a,  with  the 


BIBLE. 


91 


assistance  of  the  great  synagogue,  who 
collected  and  compared  as  many  copies 
as  could  be  found.     From  this  collation  a 
correct  edition  of  the  whole  was  prepared, 
wth  the  exception  of  the  writings  of  Ezra, 
Malachi  and  Nchemiah,  which  were  add- 
ed by   Simon  the   Just.     When   Judas 
Maccabaeus  repaired  the  temple,  which 
had  been  destroyed  by  Antiochus  Epipha- 
nes,  he  placed  in  it  a  correct  copy  of  the 
Hehrew  Scriptures,  whether  the  autograph 
of  Ezra  or  not  is  not  known.     This  copy 
was  carried  to  Rome  by  Titus.     The 
division  into  chapters  and  verses   is  of 
modern  origin.    Cardinal  Hugo  de  Sancto 
Caro,  who  flourished  in  the  13th  century, 
having  divided  the  Vulgate  into  chap- 
ters, for  convenience  of  reference,  simi- 
lar divisions  were  made  in  the  Hebrew 
text  by  rabbi  Mordecai    Nathan,  in  the 
15th  century.    The  present  division  into 
verses  was  made  by  Athias,  a  Jew  of 
Amsterdam,  in  Ids  edition  of  l(j61.     The 
])unctualion  is  also  the  work  of  modern 
scholars.   Biblical  critics  divide  the  Scrip- 
tures of  the  Old  Testament  into  the  Pen- 
tateuch, or  five  books  of  Moses ;  the  his- 
torical   books,    from   Joshua  to   Esther 
inclusive ;  the  doctrinal  or  poetical  books 
of  Job,  Psalms,  Proverbs,  Ecclesiastes  and 
the  Song  of  Solomon ;  tlie  prophetical 
books. — The  most  esteemed  manuscripts 
of  the  Hebrew  Bible  are  those  of  the 
Spanish  Jews.    The  most  ancient  are  not 
more  than  seven  or  eight  centuries  old : 
the  famous  manuscript  of  the  Samaritan 
Pentateuch,  in  the  possession  of  the  Sa- 
maritans of  Sichem,  is  only  500  years  old : 
a  manuscript  in  the  Bodleian  library  is 
thought  to  be  700  yeai-s  old :   one  in  the 
Vatican  is  supposed  to  have  been  written 
in  973.    In  some  manuscripts,  the  Masora 
(q.  V.)  is  added. — The  printed  editions  of 
the  Hehrew  Bible  are  very  numerous. 
The  earliest  were  printed  in  Italy.    The 
first  edition  of  the  entire  Hebrew  Bil)lc 
was  printed  at  Soncino,  in  1488.     The 
Brescian   edition   of  1494  was  used   by 
Luther,  in  making  his  German  transla- 
tion.    The  editions  of  Athias,  a  Jew  of 
Amsterdam,  1661  and   1667,  are  much 
esteemed  for  their  beauty  and  correctness. 
Van  der  Hooght  followed  the  latter.   Doc- 
tor Kennicott  did  more  than  any  one  of 
his  predecessors  to  settle  tlie  Hebrew  text. 
His  Hebrew  Bible  appeared  at  Oxford,  in 
1776—1780,  2  vols.,  folio.    The  text  is 
from  that  of  Van  der  Hooght,  with  which 
6-30  MSS.  were  collated.    De  Rossi,  who 
published   a   siipplement  to   Kennicott's 
edition  (Parma,  1784^99,  5  vols.,  4to.), 
coilated  958  3ISS.    The  German  Orien- 


tahsts,  Gesenius,  De  VTette,  &c.,  in  recent 
times,  have  done  very  much  towards  cor- 
recting the  Hebrew  text.     The  earliest 
and  most  famous  version  of  the  Old  Tes- 
tament is  the  Septuagint,  or  Greek  trans- 
lation.     The  Syriac  version,   called  the 
Peschito,  was  made  early  in  the  second 
century.     It  is  celebrated  for  its  fidelity. 
The  Coptic  version  was  made  from  the 
Septuagint,  some  time  before  the  seventh 
century.    The  Gothic  version,  by  Ulphi- 
las,  was  also  made  from  the  Septuagint, 
in  the  fourth  century.     The  most  impor- 
tant Latin  version  is  the  Vulgate.   (For  an 
account  of  the   principal  polyglots,  see 
Polyglot.) — The  books  of  the  New  Tes- 
tament were  all  written  in  Greek,  unless 
it  be  true,  as  some  critics  suppose,  that 
th«  Gospel  of  St.  MattheAV  was  originally 
written  in  Hebrew.    JMost  of  these  wri- 
tings have  always  been  received  as  canon- 
ical ;  but  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews,  by 
an  uncertain  author,  that  of  St.  Jude,  the 
second  of  Peter,  the  second  and  third  of 
John,  and  the  Apocalypse  (q.  v.)   have 
been   doubted.      Eusebius    distinguishes 
three  sorts  of  books  connected  with  the 
New  Testament: — 1.  those  which  have  . 
always  been  unanimously  received,  name- 
ly, the  four  Gospels,  the  Acts  of  the  Apos- 
tles, 13  Epistles  of  Paul,  the  first  Epistle 
of  Peter,  and  the  fii'st  of  John :  2.  those 
which  were  not  received,  at  first,  by  all 
the  churches ;  of  these,  some  which  have 
been  already  mentioned,  though  at  first 
rejected  by  some   churches,  have  been 
since  universally  received ;  others,  such  as 
the  Books  of  the  Shepherd,  the  Letter  of 
St.  Barnabas,  the  two    Epistles  of  St. 
Clement,  have  not  been  generally  acknowl- 
edged as  canonical :  3.  books  forged  by 
heretics,  to  maintain  their  doctripes ;  such 
are  the  Gospels  of  St.  Thomas,  St.  Peter, 
&c.     The  division  of  the  text  of  the  New 
Testament  into  chapters  and  verses  was 
introduced  earlier  than  that  of  the  Old 
Testament ;  but  it  is  not  precisely  known 
when,  or  by  whom.     (For  the  numerous 
translations  of  the  Bible,  in  modern  times, 
see  tlie  article  Bible  Societies,  and  the  annual 
reports  of  these  societies,  particularly  of  the 
British  and  foreign  Bible  society.)   In  Bib- 
lical criticism,  the  Germans  have,  without 
doubt,  done  more  than  any  other  nation ; 
and  we  should  far  exceed  our  limits,  if 
we  v/ere  to  attempt  an  entnncration  of 
their  works  in  this  department.      (See 
JVette,  Gi-ieshach,  Gesenius,  Scldeiermacher, 
Michaelis,  &c.)— The  whole  Bible   was 
translated   into   Saxon  by   Bede,  in  the 
beginning  of  the  eighth  century.     The 
first  English  translation,  by  an  unknown 


gs 


BIBLE— BIBLE  SOCIETIES. 


hand,  is  supposed  to  have  been  made 
near  the  end  of  the  13th  centun".  Wick- 
hfFe's  translation  of  the  entire  Bible  from 
the  Vulgate,  1380,  was  first  printed  1731. 
The  first  printed  edition  of  any  part  of  the 
Scriptures  in  EngUsh  was  a  translation  of 
the  New  Testament  from  the  original 
Greek,  pubUshed  by  Tindal,  1526.  The 
whole  impression  was  bought  up  and 
burnt  by  tlie  bishop  of  London.  The 
authorized  version  now  in  use,  hi  England 
and  America,  was  made  by  the  command 
of  James  I,  and  is  commonly  called  king 
Jameses  Bible.  Forty-seven  distinguished 
scholars  were  appointed  for  this  purpose, 
and  divided  into  six  classes.  Ten  at  West- 
minster were  to  translate  to  the  end  of 
II  Kings;  eight  at  Cambridge  were  to 
finish  the  remaining  historical  books  and 
the  Hagiographa :  at  Oxford,  seven  were 
engaged  on  the  Prophets :  the  four  Gos- 
pels, Acts  of  the  Apostles  and  Apocalypse 
were  assigned  to  another  company  of 
eight  at  Oxford ;  and  the  Epistles  were 
allotted  to  a  company  of  seven  at  West- 
mmster:  the  apocryphal  books  were  to  be 
ti-anslated  by  a  company  at  Cambridge. 
Each  individual  translated  all  the  books 
allotted  to  his  class.  The  whole  class 
then  compared  all  the  translations,  and 
adopted  tlie  readings  agreed  on  by  the 
majority.  The  book,  thus  finished,  was 
sent  to  each  of  the  other  classes.  This 
translation  occupied  three  years.  Copies 
were  then  sent  to  London,  one  from  each 
of  the  above-named  places.  Here  a  com- 
mittee of  six,  one  from  each  class,  review- 
ed the  whole,  which  was  last  of  all  revised 
by  doctor  Smith  and  doctor  Bilson,  bishop 
of  Winchester.  It  was  printed  in  1611. 
The  latest  and  most  complete  revision 
was  made  by  doctor  Blayney,  Oxford, 
1769.  (For  an  account  of  the  German 
translation,  see  Luther,  and  Reformation. 
As  a  general  book  of  reference,  relating  to 
the  literature  of  the  Bible,  Home's  Intro- 
duction to  the  Study  of  the  Scriptures 
may  be  consulted.  See  also  Harris's 
J^atural  History  of  the  Bible.) 

Bible,  Geography  of,  describes  Piilestine, 
and  gives  an  account  of  the  Asiatic  coun- 
tries bordering  on  Palestine,  and  of  the 
provinces  of  tlie  Roman  empire  into  which 
Christianity  was  introduced,  during  the 
age  of  the  apostles.  The  sources  of  this 
science  are  the  Scriptures,  the  writings  of 
Josephus,  the  geographical  authors  of 
antiquity, — Strabo,  Ptolemy  and  Pompo- 
nius  Mela, — and  the  Onomasticon  Urbium 
et  Locorum  Scripturce  Sacra,  written  by 
Eusebius,  bishop  of  Csesarea,  in  tlie  fourth 
century,  in  Greek,  and  translated  by  Je- 


rome into  Latin.  Among  the  learned 
modems  who  have  cultivated  this  science, 
so  important  for  the  interpreter  of  the 
Holy  Scriptures,  are  Bachiene,  Wells,  and 
the  Dutchman  Ysbrand  of  Hamelsfeld. 
(See  Geography.) 

Bible  Societies.  A  clergyman  of 
Wales,  whom  the  want  of  a  Welsh  Bible 
led  to  London,  occasioned  the  estabhsh- 
ment  of  the  British  and  foreign  Bible 
society,  which  was  founded  in  London, 
March  7,1804,  It  was  called  the  Bible 
society,  because  its  object  was  the  distri- 
bution of  the  Bible ;  British,  because  its 
operations  were  first  directed  towards  the 
poor  of  Great  Britain ;  and  foreign,  be- 
cause it  proposed,  as  far  as  its  means  would 
permit,  to  send  Bibles,  in  all  languages,  to 
all  parts  of  the  world.  The  Bibles  dis- 
tributed by  the  society  were  to  be  without 
additions  and  explanations,  in  order  to 
give  them  a  more  universal  circulation. 
In  the  same  year,  the  first  general  meet- 
ing was  held  in  London,  which  unani- 
mously adopted  the  proposed  plan.  Lord 
Teignmouth  was  chosen  president,  and 
many  bishops,  lords  and  members  of  par- 
liament accepted  the  office  of  vice-presi- 
dent. In  1815,  484  similar  institution."* 
had  been  formed  in  all  parts  of  Great 
Britain,  and  connected  with  the  fomier  as 
a  parent  society,  to  support  it  with  pe- 
cuniary contributions,  and  to  receive,  in 
return,  a  supply  of  Bibles.  There  are, 
besides,  several  Bible  societies  among  the 
lower  class  of  people,  the  members  of 
which  pay,  weekly,  a  penny  or  a  half- 
jienny  to  provide  themselves,  their  chil- 
dren or  other  poor  persons  with  Bibles. 
In  Germany,  Switzeriand,  Holland,  Rus- 
sia, Sweden,  Denmark,  America,  similar 
Bible  societies  have  been  formed,  and  are 
connected  with  the  British.  The  24th 
annual  report  of  the  British  and  foreign 
Bible  society  in  London,  1828,  gives  a  list 
of  editions  of  the  whole  or  parts  of  the 
Scriptures,  printed  for  the  society,  in  the 
following  languages : — English,  Welsh, 
Gaelic,  Irish,  Manks,  French,  Basque, 
Breton,  Flemish,  Spanish,  Portuguese, 
Italian,  Dutch,  Danish,  Hebrew,  Swedish, 
German,  PoUsh,  Greek  (ancient  and  mod- 
em), Armenian  (ancient  and  modem), 
Arabic,  Coptic,  Indo-Portuguese,  Syriac, 
Carshun,  Esquimaux,  Mohawk,  Ethiopic, 
Malay,  Turkish,  Hindostanee,  Greenland- 
ish,  Amharic,  Persian,  Bohemian,  Latin, 
Albanian.  The  same  report  gives  the 
following  summar}'  of  languages  and  di- 
alects, in  which  the  distribution,  printing 
or  translation  of  the  Scriptures,  in  whole 
or  in  part,  has  been  promoted  by  the  so- 


BIBLE  SOCIETIES. 


93 


ciety,  directly  or  indirectly : — Reprints, 
42  ;  retranslations,  5  ;  languages  and  di- 
alects in  which  the  Scriptures  had  never 
been  printed  before  the  institution  of  the 
society,  58  ;  new  translations  commenced 
or  completed,  38 ;  total,  143.    The  soci- 
ety provides  many  translations  of  single 
books  of  the  Bible,  or  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment, in  numerous  languages  and  dialects 
of  the  nations  of  Middle  and  Eastern  Asia, 
at  Calcutta  and  Madras ;  as  well  as  in  the 
languages  of  the  Levant,  North  Africa, 
&c.  (e.  g.,  the  Arabic,  Tartar,  Syriac,  and 
two  dialects  of  the  Ethiopic),  at  Smyrna, 
Malta,  and  other  depots  of  the  iMediterra- 
nean  ;  and  aids  all  the  Bible  societies  of 
the  continent  of  "Europe.     It  has  agents 
in  ahnost  all  parts  of  the  inhabited  globe, 
who  travel  at  its  expense,  to  discover  the 
best  means  of  diffusing  the  Bible,  and  to 
procure  able  translators  and  manuscripts 
of  ancient  translations  for  the  use  of  the 
society.     Pinkerton  found,  hi  Paris,  trans- 
lations of  the   Bible   in  the  dialects  of 
Northern  Asia  and  Thibet,  with  the  char- 
acters belonging  to  them,  which  had  been 
brought  to  France,  under  Napoleon,  from 
the  archives  of  the  propaganda  at  Rome. 
The  most  difficult  translation  was  that 
into  the  Esquimaux  language.    Accord- 
ing to  the  24th  report  above-mentioned, 
published  in  1828,  there  were  issued  in 
England,  during  the  24th  year  from  the  es- 
tablishment of  the  society.  Bibles,  137,102 ; 
Testaments,  199,108 ;  purchased  and  is- 
sued for  the  society,  in  foreign  parts,  du- 
ring the  same  period.  Bibles,  212,024 ; 
Testaments,  818,834 :  total  issued  on  ac- 
count of  the  society,  from  its  establish- 
ment,   Bibles,    2,248,182  ;    Testaments, 
3,422,341  ;    grand    total,  5,670,523.     In 
addition  to  this,  the  society  has  granted 
about  £53,800  for  distributing,  in  various 
parts  of  the  European  continent,  French, 
German,  Swedish  and  Danish  Bibles  and 
Testaments.    The  nuniber  of  Bible  so- 
cieties throughout  the  world,  given  in  the 
same  report,  is  as  follows  : — In   Great 
Britain  and  Ireland,  connected  with  the 
British    and   foreign   Bible  society,  262 
auxiliaries,  350  branches,  and  1493  asso- 
ciations ;  in  Ireland,  connected  with  the 
Hibernian  Bible  society,  70  auxiliai-ies,  38 
branches,   and   18  associations ;   on   the 
European  continent  and  hi  the  Ionian 
islands,  854  societies ;   in  Asia,  13 ;  iii 
Africa,  4  ;  ui  America,  549  (there  are,  in 
fact,   631   societies  in   America,   in   the 
present  year,  1829);  total,  4291. — In  Ger- 
many, the  following  were  the  chief  Bible 
societies  in  1817  : — 1  at  Hanover,  where 
an  edition  of  tlie  Bible,  of  10,000  copies, 


has  been  completed ;  1  at  Berlin ;   1  at 
Dresden,  which,  besides  a  stereotype  edi- 
tion of  the  German  Bible,  has  also  publish- 
ed an  edition,  in  tlie  Wendish  tongue,  for 
Lusatia  ;  1  at  Frankfort  on  the  Maine.   In 
Bavaria,  the  distribution  of  the  Bible  has 
been  confined  to  the  efforts  of  individuals. 
(180,000  cojMes  of  the  Catholic  transla- 
tions of  the  New  Testament,  by  Gossner 
and    van  Ess,   had  been   distributed   in 
Germany  and  Switzerland,  up  to  1821. 
Many  of  tliese  reached  the  Austrian  prov- 
inces, which  at  present  ai"e  closed  against 
German  Bibles.)     The  society  at  Stutt- 
gart has  printed  an  edition  of  10,000  Bi- 
bles and  2000  Testaments,  which  have 
already  been  taken  up.     Societies  exist  at 
Hamburg,  Baden,  Weimar,  Bremen,  Lii- 
beck ;  at  Schleswig-Holstein,  Schwerin, 
Ratzeburg,  Eutin,  Brunswick,  &c.  (each 
of  them  having  auxiliary  societies).    Prot- 
estant Switzerland  has  a  Bible  society  of 
its   own  ;    so   has  the   kingdom   of  the 
Netherlands,  which  provides  its  colonies 
with  Bibles.    In  Paris,  such  a  society  was 
instituted,  Dec.  6, 1818,  for  the  Protestants 
m  France.    The  means  of  this  society 
were  small  (in  1820,  not  more  than  58,212 
francs  had   been   received),  and  it  had 
principally  in   view    the    supplying    of 
schools,  hospitals  and  prisons ;   but,  as 
Catholics  also  have  received  tlie  Bible,  it 
has  met  with  a  strong  opposition  fi-om 
the  papal-jesuitical  party  in  France.     In 
Strasburg,  an  edition  of  20,000  Bibles  was 
printed  for  Alsace.    In  Sweden,  the  chief 
society  in  Stockholm  have  distributed  a 
farge  number  of  Bibles  and  Testaments. 
In  Norway  and  Denmark,  editions  have 
been  published  with  the  same  view,  and 
the  Danish  society  has  branches  in  Ice- 
land and  the  West  Indies.    The  Russian 
society  in  Petersburg  has  vied  with  the 
Enghsh,  and  some  yeai-s  since  had  print- 
ed the  Bible  in  31  languages  and  dialects 
spoken  in  the  Russian  dominions,  among 
which   is  one   in  the   modem   Russian, 
since  the  translation  of  the  church  is  in 
the  Sclavonic,  and  unintelligible  to  lay- 
men.    This  new  translation   has  been 
joyfully  received  by  the  country  people, 
and  shows  them  the  errors  and  many  su- 
peretitions  which  disfigure  the  ritual  of 
the  Greek  church.    On  this  account,  it 
will  probably  give  rise  to  contests,  which 
can  hardly  be  terminated  without  a  grad- 
ual   reformation  of  the  Greek  church. 
Part   of  the   clergy  are   opposed  to  tlie 
distribution  of  the  Bible,  and  persecutions 
against  zealous  readers  of  the  sacred  book 
have  already  taken   place   in  the  more 
distant  governments.    The  Gospels  in  the 


94 


BIBLE  SOCIETIES. 


Calmuc  laiiguage  and  the  Persian  New 
Testaments  are  much'  sought  for,  A 
translation  of  die  Bible  for  the  Booriaits, 
Mongol  worshippers  of  the  Lama,  near 
lake  Baikal,  is  preparing,  with  the  assist- 
imce  of  two  young  Booriaits  of  high  birth, 
who  embraced  Christiaaiity  at  Petersburg. 
Auxiliary  societies  have  been  formed  at 
Irkutsk,  Tobolsk,  among  the  Kirghises, 
Georgians,  and  Cossacks  of  the  Don. 
The  word  of  God  is  carried  from  Odessa 
to  the  Levant  The  bull  of  Pius  VII, 
June  28, 1816,  obtained  by  the  archbishop 
of  Gneseu,  did  not  prevent  the  Poles  from 
forming  a  society  in  Warsaw,  under  the 
protection  of  Alexander.  In  1817,  the 
distribution  of  the  Bible  by  such  societies 
was  forbidden  in  Austi-ia,  and  those  al- 
ready existing  in  Hungary  were  sup- 
pressed. Italy,  Spain  and  Portugal  have 
had,  as  yet,  no  Bible  societies;  France 
only  one ;  but  the  English  have  provided 
them  with  Bibles  in  their  own  tongues.  In 
the  U.  States  of  America,  the  great  Amer- 
ican Bible  society,  formed  in  1816,  acts  in 
concert  with  the  auxiliary  societies,  of 
which,  in  1829,  there  were  630.  The 
management  of  the  society  is  intrusted 
to  a  board  of  managers ;  stereotype  plates 
have  been  procured,  and  Bibles  are  issued 
at  a  low  price  for  the  auxiliaries,  and  for 
gratuitous  distribution  among  the  poor. 
During  the  first  year,  6,410  copies  of  Bi- 
bles and  Testaments  were  distributed. 
In  1827,  the  number  amounted  to  134,000, 
and,  during  the  first  8  months  of  1828,  to 
146,000.  The  whole  number  issued  since 
the  organization  of  the  society  is  about 
700,000.  These  have  been  mostly  in  Eng- 
lish, Spanish  and  French,  from  the  society's 
plates.  The  managers  have  occasionally 
purchased  Bibles  in  Europe,  and  issued 
them  to  applicants,  in  German,  Dutch, 
Welsh,  Gaelic,  Portuguese,  modem  Greek, 
and  some  other  European  languages. 
They  have  also  furnished  money  to  prmt 
translations  into  pagan  languages,  by 
American  missionaries.  They  have  in 
operation  8  power-presses  and  20  hand- 
presses,  and  copies  are  prepared  at  the  rate 
of  300,000  a  year.  Many  of  tlie  auxiliary 
societies  have  undertaken  to  discover  the 
number  of  famiUes  in  their  vicinity  desti- 
tute of  the  Bible,  and  to  supply  them.  It 
is  the  object  of  tlie  society  to  supply  every 
family  in  the  U.  States,  before  devoting 
much  attention  to  distribution  abroad. 
Yet  Spanish  America  and  Ceylon,  Greece 
and  the  Sandwich  islands,  have  been  fur- 
nished with  Bibles  by  the  society.  The 
colonies  also  exert  themselves  in  this 
eame.    Hayti  has  offered  her  assistance, 


and  even  the  Esquimaux  already  read 
the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  in  their  own 
language.  A  similar  zeal  for  the  distri- 
bution of  the  Bible  has  been  awakened  in 
Southern  Africa  and  in  India,  where  Bi- 
bles are  pubhshed  in  the  languages  of  the 
country  :  even  the  islands  on  the  eastern 
coast  of  Asia  arc  not  neglected.  In  tlie 
Netrierlands,  there  is  a  fraternal  imion  of 
difl^erent  sects  for  this  purpose,  as  is  also 
the  case  in  other  countries  contauiing 
various  sects.  Such  associations  excite 
among  different  sects  a  feeling  of  mutual 
sympathy,  by  a  consideration  of  their 
mutual  participation  in  the  most  impor- 
tant truths  of  Christianity. — Such  a  gen- 
eral diffusion  of  the  Bible  is  an  event  of 
great  historical  importance.  Its  transla- 
tion uito  languages  which  have  been 
hitherto  destitute  of  all  Uterature,  and 
even  of  >vriting,  must  contribute  greatly 
to  the  progress  of  intellectual  cultivation 
throughout  the  earth,  and  must  have  an 
especial  influence  on  the  advancement 
of  general  philology.  The  Bible  societies 
may  be  considered  as  assisting  to  pave 
the  way  for  the  introduction  of  European 
civiUzation  into  all  the  less  enlightened 
regions  of  the'earth.  The  societies  ad- 
here to  the  principle  of  publishing  the 
Bible  without  notes,  starting  from  the 
Protestant  principle,  that  the  Bible,  and 
the  Bible  alone,  is  the  foundation  of 
Christian  faith.  Undoubtedly,  the  various 
sects  of  Christians,  differing  so  greatly  as 
they  do,  and  always  must,  respecting  cer- 
tain points  of  faith  and  the  interpretation 
of  particular  passages  of  the  Scriptures, 
could  not  be  made  to  co-operate  with  zeal 
in  the  distribution  of  the  Bible,  if  the  text, 
were  accompanied  with  commentaries. 
But  now  missionaries  and  ministers  must 
supply,  by  verbal  explanation,  the  place 
of  notes,  because  it  is  clear  to  every  body 
tliat  the  Bible  cannot  be  understood 
without  the  explanation  afforded  by 
study.  Thus  the  opinions  of  individuals, 
orally  delivered,  are  substituted  for  the 
more  precise  and  profound  criticism  of 
united  commentators.  It  seems  to  us, 
that  the  friends  of  Bible  societies  and 
their  opponents  (a  part  of  the  Catholic 
clergy)  have  both  run  into  extremes ;  the 
former  by  injudiciously  distributing  the 
Scriptures,  in  some  cases,  before  people 
were  fit  to  understand  them ;  and  the  lat- 
ter by  an  unqualified  prohibition  of  the 
reading  of  the  Bible  by  the  laity.  The 
order  of  the  pope,  that  only  certain  edi- 
tions and  versions  should  be  read  by  the 
Catholics,  originated  from  views  founded 
on  the  experience  of  all  ages  of  Chrisi 


BIBLE  SOCIETIES— BIBLIOGRAPHY. 


95 


tianity,  that  raen  of  pure  intentions  often 
fall  into  dreadful  errors  and  absurdities 
from  want  of  just  direction  in  the  study 
of  the  Bible.  And  it  remains  a  fact  not 
to  be  disputed  by  the  most  ardent  defend- 
er of  immediate  and  supernatural  assist- 
ance to  the  reader  of  the  Bible,  that, 
being  comj)osed  of  parts  extremely  vari- 
ous in  tlieir  character,  written  in  times 
and  countries  very  remote  fi-om  us,  often 
in  aietaphorical  languag;;,  and  intimately 
connected  with  the  customs,  views,  his- 
tory and  language  of  particular  nations, 
.'uid  even  individuals,  its  real  meaning  is 
not  to  be  found  without  an  extensive  study 
of  many  different  branches  of  science, 
the  results  of  which  may  be  used  to  assist 
the  less  informed  reader.  History  shows 
us,  that  the  blackest  crimes  and  the  most 
egregious  follies  have  been  defended  by 
the  misapplication  of  the  text  of  the  Sa- 
cred Scz-ijJtures.  It  must  be  left  to  time 
to  show  what  will  be  the  ultimate  effect 
of  Bible  societies.  Undoubtedly  it  will  be 
found,  that  some  portion  of  their  effbrts 
have  been  made  in  vain,  as  was,  indeed, 
to  be  expected ;  and,  in  many  instances, 
they  appear  to  us  to  have  been  made 
injudiciously.  The  extension  of  the 
habit  of  reading  through  so  many  parts 
of  the  world,  we  imagine,  will  be 
one  of  the  greatest  and  most  lasting 
consequences  of  the  exertions  of  these 
societies. 

Biblical  Archeology  is  the  science 
■which  describes  tlie  political  state,  man- 
ners and  customs  of  the  Jewish  nation, 
as  well  as  the  usages  of  the  early  Chris- 
tian church  ;  consequently,  the  antiquities 
of  the  Bible.  Civil  relations,  religious 
ceremonies,  holy  places,  domestic  cus- 
toms and  utensils,  modes  of  dress,  and 
other  external  circumstances,  fomi  the 
subject  of  this  science.  The  antiquities  of 
the  Bible  are  partly  .Jewish,  partly  Chris- 
tian. The  sources  of  the  former  are  the 
Old  Testament,  the  works  of  Josephus 
and  Philo,  the  Talmud,  and  the  writings 
of  the  rabbins.  The  sources  of  Chris- 
tian antiquities  are  the  New  Testament 
and  the  writings  of  the  fathers,  who 
lived  and  ^vTote  soon  after  the  age  of  the 
apostles.  Without  the  knowledge  of  the 
manners  and  customs  of  a  nation,  many 
passages  of  their  authors,  which  contain 
allusions  to  them,  remain  unintelligible, 
and,  on  this  account,  the  knowledge  of 
the  antiquities  of  the  Bible  is  necessary  to 
the  interpreter  of  the  Holy  Scriptures. 
Among  tlie  modem  authors,  Avho  have 
written  on  Jewish  antiquities,  Voland, 
John  Simonis,  Enist  Aug.  Schulz,  George 


Lawrence  Bauer,  Wamekros  de  Wette 
and  John  Jahn  particularly  deserve  to 
be  mentioned.  AVe  may  find  information 
concerning  Christian  antiquities  in  the 
commentaries  on  the  New  Testament, 
and  in  the  historians  of  the  church.  The 
Germans  have  particularly  distinguished 
themselves  in  this  department. 

Bibliography  (from  PijiXiov,  a  book, 
and  ypaipw,  I  describe)  was  originally  a 
branch  of  archcEography,  or  the  art  of  de- 
scribing or  explaining  antiquities,  and  de- 
noted skill  m  the  perusing  and  judging 
of  ancient  manuscripts ;  but  in  its  modern 
and  more  extended  sense,  it  signifies  the 
knowledge  of  books,  in  reference  to  the 
subjects  discussed  in  tliem,  their  different 
degrees  of  rarity,  curiosity,  reputed  and 
real  value,  the  materials  of  which  they 
are  composed,  and  the  rank  which  they 
ought  to  hold  in  the  classification  of  a 
library.  It  is,  therefore,  divided  into  two 
branches,  the  first  of  which  ha^  reference 
to  the  contents  of  books,  and  may  be 
called,  for  want  of  a  better  phrase,  iiitel- 
ledual  bibUography  ;  the  second  treats  of 
their  external  character,  the  history  of 
paiticular  copies,  &c.,  and  may  be  termed 
material  bibliography.  The  object  of  the 
first  kind  is  to  acquaint  literarv'  men  with 
the  most  valuable  books  in  everj'  depart- 
ment of  study,  either  by  means  of  cata- 
logues raisonnees  simply,  or  by  similar 
catalogues  accompanied  with  critical  re- 
marks»  Bibhography  belongs  to  those 
sciences,  the  progress  of  which  is  de- 
])endent,  iu  a  great  degree,  on  external 
circumstances.  It  has  been  and  still  is 
cultivated  most  successfully  in  France. 
This  is  owing  not  only  to  the  riches  of 
the  great  and  daily  increasing  public  li- 
braries, liberally  thrown  open  to  the  use 
of  the  public,  tlie  large  number  of  fine 
private  collections,  and  the  familiarity  of 
its  numerous  literary  men  with  books 
of  all  ages  and  countries,  but,  in  a  great 
degree,  to  the  practical  spirit  of  the  nation 
which  induces  their  bibhographers  to 
keep  constantly  in  view  the  supply  of 
existing  wants.  Brunet's  Manuel  du  lA- 
hraire  was  the  first  important  work  which 
contamed,  in  an  alphabetical  form,  a  list 
of  the  most  valuable  and  costly  books  of 
aJl  hteratures  ;  Barbier's  Dictionnaire  des 
Ouvrages  Anonymes,  the  first  systematic 
and  satisfactory  treatise  on  this  subject ; 
Renouard's  Catalogue  d'  mi  Amateur,  the 
first,  and,  for  a  long  time,  the  best  guide 
of  the  French  collectors  ;  the  BiUiogra- 
phie  de  la  France,  the  fii-st  work  which 
showed  how  the  yearly  accumulation  of 
literary  works  can  be  recorded  in  the 


96 


BIBLIOGRAPHY. 


most  authentic  manner.  No  less  valuable 
are  the  works  of  Peignot,  Petit  Radel, 
llenouard  on  the  Aldines  (see  Aldine 
Editions),  and  many  others.  English 
bibUography  can  boast  of  but  one  of 
the  advantages  of  the  French ;  that  is,  of 
ricli  public  and  private  collections ;  but  the 
use  of  them  is  allowed  only  to  a  limited 
degree,  and  the  EngHsh  bibliographei-s 
are  far  behind  the  French.  The  works  of 
doctor  Adam  Clarke  (Bibliographical  Dic- 
tionary, 1820)  and  of  Robert  Watt  {Bibli- 
otheca  Briiannica,  181S>)  are  compilations 
of  littJe  value ;  the  undigested  collections 
of  Beloe  (Anecdotes  of  Literature,  1807), 
of  Brydges  (British  Bibliographer,  1818 ; 
Censura  Literaria,  1805),  of  Savage  (the 
Librarian,  1808),  and  others,  are  destitute 
of  judicious  selection,  and  often  of  cor- 
recmess.  Ottley's  Inquiry  into  the  Origin 
and  Early  History  of  Engraving  (1816), 
and  Singer's  Researches  into  the  History 
of  Playing  Oards  (181G),  works  which  be- 
long to  very  important  pohitS  of  bibliogra- 
phy, are  deficient  in  correct  criticism  ;  and 
if  we  are  not  dazzled  by  the  type,  the 
paper  and  tlie  engravings  of  Dibdin's 
productions  (Typographical  Antiquities, 
1810 ;  Bibliotheca  Spenceriana,  1814 ;  Bib- 
liographical Decameron,  1817;  Tour  in 
France  and  Germany,  1821),  we  cannot 
be  bhnd  to  the  superficial  acquirements 
of  the  author.  There  is  now  publishing, 
in  England,  the  Bibliographer's  Manual, 
an  imitation  of  Brunei's  Manuel  above- 
mentioned.  It  is  to  be  completed  in  12 
parts.  The  learned  Germans,  Uttle  assist- 
ed by  public,  almost  entirely  destitute  of 
private  collections,  consulting  oiily  the 
real  wants  of  the  science,  have  actively 
endeavored  to  promote  it.  Ei-s(;h  is  the 
founder  of  German  bibliography.  He 
gave  it  a  tnily  scientific  character  by  his 
extensive  work,  Allgemeines  Repertorium 
der  Liter atur  (Universal  Repertory  of 
Literature,  1793—1807),  and  by  his  Hand- 
buch  der  Deutschen  IMeratur  (Manual  of 
German  Literature).  German  bibliogra- 
})hy  is  particularly  rich  in  the  literature 
of  separate  sciences ;  and  the  bibliography 
of  the  Greek  and  Latin  literature,  as  well 
as  the  branch  which  treats  of  ancient  edi- 
tions, was  founded  by  the  Germans.  The 
fii-st  attempt,  in  Germany,  to  j)repare  a 
universal  bibhographical  work,  was  made 
by  Ebert  (q.  v.),  who  wrote,  also,  in  the 
10th  number  of  Hermes,  a  review  of  the 
whole  modem '  German  bibliography. 
The  booksellers'  dictionary  is  a  very 
valuable  German  bibliographical  work. 
A  supplement  is  pubhshed  annually. 
The  following  are  valuable  German  bib- 


hographical works  in  particular  depart- 
ments of  science  and  literature  : — T.  A. 
Ncissell's  Jlnweisurtg  zur  Kenntniss  der  Bes- 
ten  Allgemeineri  Biicher  in  der  Theplogie, 
4tli  ed.  Leipsic,  1800,  and  the  continua- 
tion of  it  by  Simon,  Leipsic,  1813  ;  C.  F. 
Burdach's  LAtcratur  der  Heilwissenschqfl, 
Gotlia,  1810,  2  vols. ;  W.  Gf.  Ploucquct's 
I/iteratwa  Medica,  Tubingen,  1808, 4  vols. 
4to. ;  T.  G.  Meusel's  Bibliotheca  Historica, 
Leipsic,  1782—1802,  11  vols,  in  22  vol- 
umes, not  finished ;  his  lAteratur  der 
Statistik,  Lei])sic,  1816,  2  vols.  ;  G.  R, 
Bohmer's  Bibliotheca  Scriptorum  Historic 
J^aturalis,  Leij)sic,  1785 — 99,  7  vols.  : 
Alb.  Haller's  Bibliotheca  Botanica,  Zurich, 
1771,  2  vols.,  4to. ;  Jlnatomica,  Zurich, 
1774, 2  vols.,  4to. ;  Chirurgica,  Bern,  1774, 
2  vols.,  4to.,  and  Medicince  Practices,  Bern, 
1776etseq.,4  vols.,4to.,  &c. — Fred.  Blume 
has  lately  published  the  first  volume  of 
Iter  Italicum,  containing  an  account  of  the 
archives,  inscriptions  and  libraries  in  the 
Sardinian  and  Austrian  prpvinces.  Italian 
bibliogiaphy  is  no  longer  what  it  Was  in 
the  times  of  Mazzuchelli,  AudifFredi  and 
Tiraboschi.  A  great  indifference  is  al- 
most universal  in  regard  to  the  public 
libraries;  the  private  collections  are  be- 
coming more  and  more  scarce,  and  the 
pirecious  ones  of  count  Cassano  Serra 
and  Melzi,  in  Naples  and  Milan,  have 
been  lately  sold  to  England.  The  bib- 
liographical works  of  Italy  treat  prin- 
cipally of  the  provincial  libraries  (one  of 
the  latest  is  Moreri's  Biblvograjia  deUa 
Toscana,  1805):  Gamba's  Serie  de'  Testi 
(1812)  is  a  very  valuable  %vork.  The 
Dutch,  Spaniards  and  Portuguese  have, 
of  late  Veare,  done  httle  for  Uiis  science  5 
but  the  ^  leartied  Bentkowsky's  Polish 
Literature  (1814)  deserves  the  highest 
praise.  The  count  Zechcnyi,  a  Himga-' 
rian,  published  a  catalogue  of  all  Hun- 
garian works.  Pest,  1799 — 1807,  9  vols., 
Bvo.,  and  1  vol.,  4to.  Russia  has  pro- 
dHced,  in  the  ilepartment  of  bibliograplvy, 
little  more  than  catalogues.  In  regard  to 
particular  sciences,  many  useful  cata- 
logues^xist,  commonly  called  Bibliotheca. 
Well  aiTanged  and  accurate  catalogues 
of  libraries,  which  are  rich  in  particular 
departments;  may  be  used  with  advan- 
tage by  the  bibliographer,  as  may,  also, 
the  annual  catalogue  of  the  book-fair  at 
LeipsiCi  (See  Books,  Catalogues  of.) — 
Directions  for  the  study  of  bibhography 
are  contained  in  Achard's  Cours  de  Bib- 
liographic (Marseilles,  1807,  3  vols.),  Th. 
Hartwell  Home's  Introduction  to  the 
Study  of  Bibhography  (London,  1814,  2 
vols.),  and  Gabr.  Peignot's  Diciionnaire 


BIBLIOGRAPHY— BIBLIOMANIA. 


97 


raisonne  de  Bibliologie  {Paris,  1602 — 4, 
3  vols.) 

Material  Bibliography,  often  called,  by 
way  of  eminence,  bibliography,  considers 
books  in  regard  to  their  exterior,  their  his- 
torj',  &C.,  and  has  been  principally  culti- 
vated in  France  and  England.  The  differ- 
ent branches  of  material  bibliography 
(see,  also.  Bibliomania)  may  here  be  men- 
tioned : — the  knowledge  of  the  ancient 
editions  (incunabula^  or,  if  classical  au- 
thors, editiones  principes),  some  of  the 
best  works  on  which  are,  G.  Wfg.  Pan- 
zer's Annales  Typographici  (Nuremberg, 
1793 — 1803,  11  vols.,  4to.),  coming  down 
to  1536 ;  the  Annales  Typographici,  by 
Maittaire  (Hague,  1719  et  seq.,  11  vols., 
4to.),  which  not  only  contains  the  titles, 
but  investigates  the  subjects  of  works. 
More  exact  descriptions  of  particular  an- 
cient editions  are  fotmd  in  Serna  Santan- 
der's  Dictionn.  Bibliogr.  der  loieme  Siecle 
(Brussels,  1805,  3  vols.) ;  Fossius'  Cata- 
logus  Codicum,  sec.  15,  Impressor.  Bibli- 
otheccB  MagliabecchiancE  (Florence,   1793, 

3  vols,  fol.),  and  others.  The  study  of 
rare  books,  on  account  of  the  vague  prin- 
ciples on  which  it  rests,  is  more  difficult 
than  is  generally  believed,  and  easily  de- 
generates into  superficial  and  capricious 
trifling.  This  has  been  more  injured 
tlian  promoted  by  I.  Vogt's  Catalogus 
Librorum  Rariorum  (Frankfort  and  Leip- 
sic,  1793),  and  J.  Jac.  Bauer's  Bibliotheca 
Libror.  Ranor.  Universalis  (Nuremberg, 
1770 — 91,  12  vols.)  We  may  also  men- 
tion here  the  catalogues  of  the  books  pro- 
hibited by  the  Roman  church  [Indices 
Librorum  Prohibitorum  et  Expurgatorum). 
For  the  discovery  of  the  authors  of  anon- 
ymous and  pseudonymous  works,  we  may 
use  BarbiePs  Dictionnaire  des  Ouvrages 
aiionymes  et  pseudonymes  (Paris  1806-— 9, 

4  vols.),  which  is  valuable  for  its  accuracy 
(but  it  contains  only  French  and  Latin 
works).  We  need  not  observe,  what  an 
important  source  of  information,  in  the 
department  of  bibliography,  are  literary 
journals.  (See  Bibliomania^) 

BiBLiOMAXCY  ;  divination  performed  by 
means  of  the  Bible ;  also  called  sortes 
biblica,  or  sortes  sanctorum.  It  consisted 
in  taking  passages  at  hazard,  and  drawing 
indications  thence  concerning  things  fu- 
ture. It  was  much  used  at  the  consecra- 
tion of  bishops.  It  was  a  practice  adopted 
from  the  heathens,  who  drew  the  same 
kind  of  prognostication  from  the  works 
of  Homer  and  Virgil.  In  465,  the  coun- 
cil of  Vannes  condemned  all  who  prac- 
tised this  art  to  be  cast  out  of  the  com- 
munion of  the  church ;  as  did  the  councils 

VOL.  II.  9 


of  Agde  and  Auxerre.  But,  in  the  12th 
century,  we  find  it  employed  as  a  mode 
of  detecting  heretics.  In  the  Galhcan 
church,  it  was  long  practised  in  the  elec- 
tion of  bishops ;  children  being  employed, 
on  behalf  of  each  candidate,  to  draw  sUps 
of  paper  with  texts  on  them,  and  that 
which  was  thought  most  favorable  de- 
cided the  choice.  A  similar  mode  was 
pursued  at  the  installation  of  abbots,  and 
the  reception  of  canons  ;  and  this  custom 
is  said  to  have  continued  in  the  cathedrals 
of  Ypres,  St.  Omer  and  Boulogne,  as  late 
as  the  year  1744.  In  the  Greek  church, 
we  read  of  the  prevalence  of  this  custom 
as  early  as  the  consecration  of  Athana- 
sius,  on  whose  behalf  the  presiding  pre- 
late, Caracalla,  archbishop  of  Nicomedia, 
opened  the  Gospels  at  the  words,  "For 
the  devil  and  his  angels."  Matt.  xxv.  41. 
The  bishop  of  Nice  first  saw  them,  and 
adroitly  turned  over  the  leaf  to  another 
verse,  which  was  instantly  read  aloud: 
"  The  birds  of  the  air  came  and  lodged 
in  the  branches  thereof."  Matt.  xiii.  32. 
But,  this  passage  appearing  irrelevant  to 
the  ceremony,  the  first  became  gradually 
known,  and  the  church  of  Constantinople 
was  violently  agitated  by  the  most  fatal 
divisions  during  the  patriarchate. 

Bibliomania  is  a  word  lately  formed 
from  the  Greek,  and  signifies  a  passion 
for  possessing  curious  books.  The  true 
bibliomanist  is  determined  in  the  purchase 
of  books,  less  by  the  value  of  their  con- 
tents, than  by  certain  accidental  circum- 
stances attending  them.  To  be  valuable 
in  his  eyes,  they  must  belong  to  particular 
classes,  be  made  of  singular  materials, 
or  have  something  remarkable  in  their 
history.  Some  books  acquire  the  char- 
acter of  belonging  to  particular  classes, 
fi-om  treating  of  a  particular  subject  of 
interest  to  the  bibUomanist ;  others  from 
something  pecuhar  in  their  mechanical 
execution,  or  from  the  circumstance  of 
having  issued  from  a  press  of  imcommon 
eminence,  or  because  they  once  belonged 
to  the  library  of  an  eminent  man.  Some 
of  these  collections  are  of  much  intrinsic 
value.  Among  them  are,  various  editions 
of  the  Bible  (the  most  complete  is  at 
Stuttgart) ;  collections  of  editions  of 
single  classics  (e.  g.,  those  of  Horace  and 
Cicero,  in  the  city  Ubrary  at  Leipsic); 
the  editions  in  tisum  Ddphini  and  cum 
notis  variorum, ;  the  editions  of  Italian 
classics  printed  by  the  academy  della 
Crusca ;  works  printed  by  the  Elzevirs, 
by  Aldus,  Comino  in  Padua,  vid  Bodoni 
(die  most  complete  collection  of  Bodoni's 
editions  is  in  the  library  of  the  duchess 


96 


BIBLIOMANIA. 


d'Abrantes) ;  the  classics  edited  by  Mait- 
taire,  Foulis,  Barbou,  Brindlej^,  and  oth- 
ers, and  the  celebrated  Bipont  editions ; 
with  otliers. — It  was  more  ciistomaiy  in 
former  times  than  at  jiresent  to  make 
collections  of  books  which  have  some- 
thing remarkable  in  their  history ;  e.  g., 
books  which  have  become  very  scai'ce, 
and  such  as  have  been  prohibited.  Of 
the  first  sort,  the  collections  of  Engel  and 
Salthon  were  formerly  among  the  most 
considerable.  The  one  at  Dresden  is 
among  the  largest  now  existing.  Books 
distinguished  for  remarkable  nmtilations 
liave  aJso  been  eagerly  sought  for.  Those 
which  appeared  in  the  infancy  of  typog- 
raphy, called  incunabula,  from  tlie  Lat- 
in ounce,  a  cradle,  principally  the  first 
editions  [editiones  principes)  of  the  an- 
cient classics,  are  still  in  general  request. 
Much  of  the  value  of  a  book,  in  the  eyes  of 
a  bibliomanist,  depends  upon  the  material 
of  which  it  is  composed.  An  enormous 
price  is  frequently  given  for  splendid  proof 
impressions  of  copperplate  engravings,  and 
for  colored  impressions,  for  works  adorned 
with  miniatures  and  illuminated  initial  let- 
ters ;  hkewise  for  such  as  are  printed  upon 
vellum.  (The  most  considei-able  collec- 
tion of  vellum  copies  was  sold  at  auction, 
in  1815,  at  the  sale  of  M'Carthy's  books, 
in  Paris.  A  bibliographical  work  upon 
this  subject  is  now  preparing  by  van  Praet, 
in  Paris.) — Works  printed  upon  paper  of 
uncommon  materials  (e.  g.,  (Euvres  du 
Marquis  de  Villdo,  Lond.  1786, 16mo.),  or 
various  substitutes  for  paper  (e.  g.,  E. 
Bruckmann's  Natural  Ilistorj'  of  Asbestos, 
upon  paper  made  of  asbestos,  Bnmswick, 
1727,  4to.),  have  been  much  sought  after ; 
likewise  those  printed  upon  colored  pa- 
per. In  Italy,  the  color  of  books  of  this 
sort  is  commonly  blue  ;  in  France,  rose- 
color  ;  in  some  ancient  German  books,  the 
color  is  yellow ;  sometimes,  though  rarely, 
green.  A  list  of  books  of  this  class  is  to 
be  found  in  Peignot's  Repertoire  des  Bib- 
liographies speciales,  Paris,  1810. — Other 
lx>oks,  in  high  esteem  amongbibliomanists, 
are  those  which  are  printed  on  large  pa- 
j>er,  with  very  wide  margins.  True  bib- 
lioiisaiiists  often  measure  the  margin  by 
inch's^  and  lines.  In  English  advertise- 
ments of  rare  books,  some  one  is  often 
mentioned  as  particularly  valuable  on  ac- 
count of  its  being  "  a  tall  copy."  If  the 
leaves  happen  to  be  uncut,  tlie  value  of  the 
copy  is  much  enhanced. — Other  works, 
highly  valued  by  bibUomanists,  are  those 
which  are  printed  with  letters  of  gold  or 
silver,  or  ink  of  singular  color ;  e.  g.,  1. 
Fasti  JVapolionei,  Paris,  1804,  4to.,  a  copy 


on  blue  vellum  paper,  with  golden  letters ; 
2.  Magna  Charta,  London,  Whitaker, 
1816,  folio,  three  copies  ui>on  purple- 
colored  velhun,  with  golden  lettere  ;  also, 
books  printed  from  cojjperplates.  Cata- 
logues of  these  have  been  made  by  Peig- 
not  and  others. — In  France  and  England, 
the  bibliomania  often  extends  to  tlie  bind- 
ing. In  France,  the  bindings  of  Derome 
and  Bozcrian  are  most  valued ;  in  Eng- 
land, those  of  Charles  Lewis  and  Roger 
Payne,  several  specimens  of  whose  skill 
are  to  be  seen  in  the  library  of  lord  Spen- 
cer ;  among  others,  the  Glasgow  edition 
of  iEschylus,  1795,  the  binding  of  which 
cost  £16  75.  sterling.  Payne  is  said  to 
have  sometimes  received  from  20  to  30 
guineas  for  binding  a  single  volume. 
This  species  of  luxur}'  is  carried  to  such 
a  height  in  London,  that  a  copy  of  Mack- 
lin's  Bible  (4  vols,  in  folio),  in  red  or  blue 
morocco  leather,  costs  75  guineas,  and 
Boydell's  large  edition  of  Shakspeare 
(9  v6ls.  with  large  engravings)  £132  ster- 
ling. Even  the  edges  of  books  are  often 
adorned  with  fine  paintings.  Many  de- 
vices have  been  adopted  to  give  a  factitious 
value  to  bindings.  Jefferj-,  a  London 
bookseller,  had  Fox's  History  of  Kihg 
James  II  bound  in  fox-skin,  in  allusion  to 
the  name  of  the  author ;  and  the  famous 
English  bibliomanist  Askew  even  had  a 
book  bound  in  human  skin.  In  the  li- 
brary of  the  castle  of  Konigsberg  are  20 
books  bound  in  silver  (commonly  called 
the  silver  library.]  These  are  richly 
adorned  with  large  and  beautifully  en- 
graved gold  plates,  in  the  middle  and  on 
the  corners.  To  the  exterior  decorations 
of  books  belongs  the  bordering  of  the 
])ages  with  single  or  double  lines,  drawn 
with  the  pen  {exemplaire  regie),  commoi^ 
ly  of  red  color — a  custom  which  we  find 
adopted  in  the  early  age  of  printing,  in  the 
works  printed  by  Stephens.  The  custom 
of  coloring  engravings  has  been  dropped, 
except  in  cases  where  the  subject  particu- 
larly requires  it  (for  instance,  in  works 
on  natui'al  history,  or  the  costumes  of 
different  nations),  because  the  colors  con- 
ceal the  deUcacy  of  the  engraving.  On 
this  account,  the  colored  copies  of  Durer's 
wood-cuts  are  esteemed  less  than  those 
which  are  left  uncolored.  The  other 
means  of  idle  competition  being  almost 
all  exliausted,  the  bibUomanists  have  late- 
ly hit  upon  the  idea  of  enriching  many 
works  by  the  addition  of  engravings,  il- 
lustrative indeed  of  the  text  of  the  book, 
but  not  particularly  called  for,  and  of  pre- 
paring only  single  copies.  Thus  Long- 
man, in  London,  offers  an  illustrated  copy 


BIBLIOMANIA— BIDDLE. 


99 


oF  the  otherwise  common  Biographical 
Dictionary  of  all  the  Engravers,  by  John 
Striitt  (London,  1785 — 86,  2  vols.  4to.), 
which  is  inci-eased,  in  this  way,  to  37  large 
vols.,  in  folio,  and  costs  not  less  than 
£2000  sterling.  Tlie  library  of  Dresden 
has  a  similar  copy  of  Buddaeus's  Historical 
Lexicon,  of  an  earlier  date.  Among  the 
auctions,  where  the  bibliomania  i-aged 
with  the  greatest  fury,  was  that  of  the 
library  of  the  duke  of  Roxburgh  (q.  v. ),  in 
London,  1812.  Every  work  was  bought  at 
almost  incredible  prices.  The  tii"St  edition 
of  Boccaccio,  published  by  Valdarfer,  in 
1471,  was  sold  for  £2260  sterhug;  to  the 
memory  of  which  a  bibhomanio-Rox- 
burgh  club  was  founded  in  the  following 
jear,  of  which  lord  Spencer  is  president. 
It  meets  yearly  on  the  13th  of  July,  the 
anniversary  of  the  sale  of  Boccaccio,  in 
the  St.  Alban's  tavern.  No  further  evi- 
dence is  necessary  to  show  that  biblioma- 
nia, which  flourished  first  in  Holland  (the 
seat  likewise  of  the  hiUpoviania),  towards 
the  end  of  the  17th  centurj',  prevails  at 
present  in  England  to  a  much  greater  ex- 
tent than  in  France,  Italy  or  Germany. 
— Thomas  F.  Dibdin's  Bibliomania  or 
Rook-madness  (London,  1811),  and  his 
Bibliographical  Decameron  (London, 
1817,  3  vols.),  contain  many  useful  direc- 
tions for  the  assistance  of  collectors  of 
books. — The  modem  bibliomania  is  very 
different  from  the  spirit  which  led  to  the 
purchase  of  books,  hi  the  middle  ages,  at 
prices  which  appear  to  us  enormous.  Ex- 
ternal decorations,  it  is  true,  were  then 
held  in  high  esteem ;  but  the  main  reason 
of  the  great  sums  then  paid  for  books 
was  their  scarcity,  and  the  difficulty  of 
procuring  perfect  copies  before  the  in- 
\ention  of  the  art  of  printing.  Tiiere  is 
sometimes  found  a  rage  for  possessing 
books,  without  reference  to  the  value  of 
their  contents,  or  the  other  circumstan- 
ces which  have  been  mentioned  as  in- 
fluencing the  bibliomanist.  A  priest  in 
Saxony  is  said  to  have  murdered  three 
persons,  with  a  view  of  getting  posses- 
sion of  their  hbraries.  These,  however, 
he  did  not  read. 

Bicktre;  a  castle  and  village  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Paris,  situated  on  a  hill, 
and  commanding  one  of  the  finest  pros- 
pects of  Paris,  of  the  course  of  the  Seine, 
and  of  the  environs.  Louis  XIII  erected 
the  castle  for  the  residence  of  invalids. 
When  Louis  XIV  afterwards  erected  the 
great  h6tel  royal  des  invalides,  B.  became 
a  great  hospital,  for  which  it  is  particular- 
ly adapted  by  its  healthy  situation  :  water 
only  was  wanting  m  its  vicinity,  to  obtain 


which  a  well  was  dug  in  the  rock  (1733). 
B.  contains  also  a  house  of  correction 
{mai^on  de  force)  for  dissolute  persons, 
swindlers,  thieves,  &ic.  Since  the  revo- 
lution, a  prison  for  criminals  condemned 
to  the  galleys  has  been  erected  here, 
from  which  they  aie  transferred  to  the 
l)ublic  ship-yards.  In  the  prison  and  the 
house  of  correction  are  shops  for  the 
grinding  of  glass,  and  for  other  kinds  of 
work,  in  which  the  j)risoners  are  usefully 
employed.  In  the  hospital  of  B.,  2200 
beds  are  devoted  to  the  reception  of  aged 
patients.  No  one  is  admitted  under  the 
age  of  70  years.  They  are  attended  to 
with  the  greatest  care,  and  fabricate  neat 
little  works  of  wood  and  bone,  known  in 
France  by  the  name  ofBicetre  works.  A 
large  hospital  for  incurable  madmen  has 
also  been  erected  suice  the  revolution. 

BiDASSOA,  a  boundary  river  between 
Spain  and  France,  rises  in  the  Spanish 
territory,  becomes  a  boundary  at  Vera, 
and  is  navigable  to  Biriatou  at  high  tide. 
It  forms  the  isle  of  Pheasants,  or  the  isl- 
and of  Conference,  where  the  peace  of 
the  Pyrenees  was  concluded  (1659),  and 
falls  into  the  bay  of  Biscay,  between 
Andaye  and  Fontarabia.  On  the  Span- 
ish side  of  the  river,  on  the  margin  of  the 
valley  through  which  it  flows,  is  an  advan- 
tageous position,  near  St.  Marcial,  which 
commands  the  great  road  to  Baj'onne, 
before  which  (Aug.  31,  1813)  8000  Span- 
iards repulsed  a  French  force  of  double 
that  number,  who  attempted  to  force  this 
position  in  order  to  relieve  St.  Sebastian. 

BiDDLE,  John,  a  celebrated  Socinian 
writer,  was  born  in  1615,  at  Wotton- 
under-Edge,  in  Gloucestershire.  He  en- 
tered Magdalen  college,  Oxford,  in  his 
19th  year.  He  graduated  as  A.  M.  in 
1641.  Being  led  to  doubt  of  the  doctrine 
of  the  Trinity,  he  drew  up  12  arguments 
on  the  subject ;  in  consequence  of  which  he 
was  committed  to  jail  by  the  parliament- 
ary committee  then  sitting  at  Gloucester, 
but  was  liberated  on  security  being  given 
for  his  appearance  when  called  for.  About 
six  months  aflerwards,  he  was  examined 
before  a  committee  of  the  parhamcnt,  to 
whom  he  readily  acknowledged  his  opin- 
ion against  the  divinity  of  the  Holy  Ghost. 
His  Twelve  Arguments  were  now  order- 
ed to  l)e  burnt  by  the  common  hang- 
man. He  however  persisted  in  his  opin- 
ion, and,  in  1648,  published  two  tracts, 
containing  his  Confessions  of  Faith 
concerning  the  Holy  Trinity,  and  The 
Testimonies  of  Irena?us,  Justin  Martyr, 
and  several  other  early  writers  on  the 
same  subject.     These  publications    in- 


100 


BIDDLE— BIGAMY. 


duced  the  assembly  of  divines  to  solicit 
parliament  to  decree  the  punishment  of 
death  against  those  who  should  impugn 
the  established  opinions  respecting  the 
Trinity  and  other  doctrinal  points,  as 
well  as  to  enact  severe  penalties  for  mi- 
nor deviations.  The  parliament  indulged 
tliese  ministei-s  in  their  intolerant  request, 
wliich  immediately  exposed  Biddle,  who 
would  neither  consent  nor  recant,  to  the 
loss  of  life  ;  but  difference  of  opinion  in 
the  parliament  itself,  and  the  penalties  to 
which  this  sweeping  measure  rendered 
many  in  tlie  army  Uable,  prevented  its 
execution.  He  was,  some  time  after, 
again  remanded  to  prison,  by  the  zeal  of 
president  Bradsliaw,  and  remained  for 
some  years  in  confinement,  sulvjected  to 
the  greatest  privations.  A  general  act  of 
obUvion,  in  1651,  restored  him  to  libertj'^, 
when  he  immediately  disseminated  his 
opinions,  both  by  preaching  and  by  the 
pubUcation  of  his  Twofold  Scripture 
Catechism.  A  complaint  being  made 
to  Cromwell's  parliament  against  this 
book,  he  was  confined  in  the  gate-house 
for  six  months.  Cromwell  banished  him 
to  St.  Mary's  castle,  Scilly,  where  he  as- 
signed him  an  annual  subsistence  of  a 
himdred  crowns.  Here  he  remained 
three  years,  until  tlie  protector  Uberaled 
Lim,  in  1658.  He  then  became  pastor  of 
an  independent  congregation,  and  contin- 
ued to  support  his  opinions,  until  fear  of 
the  Presbyterian  parliament  of  Richard 
Cromwell  induced  him  to  retire  into  the 
country.  On  the  dissolution  of  that  par- 
liament, he  preached  as  before,  until  the 
restoration,  which  obliged  him  to  confine 
his  exertions  to  private  preaching.  He 
was,  however,  in  June,  1662,  apprehend- 
ed at  one  of  the  private  assemblies,  and, 
upon  process  of  law,  fined  £100,  and 
ordered  to  lie  in  prison  until  it  was  paid. 
He  fell  a  martyr  to  this  sentence,  by  catch- 
ing one  of  the  distempers  so  common  at 
that  time  in  jails,  and  died  in  Sept.  of  this 
year,  in  the  47th  year  of  his  age,  a  mar- 
tyr to  religious  intolerance.  The  private 
character  of  this  courageous  sectarian, 
like  that  of  most  of  those  who  suffer 
from  principle,  was  moral,  benevolent 
and  exemplary ;  and  his  learning  and 
logical  acuteness  rendered  him  very  fit 
to  gain  proselytes.  He  did  not  agree  in 
all  points  with  Socinus,  but  was  apparent- 
ly unsolicitous  to  establish  a  perfect  agree- 
ment. Toulmin  styles  him  the  father  of 
the  modem  Uniiariaiis. 

BiDPAi.     (See  Pilpay.) 

Bielefeld  ;  a  town  in  the  province  of 
Westphalia,  near  Prussian  Minden ;  Ion. 


8°  27'  E. ;  lat.  5P  53'  N. ;  population, 
6000.  The  best  German  hnens  are  man- 
ufactured here,  and  exported,  in  large 
quantities,  to  South  America. 

BiEVRE,  marquis  de,  marshal,  bom 
1747,  sened  in  tiie  corps  of  the  French 
musketeei-s,  was  a  life-guard  of  the  king 
of  France,  and  acquired  much  reputation 
by  his  puns  and  rej)artees.  After  publish- 
ing several  entertaining  works,  he  com- 
posed (1783)  Le  Sediicteur,  a  comedy  in 
verse,  for  the  theatre,  which  has  main- 
tained its  place  on  tlie  stage,  although  it 
is  bad  both  in  plan  and  execution.  When 
he  was  introduced  to  Louis  XV,  the  king 
wished  to  hear  a  calembourg  (pun)  of  his. 
Donnez-mol  un  svjet,  sire,  said  B. — Faites- 
en  un  surmoi. — Sire,  le  rainiest  pas  un  svjet, 
was  the  witty  answer  of  B.  In  1789,  he 
went  to  Spa  for  the  benefit  of  his  health, 
and  died  there.  Me^  amis,he  said, dying, 
je  m^en  vais  de  ce  pas  (de  Spa).  He  has 
written  several  works;  among  others,  an 
Mmanac  des  Calembourgs.  There  is  also 
a  collection  of  his  jests  called  Bievriana. 

Bigamy,  in  the  canon  law,  means  being 
twice  married ;  in  the  common  acceptation 
of  the  word,  as  a  term  of  municipal  law, 
it  means  the  being  married  to  two  wives 
or  husbands  at  the  same  time.  Though 
the  laws  relating  to  plurality  of  wives  or 
husbands  might,  with  more  strict  propri- 
ety, be  treated  of  under  the  head  of  polyg- 
amy, they  are  more  usually  brought  under 
that  of  bigamy ;  and,  in  compliance  with 
this  usage,  they  will  be  introduced  in  this 
place.  The  laws  of  every  civilized  soci- 
ety make  some  provision  respecting  this 
subject.  By  the  statute  of  4  Edward, 
I,  Stat.  3,  c.  5,  the  marrj^ing  of  a  second 
husband  or  wife,  the  first  being  alive,  was 
made  felony  ;  and,  by  that  of  2  James  I, 
c.  11,  tliis  crime  was  made  punishable  by 
death.  But  the  same  statute  provided 
that,  where  either  party  was  absent  be- 
yond seas  for  seven  years,  whether 
known  or  not  known  to  the  other  party 
to  be  aUve,  or  was  absent,  though  not  be- 
yond seas,  for  the  same  period,  and  not 
known  by  the  other  to  be  alive,  the  other 
party  was  at  liberty  to  marry  again.  The 
determination  of  bigamy  involves  the  con- 
sideration of  what  constitutes  a  valid  mar- 
riage. If  a  person  be  married  within  the 
age  of  consent,  which,  in  England,  in  tlie 
case  of  the  husband,  is  14,  and  hi  that  of 
the  wife  12  years,  or  was  otherwise  inca- 
pable of  making  such  a  contract ;  or  in 
case  the  marriage  was  not  celebrated 
with  the  forms  and  ceremonies  required 
by  law ;  in  these  cases,  a  second  marriage 
does  not  subject  the  party  to  the  penalty 


BIGAMY— BIJA-PUR. 


101 


of  bigamy.  The  statute  of  James  I  has 
been  adopted  in  most  of  the  U.  States  as 
to  the  description  of  the  crime,  but  the 
American  laws  generally  differ  from  it  as 
to  the  penalty,  hanng  assigned,  hereto- 
fore, instead  of  death,  as  provided  by  the 
English  statute,  the  punishment  of  whip- 
ping, setting  on  the  gallows,  &c.,  which 
latter  is  the  punishment  in  France  ;  but 
most,  if  not  all  of  tlie  U.  States,  have  now 
dispensed  with  these  corporeal  inflictions, 
some  of  them  prescribing  imprisoimient 
and  hard  labor  for  a  number  of  years, 
according  to  the  discretion  of  the  court ; 
others  leaving  it  to  the  verdict  of  the  jury 
to  fix  the  period  of  imprisonment. 

Big.     (See  Barley.) 

BiGNO>",  Louis  Edward,  born  1771,  at 
Meilleraye,  department  of  Lower  Seine, 
studied  at  Paris,  in  the  college  Lisieux. 
lie  ajjproved  the  principles  of  the  revolu- 
tion in  1789,  but  was  proscribed  in  1793, 
because  he  opposed  all  violent  measures, 
lie  therefore  joined  the  army.  In  1797, 
he  entered  on  the  diplomatic  career.  In 
Berlin,  where  the  royal  family  of  Prussia 
bestowed  on  liim  many  marks  of  favor, 
he  was,  in  1801,  secretary  of  legation,  and, 
in  1802  and  1803,  c/targ-e  iTaJfaires.  From 
1803  to  6,  he  wsis  minister  plenipotentiary 
at  the  court  of  Cassel,  where,  the.  day  be- 
fore the  battle  of  Jena,  he  proposed  to  the 
elector  a  treaty  of  )ieutrality,  which  was 
dechned.  After  the  entry  of  the  French 
troops  into  Berhn,  he  was  appointed  im- 
perial commissaiy  to  the  Prussian  states. 
He  was  afterwards  charged  with  the  gen- 
eral administration  of  the  domains  and 
finances  in  the  countries  taken  possession 
of  until  the  end  of  1808.  He  asserts,  that 
he  conducted  this  difiicult  business  Avith 
as  much  mildness  as  possible,  and  that  he 
has  since  received  many  proofs  of  grati- 
tude from  the  people  among  whom  he 
acted.  In  1809,  he .  was  minister  pleni- 
potentiary to  the  gi-and  duke  of  Baden, 
when  an  imi)erial  decree,  dated  Schon- 
brunn,  appointed  him  administrator-gen- 
eral in  Austria.  He  was  afterwards  in- 
trusted with  an  important  mission  to 
Warsaw,  with  secret  instructions :  here 
he  remained  about  three  years. ,  At  the 
opening  of  the  campaign  in  1812,  M.  de 
Pradt  succeeded  him,  and  he  was  appoint- 
ed imperial  commissary  at  the  provisory 
government  in  Wilna.  After  the  retreat 
from  Moscow,  he  took  the  place  of  M.  de 
Pradt  in  the  embassy  at  Warsaw,  and,  in 
conjunction  with  prince  Poniatowski,  suc- 
ceeded in  delaymg  for  four  months  the 
retreat  of  the  Austrian  allied  army  under 
piince  Schwarzenberg,  afterwards  under 
9* 


general  Frimont,  until  the  scattered  Polish 
cori)s,  of  about  7000  men,  were  collected 
luider  Poniatowski  in  Cracow.  This  was 
increased  to  20,000  men,  and  made  its  re- 
treat, in  May,  through  Austria  into  Saxo- 
ny. B.  now  repaired  to  the  French  head- 
quarters at  Dresden,  and  remained  there, 
with  the  other  members  of  the  diplomatic 
corps,  during  the  siege,  until  the  capitula- 
tion. As  he  had  procured  passports  from 
the  confederation  of  the  Rhine  for  several 
foreign  ministers,  prince  Schwarzenberg 
caused  him  to  be  escorted  by  one  of  his 
aides  to  the  French  out-posts  at  Strasburg, 
On  his  arrival  in  Paris,  Dec.  7,  1813,  he 
brought  to  the  emperor  the  firet  infonna^ 
tion  of  the  defection  of  Murat.  He  soon 
after  retired  into  the  country.  On  the 
restoration  of  the  Bourbons,  he  wrote  his 
Expose,  comparatif  de  la  Situation  de  la 
I'Vance  et  cdle  des  principales  Puissances 
de  I' Europe,  in  which  he  showed  great 
penetration,  and  also  proved  himself  a 
true  Frenchman  of  the  school  of  Napole- 
on. During  the  "  hundred  days,"  Napo- 
leon appointed  him  under-secretary  of 
state  for  foreign  affairs,  and,  in  1820,  sev- 
eral departments  chose  him  their  deputy. 
He  spoke  against  the  law  of  exception, 
and  advocated  the  recall  of  the  exiles, 
reminding  the  ministers  of  certain  secret 
circumstances,  on  which  he  did  not  think 
proper  to  explain  himself  more  fully.  B. 
also  advocated  the  law  of  election.  In 
1820,  he  wrote  Des  Proscriptions,  in 
which  he  paints  the  struggle  for  liberty 
against  every  kind  of  tyranny.  His  latest 
writings  on  national  disputes  have  at-- 
tracted  much  notice  ;  for  uistance.  Coup 
d'(Eil  sur  Its  DemHis  des  Cours  de  Bavikrt 
et  de  Bade  (1818),  and  particularly  his 
work  Du  Congrh  de  Troppau  (1821),  his 
Eettre  sur  les  Differends  de  la  Maison 
d'Anhait  avec  la  Prusse,  and  his  Lea 
Cabimts  et  les  Peuplcs  (Paris,  1824), 

BuX-puR,  or  ViJAYA-PDRi ;  a  city  of 
Ilindostan,  formerly  capital  of  the  prov-- 
ince  of  Beejapoor  (q.  v.),  called  Viziapoor, 
by  the  European  travellers  of  the  three 
last  centuries.  The  city  is  306  miles  N. 
Seringapatam,  384  N.  W.  Madras  ;  Ion. 
75°  47'  E. ;  lat.  16°  46'  N.  It  is  situated 
in  a  fertile  plain,  and  is  of  very  great 
extent,  consisting  of  three  towns  within 
each  other :  the  innermost  is  the  citadel, 
a  mile  in  circuit ;  the  next  a  fort,  eight 
miles  in  compass ;  and  the  exterior  is  en- 
vironed Avith  walls  many  miles  in  circuit. 
But  a  great  proportion  of  the  space  is 
covered  with  ruins.  It  is  thinly  inhabited, 
but  the  population  is  unknown.  The  in- 
Iiabitants  affirm,  that,  according  to  au- 


1G2 


BIJA-PUR— BILE. 


tlientic  records,  it  contained,  in  the  time 
of  its  prosperity,  984,456  houses,  and  1600 
mosques;  and  travellers  are  of  opinion 
that  the  latter  number  is  not  exaggerated. 
It  was  taken  by  Aurangzeb  in  1689,  when, 
it  is  said,  15,000  cavalry  could  encamp 
between  the  fort  and  the  city  wall.  It 
was  one  of  the  wealthiest  cities  of  Asia. 
The  fort  is  protected  by  Jiigh  walls,  with 
massive  towers,  and  is  surrounded  by  a 
ditch.  It  has  seven  gates,  and  contains 
several  cannon  of  enormous  dimensions, 
particularly  one  called  the  sovereign  of 
the  plains. 

Bilbao.    (See  BUboa.) 

BiLBOA,  or  Bilbao,  or  Vilvao,  a 
Spanish  province  in  Biscay.  The  capital, 
of  the  same  name,  is  a  seaport  on  the 
Ybaigabal,  in  a  plain  surrounded  Avith 
high  mountains;  Ion.  3°  4'  W.;  lat.  43° 
16'  N.;  population,  15,000.  It  contains 
about  1200  houses,  part  of  which  are  built 
on  piles.  The  harbor  is  good,  and  well 
frequented.  Between  500  and  600  ves- 
sels visit  this  port  annually ;  and  the  year- 
ly export  of  wool  is  estimated  at  50  or 
60,000  sacks  of  2  cwt.  each.  The  air 
is  healthy;  the  inhabitants  are  strong, 
robust,  and  live  long.  It  is  well  supplied 
with  water  and  provisions :  fish  are  very 
abundant ;  and  the  environs  are  fertile  in 
legumes  and  fruits.  It  contains  5  parish- 
es and  12  religious  houses.  Among  the 
laws  peculiar  to  the  town  is  one  against 
ingratitude.  Its  commerce  principally 
consists  in  wool  and  iron. 

BiLDERDYK,  William,  bom  at  Amster- 
dam, 1750,  Uves  at  Leyden,  and  is  now 
considered  one  of  the  greatest  lawyers  in 
Holland — a  man  of  learning  in  the  fullest 
extent  of  the  word,  and,  according  to  the 
judgment  of  the  Dutch  critics,  one  of  the 
greatest  poets  of  the  present  age.  He 
studied  the  classics  at  Leyden,  chiefly 
under  Ruhiiken  and  Valkenaer.  In»1776, 
he  obtained  from  the  learned  society  of 
Leyden,  whose  judgment  was  always  re- 
spected, the  first  prize  for  a  poem  on  the 
influence  of  poetry  upon  government. 
In  the  following  year,  he  obtained  fi-om 
the  same  society  two  prizes  for  an  ode 
and  a  didactic  poem.  On  True  Patriotism. 
Since  that  period,  he  has  ranked  with 
Feith  and  madame  de  Launoy,  among  the 
first  Dutch  poets.  The  present  age  is  the 
epoch  of  the  modem  Dutch  school  of 
poetry,  in  which,  besides  B.,  Feith  and 
Launoy,  and  particularly  Bellamy,  Hel- 
mers,  ToUens,  Loots,  van  Hall,  Kinker, 
Klyn  and  others  are  distinguished.  B. 
introduced  into  Dutch  poetry  iambics  and 
hexameters,  rather  to  ^ow  lus  talent  for 


overcoming  difliculties  of  all  kinds  than 
from  preference  to  these  measures,  which, 
on  the  contrary,  he  declared  not  admissi- 
ble into  Dutch  poetry.  In  1780,  he  ob- 
tained a  new  prize  for  a  poem,  on  the 
connexion  of  poetry  and  eloquence  with 
philosophy.  He  added  to  this  poem,  some 
time  afterwards,  an  important  commenta- 
ly,  which  showed  him  to  be  a  man  of 
learning  and  a  philologer.  B.,  besides, 
devoted  himself  to  law,  at  the  Hague, 
with  gi-eat  success.  On  the  invasion  of 
the  Netherlands  by  the  French,  he  left 
his  country  on  account  of  his  adherence 
to  the  hereditarj'  stadtholder,  and  remov- 
ed to  Brunswick,  where  he  studied  the 
German  language  and  poetry,  and  after- 
wards to  London,  where  he  dehvered,  in 
the  French  language,  lectures  on  litera- 
ture and  poetry,  which  were  numerously 
attended.  After  the  new  order  of  things 
was  firmly  established  in  Holland,  he  re- 
turned, in  1799,  and  soon  afterwards  pub- 
lished some  of  his  principal  works.  Among 
these  are  a  didactic  poem  on  astronomy, 
and  the  masteily  imitations  of  Delille's 
L^ Homme  des  Champs,  and  Pope's  Essay 
on  Man.  Louis  Bonaparte,  on  his  acces- 
sion to  the  throne,  appointed  him  his 
teacher  of  Dutch,  and  one  of  the  first 
members  of  the  national  mstitute  found- 
ed by  him.  After  the  incorporation  of 
Holland  into  the  French  empire,  B.'s 
muse  was  silent ;  but  she  rose  the  more 
vigorously  after  the  deUverance  of  his 
country.  Perhaps  there  is  no  poem  of 
our  time  superior  in  fire,  vigor  and  enthu- 
siasm, to  Holland's  Verlossing,  the  joint 
composition  of  B.  and  his  wife,  who  is  a 
successful  poetess.  When  Napoleon  re- 
turned from  Elba,  B.  produced  a  number 
of  war-songs,  which  are  considered  among 
the  best  in  Dutch  poetry.  He  published  his 
Mengelpoezy  (Miscellaneous  Poems,  two 
small  volumes,  Rotterdam,  1823,  second 
edition),  which  contains  some  ballads  and 
imitations  of  Ossian.  We  may  also  men- 
tion that  he  is  a  bitter  enemy  of  German 
literature. 

BiLDGE.    (See  Bilge.) 

Bile  ;  a  yellowish-green  Uquid  sub- 
stance, of  a  bitter  taste.  Man  and  many 
animals  have,  on  the  inferior  surface  of 
the  Uver,  a  peculiar  bladder,  in  which  the 
bile,  formed  by  the  liver  from  the  blood, 
is  })reserved.  It  consists  of  water  and 
several  other  substances.  The  water 
constitutes  the  greatest  part,  and  keeps 
the  other  parts  in  a  state  of  solution. 
The  remaining  ingredients  are  a  yellow, 
very  bitter,  fusible  resin,  which  contributes 
most  to  the  taste  of  the  bile ;  a  small  por- 


BILE— BILL  OF  EXCHANGE. 


103 


tion  of  natron ;  some  mineral  alkaline 
salts ;  some  oxyde  of  iron ;  a  small  quan- 
tity of  a  yellowish  substance,  which  is 
only  partly  dissolved  in  the  natron  ;  and 
a  considerable  portion  of  albumen.  The- 
nard  and  Berzelius  have  done  much  to 
detennine  the  ingredients  of  the  bile.  Its 
principal  use  seems  to  be,  to  separate  the 
excrement  from  the  chyle,  after  both  have 
been  formed,  and  to  produce  the  evacua- 
tion of  the  excrement  from  the  body.  It 
is  probable  that  these  substances  would 
remain  mixed  together,  and  they  would, 
perhaps,  even  be  partly  absorbed  together, 
were  it  not  for  the  bile,  which  seems  to 
combine  with  the  excrement,  and,  by  this 
combination,  to  facilitate  its  separation 
fi'oni  the  chyle,  and  thus  to  prevent  its 
absorption.  Fourcroy  supposes  that  the 
bile,  as  soon  as  it  is  mixed  with  the  con- 
tents of  the  intestinal  canal,  suffers  a  de- 
composition ;  that  its  alkali  and  saline 
ingredients  combine  with  the  chyle,  and 
render  it  more  liquid,  while  its  albumen 
and  resin  combine  with  the  excrementi- 
tious  matters,  and  gradually  render  them 
less  fluid.  P'rom  the  late  experiments  of 
Berzelius  on  fteces,  it  cannot  be  doubted 
that  the  constituents  of  the  bile  are  to  be 
found  in  the  excrementitious  matter ;  so 
that  the  ingenious  theory  of  Fourcroy  is 
so  far  pi-obable.  The  bile  also  stimulates 
the  intestinal  canal,  and  causes  it  to  evac- 
uate its  contents  sooner  than  it  otherwise 
would  do  ;  for  when  there  is  a  deficiency 
of  bile,  the  body  is  constantly  costive. — 
Biliary  calculi,  or  gall-stones,  are  some- 
times found  in  the  gall-bladders  of  men 
and  animals.  They  are  more  rarely  met 
with  in  the  substance  and  body  of  the 
liver.  Those  that  are  found  in  the  human 
subject  consist,  principally,  of  that  pecuhar 
substance,  called,  by  Fourcroy,  adipocire. 
They  are  of  a  white,  grayish-brown,  or 
black  color.  The  calculi  found  in  the 
gall-bladders  of  quadrupeds  have  been 
thought  to  consist  almost  entirely  of  in- 
spissated bile ;  but,  though  much  less 
complicated  than  the  corresponding  con- 
cretions in  the  human  subject,  they  must 
contain  something  more  than  the  inspis- 
sated fluid,  since  they  are  insoluble,  botli 
in  alcohol  and  water. 

BiL,EvvLGERiT){Bhelad(d  Dsherid,eoun- 
try  of  dates) ;  a  country  in  Northern  Af- 
rica, south  of  mount  Atlas,  bounded  on 
tlie  north  by  Tunis,  on  the  west  by  Al- 
giers and  the  Sahara,  on  the  east  by  Tri- 
poli ;  supposed  to  be  about  180  miles 
square.  In  the  desert  are  oases  (q.  v.), 
which  are  cultivated  and  watered  like 
gardens.    At  the  foot  of  mount  Atlas,  the 


winds  which  come  from  these  mountains 
allay  the  heat  of  the  climate.  The  chief 
products  of  the  oases  are  barley  of  an  ex- 
cellent kind,  used  by  the  caravans,  and 
dates,  which  are  no  where  else  so  excel- 
lent. Much  dew  falls  in  the  oases,  rain 
but  seldom.  All  the  productions  of  the 
tropics,  which  can  ripen  without  rain, 
grow  here  in  abundance.  The  Berbers 
who  live  here,  as  likewise  the  Negroes  and 
Arabs,  carry  on  trade  by  means  of  cara- 
vans. A  large  proportion  of  the  young  men 
are  destroyed  by  the  change  of  climate  to 
which  they  are  thus  exposed,  as  also  by 
bad  nourishment  and  epidemic  fevers. 
Certain  parts  of  this  country,  called  Dara, 
Tasilet  and  Segelmesse,  belong  to  INIo- 
rocco  ;  to  Algiers  belongs  Wadreag,  and 
to  Tunis  Tozer.  Gademes,  Welled-Sidi 
and  Mosselemis  are  independent.  Little 
is  known  of  the  customs,  laws,  &c.,  of 
the  inhabitants  of  B, 

BiLiN,  mineral  spring  of;  a  celebrated 
spring  near  the  town  of  Bilin,  in  Bohemia, 
The  water  is  clear,  has  a  sourish  taste, 
and  mantles,  particularly  if  mixed  with 
wine  and  sugar.  The  temperature  of  the 
spring  is  59°  Fahrenheit.  The  water  is 
used  with  advantage  in  many  complahits. 
Bilious  Fever.  (See  Fever.) 
Bill  of  Exchange  is  a  written  re- 
quest or  order  to  one  person  to  pay  a  cer- 
tain sum  of  money  to  another,  or  to  his 
order,  at  all  events ;  that  is,  without  any 
qualification  or  condition.  The  person 
who  makes  the  bill  is  called  the  drawer ; 
the  person  to  whom  it  is  addressed,  the 
drawee,  and  the  person  to  whom,  or  whose 
order,  on  the  face  of  the  bill,  it  is  payable, 
the  payee.  If  the  drawee  accepts  the  bill, 
he  thereby  becomes  the  acceptor.  A  prom- 
issory note  differs  from  a  bill  of  exaiange 
in  being  merely  a  promise  to  pay  money 
by  the  maker,  instead  of  being  a  request 
to  another  person  to  pay  it,  to  the  payee. 
The  expression  promissory  note  is  not 
strictly  confined  to  negotiable  notes,  or 
those  payable  "to  bearer,"  or  to  the  payee 
named  in  it,  "  or  his  order,"  but  is  more 
frequently  used  to  denote  such  instru- 
ments ;  and  we  shall  consider  promissory 
notes  in  this  sense  in  the  present  article, 
since  the  same  rules  and  principles  are, 
in  a  great  degree,  applicable  to  such  notes 
and  to  bills  of  exchange.  The  maker  of 
the  note  answers  to  the  acceptor  of  the 
bill,  since  he  is  the  party  promising  to 
pay  it ;  whereas  the  maker  or  drawer  of 
a  bill  of  exchange  does  not  directly  prom- 
ise, on  the  lace  of  the  instrument,  to  pay 
it,  but  merely  requests  the  drawee  to  do 
so:  this  is,  however,  construed  to  be  a 


104 


BILL  OF  EXCHANGE. 


virtual  promise  that  the  drawee,  on  tlie 
presentment  of  the  bill  for  acceptance, 
and  demand  of  payment  according  to  its 
tenor,  will  pay  it,  and  a  conditional  virtual 
promise,  that  he,  the  drawer,  will  pay  it, 
in  case  of  the  drawee's  failing  either  to 
accept  it  on  due  presentment,  or  to  pay  it 
on  due  demand.  Bank  checks  are  of  a 
character  similar  to  promissory  negotiable 
notes,  as  to  the  rules  by  which  the  liabili- 
ties and  rights  of  the  parties  to  them  are 
determined,  with  this  difference  in  their 
common  form,  that  promissory  notes  are 
usually  made  payable  to  the  payee  or  "  his 
order,"  whereas  c]Tecks,as  also  bank-notes, 
are  usually  made  payable  to  the  "  bearer," 
and  the  right  to  demand  and  receive  pay- 
ment of  them  is  transfeiTcd  from  one  per- 
son to  another  by  mere  delivery,  without 
any  indorsement  or  written  order  by  the 
original  payee ;  while  the  transfer  or  as- 
signment of  a  promissory  note  or  bill  of 
exchange  is  made  by  the  payee  in  writing, 
eitlier  by  indorsement  or  otherwise.  He 
usually  merely  WTites  his  name  on  the 
back,  whereby  he  becomes  the  indorscr, 
and  the  person  to  whom  it  is  thus  indors- 
ed or  assigned,  who  is  called  the  indorsee, 
has  a  right  to  fill  up  this  blank  indorse- 
ment by  writing  over  it  an  order  to  pay 
the  contents  to  himself  or  to  any  other 
person ;  and  any  bona  Jide  holder  of  the 
note  or  bill  has  the  same  right  to  fill  up 
the  indorsement  or  assignment.  Thus  a 
note  or  bill  of  exchange,  being  once  in- 
dorsed in  blank,  becomes  assignable  or 
transferable,  like  a  check  '  payable  to 
"  bearer,"  merely  by  delivery  of  the  instru- 
ment. It  is  an  essential  quality  of  a  ne- 
gotiable bill,  note  or  check,  that  it  be  a 
promise  to  pay  a  certain  sum  of  money, 
and  that  the  promise  be  absolute ;  for  if 
no  definite  amount  is  fixed,  or  il  be  a 
promise  to  deliver  goods  or  do  any  other 
act  than  pay  money,  or  if  it  be  conditional, 
it  is  not  a  bill  of  exchange,  or  negotiable 
promissory  note,  or  check.  Besides  the 
transfer  by  indoi-sement  above-mentioned, 
these  instruments  are  also  transferable  by 
assignment,  or  mere  delivery,  50  as  to 
give  the  holder  all  the  rights,  against  the 
maker  or  acceptor,  that  he  would  have 
had  if  he  had  himself  been  the  i)ayee. 
Where  the  transfer  is  made  by  mere  de- 
livery, the  assignor  is  exempt  fix)m  all 
liability  to  the  holder  on  the  paper  itself; 
he  makes  no  promise  to  pay  the  money, 
but  still  he,  in  effect,  warrants  that  it  is 
the  bill,  note  or  check,  which  it  purports 
to  be ;  for  if  it  be  a  forged  instrument,  if 
it  be  not  bona  Jide  the  bill,  note  or  check 
which  it  purports  to  be,  he  will  be  liable 


to  indemnify  the  person  to  whom  he 
transferred  it.  But  if  the  transfer  be 
made  by  an  indorsement  in  writing,  with- 
out any  condition  or  exception,  being  an 
absolute  order  to  pay  the  money  to  the 
indorsee  or  holder,  the  indorser  in  this 
case  becomes  in  his  turn  a  promiser;  for 
he  thereby  virtually  promises,  that,  in  case 
the  maker  of  the  note  or  check,  or  the 
drawer  or  acceptor  of  the  bill,  does  not 
pay  it  on  due  demand,  or  in  case  the 
drawee  does  not  accept  it,  if  it  be  a  bill, 
on  presentment  according  to  its  tenor, 
then  he,  the  indorser,  will  pay  it. — Though 
the  foi-ms  of  bills  of  exchange,  promisso- 
ry notes,  checks  and  bank-notes  are,  re- 
spectively, pretty  uniform,  yet  no  precise 
form  of  words  is  necessary  to  constitute 
cither  of  these  instruments.  Any  words, 
purporting  to  be  an  absolute  promise  to 
]iay  a  certain  sum  of  money,  or  an  abso- 
lute order  for  its  payment  to  a  particular 
])erson  or  his  order,  or  to  the  bearer,  is 
either  a  bill  of  exchange,  promissory  note^ 
or  check. — Bills  of  exchange  are,  in  Eng- 
land, either  inland,  that  is,  payable  in  tlie 
kingdom,  or  foreign,  t,hat  is,  payable  out 
of  the  kingdom.  ,  A  similar  distinction  is 
made  in  the  TJ.  States,  where,  in  most  of 
the  states,  a  bill  payable  in  the  state  in 
wliich  it  is  made  is  considered  to  be  in- 
land. The  material  distinction  between 
foreign  and  inland  bills  is,  that,  oil  inland 
bills,  a  protest  for  non-acceptance  or  non- 
payment is  not  usually  necessaiy,  and  that 
less  damages  can  be  claimed  in  conse- 
quence of  the  dishonor  of  the  bill,  if,  in- 
deed, any  can  be  claimed.  Generally, 
in  fast,  if  not  universally,  only  the  lace  of 
the  bill  can,  in  such  case,  be  recovered  of 
the  drawer  or  indorser.  In  one  respect, 
foreign  bills  most  generally,  and  inland 
bills  and  promissory  notes  in  many  places, 
differ  in  construction  from  tlie  literal  im- 
port of  the  terms  of  the  instrument  as  to 
the  credit  or  time  of  payment,  being,  in 
fact,  payable  three  days  after  the  time 
specified ;  these  three  days  of  additional 
credit  being  allowed  under  the  name  of 
grace :  but  this  additional  credit  is  often 
expressed  in  the  instrument  itself,  thus, — 
"  Pay  to  A.  B.  or  order,  in  sixty  days  and 
graced  wliich  is  equivalent  to  sixty-three 
days.  Another  mode  of  expression  for 
the  credit  to  be  allowed  on  a  bill  is  by 
the  word  usance.  Thus  a  bill  is  drawn 
payable  at  one  or  two  usances ;  and  it  is 
necessary,  in  order  to  ascertain  the  time 
of  payment,  to  know  what  period  is  meant 
by  a  usance,  and  this  will  vary  according 
to  the  place  at  which,  and  on  which,  the 
bill  is  drawn.    Thus  a  biU  drawn  in  Eng-i 


BILL  OF  EXCHANGE. 


105 


land,  at  one  usance,  on  Amsterdam,  Rot- 
terdam, Altona,  or  any  place  in  France,  is 
payable  in  one  calendar  month  from  the 
date  ;  on  Cadiz,  Rladrid  or  Bilboa,  in  two ; 
on  Genoa,  Leghorn  or  Venice,  in  three 
months. — If,  on  presentment  of  a  bill  of 
exchange  to  tlie  drawee,  he  refuses  to  ac- 
cept it  according  to  its  tenor,  the  holder 
has  iui  immediate  cause  of  action  against 
the  drawer  and  indorsers,  and  may,  on 
giving  them  notice  of  the  non-acceptance, 
fbrthwitli  demand  the  amount  of  the  bill, 
though  it  was  on  a  long  credit,  and,  if  it 
had  been  accepted,  he  must  have  waited 
three  or  six  months  for  his  money.  This 
rule  is  perfectly  equitable,  since  the  draw- 
er and  indorsers  impliedly  agree  that  the 
draft  shall  be  accepted  on  presentment, 
and,  on  its  not  being  so,  their  promise  is 
violated.  But  the  holder  must  give  no- 
tice to  the  drawer,  and  the  other  parties  to 
whom  he  wishes  to  resort,  of  the  non- 
acceptance  or  non-payment  of  the  bill. 
In  case  of  the  dishonor  of  a  bill,  the  hold- 
er has  generally  the  right  to  recover  of 
the  parties  liable  to  him,  that  is,  the  draw- 
fer  and  indorsers,  not  only  the  amount 
expressed  on  the  face  of  the  bill,  together 
with  the  expenses  of  protest  and  interest, 
but  something  in  addition,  on  account  of 
his  disappointment  in  not  having  funds  at 
the  place  on  which  the  bill  is  drawn,  as 
he  had  a  right  to  expect.  The  rate  or 
amount  of  this  damage  must,  as  is  evident, 
be  very  various,  according  to  the  distance 
of  the  places,  the  credit  on  which  the  bill 
was  drawn  (in  case  of  protest  for  non-ac- 
ceptance), and  the  rise  or  fall  of  exchange 
on  the  same  place  after  the  purchase  of 
the  bill.  One  rule  of  estimatuig  the  dam- 
age is  the  cost  of  reexchange,  or  of  an- 
other bill  on  the  same  place,  with  the 
addition  of  one,  two,  &c.,  up  to  twenty 
per  cent,  damages.  In  other  places,  no 
regard  is  had  to  reexchange,  but  the  hold- 
er recover  a  certain  per  cent,  over  the 
face  of  the  bill,  by  way  of  damage,  and 
this  rate  is  the  same  whether  exchange 
may  have  risen  or  fallen  from  the  time  of 
purchasing  the  bill  to  that  of  its  being 
returned  dishonored. — Exchange  appears 
to  have  been  known  anciently  at  Tyre, 
Carthage,  Athens,  Corinth,  Syracuse  and 
Alexandria.  The  first  well-ascertained 
traces  of  it,  in  modem  times,  are  found, 
subsequently  to  the  12th  century,  in  some 
of  the  provinces  of  France,  particularly  at 
the  fair  of  Champagne.  It  was  brought 
to  perfection  in  Italy.  Its  great  utility 
and  convenience  consist  in  its  negotia- 
bility. Suppose,  for  instance,  a  number 
of  persons  to  have,  severally,  sums  of 


money  deposited  in  various  countries. 
One,  whose  funds  are  in  South  America, 
wishes  to  make  purchases  at  St.  Peters- 
burg ;  and  one,  who  is  entitled  to  the  pro- 
ceeds of  a  cargo  at  St.  Petersburg,  wishes 
to  make  a  purchase  at  Canton  ;  and  an- 
other, having  funds  at  Canton,  desires  to 
make  an  importation  from  South  Amer- 
ica. By  merely  making  and  delivering  a 
slip  of  paper,  each  one  will,  in  effect, 
transfer  liis  funds  quite  across  the  globe. 
Another  advantage  of  exchange  is  the  fa- 
cility it  affords  in  adjusting  balances.  Its 
effect  in  this  respect  may  be  illustrated  by 
the  practice  of  banks  and  bankers  in  some 
particular  cities.  In  London,  for  instance, 
the  bankers  meet  at  a  certain  hour  every 
day,  to  pay  and  receive  paymeiit  of  each 
others'  checks ;  but  the  amount  actually 
])aid  will  bear  a  very  small  projjortion  to 
the  whole  amount  of  the  checks,  since 
the  greater  ])art  is  settled  by  merely  can- 
celling the  checks  they  hold  against  each 
other.  So  where  all  the  banks  of  a  city, 
as  is  the  practice  in  many  commercial 
towns,  take  indiscriminately  each  other's 
notes,  and  settle  the  balances  every  day, 
they  all  make  an  exchange  of  the  notes 
which  they  hold  against  each  other,  and 
only  pay  over  in  specie  the  balances. 
Thus,  by  the  payment  in  specie  of  a  com- 
paratively very  small  sum,  some  hundreds 
of  thousands  may  circulate  between  these 
institutions  and  their  respective  customer 
and  depositoi-s.  In  the  same  manner  the 
balances  are  adjusted  between  two  com- 
mercial countries,  or  all  the  commercial 
countries  of  the  world.  Among  the  vari- 
ous merchants  of  the  United  States,  for 
instance,  some  have  sent  goods  to  Eng- 
land, others  to  France,  and  others  to  Hol- 
land, and  each  one  may  wish  to  imjwrt 
goods  from  a  country  other  than  that 
where  his  funds  lie.  One,  according- 
ly, sells  exchange  on  Amsterdam,  and 
buys  exchange  on  London,  or,  which  is 
the  same  thing  in  effect,  as  far  as  he  is 
concerned,  he  orders  his  correspondent  at 
Amsterdam  to  buy  exchange  on  London, 
and  remit  it  thither  for  his  (the  mer- 
chant's) account.  If  the  funds  which 
some  merchants  have  in  each  foreign 
place  are  exactly  equal  to  what  is  wanted 
by  others  in  the  same  place,  the  whole 
transaction  is  only  a  transfer  among  them- 
selves of  each  other's  claims,  or  exchange, 
and  no  balance  remains  ;  whereas,  with- 
out this  facility,  one  must  order  specie 
home  from  Amsterdam,  which  the  other 
would  purchase  of  him  to  ship  it  to  Lon- 
don ;  a  transaction  involving  much  delay, 
besides  tlie  expense  of  freight  and  uisur- 


106 


BILL  OF  EXCHANGE— BILLINGTON. 


ance.  But  still,  all  the  merchants  of  the 
country  may  wish  to  invest  or  pay  greater 
sums  abroad  tlian  the  proceeds  of  all  the 
exports  already  made  or  making  from  the 
country  amount  to,  in  which  case  the 
course  of  exchange  is  said  to  be  against 
the  country,  and,  in  this  case,  as  in  all 
others  where  the  quantity  of  an  article 
Avanted  is  greater  than  that  offered  in  the 
market,  the  price  will  rise,  and  foreign 
exchange  will  be  above  par.  So,  if  the 
quantity  of  exchange  demanded  on  any 
particular  country  is  greater  than  that  of- 
fered, the  rate  of  exchange,  in  respect  to 
that  particular  country,  is  unfavorable,  and 
rises.  This  has  most  generally  been  the 
case  in  the  U.  States,  in  respect  to  Eng- 
land. So,  vice  versa,  if  the  funds  belong- 
ing to  Americans,  in  any  particular  for- 
eign country,  are  greater  than  the  sum 
wanted  by  other  Americans  to  make  pay- 
ments or  investments  there,  the  rate  of 
exchange  with  that  particular  country  is 
favorable,  and  the  price  of  it  falls.  And 
it  is  to  be  observed,  that  what  is  called  a 
favorable  rate  of  exchange  is,  in  fact, 
unfavorable  to  the  person  having  funds 
abroad,  who  wishes  to  realize  them  at 
home ;  for  he  must,  in  that  case,  sell,  at 
home,  his  foreign  exchange,  for  a  smaller 
sum  than  its  nominal  amount.  It  is  to  be 
borne  in  mind,  therefore,  that  an  unfavor- 
able rate  of  exchange  is  not  necessarily 
disadvantageous  to  a  country.  To  follow 
out  the  inquiry,  and  detemiine  in  what  cir- 
cumstances it  is  actually  disadvantageous 
or  indifferent,  or  in  fact  advantageous, 
would  occupy  more  space  than  we  can 
give  to  the  subject.  Byt  we  perceive 
from  this  operation  of  the  system  of  ex- 
change, that  it  is  only  necessary,  at  most, 
to  ship  abroad,  or  import  from  abroad, 
in  specie,  the  actual  balance  on  the  whole 
aggregate  of  debts  and  credits,  all  the 
items  of  which,  as  far  as  they  offset  each 
other,  are  adjusted  by  exchange ;  and  it 
is  by  no  means  always  the  case  that  this 
aggregate  balance  is  paid  in  specie ;  for 
the  very  circumstance  of  the  rise  of  ex- 
change on  any  particular  country,  may 
make  the  trade  more  favorable,  and  in- 
duce shipments,  the  proceeds  of  which 
are  drawn  for  as  soon  as  the  shipments 
are  made ;  so  that,  in  such  a  case,  the  un- 
favorable balance  may  be  actually  advan- 
tageous, by  promoting  trade. 

Bill  of  Lading;  a  memorandum  sign- 
ed by  masters  of  ships,  acknowledging 
the  receipt  of  goods  intrusted  to  them 
for  transportation.  There  are  usually  tri- 
plicate copies,  one  for  the  party  send- 
ing, another  for  the  party  to  whom  the 


goods  are  sent,  and  the  third  for  the  cap- 
tain. 

Bill  of  Rights,  or  Declaratiox  of 
Rights,  is  the  assertion  by  a  people,  or 
recognition  by  its  rulers,  "  of  that  residu- 
um of  natural  liberty,  which  is  not  re- 
quired by  the  laws  of  society  to  be  sacri- 
ficed to  pubhc  convenience ;  or  else  those 
civil  privileges,  which  society  has  engsged 
to  provide,  in  lieu  of  those  natural  hber- 
ties  so  given  up  by  indi\-iduals."  The 
houses  of  lords  and  commons  delivered  to 
the  prince  of  Orange  a  Ust  of  such  rights 
and  privileges,  Februarj'  13,  1688,  at  the 
time  of  his  succession  to  the  British 
throne,  concluding  with  the  words  "  and 
they  do  claim,  demand,  and  insist  upon, 
all  and  singular  the  premises,  as  their  un- 
doubted rights  and  privileges."  The  dec- 
laration is  usually  called  the  bill  of  nghts. 
A  similar  declaration  was  made  in  the 
act  of  settlement,  whereby  the  crown  was 
limited  to  the  house  of  Hanover.  Similai- 
bills  of  rights  are  prefixed  to  some  of  llie 
state  constitutions  in  the  United  States. 
But  the  constitutions  of  all  the  states,  as 
Avell  as  that  of  the  United  States,  virtually 
include"  in  themselves  declarations  of 
rights,  since  they  expressly  limit  the 
powers  of  the  government.  The  same  is 
true  of  the  constitutional  charters  of  those 
European  governments  which  have  adopt- 
ed constitutions,  one  of  the  objects  of 
these  being  to  guarantj^  certain  rights  and 
hberties  to  the  people. 

Bill  in  Equity,  or  Chancery,  is  the 
statement  of  the  plaintiflf's  case  in  a  court 
of  equity,  or  chancery,  corresponding  to 
the  declai'ation  in  a  court  of  law,  and  tlie 
hbel  in  an  ecclesiastical  court. 

Billiards;  a  very  interesting  game, 
contributing  also  to  health  by  affording 
the  body  moderate  exercise.  It  was  ui- 
vented  in  France,  and  is  now  played  by 
all  European  nations  and  their  descend- 
ants. The  ndes  for  the  different  games 
of  billiards  are  too  numerous  to  be  given 
here.  They  are  also  generally  found  in 
billiard  rooms.  We  therefore  omit  them, 
although  we  usually  give  the  rules  of 
games,  in  order  to  furnish  a  means  of 
reference  in  doubtful  Cases.  They  are 
to  l)e  found  in  Hoyle's  Games. 

BiLLiNGTON,  Elizabeth ;  the  most  cele- 
brated English  female  singer  of  her  day. 
She  was  of  German  origin,  but  born  in 
England,  in  1770,  her  father,  Mr.  Weich- 
sell,  being  a  native  of  Saxony.  At  an 
early  age,  she  studied  the  piano-forte  un- 
der Schroeter,  and  attained  to  an  extraor- 
dinary proficiency.  At  14,  she  made 
her  first  appearance  as  a  singer  at  Ox- 


BILLINGTON— BINNACLE. 


107 


ford,  and  two  years  afterwards  married 
Mr.  Billington,  a  performer  on  the  double- 
Ijass,  whom  she  accompanied  to  Dubhn. 
She  made  her  debut  there  in  the  opera  of 
Orplieus  and  Euridice.  From  Ireland 
she  returned  to  London,  where  she  a[)- 
peared  at  Co\ent-garden,  for  the  first 
time,  as  Rosetta,  in  Arne's  Love  in  a 
Village,  with  such  success  as  to  secin-e 
her  an  inunediate  engagement  at  what 
was  then  considered  tlie  enormons  salaiy 
of  £1000,  for  the  remainder  of  the  season, 
besides  a  benefit;  tlie  managei-s  afi^er- 
Avards  voluntarily  giving  her  the  profits 
of  a  second  night.  While  in  town,  she 
continued  to  take  lessons  of  JMortellari,  a 
celebrated  Italian  master,  then  in  London, 
and,  on  the  closing  of  the  theatre,  repaired 
to  Paris,  in  order  to  profit  by  the  instruc- 
tions of  Sacchini.  In  1785,  she  returned 
to  England,  and  appeared  at  the  concerts 
of  ancient  music  with  noadame  Mara, 
whose  brilliant  performance  she,  to  say 
the  least,  fully  equalled.  From  this  pe- 
riod till  1793,  no  music  meeting,  opera,  or 
concert,  of  reputation,  was  considered 
complete  without  her.  In  the  last  named 
year,  she  visited  Italy,  and  performed,  ac- 
companied by  her  brother  C.  Weichsell, 
at  the  theatre  of  St.  Carlos  at  Naples; 
Francis  Bianchi  composing  expressly  for 
lier  his  celebrated  opera  Inez  de  Castro. 
Her  engagement  here  met  with  an  abrupt 
and  melancholy  inten*uption,  her  husband 
dying  suddenly  of  apoplexy,  just  as  she 
was  preparuig  to  set  out  for  the  theatre. 
In  1796,  she  appeared  at  Venice,  and  after- 
wards at  Ronie,  being  every  where  re- 
ceived with  the  loudest  expressions  of 
applause.  In  1799,  she  married  Mr.  Feli- 
pent,  whom  she  accompanied  to  Milan. 
In  1801,  her  wonderful  powers  being 
then  in  their  meridian,  she  returned  to 
the  London  stage,  a})pearing  alternately  at 
either  house,  and  astonishmg  tlie  whole 
musical  world  by  her  Mandane — a  per- 
formance that  has  never  since  been 
equalled  in  English  opera.  Engagements 
now  multiplied  upon  her,  and  continued 
incessantly  till  her  final  retirement  from 
public  life,  which  took  place  in  1809. 
The  last  exhibition  of  her  powers  was  in 
aid  of  a  charitable  institution,  at  Whitehall 
chapel,  the  queen,  the  prince  regent,  and 
most  of  the  branches  of  the  royal  family, 
being  present.  In  1817,  she  quitted  Eng- 
land for  ever,  and  died,  aft;er  a  short  ilhiess, 
at  her  villa  of  St.  Artien,  an  estate  she 
had  purchased  in  the  Venetian  terri- 
tories. 

Bingen;  a  town  on  the  left  shore  of 
the  Rliine,  where  tlie  Nahe  johis  this  river, 


opposite  Rvidesheira,  famous  for  its  excel- 
lent wine.  Lon.  7°  48'  E. ;  lat.  49°  55'  N. 
Population,  3300.  Near  it  the  Rhine  is 
compressed  into  a  narrow  channel,  be- 
tween rocks,  so  as  to  make  the  navigation 
diflicult.  This  strait  is  called  Bingen- 
loch  (hole  of  Bingen).  The  famous  Mau- 
sethurm,  or  Tower  of  Mice,  Avhere  the 
avaricious  bishop  Ilatto  is  said  to  have 
been  eaten  by  mice,  as  a  punishment  for 
usury,  exercised  in  a  time  of  famine,  is 
situated  in  the  vicinity. 

Binglet,  This  Garrick  of  the  Dutch 
stage  was  bom  at  Rotterdam,  in  1755,  of 
English  parents  in  good  circumstances. 
On  leaving  school,  he  Was  placed  in  a 
counting-house.  It  was  not  long,  how- 
ever, before  he  discovered  an  invincible 
inclination  for  the  stage,  and,  at  the  age 
of  18,  joined  the  company  under  tlie  di- 
rection of  the  celebrated  Corver,  who 
was  his  first  instructer.  In  1779,  in  the 
24th  year  of  his  age,  he  made  his  d^but 
on  the  stage  of  Amsterdam.  The  public 
odium  was  then  excited  against  England, 
on  account  of  its  ships  having  captured 
vessels  under  the  Dutch  flag,  without  any 
previous  declaration  of  war,  and  B.  Avas 
luifavorably  received  on  account  of  his 
English  descent.  But  he  soon  conquered 
this  prejudice  by  his  performance  of 
Achilles,  in  the  tragedy  of  tlie  same  name ; 
and  from  that  time  he  continued  to  be 
the  favorite  of  the  public.  He  was,  also, 
so  well  acquainted  with  the  French  lan- 
guage, as  to  appear  successfully  in  the 
French  theatres  of  Amsterdam  and  the 
Hague,  by  the  side  of  the  great  French 
actors,  who,  while  on  their  tours  for  the 
sake  of  improving  tliemselves,  used  to 
visit  the  Netherlands.  In' 1796,  he  was 
director  of  a  company  of  actors,  who 
played  principally  at  Rotterdam  and  the 
1  Jague,  but,  also,  visited  other  cities  of 
Holland.  Meanwhile,  he  was  always 
ready  to  perform  at  the  theatre  in  Am- 
sterdam, in  such  parts  as  could  only  be 
acted  by  himself.  One  of  liis  last  repre- 
sentations, in  Avhicli  he  was  assisted  by 
the  great  actress  Wattier  Ziesenis,  was 
the  part  of  Farnese,  in  Lalain's  tragedy 
JMaria,  acted,  in  1818,  before  the  royal 
family.  In  the  same  year,  he  died  at  the 
Hague. 

Bi?f>'ACLE,or  BiTTACLE ;  a  case  or  box, 
which  contains  the  compass  for  steering 
a  ship,  and  lights  to  show  the  compass 
at  night.  In  ships  steered  by  a  wheel,  it 
is  common  to  have  two  binnacles,  or  a 
double  binnacle,  for  the  convenience  of 
the  steersman,  on  either  side  of  the 
wheel ;  but,  in  this  case,  the  compasses  af- 


108 


BINNACLE— BIRCH. 


feet  each  others'  direction,  and  thus  ren- 
der the  ship's  course  uncertain. 

Binomial,  in  algebra ;  a  quantity  con- 
sisting of  two  terms,  or  members,  con- 
nected by  the  sign  -f-  or  — .  Binomial 
coefficients  are  the  numbers  that  indicate 
how  often  a  given  power  of  a  binomial, 
for  instance,  of  a  +  ^j  contains  each  of  the 
products  of  its  parts. — The  binomial  the- 
orem is  that  celebrated  formula,  which 
teaches  to  find  any  power  of  a  given  bi- 
nomial a-\-b,  by  means  of  the  two  terms 
a  and  fe,  and  of  the  exponent  of  the  power. 
This  theorem,  frequently  called  the  New- 
tonian theorem,  on  which  the  system  of 
analysis  is  principally  founded,  was 
known,  as  far  as  relates  to  integral  posi- 
tive exponents,  to  several  mathematicians 
before  Newton.  But  Newton  was  the 
first  who  taught  its  application  to  frac- 
tional and  negative  exponents ;  and  this 
discovery,  one  of  the  most  important  of 
those  made  by  that  great  man,  is  en- 
graved upon  his  tomb-stone. 

BioERNSTAEHL,  Jamcs  Jonas,  a  dis- 
tinguished traveller,  bom  at  Rotarbo,  in 
the  Swedish  province  of  Siidermannland, 
in  1731,  studied  at  Upsal,  afterwards  en- 
tered the  family  of  baron  Rudbeck,  as 
tutor,  and  travelled  with  his  son  to  Eng- 
land and  the  continent  of  Europe.  While 
residing  in  Paris,  he  studied  the  Oriental 
languages.  On  the  return  of  his  pupil  to 
Sweden,  B.  was  appointed,  by  Gustavus 
III,  to  make  the  tour  of  Greece,  Syria 
and  Egypt,  receiving,  at  the  same  time, 
the  title  of  professor  at  the  univei*sily  of 
Lund.  He  now  went,  at  the  king's  ex- 
pense, to  Constantinople,  in'  1776,  where 
he  remained  for  some  time,  to  learn  the 
Turkish  language.  He  then  proceeded  on 
his  travels  as  far  as  Saloniki,  where  he 
died  of  the  plague,  1779,  B.  had  given 
an  account  of  his  travels,  in  the  form  of 
letters  to  his  friend  Gioerwell,  who,  at 
first,  pubhshed  them  separately  in  a  jour- 
nal, which  appeared  in  Stockholm, '  but 
afterwards  by  themselves  (1783).  This 
work  contains  learned  and  profound  re- 
searches on  medals,  manuscripts,  rare 
books;  and  a  great  many  anecdotes,  of 
which  the  most  interesting  are  those  re- 
lating to  Voltaire,  whom  B.  had  visited  at 
Ferney.  His  remarks  and  opinions  on 
morals,  manners,  reUgion  and  literature 
are  often  destitute  of  truth  and  justice. 
He  was  possessed  of  more  learning  than 
taste,  of  more  memory  than  discernment 
and  judgment.  His  health,  naturally 
strong,  and  fortified  by  exercise,  enabled 
him  to  support  constant  labor,  and  to  en- 
dure the  greatest  hardships. 


Biology  and  Biometrt.    (See  Life.) 

BioN ;  born  in  Smyrna,  or  in  its  neigh- 
borhood ;  a  Grecian  ])astoral  poet,  of 
whose  life  no  account  is  to  be  found.  The 
elegy,  which  Moschus,  his  friend  and 
disciple,  composed  on  the  occasion  of  his 
death,  seems  to  imply,  that  he  was  a  con- 
temporary of  Theocritus,  and  died  of 
poison.  He  probably  lived  in  Sicily  or 
Magna  Grecia.  Among  the  few  poems 
written  by  him,  which  have  descended  to 
our  times,  his  elegy  on  Adonis  is  con- 
sidered as  the  best.  The  poems  of  B., 
together  with  those  of  Moschus,  are  gen- 
erally found  as  an  appendix  to  the  idyls 
of  Theocritus.  They  have  been  published 
separately  l)y  Fr.  Jacobs,  Gotha,  1795 ; 
Gilbert  Wakefield,  London,  1795 ;  and 
J.  C.  F.  Maass,  Leipsic,  1807. 

BioT,  Jean  Baptiste,  a  natural  philoso- 
pher and  astronomer,  member  of  many 
French,  as  well  as  foreign  literarj'  socie- 
ties, and  of  the  legion  of  honor,  bom  at 
Paris,  in  1774,  studied  in  the  college  of 
Louis-le-Grand,  then  joined  the  army, 
and  served  in  the  artillerj'.  His  love  of 
the  sciences  soon  led  him  back  to  Paris, 
where  he  continued  his  studies  in  the 
polytechnic  school,  till  he  felt  himself  fit 
for  a  professorship  at  Beauvais.  In  1800, 
he  was  made  professor  of  physics  in  the 
college  de  France.  In  1802,  he  was  ap- 
pointed a  member  of  the  first  class  of  the 
institute.  In  1804,  he  prevailed  on  the 
institute  not  to  vote  in  favor  of  Bona- 
parte's elevation  to  the  throne.  In  1806, 
he  was  sent  with  Arago  to  Spain,  to  con- 
tinue the  measurement  of  an  arc  of  the 
meridian,  undertaken  to  establish  the  ba- 
sis for  the  introduction  of  a  new  decimal 
system  (q.  v.)  in  France.  Before  be  de- 
parted, he  was  appointed  a  member  of 
the  board  of  longitude.  His  mission  was 
successful.  He  now  de\'oted  himself 
with  unremitted  zeal  to  his  studies  and 
lectures.  In  1816,  he  was  chosen  editor 
of  the  department  of  mathematical  sci- 
ence for  the  Journal  des  Savans.  His 
principal  works  are,  TraiU  de  Physique 
experimentale  et  mathematique  (1816);  the 
abridgment  of  the  same,  in  a  popular 
style ;  Precis  elementaire  de  Physique  ex- 
pirimentale,  and  Traite  elementaire  d' As- 
tronomic physique.  In  1817,  he  visited 
the  Orkney  islands,  to  correct  some  dis- 
puted astronomical  observations,  for  the 
measurement  of  a  degree.  B.  still  com- 
municates important  articles  to  the  Utera- 
ry  journals,  &c. 

BiECH  {betula  alba)  is  a  forest-tree,  easi- 
ly known  by  the  smooth  appearance  and 
silvery  color  of  its  bark ;  by  its  leaves  be- 


BIRCH— BIRD-ISLAND. 


lOD 


iiig  somewhat  triangular,  but  acute,  and 
small  in  comparison  with  those  of  other 
timber-trees,  and  by  all  the  small  brandies 
being  slender  and  flexible. — Although  tlie 
l)irch  is  considered  by  no  means  a  valua- 
ble tiniber-ti-ee,  yet  its  wood  is  used  for 
numerous  purposes.  Being  of  white 
color,  and  firm  and  tough  in  texture,  it  is 
variously  employed  by  iioop-benders  and 
wheel- Wrights.  Turners  use  it  for  trench- 
ei-s,  bowls,  ladles,  and  other  wooden 
ware.  Ox-yokes,  small  screws,  women's 
slioe-heels,  pattens,  and,  in  Fixmce,  wooden 
shoes,  are  made  of  it.  The  North  American 
Indians  use  the  bark  of  the  birch-tree  for 
canoes,  boxes,  buckets,  baskets,  kettles,  and 
dishes,  curiously  joining  it  together  with 
threads  made  of  roots  of  the  cedar-tree. 
Birch-trees  are  not  unfrequently  planted 
along  with  hazels,  for  tlie  purpose  of  pro- 
curing wood  to  be  conv'erted  into  char- 
coal for  forges.  This  charcoal  is  much 
esteemed  ;  and  the  soot,  which  is  formed 
on  burning  the  wood,  constitutes  a  good 
black  suljstance  for  printers'  ink.  Nearly 
all  the  other  parts  are  applicable  to  use- 
ful purposes.  The  inhabitants  of  Sweden 
employ  the  bark  in  the  tanning  of  leather, 
and,  after  burnmg  it  to  a  certain  degree, 
use  it  as  a  cement  for  broken  china  and 
earthen  .ware.  Tlie  navigators  of  the 
river  Volga  construct  of  it  portable  boats, 
cradles,  &c.  It  is  serviceable  in  dyeing 
a  yellow  color.  In  Nonvay,  it  is  fined, 
ground,  mixed  with  meal,  and  boiled, 
with  other  food,  for  swine.  The  houses 
or  huts,  in  many  parts  of  the  norlli  of 
Europe,  are  covered  with  the  outward 
and  thicker  part  of  the  bark,  instead  of 
slates  or  tiles.  It  is  spun  into  a  coai'se 
kind  of  ropes,  woven  into  shoes  and  hats, 
and,  in  Kamtschatka,  even  made  into 
drinkuig-cups.  The  Laplanders  fasten 
together  large  pieces  of  it  to  keep  off  the 
rain.  Abounding  in  resinous  matter, 
slices  of  the  bark  are  sometimes  tied  to- 
gether, to  make  torches.  During  a  scar- 
city of  corn,  it  has,  in  several  instances, 
been  ground  with  bread  corn,  and  suc- 
cessfully used  as  food  for  men.  In  most 
parts  of  England  and  America,  the  twigs 
of  this  tree  are  made  into  brooms.  They 
are  also  made  into  the  tops  of  fishing- 
rods  ;  and,  when  smeared  with  bird-lime, 
are  used  by  bird-catchers.  The  Nonve- 
gians  frequently  employ  them  as  fodder 
for  their  horses.  The  leaves  afibrd  a 
yellow  dye. 

Birch,  Thomas  ;  an  industrious  histo- 
rian and  biographer  of  the  18th  century. 
He  was  born  in  London,  in  1705 ;  and 
liis  father,  who  was  a  Quaker,  practised 

VOL.  II.  10 


the  occupation  of  a  coffee-mill  maker,  to 
wliich  the  son,  also,  was  destined.  His 
early  taste  for  reading  induced  him  to 
IJrefer  a  literary  life,  wliich  he  was  per- 
mitted to  choose,  on  condition  of  sup- 
])orting  himself  by  his  own  exertions. 
He,  accordingly,  after  some  previous  tu- 
ition, became  usher  in  three  difterent 
schools,  and  then  went  to  Ireland  with 
dean  Smcdley.  Having  left  the  Quakers, 
he  took  orders  in  the  church,  m  1730, 
and  obtained,  in  1732,  a  living  in  Essex, 
through  the  ])atronage  of  the  attorney- 
general,  alt(;rvvards  lord  Hardvvicke.  In 
1734,  he  engaged,  with  some  coadjutoi-s, 
in  writing  the  General  Historical  and 
Critical  Dictionarj',  founded  on  that  of 
Bayle,  and  completed,  in  10  vols,  folio,  in 
1741.  He  subsequently  obtained  various 
pi'eferments  in  the  church.  In  January, 
17G5,  he  was  killed  by  a  fall  from  his 
horse,  in  the  road  between  London  and 
Hampstead.  B.  had  flirmed  very  ex- 
tensive manuscript  collections,  which, 
together  with  his  library"  of  j)rinted  books, 
he  bequeathed  to  the  British  museum. 
He  produced  a  large  number  of  historical 
and  biogi-aphical  works  in  the  course  of 
his  laborious  life.  B.  was  one  of  the 
pioneei-s  of  literature.  He  collected  ful- 
ly and  faithfully,  but  without  much 
discrimination,  materials  relating  to  the 
various  subjects  of  his  research,  which  are 
calculated  to  afford  important  assistance 
to  writers  possessed  of  more  taste  and 
judgment.  Doctor  Johnson  was  repeat- 
edl}'  obliged  to  B.  for  literary  infomia- 
tion :  he  bestowed  on  him  a  Greek  epi- 
gram, and  for  many  years  corresponded 
with  him.  The  literature  of  his  country 
is  nmch  indebted  to  the  activity  and  dili- 
gence of  B. 

Bird,  Edward  (R.  A.) :  an  English 
painter,  who  died  at  Bristol,  in  Nov.,  1819. 
lie  excelled  in  comic  subjects.  The 
marquis  of  Stafford  patronised  him.  He 
was  appointed  historical  pauiter  to  the 
princess  Charlotte  of  Wales. 

Bird  Isla.nd  ;  tlie  name  of  a  very  large 
number  of  islands  in  almost  all  the  parts 
of  the  world,  of  which  we  shall  mention 
only  tlie  following : — B.  Islands ;  a  clus- 
ter near  the  N.  E.  coast  of  New  Holland, 
so  called  by  captain  Cook.  They  are 
almost  covered  with  birds. — B.  I.,  in  the 
S.  Pacific  ocean ;  Ion.  216°  24'  E. ;  lat. 
17°  48'  S.—B.  /.,  in  the  gulf  of  St.  Law- 
rence ;  Ion.  00^  45'  W. ;  lat.  47=  55'  N. 
— Another,  in  the  S.  Pacific  ocean  ;  Ion. 
38=  22'  W.;  lat.  54°  S.— One  in  the 
northern  part  of  the  same  ocean;  Ion. 
198°  8'  E. ;  lat  23=  (y  ii.—B.  Islands ;  a 


110 


BIRD-ISLAND— BIRMAN  EMPIRE. 


cluster  of  islands  in  the  Caribbean  sea ; 
Ion.  66°  5(y  VV. ;  lat.  12°  N.— The  name 
Bird  island  is  as  cotnmon,  and  as  vague, 
as  that  of  Blue  mountains,  &c. 

Birds.    (See  Ornitlwlogy.) 

Birds'  Nest.  The  hirundo  esctdenta,  or 
acdangane,  a  species  of  swallow,  the  nests 
of  which  are  used  as  an  article  of  luxury 
among  the  Chinese,  is  found  in  the  In- 
dian seas.  They  are  particularly  abun- 
dant in  Sumatra,  especially  about  Criie, 
near  the  south  end  of  the  island.  The 
nest  has  the  shape  of  a  common  swal- 
low's nest,  is  about  the  size  of  a  goose's 
egg,  is  found  in  caves,  particularly  on  the 
sea-shore,  and  has  the  appearance  of 
fibrous,  imperfectly  concocted  isinglass. 
More  or  less  of  this  substance  is  contained 
in  the  nests  of  all  swallows  of  that  region. 
The  manner  in  which  this  substance  is 
procured  is  not  ascertained.  The  most 
probable  suppositions  are,  that  it  is  the 
spawn  of  fish  gathered  by  the  bird,  or  a 
secretion  elaborated  in  the  body  of  the 
animal.  The  Chinese  collect  the  nests, 
and  sell  them  to  all  parts  of  the  world. 
Dissolved  in  broths,  &c.,  they  make  a  de- 
licious gelly.  The  fiiiest  ai"e  those  obtained 
before  the  nest  has  been  contamuiated  by 
the  young  birds:  they  are  pure  white, 
and  are  scarce  and  valuable.  The  inferior 
ones  are  dark,  strealied  with  blood,  or 
mixed  with  feathers:  they  are  chiefly 
converted  into  glue.  Some  of  the  cav- 
erns, in  whiclj  they  are  built,  ai-e  difficult 
of  access,  and  dangerous  to  climb,  so  that 
none  can  collect  the  nests  but  persons 
accustomed  to  the  trade  fi'om  their 
youth. 

BiREN,  Ernst  John  von,  duke  of 
Courland,  born  in  1687,  was,  as  is  assert- 
ed, the  grandson  of  a  groom  of  James, 
duke  of  Courland,  and  the  son  of  a  Cour- 
landish  peasant,  by  the  name  of  Biihren. 
He  studied  at  Konigsberg,  and  endeavored 
to  conceal  the  meanness  of  his  origm  by 
raising  himself  in  the  favor  of  the  great. 
His  agreeable  person  and  cultivated  mind, 
procured  him  the  highest  favor  of  Anna, 
duchess  of  Courland,  and  niece  of  the 
emperor  of  Russia ;  but  he  was  unsuc- 
cessful in  his  attempt  to  obtain  admission 
among  tlie  Courlandish  nobility.  When 
Anna  (q.  v.)  ascended  the  Russian  throne 
(1730),  B.,  in  spite  of  the  conditions  to 
which  the  empress  had  consented  (one 
of  which  was  not  to  bring  him  with  her 
to  Russia),  was  loaded  by  her  with  honors, 
and  introduced  at  the  Russian  court. 
Here  he  assumed  the  name  and  coat  of 
arms  of  the  dukes  of  Biron  in  France, 
and  governed  under  the  name  of  his 


mistress.  Fierce  and  haughty  by  nature, 
he  indulged  his  hatred  against  the  rivals 
of  his  ambition.  The  princes  Dolgorucky 
were  his  first  victims.  lie  caused  11,000 
pei-sons  to  be  put  to  death,  and  double 
that  number  to  be  exiled.  It  is  said,  tl)at 
the  empress  often  threw  herself  at  his 
feet,  to  induce  him  to  lay  aside  his  severi- 
ty, but  that  neither  her  entreaties  nor  her 
teal's  were  able  to  move  him.  The  firm- 
ness of  his  character,  however,  introduced 
vigor  and  activity  into  all  branches  of  the 
administration  throughout  tlie  great  em- 
pire. In  1737,  Anna  forced  tlie  Cour- 
landers  to  choose  her  favorite  (who  had, 
in  1722,  married  a  Courlandish  lady  of 
the  family  of  Trotta,  by  the  name  of 
Treyden)  for  their  duke.  After  having 
declared  prince  Ivan  her  successor,  she 
appointed  B,,  according  to  his  wish,  re- 
gent. Anna  died  Oct.  28,  1740.  The 
new  regent  acted  with  prudence  and 
moderation.  But  a  secret  conspiracy 
was  soon  formed  against  him.  Field- 
marshal  Munich,  -with  the  consent  of  tlie 
young  emperor's  mother,  caused  him  to 
be  an-ested  in  his  bed,  during  the  night 
of  Nov.  19,  1740,  by  Manstein,  and  to  be 
confined  in  the  castle  of  Schliisselburg. 
He  was  subjected  to  a  trial ;  but,  no  proofs 
of  the  projects,  which  he  was  accused  of 
having  formed  for  the  advantage  of  his 
family,  being  discovered,  the  sentence  of 
death  was  changed  into  that  of  imprison- 
ment for  life,  and  his  fortune  was  declared 
confiscated.  Togetlier  with  his  family, 
he  was  transported  to  Pelim,in  Siberia,  and 
thrown  into  a  prison,  of  which  Munich 
himself  had  furnished  the  plan.  In  the 
following  year,  Ehsabeth,  daughter  of 
Peter  the  Great,  being  raised  to  the  Rus- 
sian throne  by  a  new  revolution,  B.  was 
recalled,  Dec.  20,  1741,  and  Munich  was 
obliged  to  occupy  his  prison.  At  Kasan, 
the  sledges  met ;  the  travellers  recognised 
each  other,  and  proceeded  on  their  way 
without  interchanging  a  word.  The 
family  of  B.  aftervvards  Uved  in  a  very  re- 
spectable condition  at  Jaroslaw. — After  a 
subsequent  exile  of  22  years,  the  duke,  as 
well  as  Munich,  was  recalled,  in  1762,  by 
Peter  III.  When  Catharine  II  ascended 
the  throne,  the  duchy  of  Courland  was 
restored  to  B.,  in  1763.  He  governed 
with  wisdom  and  lenity,  transferred  the 
government  to  his  eldest  son,  Peter,  1769, 
and  closed  his  restless  life,  Dec.  28,  1772. 
BiRMA.N  Empire.  The  great  peninsula 
east  of  the  bay  of  Bengal  includes  Aschem, 
or  Assam,  and  the  Birman  empire.  The 
latter  extends  from  9="  to  26°  N.  lat.,  is 
about  1000  miles  long  and  700  broad ;  pop- 


BIRMAN  EMPIRE. 


Ill 


wlation,  according  to  Symes,  in  1795,  about 
17,000,000.  The  natives  of  the  peninsula, 
a  handsomer  and  more  athletic  race  of 
men  than  the  Hindoos,  though  not  so 
neat,  are  warlike  and  hospitable,  have  no 
mendicants  among  them,  and  reverence 
the  aged.  The  Birman  empire,  accord- 
ing to  the  rej)orts  of  missionaries,  compre- 
hends the  kingdoms  of  Ava,  Pegu,  Arra- 
can,  and  the  adjacent  states  on  the  north. 
It  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  Thibet,  As- 
sam and  China ;  on  the  west,  it  is  separat- 
ed from  the  British  possessions  by  a  chain 
of  high  mountains  and  the  river  Naaf. 
In  the  16th  centurj',  the  Birmans  in  Ava 
made  themselves  independent  of  Pegu ; 
l)ut,  in  1740,  they  were  subjugated  anew 
by  this  state.  Alompra,  one  of  their 
leadei-s,  however,  with  about  100  faithful 
adherents,  almost  immediately  summoned 
the  peojjle  again  to  arms,  and,  in  1753, 
conquered  the  city  of  Ava.  Defeat  and 
victory  succeeded  alternately,  till  Alom- 
pra, in  1757,  conquered  the  city  of  Pegu. 
This  celebrated  monarch  died  in  1760,  at 
the  age  of  50  years.  He  labored  to  make 
liis  subjects  happy  by  promoting  agricul- 
ture, by  restricting  the  arbitrary  exercise 
of  power  on  the  part  of  his  officej's,  and 
in\proving  the  public  morals.  Every  act 
of  the  magistrates,  in  the  Birman  empire, 
was  required  to  be  public,  and  every 
decree  to  be  made  known :  even  commer- 
cial treaties,  and  all  relations  estabhshed 
with  foreign  countries,  were  registered 
among  the  laws  of  the  state,  and  open  to 
the  inspection  of  every  one.  Namdogee, 
his  eldest  son  and  successor,  who  died  in 
1764,  inheriting  his  father's  spirit,  adopted 
from  other  nations  whatever  was  of  gen- 
eral utility  to  his  own,  and  was  anxious 
to  do  away  abuses.  Both  father  antl  son 
attended  particularly  to  the  administration 
of  the  East  India  company.  Shambuan, 
the  emperor's  brother,  became  regent,  as 
guardian  for  his  nephew  Mornien ;  but  he 
usurped  the  throne  liimself,  and  conquered 
Siam.  In  1771,  however,  this  province 
recovered  its  independence,  while  the 
j)rincipal  part  of  the  Birnian  forces  were 
engaged  in  a  war  with  China.  In  this  war 
they  were  victorious,  and  compelled  the 
Chinese,  wlioni  they  took  prisoners,  to 
intermarry  witli  the  Birman  females,  and 
to  remain  in  their  territory.  Fortune 
continued  to  attend  this  prince  ;  and,  in 
1776,  he  left  his  empire,  much  enlarged, 
to  his  son  Chengenza.  This  prince  Uved 
in  the  unrestrained  indulgence  of  every 
appetite,  till,  in  1782,  he  was  dethroned 
and  put  to  death.  In  consequence  of  the 
feKoJytion,  Shembuan  Menderagan,  the 


fourth  son   of  AIomi>ra,  ascended    the 
throne.    He  ordered  his  nephew  Mornien, 
who  was  a  state  prisoner,  to  be  drowned, 
and,  in  1783,  subdued  the  kingdom  of 
Arracan.    He  then  engaged  in  a  war  with 
Siam,  which    continued    till   1793,  and 
finally  compelled  it  to  submission  on  cer-- 
tain  conditions.     About  this  period,  some 
highway  robbers  fled  from  the  Bii'raaa 
empire,  and  took  refuge  in  the  territory  of 
the  East  India  company.     Shembuan  de- 
manded that  they  should  be  delivered  up. 
His  demands  were  not  immediately  com- 
plied with,  and  he  marched,  with  a  strong 
force,  into  the  offending  country.    At  the 
same  tune,  he  carried  on  a  friendly  nego- 
tiation with  the  government  in  Calcutta, 
which  resulted  in  the  surrender  of  the 
criminals,  and  the  conclusion  of  a  treaty 
of  amity  and  commerce  between  the  two 
governments,  which  agreed  to  affoi'd  each 
other  mutual  aid,  in  case  of  an  invasion 
from  China.     It  was  negotiated  by  cap- 
tain Symes.     Shembuan  was  succeeded, 
in  181*9,  by  his  grandson.    The  last  vic- 
toiy  of  the  Birmans  was,  in  1822,  over  the 
northern  mountainous  i)rovince  of  Assam, 
at  the  source  of  the  Burrampooter.    The 
party  driven  fi-om  Assam,  together  with 
the  Birman  rebels,  fled  to  the  British  ter- 
ritories, Avhence  they  intended  to  invade 
Birmah.     The  British  government  forth' 
with  disarmed  the  insurgents,  but  refused 
to  deliver  them  up  or  to  drive  them  from 
the  island  of  Shapuri,  which  they  had 
occupied.     Tlie  court  at  Ummerapoora, 
therefore,  attempted  to  set  the  Mahrattas 
and  all  Hindostan  in  arms  against   the 
English.     At  length,  tlie  monarch  with 
the  golden  feet  (one  of  the  titles  of  the 
sovereign  of  Binnah)  demanded  of  the 
government  at  Calcutta  the  cession  of 
Northern  Bengal,  as  being  a  part  of  Ava; 
and,  in  January,  1824,  the  Birman  forces 
marched  into  Kadschar,  which  had  depos- 
ed its  rulers,  and  put  itself  under  British 
protection.     Loi'd  Amh-erst,  as  governor- 
general  of  the  British  East  Indies,  now 
declared  war  against  Birmah,  and  general 
Archibald  Campbell  prosecuted  it  so  suc- 
cessfully, that,  after  the  victoiy  at  Prome 
(Dec.  1—3, 1825),  he  obUged  the  monarch 
to  conclude  a  very  unequal  peace  at  Par 
lanagh,  Dec.  31,  1825.    As  the  treaty  was 
not  ratified,  on  the  part  of  Boa,  the  Bir- 
man emperor,  by  the  time  specified  (Jan, 
18,  1826),  Campbell  renewed  the  war,  on 
the  19th,  and  stormed  the  fortress  of  Mun- 
nun.     Feb.  24,  the  peace  was  ratified,  and 
the  war  concluded.      The   king  of  the 
white  elephants  ceded  to  the  company  the 
provinces  of  Arracan,  Merguy,  Tavoy  and 


112 


BIRMAN  EMPIRE. 


Yea,  and  paid  them  a  sum  amounting  to 
about  $4,300,000.  Assam  was  made  once 
more  independent,  and  rajahs  were  ap- 
pointed by  the  company  to  govern  the 
northern  provinces  of  Munnipore,  Assam, 
Kadschar  and  YeaJiung.  TJie  important 
city  of  Rangoon  was  declared  a  free  port. 
Thus  all  the  western  coast  of  the  Birmau 
empire  was  ceded  to  the  East  India  com- 
I)any,  and  the  most  powerful  of  the  East 
Indian  states  was  divided  and  weakened. 
— Before  the  rains  commence,  the  heat  in 
the  valleys  of  this,  in  most  respects,  healthy 
countiy  is  excessive.  Though  B.  is  in 
general  fertile,  it  contains  several  vast 
deserts.  In  the  northern  part,  it  is  moun- 
tainous, and  abounds  in  gold,  silver,  pre- 
cious stones  and  marble;  also  in  iron, 
lead,  tin,  antimony,  arsenic,  sulphur  and 
petroleum,  which  issues  from  the  earth  in 
abundance.  In  the  southern  districts, 
owing  to  the  numerous  rivers,  the  soil  is 
marshy  and  extremely  productive.  Here 
grow  rice,  sugar-cane,  fine  tobacco,  cot- 
ton, indigo,  and  all  the  tropical  fruits. 
Land  is  cheap.  Timber  for  ship-building, 
especially  teak  or  Indian  oak,  which 
grows  most  luxuriantly  in  a  wet  soil,  on 
the  banks  of  rivei-s,  is  abundant.  The  price 
of  labor  is  high.  All  but  the  lowest  lands 
produce  grain,  or  serve  for  pasture.  Of 
manufactured  goods,  B.  exports  cotton 
and  silk  stuffs,  glass,  saltpetre,  powder, 
porcelain  and  marble  images  of  Gaudama, 
to  which  the  workmen  in  stone  give  an 
exquisite  smoothness.  The  East  India 
company  builds  vessels  even  of  1000 
tons  burthen  in  the  Birmau  docks ;  and 
the  shipwrights  there  (giants  in  compar- 
ison with  the  puny  Hindoos)  find  con- 
stant employment.  The  Pegu  ships,  how- 
ever, are  not  so  well  made  as  those  built 
by  the  company,  in  their  own  territory. 
The  trade  of  the  Birmans  is  very  lively, 
especially  with  Chuia,  by  means  of  the 
river  Irrawaddy,  which  extends  1240 
miles  into  the  interior,  and  has  populous 
cities  all  along  its  banks.  From  Barnoo, 
goods  are  conveyed  through  the  interior 
to  China,  to  which  the  Birmans  send 
many  commodities  fi-om  the  eastern  ar- 
chipelago of  Asia.  The  government  en- 
courages the  increase  of  the  population 
by  favoring  the  settlement  of  foreigners, 
tolerates  the  religion  of  eveiy  nation  in 
the  ports  of  Rangoon,  Negrais  and  Mer- 
guy,  and  encourages  the  intermarriage  of 
foreigners  with  Birmau  females.  Instead 
of  coin,  silver  and  lead  in  bai-s  are  used, 
and  their  purity  is  strictly  tested  in  trade. 
The  forging  and  stamping  of  these  bai-s 
forms  a  particular  branch  of  business. — 


Menderagee  removed  the  royal  residence 
to  the  new  city  of  Ummerapoora  (190 
leagues  east  of  Calcutta),  on  a  tongue  of 
land  which  runs  up  into  the  lake  of  Toun- 
zcmahn.  Ava,  once  so  magnificent  a  cit)', 
about  four  or  five  miles  distant,  now  lies 
in  ruins.  The  buildings  anwng  the  Bir- 
mans are  veiy  slight,  as  the  government 
requires  them  to  be  chiefly  of  wood  or 
bamboo.  There  are  well-organized  fire- 
companies,  for  the  protection  of  these 
combustible  edifices.  The  Birman  nobles 
are  distinguished  from  the  lower  classes 
by  their  dress,  houses  and  furniture,  and 
are  divided  into  several  ranks.  The  prince 
is  absolute,  but  custom  obliges  him  to  ask 
the  opinion  of  the  nobility  in  important 
state  matters :  he  is  not  bound,  however, 
by  their  counsel.  The  Birmans  are  all 
fond  of  painting  both  their  laces  and 
liands.  They  slaughter  no  tame  animals^ 
and  live  simply:  for  the  most  part,  on 
vegetables.  No  Birman  can  have  more 
than  one  wife ;  but  he  may  have  as  many 
mistresses  as  he  will.  The  latter  live  in 
the  same  house  with  the  wife,  and  are 
her  sei*vants.  A  foreigner  and  an  adult 
male  Birman  hiay,  at  any  time,  leave  the 
empire  ;  but  females  and  children  are  not 
allowed  this  privilege.  Females  cannot 
appear  before  a  court  of  justice.  The 
chief  amusement  of  tlie  Birmans  is  their 
theatre,  where  declamation,  dancing  and 
music  alternate :  the  higher  classes  are 
fond  of  dramatic  spectacles.  The  new 
year  is  celebrated  with  all  sorts  of  purifi- 
cation. At  this  time,  young  women  ap- 
])ear  in  public  with  water,  and  sprinkle 
every  one  they  please.  It  is  considered 
improper,  however,  to  sprinkle  females 
first,  or  tliose  in  a  state  of  pregnancy  at 
all.  Among  the  Birmans,  the  distinguish- 
ed dead  ai"e  burned ;  the  poor  are  interred ; 
the  richest  are  embalmed,  commonly  in 
the  ancient  simple  mode,  in  honey.  Ev- 
er\'  Birman  leai-ns  arithmetic,  reading  and 
writing.  The  common  people  write  on 
])alm-leaves,  with  an  iron  style :  the  rich 
have  libraries,  vidth  books  the  leaves  of 
which  are  thin  pieces  of  ivoiy,  with  gilt 
edges.  The  Birmans,  in  general,  are  fond 
of  gilding  every  thing.  Their  materia 
mcdica  is  confined  to  herbs,  spices  and 
mercury :  with  vaccination  they  have  long 
been  acquainted.  The  EngUsh  mission- 
aries are  tolerated,  and  serve  the  East 
India  company  as  the  outposts  of  their 
diplomatic  system.  Tlie  litei~ary  Birmans 
translate  from  the  English  all  important 
works  of  science,  particulai'ly  on  astron- 
omy and  law.  The  religion  of  the  coun- 
try is  that  of  Buddlia,  whom  the  people 


BIRMAN  EMPIRE— BIRMINGHAM. 


113 


call  Gaudama.  It  enjoins  no  bloody  sacri- 
iices,  and  is  extremely  tolerant.  The 
Birmans  have  no  secular  clergy,  but  only 
a  kind  of  monks  dwelling  in  convents. 
All  the  clergy  practise  celibacy,  and  eat 
but  once  a  day.  Every  carnal  indidgence 
is  piuiished  by  a  disgraceful  and  public 
removal  from  office.  The  clergy  are  lit- 
erar}"^  men,  and  liighly  esteemed  for  their 
piety  and  knowledge.  They  are  permit- 
ted, however,  to  gild  and  paint.  Former- 
ly, there  were  priestesses ;  but  this  order 
has  been  abolished,  because  it  was  found 
injurious  to  the  increase  of  population. 
The  government  has  long  been  struggling 
to  maintain  its  independence  between 
the  British  dominions  on  the  Ganges  and 
the  Chinese  erai)ire.  No  part  of  Eastern 
Asia  seems  to  apprehend  an  excess  of 
population,  and  hence  no  female  in  China 
IS  suffered  to  emigrate.  The  Birmans  are 
skilful  weavers,  smiths,  sculptors,  workei-s 
in  gold  and  silver,  joiners,  &c.  Of  this 
the  citizens  of  London  have  had  ocular 
evidence,  in  the  great  state  cairiage,  de- 
voted to  the  service  of  the  gods,  19  feet 
high,  14  long,  and  7  wide,  which  was 
taken  by  the  British  troops,  in  the  war  of 
1825.  In  Birmah  there  are,  no  hereditary 
offices.  Its  civil  and  criminal  code  is  very 
judicious;  general  principles  are  fii-stlaid 
down,  and  then  applied  to  distinct  cases. 
Robbery  is  punished  with  death  only 
when  the  property  stolen  is  very  gi'eat, 
or  the  offence  is  aggravated  by  particular 
circumstances.  Capital  punishment  is 
commonly  inflicted  by  decapitation,  and 
extends  to  those  wlio  eat  opium  freely, 
and  to  drunkards  in  general.  The  magis- 
trates have  a  great  discretionary  power  to 
mitigate  the  punishments  of  the  law,  and 
few  penal  laws  are  executed  in  all  their 
severity.  The  standing  army  is  small. 
Levies  are  made,  in  case  of  war,  by  way 
of  conscription ;  and  a  specified  number  of 
houses  is  required  to  furnish  a  soldier 
completely  equipped,  or  pay  a  considera- 
ble fine.  For  the  crime  of  insubordina- 
tion, the  conscribed  are  either  punished 
jjersonally,  or  their  families  are  made  to 
suffer,  however  innocent  they  may  be. 
The  principal  part  of  the  militia  are  em- 
I)loyed  in  tiie  war-boats  of  the  crown, 
which  sink  about  three  feet  deep,  and  are 
provided  with  ordnance.  The  revenue 
is  a  tenth  i)art  of  the  productions  of  the 
soil  and  of  all  imported  goods.  The 
treasury  is  rich,  and  the  sovereign  regards 
an  active  trade  among  his  subjects  as  the 
surest  basis  of  national  revenue :  he  calls 
his  great  income  from  customs  the  tribute 
of  strangers.  The  empire  at  present  con-! 
10* 


sists  of  seven  provinces.  The  capital, 
Ummerapoora,  contains  175,000  inhabit- 
ants. Rangoon,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Irrawaddy  (pop.  30,000),  is  an  important 
trading  city,  and  many  Europeans  reside 
in  it.  The  Voyage  du  Capit.  Hiram  Cox, 
dans  V Empire  des  Birmans  is  better  in  this 
French  edition,  by  Chalons  d'Ange  (Paris, 
1824,  2  vols.)  than  in  the  original  English 
(London,  1821).  (See,  also,  JVarraiive 
of  the  Binnese  fVar,  by  major  Snodgrasa 
London,  1827;  and  Mrs.  Ann  H.  Jud- 
son's  Relation  of  the  American  Baptist  Mis- 
sion to  the  Birman  Empire,  Wash.,  1823). 
Birmingham  ;  a  town  in  Warwickshire, 
Eng.,  on  a  declivity,  on  the  river  Rea, 
which  joins  the  Tame ;  62  miles  N,  W, 
Oxford,  87  N.  Bristol,  109  N.  N.  W.  Lon- 
don ;  population,  in  1821, 85,753 ;  families, 
18,105 ;  houses,  16,653.  Of  the  mhabit- 
ants,  81,642  consist  of  families  connected 
with  trade  and  manufactures.  B.  has  long 
been  distinguished  for  the  variety,  extent 
and  excellence  of  its  manufactures,  par-r 
ticulai-ly  in  hardware.  With  perhaps  the 
exception  of  3Ianchester,  it  is  the  greatest 
manufacturing  town  in  England.  Among 
the  principal  manufactures  are  buttons,  in 
immense  variety,  buckles  and  snuff-boxes ; 
toys,  trinkets  and  jewellery ;  polished  steel 
watch-chains,  cork-screws,  &c.;  plated 
goods  for  the  dining  and  tea-table ;  japan- 
ned and  enamelled  articles;  brass  work 
of  every  description;  swords  and  fire-- 
arms ;  medals  and  coins  of  various  kinds ; 
copying  machines  and  pneumatic  appara- 
tuses ;  the  more  ponderous  productions  of 
die  casting-furnace  and  rolling-mill ;  and, 
indeed,  every  hardware  commodity  that 
can  be  considered  as  curious,  useful  or 
ornamental.  The  manufactories  are  esT 
tablished  upon  the  largest  scale,  and  with 
the  most  astonishing  ingenuity.  A  coin- 
ing-mill was  erected  in  1788,  which  is 
now  capable  of  striking  between  30 
and  40,000  pieces  of  money  in  an  hour, 
Jiefore  the  close  of  the  last  war,  no  less 
than  14,500  stands  of  arms  were  dehvered 
per  week  to  the  ordnance  office.  At  the 
])in-works,  it  is  said,  12,000  pins  can  be 
cut  and  ])ointed,  and  50,000  pin-heads 
can  be  made  from  the  wire,  in  an  hour.— . 
B.  is  about  two  miles  in  length.  The 
lower  part  of  the  town  consists  chiefly  of 
old  buildings,  is  crowded  with  workshops 
and  warehouses,  and  is  inhabited  princi- 
pally by  manufacturers;  but  the  upper 
part  has  a  superior  appearance,  consisting 
of  new  and  regular  streets,  and  containing 
a  number  of  elegant  buildings.  It  con- 
tains three  churches  and  five  chapels  of 
ease,  and  many  places  of  worship  belong- 


114 


BIRMINGHAM— BISCAY. 


ing  to  Dissenters.  St.  Martin's  church 
has  a  fine  lofty  spire,  with  a  peal  of  V2 
bells,  and  a  set  of  chimes.  li.  is  distin- 
guished for  its  chaiitable  institutions,  and 
lias  various  schools,  and  several  libraries, 
one  of  which  contains  10,000  volumes. 
The  town  has  the  benefit  of  several  canals, 
which  enable  it  to  cany  on  an  easy  inter- 
course with  foreign  countries.  It  has  three 
weekly  markets,  and  two  annual  faii-s. 
The  soil  about  the  town  is  drj^  and  the 
climate  is  considered  remarkably  healthy. 
The  average  mortality  of  B.,  for  six  years, 
ending  1801,  was  only  1  to  59 ;  of  j\Ian- 
chester,  1  to  37;  and  of  London,  1  to  31. 
BiRo>',  Charles  de  Gontaut,  duke  of; 
son  of  marshal  Annand  de  Gontaut,  baron 
Biron,  bom  about  1562.  Educated  as  a 
Calvinist,  he  had  twice  changed  his  reli- 
gion before  he  reached  the  l(3th  year  of 
his  age.  In  his  14th  year,  B.  was  made 
colonel  of  the  Swiss  regiment,  and  served 
Henry  IV  with  much  zeal  and  courage. 
By  the  king's  favor,  he  was,  in  1592, 
raised  to  the  rank  of  admiral  of  France. 
Though  distinguished  at  court  as  well  as 
in  the  field,  always  feared  and  praised, 
he  was  violent,  obstinate  and  presumptu- 
ous. At  the  retaking  of  Amiens,  in  1598, 
B.  served  under  Henry  IV,  and,  in  the 
same  year,  was  made  a  peer  and  duke. 
He  thought  himself,  however,  not  sufii- 
ciently  rewarded.  The  Spanish  party, 
which,  after  the  peace  of  Vervins,  could 
injure  Henry  oidy  by  secret  intrigues, 
took  advantage  of  the  duke's  discontent. 
Henry  appointed  him  his  ambassador  at 
the  court  of  Brussels,  to  receive  the  oath 
of  the  archduke  to  the  peace  of  Vervins. 
The  Spanish  court  seized  this  oppor- 
tunity to  dazzle  him  with  festivals,  spec- 
tacles and  honors;  the  female  arts  of 
aeduction  were  put  in  practice,  and  the 
weak  B.  promised  to  join  the  Catholics, 
whenever  they  should  rise  again.  In 
1599,  he  concluded  an  agreement  with 
the  duke  of  Savoy  and  the  count  of  Fuen- 
tes,  by  which  he  pledged  himself  to  take 
up  arms  against  his  benefactor.  Mean- 
while, war  being  declared  against  the 
duke  of  Savoy  (1600),  B.  saw  himself 
reduced  to  the  necessity  of  attacking  him. 
For  fear  that  his  understanding  with  the 
duke  should  become  visible,  he  possessed 
himself  of  almost  all  the  towns  in  the 
duchy,  which  was  the  easier  because 
Emanuel  had  exjiected  some  forbearance 
on  his  part.  Fuentes  and  the  duke  ven- 
tured to  propose  to  B.,  that  he  should 
deliver  the  person  of  the  king  mto  their 
hands ;  but  he  refused.  Their  suggestions, 
however,  were  not  without  efiect  upon 


him,  and,  while  engaged  in  the  siege  of 
the  fort  St.  Catherine,  in  the  vicinity  of 
Genoa,  having  reason  to  believe  that  the 
king  would  come  to  inspect  the  trenches, 
he  sent  word  to  the  governor  to  dispose 
liarquebussiers  so  as  to  fire  on  him  at  a 
certain  signal.  At  the  decisive  moment, 
however,  he  prevented  the  king  from 
going  to  the  fatal  spot.  In  1601,  peace 
was  made  with  Savoy.  So  many  nego- 
tiations had  not,  however,  escaped  the  eye 
of  the  king,  nor  could  he  remain  ignorant 
of  their  object.  He  therefore  interrogated 
the  mai*shal  as  to  his  designs,  with  prom- 
ises of  pardon.  B.  made  a  partial  confes- 
sion, and  continued  his  intrigues  as  before* 
Notwithstanding  tliis,  Henry  sent  him,  in 
the  same  year,  to  queen  Elizabeth  of 
England,  to  inform  her  of  his  marriage 
with  Maria  of  Medici.  In  the  mean  time, 
B.'s  confidant  Lafin,  having  become  sus- 
pected by  the  count  of  Fuentes,  and  begin- 
ning to  fear  for  himself,  discovered  the 
whole  plot.  A  fi-ank  confession  and 
repentance  would  have  saved  B.,  since 
Henry  was  mclined  to  forgive  him.  He, 
however,  persevered  in  his  denial,  rejected 
the  offers  of  pardon,  and  was,  therefore, 
at  the  urgent  entreaties  of  the  queen,  at 
last  surrendered  to  the  rigor  of  the  laws. 
Upon  leaving  the  king's  room,  he  was 
arrested,  carried  to  the  Bastile,  tried  be- 
fore the  parUament,  and  beheaded,  July 
31,  1602. 

Birth.     (See  Labor.) 

Biscay  ;  a  province  in  Spain,  bounded 
N.  by  the  bay  of  Biscay,  E.  by  France  and 
Navarre,  S.  by  Burgos,  uicluding  the 
tlu"ee  following  subdivisions  or  provinces: 

Sq.  M.    Pop.      Capitals. 
B.  Proper,   .  1375  112,731  Bilboa. 
Guipuscoa, .    653  104,479  St.  Sebastian. 
Alava, ....  1138    71,-396  Vittoria. 
3166  288,606 

B.  is  a  mountainous  country,  containing 
much  wood,  and  has  mines  of  lead  and 
iron.  It  abounds  in  apples,  i)ears,  lemons, 
oranges,  figs,  nuts  and  currants,  but  pro- 
duces httle  wne.  The  air  is  mild  and 
more  temperate  than  the  rest  of  Spain. 
The  country  is  well  cultivated,  and  the 
houses  clean  and  convenient.  The  in- 
habitants call  themselves  Euscaldunac, 
boast  of  their  descent  fi'om  the  ancient 
Cantabri,  and  preserve  strong  traces  of 
the  character  of  that  high-spirited  and  in- 
dependent people.  They  are  robust,  brave, 
active,  industrious;  at  the  same  time, 
haughty  and  initable ;  have  open,  ani- 
mated countenances,  and  handsome  per- 
sons.   Their  language  is  supposed  to  be 


BISCAY— BISHOP. 


115 


a  dialect  of  the  Celtic,  and  nearly  allied 
to  die  Armorican.  (See  Basques.) — B. 
forms  a  kind  of  sejiarate  state,  distinct 
from  the  rest  of  Spain,  governed  accord- 
ing to  its  ancient  laws  and  usages.  The 
king  of  Spain,  who  is  simply  styled  lord 
of  Biscay,  has  no  right  to  impose  taxes; 
and  no  custom-houses  were  allowed,  till 
lately,  within  the  province. 

Biscay  Proper  is  bounded  N.  by  the 
bay  of  Biscay,  E.  by  Guipuscoa,  S.  by 
Alava,  anrl  W.  by  Santander.  The  coast 
is  inhabited  by  seafai'ing  people  and  fish- 
ermen; in  the  interior,  great  quantities 
of  iron  are  extracted  from  the  ore,  and 
wrought  into  different  articles.  The  rich- 
est mines  ai-e  in  the  vicinity  of  Bilboa  and 
Somorrosto. 

Biscay,  bay  of;  that  part  of  the  Atlantic 
which  lies  N.  of  the  province  of  Biscay, 
between  the  projecting  coasts  of  France 
and  S})ain,  extending  from  Ushant  to  cape 
Finisterre. 

Biscay,  bay  of;  a  large  bay  on  the  south 
coast  of  Newfoundland,  between  cape 
Race  and  cape  Pine ;  Ion.  53°  &  W. ;  lat. 
4(3°  50'  N. 

Biscay,  A«ir,  or  Durango ;  a  province 
in  Mexico,  bounded  N.  by  New  Mexico, 
E.  by  New  Leon,  S.  by  Zacatecas,  and 
W.  by  Cuhacan ;  600  miles  long,  and  400 
broad ;  pop.  159,000.  The  country  is,  in 
general,  mountainous,  and  watered  by  a 
great  number  of  rivers  and  brooks:  it  has 
some  mines  of  silver  and  lead.  Durango 
is  the  capital. 

BiscHOFSWERDER,  John  Rudolpli  von, 
a  Prussian  general  and  minister,  born  in 
Saxony,  in  1756,  entered  the  university  of 
Halle,  was  admitted  into  the  Prussian 
S8r\'ice  in  1760,  and  appointed  major  in 
1779.  Under  Frederic  William  II,  he 
exercised  an  unhmited  influence  at  the 
court  of  Berlin.  The  attachment  which 
he  had  shown  Frederic  William,  while 
yet  crown-prince,  procured  him  the  lasting 
affection  of  this  short-sighted  and  prodi- 
gal monarch.  As  plenipotentiarj^  he  took 
a  gi'eat  part  ui  the  congress  at  Sistova. 
He  afterwards  effected  the  interview  with 
lord  Elgin,  at  Pilnitz.  After  the  king's 
death,  he  was  dismissed,  and  died  at  his 
country-seat,  in  the  neighborhood  of  Ber- 
Un,  1803.  liis  views,  as  a  statesman  and 
a  man,  Avere  very  limited.  His  propensity 
to  mysticism  had  consequences  in  the 
highest  degree  injurious.  B.  belonged  to 
the  society  of  the  Illuminati. 

Bishop,  in  the  New  Testament,  is  the 
mstructer  and  spiritual  superior  of  a  Chris- 
tian congregation.  The  bishops  who  were 
uistaiied  by  the  apostles  themselves,  or, 


according  to  the  apostolic  idea  of  the 
office,  chosen  by  the  congregations,  were 
the  assistants  and  successors  of  the  apos- 
tles in  their  laboi-s  for  the  propagation  of 
Christianity.    They  had  the  supervision 
of  the  whole  congregation,  and  its  officers, 
the  presbyters  and  deacons,  but  without 
claiming,  in  the  first  century,  any  preem- 
inence or  rights  of  diocesans,  which  they 
afterwards  acquired,  as  the  church-gov- 
ernment was  gradually  estabhshed.  When  ' 
the  system  of  ecclesiastical  rule  was  ma- 
tured, the  almost  absolute  authority  which 
they  exercised  over  the  clergy  of  their 
dioceses ;  their  interference  in  the  secular 
concerns  of  governments,  to  which  they 
soon  rendered  themselves  necessary,  by 
their  superior  information  and  tlieir  ele- 
vated rank;    the  administration  of  tlie 
church-revenues ;  the  maintenance  of  their 
ecclesiastical  prerogatives,  and  their  ex- 
tensive ecclesiastical  as  well  as  criminal 
jurisdiction,  occupied  them  too  much  to 
leave  them  any  time  or  inclination  for  the 
(hscharge  of  their  duties  as  teachers  and 
spiritual  fathere.     They  therefore  reserv- 
ed to  themselves  only  the  most  important 
functions  of  tlieir  spiritual  office,  as  the 
ordination  of  the  clergy,  the  confirmation 
of  youth,  and  the  preparation  of  the  holy 
oil.    In  the  middle  ages,  they  attached  to 
themselves  particultir  vicare,  called  suffra- 
gans, hisli0})s  in  partibus,  or  coadjutors, 
for  the  performance  even  of  these  func- 
tions, which  they  had  reserved  to  them- 
selves, and  for  the  inspection  of  all  that 
concerned  the  church.    Bishops  who  have 
})reached  themselves,  and  attended  to  the 
spiritual  welfare  of  their  congregations, 
have  been  rare  shice  the  seventh  century. 
The  episcopal  office  being  such  as  we 
have  described  it,  the  nobility,  and  even 
the  sons  of  princes  and  kings,  strove  to 
obtain  a  dignity  which  was  as  honorable 
as  it  was  profitable ;  and  which,  moreover, 
permitted  festivals  and  sensual  enjoyments 
of  every  description.     These  applications, 
which  were  aided  by  rich  donations  made 
to  the  churches,  and,  in  the  case  of  the 
German    bishoj>s,   by  the   influence   of 
the    emperor,    gave  to   the    bishops   of 
Germany,  particularly,  a  high  degree  of 
dignity.     The  German  bishops  became 
princes  of  the  empire,  and  tlieir  influence 
upon  all  public  aftaii"s  was  im])oi-tant.  The 
reformation,  however,  lessened  their  num- 
ber, and  although,  in  some  of  the  Protest- 
ant countries  of  the  north  of  Europe,  the 
higher  clergy  have  retained  the  title  of 
bishop,  yet  they  have  lost  the  greater  part 
of  their  former  revenues  and  privileges. 
The  Swedish  bishops  constitute  one  of 


116 


BISHOP— BISMUTH. 


the  estates  of  the  kingdom,  like  the  Eng- 
lish, but  have  little  influence.  The  Eng- 
lish church  has  left  to  its  bishops  more 
authority  tlian  the  rest,  and,  for  this  rea- 
son, has  received  the  name  of  the  episco- 
pal. In  Protestant  Grermany,  bishoj^rics 
were  abohshed  by  the  reformation,  but 
they  have  been  restored,  in  Prussia,  with- 
in the  last  10  yeai-s.  The  churcli  of 
Rome  early  lost  many  bishoprics  by  the 
conquests  of  the  Mohammedaais ;  hence 
the  great  number  of  titular  bishops,  whose 
bishoprics  he  in  partibus  injidetium,  tliat 
is,  in  countries  in  possession  of  the  infi- 
dels. The  Roman  see,  however,  honoi-s 
with  this  title  only  ecclesiastics  of  a  high 
rank.  In  consequence  of  the  cession  of 
several  German  countries  to  France,  23 
bishoprics  were  abolished ;  but,  by  partic- 
ular agreements  with  the  Roman  court, 
they  have  been  retJstablished  in  several 
German  states.  (See  Concordat,  and  Ger- 
man Church.)  The  fonner  subjects  of  the 
German  bishops  remember  their  mild 
government  with  gratitude,  and  the  prov- 
erb "  It  is  good  to  dwell  under  the  cro- 
sier" proves  that  the  episcopal  power  was 
not  prejudicial  to  the  prosperity  and  hap- 
piness of  those  subject  to  it.  (See  Clergy, 
and  Church  of  England.) 

Bishop's  Hood.  (See  Mitre.) 
Bishop's  Staff.  (See  Crosier.) 
BisMARK,  Frederic  William,  count  ; 
general  of  cavalry  in  the  service  of  the 
king  of  Wiirtemberg,  and,  since  July 
1825,  his  ambassador  in  Dresden,  Berlin, 
Hanover;  born  at  Windheim,  in  West- 
phalia, in  1783.  He  is  distinguished  as  a 
writer  on  cavalrj',  and  also  as  a  practical 
officer.  He  was  esteemed  by  Napoleon. 
The  reigning  king  of  Wiirtemberg,  on  his 
accession  to  tlie  throne,  purposing  an  en- 
tirely new  organization  of  his  army,  com- 
mitted to  count  B.  that  of  the  cavahy. 
Here  he  established  a  new  system.  It 
must  be  confessed  that  the  Wiirtemberg 
cavalry  acquired,  from  his  rules,  much 
facility  in  manoeuvring.  The  objections 
wliich  have  been  made  against  his  system 
are  refuted  by  the  practical  demonstration 
which  B.  has  given  of  its  utility  in  his 
regiment.  His  views  on  cavalry  are  ex- 
plained at  large  in  his  Vorlesungen  iiber 
die  Takiik  der  Reiterei  (Lectures  on  Cav- 
alry Tactics),  1818,  which  is  considered  a 
standard  work,  and  has  been  translated 
into  French.  Of  his  Felddienstinstruction 
Jur  Schiitzen  und  Reiter  {InstrucUon  in  the 
Field-service  of  Riflemen  and  Cavalry), 
four  editions  have  been  published  within 
the  space  of  two  years.  He  has  pubUshed, 
also,  several  other  military  works. 


Bismuth  is  a  metal  called,  by  artists, 
tin  glass,  a  name  obviously  derived  from 
the  French  etain  de  glace.  It  is  found 
both  pure  and  mineralized  by  suljjhur, 
oxygen  and  arsenic. — Native  bismuth  oc- 
curs in  the  veins  of  primitive  mountains, 
and  is  accompanied  by  ores  of  lead,  sil- 
ver, and  sometimes  of  cobalt  and  nickel. 
It  exists  in  reticulated,  lamellar,  or  amor- 
phous masses;  is  soft,  and  of  a  white 
color,  occasionally  tinged  with  red.  Spe- 
cific gravity,  9.  It  is  found  in  many 
countries, — in  France,  England,  Sweden, 
Bohemia  and  the  U.  States, — but  its  chief 
locality  is  at  Schneeberg,  in  Saxony,  from 
whence  the  supply  of  bismuth,  in  com- 
merce, is  principally  derived.  To  procure 
the  metal,  the  ore  requires  merely  to  be 
reduced  to  convenient  fragments,  and 
heated  in  furnaces,  when  tlie  bismuth 
separates  from  the  earthy  matter  in  which 
it  is  engaged,  and  flows  out  into  cast-iron 
moulds  prepared  for  its  reception. — Bis- 
muth, when  pure,  has  a  reddish-white 
color,  is  harder  tlian  lead,  and  is  easily 
broken  under  the  hammer,  by  which  it 
may  even  be  reduced  to  powder.  It 
melts  at  470°  or  480°,  and  crystallizes,  on 
cooling,  with  great  regularity,  m  the  form 
of  cubes.  When  kept  in  a  state  of  fusion, 
at  a  moderate  heat,  it  is  covered  with  an 
oxyde  of  a  greenish-gray  or  brown  color; 
at  a  higher  temperature,  it  enters  into  a 
feeble  combustion,  forming  a  yellow 
])Owder,  called  flowers  of  hismuih. — It 
combines,  by  fusion,  with  a  great  num- 
ber of  metals,  communicating  to  them 
britrleness  and  fusibiUty.  The  mixture 
discovered  by  Newton,  and  produced  by 
melting  together  8  oz.  bismuth,  5  oz.  lead 
and  3  oz.  tin,  fuses  at  202°.  From  it  are 
made  toy  spoons,  which  melt  on  being 
employed  to  stir  very  hot  tea.  A  still 
more  llisible  compound  was  invented  by 
Mr.  Dalton,  composed  of  3  parts  tin,  5 
lead  and  10^  bismuth,  which  melts  at 
197°.  The  addition  of  a  httle  mercury 
rendei-s  it  even  more  fusible,  and  fits  it  to 
be  used  as  a  coating  to  the  inside  of  glass 
globes.  An  alloy  of  equal  parts  of  tin 
and  bismuth  melts  at  280° ;  a  less  pro- 
portion of  bismuth  adds  to  the  hardness 
of  tin,  and  hence  its  use  hi  the  formation 
of  pewter.  Equal  parts  of  tin,  bismuth 
and  mercuiy  form  the  mosaic  gold,  used 
for  various  ornamental  purposes.  1  part 
of  bismuth,  with  5  of  lead  and  3  of  tin, 
forms  plumbers''  solder,  a  compound  of 
great  importance  in  the  arts.  Bismuth  is 
also  used  by  letter-founders  in  their  best 
type-metal,  to  obtain  a  sharp  and  clear 
face  for  their  letters.    Bismuth  combines 


BISMUTH— BISON. 


117 


\v-ith  sulphur,  and  foniis  a  bluish-gray 
sulphuret,  having  a  metallic  lusti-e.  The 
same  compound  is  foujid  native  in  small 
quantity,  and  is  called,  in  mineralogy, 
bismuth  glance. — Nitric  acid  dissolves  bis- 
muth with  great  readiness.  The  solution 
is  decomposed  on  the  addition  of  water, 
and  a  white  substance,  called  magestens 
of  bismuth,  is  precij)itated,  which  consists 
of  a  liydrated  oxyde,  united  to  a  small 
proportion  of  nitric  acid.  This  precipita- 
tion, by  the  addition  of  water,  being  a 
peculiarity  of  bismuth,  serves  as  an  excel- 
lent criterion  of  this  metal.  The  mages- 
tens of  bismuth,  from  its  whiteness,  is 
sometimes  employed  to  improve  the  com- 
plexion, as  well  as  the  pearl  powder,  a 
similar  preparation,  differing  only  by  the 
mixture  of  a  little  muriatic  acid  with  the 
nitric  acid  in  effecting  the  solution  of  the 
bismuth.  The  hbersU  use  of  either,  how- 
ever, is  highly  prejudicial  to  the  skin. 
They  are,  besides,  liable  to  be  turned 
black  by  the  vapors  evolved  from  nearly 
all  putrefying  substances. — The  chloride 
of  bismuth,  Ibrmcrly  termed  butter  of  bis- 
muth, is  formed  by  pouring  bismuth,  in 
fine  powder,  into  chlorine  gas,  or  by  de- 
priving the  muriate  of  bismuth  of  its 
water  of  crystallization  by  heat. 

BisoA'  {bos  Americanus,  Gmel.) ;  a  spe- 
cies of  ox  found  only  in  North  America, 
peculiarly  distinguished  by  a  great  hump 
or  projection  over  its  fore  shoulders,  and 
by  the  length  and  fineness  of  its  woolly 
hair.  The  hump  is  oblong,  diminishing 
in  height  posteriorly,  and  gives  a  consid- 
erable obliquity  to  the  outline  of  the  back. 
The  hair  over  the  head,  neck  and  fore 
))art  of  the  body  is  long  and  shaggy,  form- 
ing a  beard  beneath  the  lower  jaw,  and 
descending  below  the  knee  (wrist)  in  a 
tuft.  The  hah  on  the  summit  of  the 
head  rises  in  a  dense  mass  nearly  to  the 
tips  of  the  horns,  and,  directly  on  the 
front,  is  curled  and  matted  strongly. — The 
numbers  of  this  species  still  existing  are 
surprisingly  great,  when  we  consider  the 
immense  destruction  annually  occurring 
since  European  weapons  have  been  em- 
ployed against  them.  They  were  once 
extensively  dilfused  over  what  is  now  the 
territory  of  the  U.  States,  except  that  i)art 
lying  east  of  Hudson's  river  and  lake 
Champlain,  and  narrow  strips  of  coast  on 
the  Atlantic  and  Pacific.  At  the  present 
day,  their  range  is  very  different.  They 
are  no  longer  found  except  in  the  remote, 
unsettled  regions  of  the  north  and  west, 
being  rarely  seen  east  of  the  Mississippi 
or  south  of  the  St,  La-wrence.  West  of 
lake  Winnipeg,  they  are  found  as  far 


north  as  02° ;  west  of  the  Rocky  moun- 
tains, it  is  probable  they  do  not  extend 
north  of  the  Columbia  river. — The  bison, 
on  his  native  jjlains,  is  of  savage  and  for- 
midable ai)pearance,  imifbrraly  inspiring 
dread  wlien  beheld  for  the  first  time. 
His  jionderous  head,  rendered  terrific  by 
its  thick,  shaggy  hair  and  streaming  beard, 
is  supported  upon  a  massive  neck  and 
shoulders,  whose  apparent  strength  is 
more  imposing  from  the  augmentation 
produced  by  the  hump  and  the  long  fell  of 
hair  covering  the  anterior  parts  of  the 
body.  Nevertheless,  the  bison  is  not 
known  to  attack  man,  unless  when 
wounded  and  at  bay.  The  difference 
between  the  summer  and  winter  dress  of 
the  bison  consists  rather  in  the  leugtli 
than  in  other  quahties  of  the  hair.  In 
summer,  from  the  shoulders  backwards, 
the  surface  is  covered  with  a  very  short, 
fine  hair,  smooth  and  soft  as  velvet. 
The  tail  is  short,  and  tufted  at  the  end. 
Except  the  long  hair  on  the  fore  parts, 
Avhich  are,  to  a  certain  extent,  of  a  rust 
color,  or  yellowish  tinge,  the  color  is  a 
uniform  dun.  Varieties  of  color  are  so 
rare  among  this  species,  that  the  hunters 
and  Indians  always  regard  them  as  mat- 
ters of  special  wonder. — The  bison  bull  is 
l)oor,  and  his  flesh  disagreeable  in  the 
months  of  August  and  September.  They 
are  much  more  easily  approached  and 
killed  than  the  cows,  not  being  so  vigilant, 
tliough  the  cows  are  preferred  both  ou 
accoimt  of  their  finer  skins  and  more 
tender  flesh.  The  cow  is  much  less  than 
the  bull,  and  has  not  so  much  of  tlie  long 
hah-  on  the  shouldei-s,  &c. ;  her  bonis  are 
not  so  large,  nor  so  much  covered  by  the 
hair.  The  sexual  season  begins  towards 
the  end  of  July,  and  lasts  till  near  the  be- 
ginning of  September;  after  this  time, 
the  cows  separate  from  the  bulls  in  dis- 
tinct herds.  They  calve  in  April  ;  the 
calves  seldom  leave  the  mother  until  a 
year  old  ;  cows  are  sometimes  seen  Avith 
calves  of  three  seasons  following  them. — 
Bison  beef  is  rather  coarser  grained  than 
that  of  the  domestic  ox,  but  is  considered 
by  liimters  and  travellers  as  superior  in 
tenderness  and  flavor.  The  hump,  which 
is  highly  celebrated  for  its  richness  and 
delicacy,  is  said,  when  properly  cooked, 
to  resemble  marrow.  The  Indian  method 
of  preparing  this  delicacy  is  the  follow- 
ing : — The  hump  is  cut  off  the  shoulders, 
the  bones  removed,  and  a  piece  of  skin  is 
sewed  over  the  denuded  part.  The  hair 
is  then  singed  off,  and  the  whole  is  now 
readj^  for  the  oven.  This  is  a  hole  in  the 
earth,  in  and  over  which  a  fire  has  beea 


118 


BISON— BITHYNIA. 


burned,  and  into  this  heated  receptacle 
the  hump  is  conveyed,  and  covered,  about 
a  foot  deep,  with  earth  and  ashes.  A 
strong  fire  is  again  built  over  the  spot, 
and,  supposing  tliese  preparations  to  be 
begun  on  the  evening  of  one  day,  the 
hump  will  be  ready  for  eating  by  the  next 
day  at  noon.  The  tongues  and  marrow 
bones  are  regarded,  by  the  connoisseurs, 
as  next  in  excellence. — Herds,  consisting 
of  thousands  of  these  fine  animals,  still 
roam  over  the  fer  western  ])rairies,  led  by 
the  fiercest  and  most  powerful  of  the 
bulls.  During  the  sexual  season,  the 
noise  of  their  roaring  resembles  thunder, 
and  the  males  often  fight  desperate  battles 
wth  each  other.  While  feeding,  they  are 
often  scattered  over  a  vast  surface;  but, 
when  tliey  move  fonvard  in  mass,  they 
form  a  dense,  impenetrable  column, 
which,  once  fairly  in  motion,  is  scarcely 
to  be  turned.  They  swim  large  rivers 
nearly  in  tlie  same  order  in  which  they 
traverse  the  plains ;  and,  when  flying  from 
pursuit,  it  is  in  vain  for  those  in  front  to 
halt  suddenly,  as  the  rearward  throng 
dash  madly  forwai-d,  and  force  their  lead- 
er on.  The  Indians  sometimes  profit  by 
this  habit :  they  lure  a  herd  to  the  vicin- 
ity of  a  precipice,  and,  setting  the  whole 
in  rapid  motion,  they  terrify  them,  by 
shouting  and  other  artifices,  to  rush  on  to 
their  inevitable  destruction.  Numerous 
tribes  of  Indians  are  almost  wholly  de- 
pendent on  these  animals  for  food,  cloth- 
ing, tents,  utensils,  &c.  Vast  multitudes 
of  bisons  are  slaughtered  annually ;  but  it 
is  to  be  deeply  regretted,  that  the  white 
hunters  and  tradere  are  in  the  habit  of 
destroying  these  valuable  beasts  in  the 
most  wanton  and  unnecessary  manner. 
It  is  common  for  such  persons  to  shoot 
bisons,  even  when  they  have  abundance 
of  food,  for  the  sake  of  the  tongue  or 
hiunp  alone,  or  even  because  the  animals 
come  so  near  as  to  present  a  fair  aim.  It 
is,  therefore,  not  to  be  wondered,  that, 
from  all  causes  of  diminution,  the  bison 
should  become  less  numerous  every  year, 
and  remove  farther  and  farther  from  the 
haunts  of  men.  The  preference  always 
given  to  the  cows,  which  are  too  often 
shot  while  gravid,  operates  powerfully  in 
thinning  the  herds. — The  skins  of  bisons, 
especially  that  of  the  cow,  dressed  in  the 
Indian  fashion,  with  the  hair  on,  make 
admirable  defences  against  the  cold,  and 
may  be  used  for  blankets,  &c.  They  are 
called  buffalo  robes ;  the  term  buffalo  being 
generally,  but  maccurately,  applied  to  the 
bison.  The  wool  of  the  bison  has  been 
manufactured  into  hatsj  aaid  has  also  been 


employed  in  making  coai-se  cloth.  The 
time  cannot  be  very  far  distant,  when  this 
species,  like  the  Indian  tribes  which  hover 
near  them,  will  have  passed  away,  and 
the  places  which  knoAV  them  now  shall 
know  them  no  more. 

BissAGo,  or  BissACx,  or  Bissao  ;  an 
island  in  the  Atlantic  ocean,  near  the 
western  coast  of  Africa,  and  the  principal 
of  tlie  cluster  called  Bissagos,  100  miles 
in  circumference ;  Ion.  14°  KX  W.  ;  lat. 
11°  24'  N.  The  ground  rises  impercepti- 
bly to  the  middle  of  the  island.  The  soil 
is  cultivated  and  fertile,  abounding  wth 
several  sorts  of  trees,  particularly  fine 
large  orange  and  mangroves  near  the 
shore.  The  inhabitants  are  Portuguese 
and  Negroes  intermixed.  The  island  is 
divided  into  9  provinces,  8  of  which  are 
governed  by  officers  appointed  by  the 
sovereign,  each  bearing  the  title  of  king. 
— There  is  another  cluster  of  islands  of 
the  same  name,  Ion.  15°  W.,  lat.  11°  SC 
N.,  255  miles  south  of  cape  Verd. 

BissET,  Robert;  a  native  of  Scotland, 
educated  at  Edinburgh,  for  the  clerical 
profession.  He  took  the  degree  of  LL.  D., 
and  became  a  schoolmaster  at  Chelsea; 
but,  not  succeeding  in  that  occupation,  he 
employed  himself  in  writing  for  the  press. 
His  chief  productions  are,  a  History  of 
the  Reign  of  George  III,  6  vols.  8vo. ; 
the  Life  of  Edmund  Burke,  2  vols.  8vo. ; 
and  an  edition  of  the  Spectator,  with 
lives  of  tlie  authors,  6  vols.  He  diied  in 
1805,  aged  46. 

BiTAUBE,  Paul  Jeremiah ;  bom  in  K6- 
nigsberg,  in  Prassia,  1732,  of  French  pa- 
rents. He  translated  Homer  into  French. 
In  consequence  of  this  translation,  and 
the  recommendation  of  d'Alembert,  he 
was  elected  a  member  of  the  academy  at 
Berhn.  Frederic  II,  king  of  Prussia,  fa- 
vored him  much,  and  allowed  him  to  stay 
a  long  time  in  France,  to  finish  several 
translations  from  the  German  into  French. 
Among  his  translations  is  one  of  Gothe's 
Hermann  and  Dorothea.  Napoleon  con- 
ferred marks  of  favor  on  liiin.  He  died 
in  1808.  His  works  appeared  in  9  vols., 
Paris,  1804. 

BiTHi'NiA ;  a  country  in  Asia  Minor, 
lying  on  the  Pontus  Euxinus,  the  Thra- 
cian  Bosphorus  and  the  Propontis,  and 
bounded  on  the  south  by  Phry^ia.  In 
early  times,  it  was  called  Bebrycia,  from 
the  Bebrycians,  who  inhabited  it.  Before 
the  time  of  Croesus,  B.  was  an  independ- 
ent state,  under  its  own  princes.  After 
the  death  of  Prusias  I,  in  the  war  against 
Croesus,  it  fell  into  the  power  of  the  Lyd- 
ians,  B.  C.  560 ;  into  that  of  the  Persians, 


BITHYNIA— BITUMEN. 


119 


B.  C.  555 ;  and  into  tliat  of  Alexander,  B. 

C.  334.  The  restorer  of  the  Bithynian 
throne  was  Bias  or  Bas,  a  native  prince, 
at  the  court  of  one  of  whose  successors, 
Prusias  II,  Hannibal  took  refuge,  and 
where  he  ended  his  life  by  poison,  183  B. 
C.  Nicomedes,  the  last  king  of  this  race, 
bequeathed  his  kingdom  to  the  Romans, 
75  B.  C.  The  famous  cities  of  Niconie- 
dia,  Nicaea  and  Heraclea  were  in  B.  In 
the  11th  century,  B.  was  conquered  by 
the  Seljuks.  In  1298,  a  new  kingdom 
was  founded  there  by  the  Ottoman  Turks, 
of  which,  hi  1327,  Prusa  was  the  capital. 

BiTscH ;  a  city  in  the  department  of 
the  Moselle,  with  2500  iidiabitants,  and  a 
citadel  on  a  hill ;  by  its  situation  and  the 
art  of  Carmontaigne,  one  of  the  strongest 
places  in  France. 

Bittern.  A  name  commonly  applied 
to  several  species  of  heron ;  ardea,  L.  (See 
Heron.) 

BiTUMEx;  the  name  of  a  species  in 
mineralog}',  the  mdividuals  composing 
which  have  acquired  several  distinct 
names,  from  their  diversity  in  appearance. 
This  depends  chiefly  upon  their  state  of 
aggregation,  which  forms  an  uninterrupt- 
ed series  from  the  perfectly  fluid  to  the 
solid  condition. — Naphtha,  the  most  fluid 
variety,,  is  nearly  colorless,  or  of  a  yellow- 
ish tinge,  transparent,  and  emits  a  peculiar 
odor.  It  swims  on  water,  its  specific 
gravity  being  from  0.71  to  0.84.  It  bums 
with  a  bluish-white  flame  and  thick 
smoke,  and  leaves  no  residue.  It  con- 
sists of  carbon,  82.20,  and  hydrogen,  14.80 ; 
and,  being  the  only  fluid  destitute  of  oxy- 
gen, it  is  used  to  preserve  those  new 
metals  in,  which  were  discovered  by  sir 
H.  Davy.  It  is  found  in  Persia,  in  the 
peninsula  of  Apcheron,  upon  the  western 
shore  of  the  Caspian  sea,  where  it  rises 
through  a  marly  soil  in  the  form  of  vapor, 
and,  being  made  to  flow  through  earthen 
tubes,  is  inflamed  for  the  purpose  of  as- 
sisting in  the  preparation  of  food.  It  is 
collected  by  sinking  pits  several  yards  in 
deptli,  into  wliich  the  naphtha  flows.  It 
is  burned  in  lamps,  by  the  Persians,  in- 
stead of  oil.  Near  thu  village  of  Amiano, 
in  the  state  of  Parma,  there  exists  a  spring 
which  yields  this  substance  in  suflicient 
quantity  to  illuminate  the  city  of  Genoa, 
for  which  purpose  it  is  employed.  With 
certain  vegetable  oils,  naphtha  is  said  to 
form  a  good  varnish. — The  variety  petro- 
leum is  much  thicker  than  naphtha,  re- 
sembling, in  consistence,  common  tar.  It 
has  a  strong,  disagreeable  odor,  and  a 
blackish  or  reddish-brown  color.  During 
combustion,  it  emits  a  thick,  black  smoke. 


and  leaves  a  little  residue  in  the  form  of 
a  black  coal.  It  is  more  abundant  than 
tlie  first  mentioned  variety,  from  which  it 
does  not  appear  to  differ,  except  in  being 
more  inspissated.  It  occurs,  oozing  out 
of  rocks,  in  the  vicinity  of  beds  of  coal,  or 
floating  upon  the  surface  of  springs.  In 
the  Birman  empire,  near  Rainanghong,  is 
a  hill  containing  coal,  into  wliich  520  pits 
have  been  sunk  tor  the  collection  of  pe- 
troleum ;  and  the  annual  product  of  this 
mine  is  400,000  hogsheads.  It  is  used, 
by  the  inhabitants  of  that  countiy,  as  a 
lamp-oil,  and,  when  mingled  with  earth 
or  ashes,  as  fuel.  In  the  U.  States,  it  is 
found  abundantly  in  Kentucky,  Ohio  and 
New  York,  where  it  is  known  under  the 
name  of  Seneca  or  Genesee  oU.  It  is  used 
as  a  substitute  for  tar,  and  as  an  external 
application  for  the  remedy  of  rheumatism 
and  chilblains. — Maltha  is  a  bitumen,  still 
less  fluid  than  petroleum,  from  which  it 
differs  in  no  other  respect.  Its  principal 
locality  is  at  Puy  de  la  Pege,  in  France, 
where  it  renders  the  soil  so  viscous,  that 
it  adheres  strongly  to  the  foot  of  the  trav- 
eller. It  is  also  found  in  Persia  and  in 
the  Hai-tz.  It  is  employed,  like  tar  and 
pitch,  on  cables  and  in  calking  vessels :  it 
is  used,  as  well  as  the  petroleum,  to  pro- 
tect iron  fi'om  rusting,  and  sometimes 
forms  an  ingredient  in  black  sealing-wax. 
— Elastic  bitumen  yields  easily  to  pressure, 
is  flexible  and  elastic.  It  emits  a  strong, 
bituminous  odor,  and  is  about  the  weight 
of  water.  On  exposure  to  the  air,  it  be- 
comes heird,  and  loses  its  elasticity.  It 
takes  up  the  traces  of  crayons  in  the  same 
manner  as  the  caoutchouc,  or  Indian  rub- 
ber, whence  it  has  obtained  the  name  of 
the  mineral  caoutchouc.  It  has  hitherto 
been  found  only  in  the  lead  mines  of 
Derbyshire. — Compact  bitumen,  or  asphal- 
turn,  is  of  a  shining  black  color,  solid  and 
brittle,  with  a  conchoidal  fracture.  Its 
specific  gravit}'  is  from  1  to  1.6.  Like 
the  former  varieties,  it  bums  freely,  and 
leaves  but  little  residue.  It  is  found  in 
Judea,  in  the  Palatinate,  in  France,  in 
Switzerland,  and  in  large  deposits  in 
sandstone  in  Albania;  but  no  where  so 
largely  as  in  the  island  of  Trinidad,  where 
it  forms  a  lake  three  miles  in  circumfer- 
ence, ^nd  of  a  thickness  unkno^vn.  A 
gentle  heat  renders  it  ductile,  and,  when 
mixed  with  grease  or  common  pitch,  it  is 
used  for  paying  the  bottoms  of  ships,  and 
is  supposed  to  protect  them  from  the  te- 
redo of  the  West  Indian  seas.  The  an- 
cients employed  bitumen  in  the  construc- 
tion of  their  buildings.  The  bricks  of 
which  the  walls  of  Babylon  were  built 


120 


BITUMEN— BLACKBIRD. 


were,  according  to  historians,  cemented 
with  hot  bitumen,  which  imparted  to 
them  great  solidity. 

BivocACK  (from  the  German  biwacht) ; 
tlie  name  given  to  the  modern  system,  by 
which  the  soldiers  in  service  lie  in  the 
open  air,  vvithout  tents,  in  opposition  to 
the  old  sj'Stem  of  camps  and  cantonments. 
They  remain  dressed,  in  order  to  be  ready, 
at  a  moment's  warning,  to  take  their  places 
in  order  of  battle.  Tents  being  laid  aside, 
on  the  continent  of  Europe,  tor  the  sake 
of  diminishing  the  baggage  of  an  army, 
large  masses  of  troojjs  are  always  obliged 
to  bivouack,  even  if  they  are  not  near  the 
enemj%  The  soldier,  however,  is  per- 
mitted to  build  himself  a  hut  of  straw  or 
branches,  if  circumstances  allow  it.  Fre- 
quent bivouacking  is  very  injurious  to 
the  health,  and  is  also  a  great  disadvan- 
tage to  the  countries  in  which  it  takes 
place. 

Blacas,  count ;  bom  at  Aulps,  in  Prov- 
ence (1770)  ;  served  in  La  Vendee  ;  accom- 
panied Louis  XVIII  to  Russia,  and  after- 
wards to  England.  On  the  restoration 
of  the  Bourbons,  he  was  made  minister 
of  the  king's  household.  After  the  second 
restoration,  he  was  sent  to  Naples  to  ne- 
gotiate the  maiTiage  of  the  duke  de  Beni. 
He  was  afterwards  ambassador  to  Rome, 
where  he  concluded  the  famous  concor- 
dat of  1815,  so  unpopular  in  France,  that 
the  government  did  not  venture  to  pro- 
pose it  to  the  chambers.  On  the  fall  of 
the  ultras  and  the  elevation  of  Decazes, 
he  retired  to  Rome,  and  is  said  to  have 
been  secretly  employed  at  the  congress 
of  Laybach.  He  has  since  been  ambas- 
sador to  Naples,  where,  as  well  as  at 
Rome,  he  has  declared  himself  the  pro- 
tector of  the  ultramontanists.  B.  is  a  thor- 
ough ultra-royalist. 

Black,  Joseph,  a  distinguished  chem- 
ist, born  at  Bordeaux,  of  Scottish  parents, 
in  1728,  studied  medicine  at  Glasgow. 
Doctor  Cullen,  his  instracter,  inspired  him 
with  a  taste  for  chemical  studies.  In 
1754,  he  was  made  doctor  of  medicine,  at 
Edinburgh,  and  delivered  an  inaugural 
dissertation,  De  Humore  acido  a  Cibis  orto 
et  Magnesia  alba,  wliich  exhibits  the  out- 
line of  liis  discoveries  relative  to  carbonic 
acid  and  the  alkalies.  In  1756,  he  pub- 
lished his  Experiments  on  White  Mag- 
nesia, Quicklime,  and  several  other  Alka- 
line Substances,  in  the  2d  volume  of  the 
Essays,  Physicd  and  Literary,  of  the  Ed- 
inburgh Society.  He  demonstrates  the 
existence  of  an  aerial  fluid  in  these  sub- 
stances, which  he  calls  Jixed  air,  the 
presence  of  which  diminishes  the  corro- 


sive power  of  the  alkalies  and  the  calca* 
rious  eaiths.  This  discovery  may  be  con- 
sidered as  the  basis  of  all  those  which 
have  immortalized  the  names  of  Caven- 
dish, Priestley,  Lavoisier,  &c.,  and  given 
a  new  form  to  chemistiy.  lu  1757,  H. 
enriched  this  science  with  his  doctrine  of 
latent  heat,  which  has  led  to  such  im- 
portant results.  In  175G,  lie  was  ap- 
pointed professor  of  medicine  and  lecturer 
on  chemistry  in  the  university  at  Glasgow, 
in  the  ])lace  of  doctor  Cullen,  and,  in 
1765,  when  Cullen  left  the  professor's 
chair  in  Edinburgh,  he  was  there,  also, 
succeeded  by  B.  No  tencher  hispired  his 
disciples  with  such  a  zeal  for  study  ;  his 
lectures,  therefore,  contributed  much  to 
make  the  taste  for  chemical  science  gen- 
eral in  England.  He  died  in  1799,  at  the 
age  of  71.  Upon  Lavoisier's  proposal, 
the  academy  of  sciences,  in  Paris,  had 
appointed  him  one  of  its  eight  foreign 
membei-s.  His  habits  were  simple,  his 
character  cold  and  reserved.  Though  of 
eminent  ability  as  a  chemist,  he  injured 
himself  by  his  long  opposition  to  the  re- 
ception of  the  new  chemical  theory.  At 
length,  however,  he  was  convinced  of  its 
superior  accuracy,  and  did  justice  to  its 
merits.  There  is  a  paper  of  his  in  the 
Philosophical  Transactions  of  1774,  and 
another  in  the  Transactions  of  the  Royal 
Society  of  Edinburgh,  in  1791.  Two  of 
his  lettei-s  on  chemical  subjects  were 
published  by  Crell  and  Lavoisier,  and  his 
Lectures  on  Chemistrj',  in  1803,  in  2  vols, 
by  Robison. 

Black  Art.    (See  Magic.) 

Blackbird  ;  a  trivial  name,  applied  to 
bh'ds  of  difterent  species,  and  distinct  gen- 
era, but  properly  belonging  to  a  species 
of  the  genus  quiscalus,  as  restricted  by 
pruice  C.  L.  Bonaparte,  di  Musignano,  the 
latest  and  most  accurate  WTiter  on  orni- 
thological nomenclature.  The  true  black- 
birds are  either  of  a  rich,  glossy  black, 
showing  metallic  reflections,  puqile,  or 
ferruginous;  being  altogether  free  from 
maculatioii.  The  kinds  improperly  called 
blackbird,  such  as  the  redioing,  cowbird, 
&c.,  have  bright  colors,  and  are  species 
of  icterus  or  troupial. — All  the  black- 
birds are  gregarious  and  migratory,  diflus- 
ing  themselves  in  vast  flocks  fi-om  south 
to  north ;  returning  thence  as  the  cold 
season  approaches.  They  build  their 
nests  in  trees,  socially,  and  lay  about  five 
eggs.  The  young  are  unlike  the  adult 
birds. — ^Three  species  of  blaclibird  are 
known  in  the  United  States ;  among  these, 
the  great  crow-blackbird  ( Q.  major,  Viel.), 
is  the  largest,  and,  as  its  name  impUes, 


BLACKBIRD— BLACKFISH, 


121 


strongly  resembles,  in  all  respects,  the 
iniscliievoiis  plunderer  of  our  cornfields. 
TJie  male  is  16  inches  long,  having  a  most 
glossy  black  plumage;  the  tail  is  cunei- 
form, and,  when  the  wings  are  folded,  they 
extend  nearly  five  inches  beyond  it.  The 
female  is  of  a  light  brown  color,  whitish 
beneath,-  and  twelve  and  a  half  inches 
long.  Tills  species  is  found  in  the  South- 
ern States,  principally  along  the  sea-coast : 
it  also  inhabits  Mexico,  and  is  said  to  be 
common  in  the  West  Indies. — The  rusty 
fcrakle,  or  blackbird,  is  nine  inches  long. 
Its  migi-ations  extend  fi-om  the  south, 
where  it  winters,  to  as  far  north  as  within 
the  arctic  circle,  where  it  breeds.  Accord- 
ing to  Pennant,  they  arrive  in  the  vicinity 
of  Hudson's  bay  about  the  beginning  of 
June,  when  the  ground  is  sufficiently 
thawed  to  allow  them  access  to  the  giubs 
and  worms,  upon  which  they  chiefly  feed. 
They  sing  finely  until  they  have  ceased 
laying,  and  when  the  young  are  fledged, 
they  again  resume  their  song.  Their 
nests  are  formed  of  moss  and  grass,  and 
placed  in  trees  about  eight  feet  from  the 
ground.  They  pass  through  the  Middle 
States,  on  their  northern  tour,  early  in 
April :  in  September,  they  collect  in  vast 
flocks,  to  seek  their  winter-quartei's  in  the 
south. — The  purple  grakle,  lesser  or  com- 
mon croic-hladibird,  ( Q.  versicolor,  Viel.),  is 
the  most  notorious  of  these  sable  plunder- 
ers. On  their  first  arrival  in  the  Middle 
States  from  the  south,  which  is  in  the 
latter  jmrt  of  March,  they  come  in  scatter- 
ed flocks,  and  are  most  frequent  in 
swamps,  meadows,  and  recently  i)lough- 
ed  ground.  At  this  season,  they  consume 
an  immense  number  of  destructive  in- 
sects, and,  if  they  continued  to  feed  on 
such  food,  they  would  be  among  the 
farmer's  chief  benefactors.  Towards  the 
beginning  or  middle  of  April,  they  begin 
to  build  upon  the  tall  pines  or  cedars 
nearest  to  the  fields  whence  they  obtain 
their  food.  As  many  as  10  or  15  nests 
have  been  found  on  the  same  tree.  The 
nests  are  about  five  inches  in  diameter, 
composed,  externally,  of  long  stalks  and 
knotty  grass-roots,  and  are  lined  with 
horse-hair,  &c.  The  eggs  are  of  a  bluish- 
ohve  hue,  with  large  spots,  and  irregular 
streaks  of  dark  brown.  The  period  when 
the  green  blade  of  the  young  Indian  com 
begins  to  sprout  above  the  surface  of  the 
ground  is  that  in  which  the  common 
crow-blackbird  commences  its  ravages. 
Vast  flocks,  chattering  and  screaming,  as 
if  anticipating  the  pleasures  of  the  feast, 
descend  upon  the  soil,  and  pluck  the 
swelling  grain  from  its  recess.    In  a  few 

VOL.  II.  11 


hours,  the  careful  husbandman  beholds 
his  fair  prospect  of  an  ample  harvest  al- 
most destroyed,  and  that,  too,  with  but 
little  chance  of  liis  being  able  to  remedy 
the  evil.  It  is  true  that  the  guns  are 
commonly  put  in  requisition,  and  a  few 
volleys,  fired  among  these  insolent  thieves, 
destroy  a  small  part  of  their  numbers. 
But  they  only  change  their  place  to  other 
parts  of  the  field,  and  return  ere  long  to 
renew  the  assaidt  with  increased  activity. 
It  is  not  until  the  month  of  November 
that  they  begin  to  collect  their  forces, 
now  renovated  and  augmented  by  their 
3oung,  to  seek  the  genial  climate  of  the 
south  for  the  winter.  When  we  consider 
that  a  very  ample  quantity  of  corn  is  pro- 
duced, notwithstanding  the  depredations 
of  these  and  other  birds,  and  recollect  the 
vast  number  of  insects  they  consume  be- 
fore their  attacks  upon  the  com  begin, 
we  shall  be  inclined  to  agree  with  our 
great  ornithologist,  Wilson,  that  the  ser- 
vice they  render  the  cultivator  by  devour- 
ing the  insects  is  quite  an  adequate  com- 
pensation for  the  tax  they  le^y  upon  the 
gi"ain.  If  we  extend  our  observation  a 
little  further,  and  remark  that  these  birds 
destroy  the  insects  before  they  have  at- 
tained their  perfect  or  breeding  state,  and 
tliat  a  single  fly  or  bug  is  capable  of  lay- 
ing thousands  of  eggs,  the  magnitude  of 
the  benefit  they  confer  upon  mankind 
may  be  more  accurately  appreciated. 
Nevertheless,  it  is  perfectly  right,  that, 
during  their  ravages  upon  the  grain-field, 
they  should  be  driven  off  and  destroyed. 
The  extermination  of  the  species  is  as 
impossible  as  the  wish  to  effect  it  would 
be  ridiculous.  If  such  an  event  could  be 
brought  about,  we  should  speedily  be 
convinced,  that  the  supreme  Author  of 
nature  had  devised  all  things  in  wisdom, 
by  discovering,  that,  without  the  aid  of 
these  seemingly  useless  creatures,  the 
earth  would  be  despoiled  of  its  vegeta- 
tion, and  the  habitations  of  man  become 
loathsome  from  the  multiplication  of  vo- 
racious and  disgusting  worms. 

Blackfish  ;  a  species  of /ain«,  caught 
on  various  parts  of  the  American  coast, 
especially  in  the  vicinity  of  Long  Island, 
whence  large  supphes  are  obtained  for  the 
New  York  market.  For  tlie  following  par- 
ticulars concerning  this  valuable  article  of 
food,  we  are  indebted  to  doctor  iVIitchell's 
excellent  paper  on  the  fishes  of  New  York, 
published  in  the  Transactions  of  the  Lit- 
erary and  Philosophical  Society.  The 
specific  name  given  by  the  learned  de- 
scriber  is  L.  tautog,  in  which  he  has  pre- 
served the  designation  used  by  the  Mohe- 


122 


BLACKFISH— BLACK  FOREST. 


gan  Indians  for  this  fish.  Tlie  common 
name,  blackfish,  is  bestowed  on  account  of 
the  color  of  its  back  and  sides,  which  are 
of  a  bluish  or  crow-black  ;  the  lips,  lower 
jaw,  neck  and  belly,  especially  in  the 
males,  are  white.  The  mouth  is  rather 
small,  the  lips  skinny  or  fleshy,  and  the 
teeth  are  about  twelve  in  number  in  each 
jaw,  the  two  front  teeth  being  largest,  and 
the  rest  of  the  respective  rows  gradually 
decreasing  in  size.  Within  the  external 
ranges  are  the  points  of  smaller  teeth,  in- 
serted with  rather  less  regularity :  they 
are  sharp,  distinct,  and  covered  by  the 
lips.  The  tongue  is  white,  smooth,  lying 
close,  but  discoverable  by  raising ;  tail 
entire,  and  somewhat  convex,  the  middle 
rays  being  somewhat  more  prominent 
than  the  upper  and  lower  ones ;  gill  cov- 
ers smooth,  neither  scaly,  serrated  nor 
rough ;  extremities  of  the  pectoral  fins 
whitish ;  eyes  rather  small.  The  black- 
fish  is  plump  in  appearance,  and  is  much 
esteemed  for  the  table.  It  varies  in  size, 
fi-om  2  or  3  to  10  or  12  pounds.  Rocks,, 
reefs  and  rough  bottoms  of  the  sea,  in  the 
neighborhood  of  the, coasts,  are  the  situa- 
tions most  frequented  by  the  blackfish, 
which  appear  to  be  stationaiy  inhabitants 
of  the  salt  water,  as  they  do  not,  like  the 
sahnon,  herring,  &c.,  desert  their  haunts 
to  visit  the  fresh-water  rivers.  These 
fish  are  caught  in  abundance,  along  the 
whole  of  Long  Ishmd  sound,  Fisher's 
Island  sound,  and  in  Narragansett  bay. 
They  are  also  found  in  the  southern  bays 
of  Long  Island,  and  on  the  ocean  banks 
off  Sandy  Hook.  They  were  formerly 
carried  over  land  from  Newport  and 
Providence  to  Boston  market,  but  are 
now  caught  in  Massachusetts  bay  in  suf- 
ficient numbers  to  render  such  importa- 
tion unnecessary. — In  catching  l)lackfish, 
the  hand  line  is  generally  used,  though 
the  angle  rod  may  ofl;en  be  advantageous- 
ly employed :  they  seize  the  bait  greedily, 
at  proper  seasons,  and  pull  strongly,  in 
proportion  to  their  size  and  weight.  They 
are  occasionally  taken  in  seines.  The 
bait  commonly  employed  is  the  soft  clam 
(mya),  the  soldier-crab  or  fiddler  [ocypo- 
da),  or  the  large  finny  worm  of  the  salt- 
water beaches,  called  nereis.  As  the 
warmth  of  spring  comes  on,  the  blackfish 
begin  to  acquire  their  appetite,  wliich  is 
suspended  during  the  cold  of  winter,  at 
wliich  time  a  membrane  is  found  to  form 
over  and  close  up  the  vent.  They  may 
be  caught,  as  above  stated,  until  the  warm 
weather  becomes  well  advanced,  when 
such  an  abundance  of  food  is  to  be  pro- 
cured as  to  render  the  bait  of  the  fisher- 


man no  longer  a  temptation.  The  flow- 
ering of  the  common  dog-wood  (comus 
Jloiida)  is  considered  an  indication  of  the 
beginning  of  the  fisliing  season  ;  and 
Avhere  this  tree  is  not  to  be  seen,  the 
vegetation  of  the  chestimt-tree  is  regard- 
ed as  a  similar  indication.  These  fish 
are  brought  to  Philadelphia  market  in 
wagons,  from  Long  Branch,  &c.,  being 
packed  in  ice,  and  frozen  as  soon  as 
caught. 

Black  Forest  (in  German,  Schwarz- 
wald) ;  a  chain  of  mountains  in  the  grand- 
duchy  of  Baden  and  the  kmgdom  of 
Wiirtemberg.  It  runs  almost  parallel 
with  the  Rhine,  from  south  to  north,  often 
only  from  15  to  20  miles  distant  from  this 
river ;  is  about  85  miles  long,  and,  from 
east  to  west,  in  the  southern  part,  about 
30  miles  wide ;  in  the  northern,  about  18. 
The  Danube  rises  in  these  mountains,  as 
well  as  many  other  rivers.  Those  on  the 
west  side  run  into  the  Rhine,  those  on  the 
east  side  into  the  Danube.  The  Black 
Forest  is  rather  a  chain  of  elevated  plains, 
than  of  isolated  peaks.  The  highest  sum- 
mit, the  Feldberg,  measures  4610  German 
feet.  Except  from  June  to  September, 
these  mountains  are  generally  covered 
with  snow,  and  even  during  this  period, 
are  not  entirely  free  from  it.  Among  the 
many  valleys  of  this  chain,  the  Murgthal 
is  particularly  celebrated  for  its  beautiful 
scenery.  The  whole  chain  consists  of 
primitive  mountains :  its  skeleton,  through- 
out, is  granite  ;  its  higher  points  are  cov- 
ered with  sand-stone,  and  other  layers  of 
less  consequence,  and  are  surrounded  by 
heights  composed  of  floetz  rocks.  On 
the  western  side,  at  the  foot,  appears 
gneiss.  Porphyry  and  clay-slate  are 
found  on  several  heights,  as,  likewise,  sil- 
ver, lead,  copper,  iron,  cobalt  and  miner- 
al waters.  The  woods  are  abundant,  and 
consist  mostly  of  pines  and  similar  spe- 
cies. The  raising  of  cattle  is  the  princi- 
pal branch  of  husbandly  carried  on  in  this 
district.  The  ground  is  not  fertile,  and 
the  inhabitants,  scattered  over  the  moun- 
tains, live  extremely  frugally,  but  are  very 
industrious.  Their  manner  of  living,  build- 
ingtheir  houses,  and  cultivatingtheir  lands, 
is  very  pecuUar.  Till  the  17th  century, 
there  was  no  spirit  of  trade  or  industry 
among  them  ;  but  the  wars  of  that  period 
developed  it,  and  the  manufactures  of 
glass,  straw  hats,  wooden  clocks,  and  oth- 
er wooden  ware,  are  now  verj'  imjiortant. 
They  make,  annually,  more  than  180,000 
wooden  clocks,  the  value  of  which 
amoimts  to  over  half  a  miUion  of  guilders. 
Neustadt  and  Furtwangen  are  the  central 


BLACK  FOREST— BLACKLOCK. 


123 


points  of  this  singular  commerce,  which 
embraces  all  Europe,  and  extends  even  to 
America.  Large  numbei-s  of  these  clocks 
ai-e  sent  to  Spain  and  Portugal,  from 
whence  they  go  to  South  America.  From 
the  north  of  Gennany,  and  from  Havre, 
they  are  exported  to  the  U.  States.  Of 
late,  the  clocks  have  been  much  imjiroved, 
and  the  correctness  of  some  of  them, 
made  of  different  woods,  in  order  to 
counteract  the  influence  of  the  weatlier,  is 
surprisujg.— Two  passes  of  the  Black 
Forest  became  particularly  noted  in  the 
time  of  the  French  revolution — the  Knie- 
bis  and  the  Holle  passes.  The  former,  at 
the  foot  of  the  Murg,  was  tiiken  in  1796 
and  1797 ;  the  latter  is  famous  for  Mo- 
reau's  skilful  retreat  through  it  in  1796. 

Blackfriars'  Bridge  ;  one  of  the  six 
fine  bridges  of  London,  over- the  Thames, 
built  between  1760  and  1768,  after  a  de- 
sign of  Mr.  Robert  Mylne,  at  an  expense 
of  £152,840.  There  are  9  arches,  the 
centre  one  being  100  feet  wide.  TJie 
whole  length  is  995  feet.  Over  each  pier 
is  a  recess,  supjwrted  by  Ionic  pillars. 
Tlie  bridge  is  situated  at  about  an  equal 
distance  from  those  of  Southwark  and 
Waterloo.  It  commands  a  veiy  fine 
view  of  St  Paul's  cathedral,  as  well  as  of 
both  sides  of  the  river,  includuig  the  tow- 
er, the  monument,  Somereet  house,  West- 
minster abbey,  and  about  30  churches. 
Tlie  constant  bustle  on  this  and  the  Lon- 
don bridge  is  enonnous,  and  beyond  any 
thing  of  tlie  kind  to  be  met  with  in  other 
cities. 

Black  Lead.  (See  Plumbago.) 
Black  Rock.  (See  Buffalo.) 
Black  Sea  ;  with  the  ancients,  known 
by  the  name  of  Pontus Euxi7iv^  (q.  v.);  a 
sea  which  is  situated  between  Europe 
and  Asia,  bounded  on  the  west  by  Roma- 
nia and  Bulgaria,  on  the  north  by  the 
Russian  dominions,  on  the  east  by  Min- 
grelia  and  Guriel,  on  "the  south  by  Nato- 
lia,  being  connected  with  the  Mediter- 
ranean by  the  Bosphorus,  and,  by  the 
Cimmerian  Bosphorus,  with  the  sea  of 
Azoph  (q.  v.),  which  is,  in  fact,  only  a  bay 
of  the  Black  sea.  The  area  of  the  Black 
sea  and  the  sea  of  Azojih  amounts  to 
about  297,000  square  miles.  The  water 
is  not  so  clear  as  that  of  the  Mediterrane- 
an, and,  on  account  of  the  many  large 
rivers  which  fall  into  it, — the  Danube, 
Dniester,  Dnieper,  Don  and  Cuban, — being 
less  salt,  freezes  more  readily.  The  tem- 
pests on  this  sea  are  tremendous,  as  the 
land,  which  confines  its  agitated  watei-s, 
^ives  to  them  a  kind  of  whirling  motion. 
In  the  winter,  it  is  so  boisterous,  particular' 


ly  near  the  coast  from  the  Danube  to  the 
Crimea,  that  it  is  scarcely  navigable,  even 
by  the  most  experienced  sailors.  The 
chief  current  runs  from  the  shallow  sea 
of  Azoph,  from  north  to  south,  to  the 
Thracian  Bosphorus  and  the  Hellespont. 
The  Black  sea  contains  no  islands  ;  there 
is  one,  however,  in  the  Cimmerian  Bos- 
])hoi'US.  The  fisheiies  in  the  sea  of 
Azoph  and  the  Black  sea  are  not  unim- 
])ortant,  various  kinds  of  valuable  fish, 
both  large  and  small,  being  taken ;  among 
others,  several  sjiecies  of  sturgeon.  Seines 
are  used,  m  which  60,000  fishes  are  some- 
times caught  within  six  hours  ;  but  there 
are  never  many  large  ones  among  them. 
Caviare  (q.  v.)  is  also  made  on  the  coast, 
as  well  as  fish-glue,  fish-oil,  and,  from  the 
spawn  of  the  sea  mullet,  botargo ;  the 
latter,  however,  only  in  small  quantity. 
The  salt  and  smoked  mackerel  form  an 
important,  article  of  the  commerce  of  the 
Crimea,  Raoid-Rochette  has  published, 
in  Paris,  1822,  a  work  on  the  remarkable 
Grecian  antiquities  On  the  northern  shore 
of  the  Pontus,  which  has  been  corrected 
and  completed  by  the  Russian  counsellor 
Peter  von  Koppen,  Vienna,  182.3.  Quite 
recently,  Mr.  von  Blai-amberg,  director  of 
the  museum  estabUshed  at  Odessa  and  at 
Kertch,  has  discovered  many  interesting 
remains  in  this  quarter.    (See  Crimea.) 

Blackguard.  This  name  was  origin- 
ally given  to  the  scullions  and  coal-carri- 
ei-s  in  great  houses  and  palaces,  who,  in 
the  journeys  of  the  families  to  which  they 
belonged,  usually  rode  in  the  caits  with 
the  pots  and  kettles. 

Blacklock,  Thomas,  a  poet,  remarka- 
ble for  his  literary  attauunents  under  the 
misfortune  of  a  deprivation  of  sight,  was 
born  at  Annan,  in  the  county  of  Dum- 
fries, in  1721.  His  parents,  who  were 
natives  of  Cumberlaixl,  although  poor 
were  industrious  and  well-informed.  At 
the  age  of  six  months,  he  lost  his  sight  by 
the  small-pox :  and,  as  he  grew  up,  his 
father,  with  exemplai-y  industry  and  af- 
fection, endeavored  to  lessen  his  calamity 
by  reading  to  him  such  books  as  instruct- 
ed or  entertained  him,  when  he  always 
appeared  to  be  particidarly  pleased  with 
the  works  of  Spenser,  Milton,  Piior,  Pope 
and  Addison.  Such  was  the  kindness 
his  peculiar  situation  and  gentle  temper 
excited,  that  he  was  seldom  without  some 
companion,  who  aided  in  his  singvdar 
course  of  education,  until  he  had  even 
acquired  some  knowledge  of  the  Latin 
tongue.  At  the  age  of  12,  he  began  to 
versify,  and  his  performances  at  length 
became  the  subject  of  discourse  in  his 


134 


BLACKLOCK— BLACKSTONE. 


neighborhood.  At  tlie  age  of  20,  he  lost 
his  father,  on  which  he  was  invited  by 
doctor  Stephenson,  a  j)hysician  in  Edin- 
burgli,  to  visit  that  metropohs,  in  order  to 
pursue  his  studies  at  the  university.  He 
soon  became  a  proficient  in  Latin,  as  also 
in  French,  which  he  chiefly  acquired  by 
conversation  with  a  French  lady,  the 
Avife  of  provost  Alexander.  He  also,  in 
the  course  of  nearly  10  years'  study  at 
the  univereity,  made  a  considerable  prog- 
ress in  the  sciences.  In  1754,  he  publish- 
ed a  second  edition  of  his  poems,  which 
gained  him  the  patronage  of  Mr.  Spence, 
who  published  an  aocotint  of  his  life, 
character  and  productions,  which  brouglit 
him  into  general  notice ;  and  a  quarto  edi- 
tion of  his  poems  being  soon  afterwards 
published  by  subscri})tion,  a  considerable 
sum  was  thereby  raised  for  his  benefit. 
He  now  devoted  himself  to  the  study  of 
theology,  and,  having  passed  through  the 
usual  course,  was  hcensed,  in  1759,  by 
the  presbytery  of  Dumfries.  In  1762,  he 
married  the  daughter  of  Mr.  Johnson,  sur- 
geon, of  Dumfiies ;  a  connexion  which 
jiroved  to  him  a  source  of  comfort  and 
felicity  for  the  remainder  of  his  life.  He 
was  soon  after  appointed  minister  of 
Kirkcudbright,  on  the  presentation  of  the 
earl  of  Selkirk ;  but,  being  opposed  by  his 
parishioners,  after  two  years'  contention, 
he  resigned  his  Uving,  upon  a  moderate 
annuity,  and  retired  to  Edinburgh,  where 
he  adopted  the  plan  of  receiving  a  few 
students  of  the  university  as  boarders, 
and  of  assisting  them  in  their  studies 
when  desirable.  In  1766,  he  was  created 
D.  D. ;  and,  having  now  taken  a  respecta- 
ble station  among  the  hterati  of  Scotland, 
he  maintained  it  by  various  pubUcations, 
until  his  death,  July,  1791,  at  the  age  of 
70.  His  private  character,  accord'mg  to' 
the  testimony  of  Hume  and  others,  was 
singularly  amiable.  Letters  and  conver- 
sation were  his  solace,  to  which  he  joined 
the  practice  of  music.  His  poetry  is  easy, 
polished  and  harmonious ;  and  he  com- 
posed with  considerable  rapidity.  The 
number  of  his  images  from  visual  objects 
will  surprise  those  who  are  not  aware  of 
the  uniform  strain  of  imitation  in  com- 
mon-place poetry.  B.  wrote,  besides  his 
poems,  several  prose  works. 

Blackmore,  sir  Richard,  a  physician 
and  poet  of  notoriety,  if  not  of  eminence, 
was  the  son  of  an  attorney  in  tlie  county 
of  Wilts,  In  1668,  he  entered  the  uni- 
versity of  Oxford.  There  he  remained 
13  years,  and,  for  some  time  afterwards, 
appears  to  have  followed  the  profession 
of  a  schoolmaster.    At  length  he  turned 


his  attention  to  physic.  In  1697,  he  had 
risen  to  so  much  eminence  in  his  profes- 
sion, as  to  be  appointed  j)hysician  to  king 
William,  who  knighted  him.  The  pre- 
ceduig  year,  he  had  made  himself  known, 
as  a  poet,  by  the  publication  of  his  heroic 
poem  of  Prince  Arthur,  which  was  soon 
followed  by  King  Arthur ;  and,  in  1700, 
he  published  a  j)araphrase  of  the  book 
of  Job,  in  folio  ;  as  also  a  poem  entitled  a 
Satire  on  Wit,  being  an  attempt  to  retort 
on  tlie  wits  by  whom  he  had  been  very 
successfully  assailed.  By  the  strictness 
of  his  whiggish  principles,  he  had  incur- 
red the  resentment  of  tlie  tory  junto, 
composed  of  Swift,  Pope,  Arbuthnot  and 
othei-s ;  while  something  solemn  in  the 
complexion  of  his  religion  and  morality, 
added  to  the  real  absurdity  of  starting 
epic  after  ej)ic  in  quick  succession,  in- 
sured the  raillery  of  all  those  to  whom 
his  gravitj',  pereeverance  and  mediocrity 
afforded  so  much  subject  for  ridicule. 
This  worthy  man  and  middling  poet  be- 
came the  common  butt  of  his  day,  and 
for  almost  two  generations,  for  Pope  took 
up  tlie  quan'el  which  Drjden  began. 
The  work  which  produced  him  tlie 
greatest  reputation  mtis  the  Creation,  a 
jioem  in  seven  books,  which  went  through 
several  editions,  and  was  greatly  applaud- 
ed, but  is,  generally  speaking,  very  tamely 
elaborate.  In  1721,  B.  published  a  New 
Version  of  the  Psalms  of  David,  which, 
although  recommended  by  authority,  has 
never  been  adopted.  He  died,  at  an  ad- 
vanced age,  in  1729,  leaving  behind  him 
the  character  of  a  pious,  well-meaning 
and'  respectable  man,  of  Umited  genius 
and  Uttle  taste.  Besides  the  epics  already 
mentioned,  he  wrote  Ehza,  in  10  books  ; 
the  Redeemer,  in  6  books ;  King  Alfred, 
in  12  books,  &e.  He  also  composed  a 
History  of  the  Conspiracy  against  King 
William  JII,  and  several  medical  and 
theological  treatises,  especially  against  the 
Arians,  all  of  which  have  quietly  reached 
oblivion.  As  a  physician,  he  was  a  stren- 
uous opposer  of  the  new  system  of  uiocu- 
lation  for  the  small-pox. 

Blackstone,  sir  William,  knight  and 
LL.  D.,  a  celebrated  English  lawjer,  and 
the  most  popular  writer  on  the  laws  and 
constitution  of  his  country,  was  bom  in 
London,  in  1723.  He  was  the  third  son 
of  Mr.  Charles  Blackstone,  a  silk-mercer, 
but,  being  left  an  orphan,  was  brought  up 
by  his  maternal  uncle,  Mr.  Thomas  Bigg, 
surgeon,  from  whose  kindness  he  re- 
ceived an  education,  which  the  narrow 
circumstances  of  his  father  could  scarcely 
have  suppUed.    He  was  educated  on  the 


BLACKSTONE. 


125 


foundation  of  the  charter-house,  whence, 
m  1738,  he  was  removed  to  Pembroke 
college,  Oxford.  He  was  much  distin- 
guished, both  at  school  aiKl  at  the  univer- 
sity, and  at  an  early  age  compiled  a  work 
for  his  own  use,  entitled  the  Elements 
of  Architecture,  which  has  been  much 
praised.  Having  chosen  the  profession 
of  the  law,  he  was  in  due  time  entered  at 
the  jMiddle  Temple,  and  on  this  occasion 
published  the  admired  verses,  called  the 
Lawyer's  Farewell  to  his  Muse,  which 
appeared  in  Dodsley's  Miscellany.  In 
1743,  he  was  elected  fellow  of  All  Souls' 
college,  Oxon.,  and,  in  1746,  was  called  to 
the  bar,  and  commenced  the  practice  of 
law.  Being  deficient  in  elocution,  and 
not  possessed  of  the  popular  talents  of  an 
advocate,  his  progress  was  slow.  Having 
attended  the  courts  of  law  at  Westminster 
for  seven  years,  without  success,  he  de- 
termined to  quit  the  practice  of  his  pro- 
fession, and  retire  to  his  fellowsliip  at 
Oxford.  The  system  of  education  in  the 
English  universities  supplying  no  provis- 
ion for  teaching  the  laws  and  constitution 
of  the  country,  B,  undertook  to  remedy 
this  defect,  by  a  course  of  lectures  on  that 
important  subject ;  and  the  manner  in 
which  he  executed  the  task  has  confen-ed 
a  lasting  distinction  on  Oxford.  His  fii-st 
course  was  delivered  in  1753,  and  wiis 
repeated  for  a  series  of  years  with  in- 
creasing effect  and  reputation.  These 
lectures  doubtless  suggested  to  INIr.  Vmer 
the  idea  of  founding,  by  his  will,  a  liberal 
establishment  in  the  university  of  Oxford 
for  the  study  of  the  common  law  ;  and  B. 
^vas,  witli  great  propriety,  chosen  the  first 
Vhierian  professor.  His  engagements  at 
Oxford  did  not  prevent  his  occasional 
practice  as  a  ])rovincial  barrister,  and,  in 
1754,  being  engaged  as  counsel  in  a  con- 
tested election  lor  the  county  of  Oxford, 
he  was  led  into  considerations  on  the 
elective  fi-anchise,  which  produced  his 
work  entitled  Considerations  on  Copy- 
holds. In  this  treatise  he  denied  the 
right  of  copyholdei-s  to  vote  as  freehold- 
ers; which  led  to  a  declaratorj'  act  of 
parhament  in  establishment  of  that  nar- 
row doctrine.  In  1759,  he  published  a 
new  edition  of  the  Great  Charter  and 
Charter  of  the  Forest,  with  a  historical 
preface ;  and,  during  the  same  year,  the 
reputation  which  he  had  obtained  by  his 
lectures  induced  him  to  resume  his  at- 
tendance at  Westminster  hall,  when  busi- 
ness and  the  honors  of  his  profession  soon 
crowded  in  upon  him.  In  1761,  he  was 
elected  M.  P.  for  Hindon,  made  king's 
counsel  and  solicitor-general  to  the  queen, 
11* 


About  this  time,  he  also  married,  and, 
thereby  losing  his  fellowship,  was  ap- 
pointed principal  of  New  Inn  hall ;  which 
office,  with  the  Vinerian  professorship,  he 
resigned  the  next  year.  In  1765,  he  also 
published  the  first  volume  of  his  Com- 
mentaries on  the  Laws  of  England ;  a 
work  of  greater  merit  than  any  which 
had  yet  appeared  on  the  subject.  In  this 
celebrated  production,  the  author  does 
}iot  confine  himself  to  the  humble  duty 
of  an  expositor,  but  aspires  to  the  higher 
character  of  a  philosophical  ^VTiter  on 
jurisprudence ;  and,  having  been  preceded 
by  no  authors  in  the  same  line,  his  man- 
ner of  accompUshing  his  task  is  entitled 
to  gi"eat  praise.  It  must  not,  however,  be 
regai-ded  as  a  philosophical  investigation 
into  the  grounds  and  merits  of  the  Eng- 
lish laws  and  constitution,  so  mu(A  as  an 
elegant  exposition  and  defence  of  an  ex- 
isting system.  Whatever  he  found  insti- 
tuted, it  was  his  pui-pose  to  support  and 
eulogise  ;  and  consequently  we  are  rather 
made  acquainted  with  the  "  legal  reasons" 
of  what  is  established,  than  instructed  in 
the  general  principles  of  national  legisla- 
tion. This  mode  of  treating  the  subject 
may  be,  in  some  degree,  useful,  by  con- 
veying a  due  notion  of  the  grounds  on 
which  government  and  usage  have  pro- 
ceeded, but,  of  course,  will  do  httle  to  ad- 
vance the  mind  of  a  nation,  and  often 
a  great  deal  to  nurture  prejudices  and 
impede  ameUoration.  Notwithstanding 
some  passages  against  standing  armies, 
and  in  exposition  of  the  progress  of  the 
influence  of  the  crown,  B.  is  uniformly 
the  advocate  of  prerogative,  and  very 
confined  in  his  notions  of  toleration.  On 
the  latter  ground,  he  was  involved,  on  the 
publication  of  his  Commentaries,  in  a  con- 
troversy with  Priestley  ;  and,  some  years 
afterwards,  his  political  principles  were 
assailed,  with  much  acuteness,  in  a  pub- 
hcation  entitled  a  Fragment  on  Govern- 
ment, now  known  to  be  the  work  of  Mr. 
Jeremy  Bentham.  In  the  debates  which 
took  place  on  the  Middlesex  election,  in 
relation  to  the  re^eligibility  of  an  expelled 
meml)er,  he  was  led  to  language  in  par- 
liament, against  the  tenor  of  which  Mr. 
James  Grenville,  with  great  adroitness, 
quoted  his  own  book,  and  he  was  also 
warmly  attacked  for  the  same  inconsis- 
tency by  Junius.  The  real  merit  and 
talents  of  B.,  backed  by  pohtical  tenden- 
cies, which  are  generally  favorable  to  ad- 
vancement, now  made  him  an  object  of 
ministerial  favor,  and  he  was  offered  the 
post  of  soUcitor-general,  in  1770,  and,  de- 
clining it,  was  made  one  of  the  justices  of 


126 


BLACKSTONE— BLAIK. 


common  pleas,  which  station  he  held 
until  his  death,  in  Februaiy,  1780,  in  his 
57th  year.  The  private  character  of  B. 
was  exceedingly  mild,  benevolent  and 
amiable ;  and  he  Avas  a  most  active  and 
intelligent  man  of  business,  in  which,  in- 
deed, he  all  his  life  delighted.  He  lelt  in 
MS.  two  volumes  of  reports,  which  have 
been  published  since  his  death,  and  are 
deemed  inadequate  to  his  reputation. 

Blackstoive  Canal  leads  from  Provi- 
dence, in  the  state  of  Rhode  Island,  to 
Worcester,  in  Massachusetts.  It  is  45 
miles  in  length,  and  follows,  in  the  great- 
est part  of  its  course,  the  valley  of  the 
Blackstone  or  Pawtucket  river,  from 
which  it  is  supplied  with  water.  The 
fall  from  the  summit,  at  Worcester,  to 
tide-water  at  Providence,  is  45lYVt)  f^^t^- 
There  are  48  locks,  which  are  built  of 
hammered  stone,  laid  in  water  lime,  each 
80  feet  long  and  10  feet  wide.  The  canal 
is  .34  feet  wide  at  the  surface  of  the  water, 
18  feet  at  the  bottom,  and  4  feet  deep.  It 
was  built  by  an  incoqjorated  companj', 
under  charters  from  the  legislatures  of 
Rhode  Island  and  Massachusetts,  at  a  cost 
of  about  $600,000.  It  was  finished  in 
the  autumn  of  1828. 

Bladensburg  ;  a  post-town  in  Prince 
George's  county,  Maryland,  on  the  east- 
cm  branch  of  the  Potomac,  6  miles  N.  E. 
Washington ;  Ion.  76°  57'  W. ;  lat.  38° 
56'  N.  It  contains  about  100  houses.  A 
battle  was  fought  here,  Aug.  24,  1814, 
between  the  English  and  Americans,  in 
which  the  latter  were  defeated.  This 
success  of  the  British  led  the  way  to  the 
conquest  and  burning  of  W^ashington. 

Blair,  Hugh,  a  pulpit  orator  and  au- 
thor, a  grandson  of  Robert  B.,  who,  under 
Charles  I,  boldly  defended  the  rights  of 
the  Presbyterian  church,  was  born  at  Ed- 
inburgh, in  1718,  and  prepared  himself 
for  tlie  ministry  in  the  university  of  that 
city.  His  teachers,  struck  by  an  essay  on 
the  Beautiful,  encouraged  his  inclination 
for  belles-lettres.  He  was  made  preacher 
of  the  high  church  of  Edinburgh  in  1758. 
The  office  was  regarded  as  the  highest 
dignity  of  the  Presbyterian  church  of 
Scotland.  About  the  same  time,  his  lit- 
erary reputation  also  commenced.  In 
1759,  he  began  a  course  of  public  lectures 
on  composition,  which  he  deUvered  with 
so  much  reputation,  that,  in  1762,  tlie 
king  founded  a  professorship  of  rhetoric 
and  belles-letti-es,  which  was  committed 
to  his  charge.  We  know  his  theory  of 
rhetoric  from  his  Lectures  on  Rhetoric 
and  Belles-Letters  (1783,  4, 2  vols.),  which 
have  been  translated  into  German.    The 


credit  of  Macpherson's  Ossian  Avas  zeal- 
ously supported  by  Blair,  in  a  dissertation 
which  gained  him  much  reputation.  His 
sermons  were  -considered  as  models  of 
English  pulpit  eloquence.  Careful  and 
scrupulous  as  he  Avas  in  writing  them,  he 
only  published  the  best.  They  are  dis- 
tinguislied  by  a  polished  style,  and  a 
clear,  easy  and  methodical  exposition. 
The  first  volume  of  his  sermons  Avas  not 
published  until  his  60th  year  (1777) ;  the 
10th  edition  Avas  called  for  in  the  follow- 
ing year.  He  subsequently  published 
another  collection,  Avhich  was  also  often 
reprinted.  B.  gave  Aveight  to  his  doc- 
trines by  his  OAvn  example.  He  labored 
for  the  welfare  of  his  church,  and  Avas 
ahvays  ready  to  give  counsel  and  assist- 
ance. He  was  a  kind  father,  an  affec- 
tionate friend  and  husband,  and,  by  his 
tranquil  and  contented  temper,  as  well  as 
by  his  simple  and  regular  manner  of  hv- 
ing,  enjoyed  the  highest  degi-ee  of  human 
happiness  to  a  great  age.  He  died  in 
1800. 

Blair,  John  ;  an  eminent  chronologist 
and  geographer,  a  native  of  Scotland, 
Avhich  country  he  quitted  for  London 
about  tlie  middle  of  the  last  century. 
Though  he  had  received  a  good  classical 
education  at  Edinburgh,  he  thought  him- 
self fortunate  in  obtaining  the  situation  of 
usher  in  a  school  in  Hedge  lane,  London. 
In  1754,  the  publication  of  a  AAorkin  folio, 
entitled  the  Chronology  and  History  of 
the  World,  from  the  Creation  to  A.  D. 
1753,  gained  him  gi-eat  reputation.  In 
the  composition  of  this  book,  he  is  said  to 
have  been  materially  assisted  by  his  rela- 
tion, doctor  Hugh  Blair.  In  it,  he  illus- 
trates his  subject  by  56  tables,  4  of  which 
are  introductoiy,  containing  the  centuries 
which  precede  the  fii"st  Olympiad.  He 
dedicated  his  Avork  to  the  lord  chancellor 
Hardwicke,  and,  in  1757,  Avas  appointed 
chaplain  to  the  princess  doAvager  of  Wales, 
and  mathematical  tutor  to  the  duke  of 
York,  Avhom  he  accompanied,  in  1763,  on 
a  tour  to  the  continent,  having  already 
received  several  ecclesiastical  preferments. 
On  his  return  to  England,  he  pubhshed, 
in  1768,  a  ncAV  edition  of  his  Chronologi- 
cal Tables,  with  14  maps  of  ancient  and 
modem  geography  annexed.  He  died 
June  24, 1782,  of  an  attack  of  uifluenza. 
After  his  death  were  pubhshed  his  Course 
of  Lectures  on  the  Canon  of  the  Old  Tes- 
tament, and  a  duodecimo  volume,  entitled 
the  Histor}'  of  Geography. 

Blair,  Robert ;  a  Scottish  clergATnan 
and  poet,  bom  at  Edinburgh,  in  1699. 
He    is  tlie  author  of  the    Grave,  first 


BLAIR— BLAKE. 


127 


printed  at  London,  in  1743.    He  died  in 
1746. 

Blake,  Robert,  a  celebrated  British 
admiral,  was  the  eldest  son  of  a  merchant 
in  tlie  Spanish  trade,  settled  at  Bridge- 
water,  where  B.  was  bom,  in  1599.  Af- 
ter attending  the  grammar-school  of  liis 
native  place,  he  was  sent  to  Wadham 
college,  Oxford,  where  he  took  the  de- 
gree of  B.  A.  in  1617.  On  his  return  to 
Bridgewater,  he  hved  for  some  time,  in  a 
private  manner,  on  the  fortune  left  him 
by  his  father,  and  was  led  by  the  gravity 
of  his  own  disposition,  and  by  his  family 
connexions,  to  embrace  the  principles  of 
the  Puritans,  by  whose  interest  he  was 
elected  member  for  Bridgewater,  in  the 
parliament  of  1640.  This  being  soon 
dissolved,  he  lost  his  election  tor  the  next, 
and  innnechately  sought  to  advance  the 
cause,  in  a  militmy  capacity,  in  the  war 
which  then  broke  out  between  the  king 
and  parliament.  He  soon  distinguished 
himself  by  his  activity.  In  1649,  in  the 
manner  of  those  times,  when  military 
men  often  seri'ed  on  shipboard,  he  was 
sent  to  command  the  fleet,  in  conjunction 
with  colonels  Deane  and  Popham,  and 
thus  commenced  the  naval  career  which 
has  given  him  so  distinguished  a  place  in 
British  histoiy.  He  innnediately  sailed 
to  Kinsale  in  quest  of  prince  Rupert, 
whom  he  attempted  to  block  up  in  that 
port.  The  prince,  contriving  to  get  his 
fleet  out,  escaped  to  Lisbon,  where  B. 
followed  him ;  and,  being  refused  per- 
mission to  attack  him  in  the  Tagus,  by 
the  king  of  Portugal,  he  took  several  rich 
prizes  from  the  Portuguese  (against  whom 
the  parliamentdeclaredwar),  and  tbllowed 
Rupert  to  Malaga,  where,  without  asking 
permission  of  Spain,  he  attacked  him, 
and  nearly  destroyed  the  whole  of  his 
fleet.  On  his  return  to  England,  he  was 
made  warden  of  the  Cinque  Ports,  and 
soon  after  reduced  the  islands  of  Scilly 
and  Guernsey.  In  1659,  on  the  prospect 
of  a  Dutch  war,  he  was  made  sole  admiral, 
and,  on  the  19th  of  May,  was  attacked  in 
the  Downs  by  van  Tromp,  with  a  fleet  of 
45  sail,  the  force  of  B.  amounting  only  to 
23.  He,  however,  fought  so  braveh',  that 
van  Tromp  was  obUged  to  retreat.  He 
then  continued  his  cruise,  took  a  number 
of  Dutch  merchantmen,  and,  after  several 
partial  actions,  di'ove  the  enemy  into  their 
harbor,  and  returned  to  the  Downs.  JMay 
29,  he  was  again  attacked  by  van  Tromp, 
whose  fleet  was  now  increased  to  80  sail. 
B.,  who  could  not  bear  the  thought  of  a 
retreat,  engaged  this  vast  force  with  a 
very  inferior  number,  and  an  unfavorable 


wind ;  but,  after  every  possible  exertion, 
was  obliged  to  retreat  into  the  Thames, 
on  which  van  Tromp  was  so  much  elat- 
ed, tliat  he  sailed  through  the  channel 
wth  a  broom  at  his  mast  head,  to  signify 
that  he  had  swept  the  sea  of  British  ships. 
In  the  February  following,  B.,  having 
with  great  diligence  repaired  his  fleet,  put 
to  sea  with  60  sail,  and  soon  after  met  the 
Dutch  admiral,  who  had  70  sail,  and  300 
merchantmen  under  convoy.  During 
three  days,  a  furious  nnming  fight  up  the 
chamiel  was  maintained  Avith  obstinate 
valor  on  both  sides ;  the  result  of  which 
was,  the  loss  of  11  men-of-war  and  30 
merchant-ships  by  the  Dutch,  while  that 
of  the  English  Avas  only  one  rnan-of-vvar. 
It  was  in  April,  this  year,  that  Cromwell 
assumed  the  sovereignt} ,  on  which  occa- 
sion, B.  and  his  brother  acknirals  issued 
a  declaration,  that,  notwithstanding  this 
change,  they  resolved  to  j>ei-sist  in  faith- 
fully performing  their  duty  to  the  nation. 
"  It  is  not  for  us  (said  B.  to  his  officers) 
to  mind  state  affaii-s,  but  to  keep  die 
foreigners  from  fooling  us."  June  3,  he 
again  engaged  van  Tromp  with  dubious 
success ;  but,  renewing  the  action  tlie 
next  day,  he  forced  die  Dutch  to  retire, 
with  a  considerable  loss  in  ships  and  men, 
into  their  own  harboi-s.  On  his  return, 
he  was  received  by  CromAvell  with  great 
resjicct,  and  returned  member  in  the  new 
])arliament  for  Bridgewater.  Awai-e  of 
his  affection  for  a  republican  government, 
the  protector  was  not  displeased  at  hav- 
ing occasion  to  send  him,  with  a  strong 
fleet,  to  enforce  a  due  respect  to  the  Eng- 
lish flag  in  the  IMediten-anean.  He  sailed 
first  to  Algiers,  which  submitted,  and 
then  demolished  the  castles  of  Goletta 
and  Porto  Fermo,  at  Tunis,  because  the 
dey  refiised  to  deliver  up  the  EngUsh 
ca])tives.  A  squadron  of  his  ships  also 
blocked  up  Cadiz,  and  intercepted  a 
Spanish  plate  fleet.  Being  now  very  sick, 
he  resolved  to  do  one  more  ser\'ice  to  his 
country  before  his  death,  and  sailed,  with 
24  ships,  to  Santa  Cruz,  in  Tenerift'e ;  and, 
notwithstanding  the  strength  of  the  place, 
burnt  the  ships  of  another  Spanish  plate 
fleet,  which  had  taken  shelter  there,  and, 
by  a  fortunate  change  of  wind,  came  out 
without  loss.  His  brother  having  failed 
in  some  part  of  duty  during  this  service, 
he  immediately  removed  him  from  his 
command.  Finding  his  disorder  making 
rapid  jirogi-ess,  he  then  sailed  for  Eng- 
land, and,  amidst  his  frequent  inquiries 
for  tlie  sight  of  the  English  coast,  expired 
while  the  fleet  was  entering  Plymouth 
sound,  August  27,  1657.    His  body  was 


128 


BLAKE— BLANCHARD. 


honored  with  a  magnificent  public  funer- 
al, and  interred  in  Henry  VII's  chapel, 
whence  it  was  pitifully  removed  at  the 
restoration,  and  buried  in  St.  Margaret's 
church-yard. — The  foregoing  detail  suf- 
ficiently evinces  the  bravery  and  talents 
of  this  able  commander,  who  first  deviat- 
ed from  the  old  practice  of  keeping  ships 
and  men  as  much  out  of  danger  as  possi- 
ble, and  gave  the  example  of  bold  and 
spirited  achievement.  So  disinterested 
was  he,  that,  after  all  his  rich  captures  and 
high  posts,  he  scarcely  left  behind  him 
£500  of  acquired  property,  freely  sharing 
all  with  his  fi-iends  and  seamen,  into 
whom  he  infused  that  intrepidity  and 
spirit  of  enterprise,  by  which  the  British 
navy  has  been  ever  since  so  highly  dis- 
tinguished. 

Blakelet,  Johnston,  a  captain  in  the 
U.  States  navy  during  the  late  war,  was 
bom  in  Ireland,  in  October,  1781.  Two 
yeai-s  after,  his  father,  Mr.  John  Blakeley, 
emigrated  to  the  U.  States,  and  settled  in 
Wilmington,  North  Carolina.  Young  B. 
was  placed,  in  1796,  at  the  university  of 
North  Carohna,  being  intended  for  the 
law.  His  father  died  the  year  after.  In 
the  year  1799,  circumstances  having  de- 
prived B.  of  the  means  of  support,  he  left 
college,  and,  the  next  year,  obtained  a 
midshipman's  warrant.  In  1813,  he  was 
made  a  master-commandant,  and  soon 
after  appointed  to  the  command  of  the 
Wasp.  In  this  vessel,  he  fell  in  with  his 
Britannic  majesty's  ship  Reindeer,  in  lat. 
48°  36'.  This  ship  he  took,  after  an 
action  of  19  minutes.  The  loss  of  the 
Americans  was  21  killed  and  wounded ; 
that  of  the  enemy,  67.  The  Reindeer 
was  cut  to  pieces  in  such  a  manner  as  to 
render  it  impossible  to  save  her ;  and  she 
was  accordingly  set  on  fire.  After  this, 
the  Wasp  put  into  L'Orient ;  fi-om  which 
port  she  sailed  August  27,  and,  four  days 
after^vards,  falling  in  with  10  sail  of  mer- 
chantmen, under  convoy  of  a  ship  of  the 
line,  she  succeeded  in  cutting  off"  one  of 
the  vessels. — The  evening  of  the  first  of 
September,  1814,  she  fell  in  with  four 
sail,  two  on  each  bow,  but  at  considerable 
distances  from  each  other.  The  firet  was 
the  brig-of-war  Avon,  which  struck  after 
a  severe  action  ;  but  captain  B.  could  not 
take  possession,  as  another  enemy  was 
approaching.  This  enemy,  it  seems,  how- 
ever, was  called  off"  to  the  assistance  of 
the  Avon,  which  was  now  sinking.  The 
enemy  reported  that  they  had  sunk  the 
Wasp  by  the  first  broadside ;  but  she  was 
afterwards  spoken  by  a  vessel  off"  the 
Western  Isles.    After  this,  we  hear  of 


her  no  more. — In  his  person,  captain  B. 
was  rather  below  the  middle  stature  ;  his 
eyes  black  and  expressive,  his  manners 
mild,  manly  and  unassuming.  Among 
liis  brother  officers,  he  was  considered  as 
a  man  of  imcommon  intellect,  courage, 
and  professional  skill.  He  was  married, 
in  December,  1813,  to  a  lady  of  New 
York ;  and  left  an  only  daughter,  who 
received  one  of  the  most  affecting  tributes 
of  pubUc  gratitude,  which  have  occurred 
in  the  history  of  the  U.  States.  The  legis- 
lature of  North  Carolina,  December  27, 
1816,  after  prescribing  the  destination  of 
the  sword  they  had  voted  to  captain  B., 
"Resolved,  unanimously,  that  captain 
Blakeley's  child  be  educated  at  the  expense 
of  this  state ;  and  that  Mrs.  Blakeley  be 
requested  to  draw  on  the  treasurer  of  this 
state,  from  time  to  time,  for  such  sums  of 
money  as  shall  be  required  for  the  edu- 
cation of  the  said  child." 

Blanc,  Mont.  (See  Mont  Blanc.) 
Blanchard,  Francois,  one  of  the  first 
aeronauts,  bom  at  Andelys,  in  the  depart- 
ment of  the  Eiu^,  in  1738,  was  fond  of 
mechanics  fi-om  his  youth,  and,  in  his  16th 
year,  invented  a  self-moving  carriage, 
in  which  he  rode  a  distance  of  18  miles. 
This  inventioni  which  he  unproved  in 
1778,  recommen(Jed  him  to  the  court  of 
Versailles.  He  displayed  equal  ingenuity, 
by  the  invention  of  a  hydraulic  machine, 
in  the  19th  year  of  his  age,  and,  after- 
wards, in  the  constmction  of  a  flying 
ship,  which,  by  means  of  a  counterpoise 
of  six  pounds,  was  raised  to  more  than  20 
feet  from  the  ground.  He  eagerly  availed 
himself  of  the  discoveries  of  the  brothers 
Montgolfier,  and  the  improvements  of  the 
same  by  professor  Charles  and  Robert  in 
Paris.  After  having  made  his  first  aeros- 
tatic voyage,  March  4,  1784,  he  crossed 
the  channel  from  Dover  to  Calais,  1785, 
.with  doctor  Jeffries,  a  gentleman  of  Bos- 
ton, in  the  U.  States.  For  this  exploit,  he 
was  rewarded,  by  the  king  of  France,  with 
a  present  of  12,000  francs,  and  a  pension 
of  1200.  In  the  same  year,  at  London, 
he  first  made  use  of  a  parachute,  invent- 
ed by  him,  or,  according  to  othei-s,  by 
Etienne  Montgolfier.  After  having  per- 
formed many  aerostatic  voyages  in  for- 
eign countries  also,  he  was  accused  of 
propagating  revolutionary  principles,  and 
imprisoned,  1793,  in  the  fortress  of  Kuf- 
stein,  in  the  Tyrol.  Having  obtained  his 
liberty,  he  made  his  46th  ascent  in  the 
city  of  New  York,  1796.  In  1798,  he 
ascended,  with  16  pei-sons,  in  a  large  bal- 
loon, at  Rouen,  and  descended  at  a  place 
15  miles  distant.    In  1807,  his  aerostatio 


BLANCH.\RD— BLASPHEMY. 


129 


voyages  amounted  to  more  than  G6.  lie 
died  in  1^09.  Madame  Blanchard  con- 
tinued to  make  aerial  voyages.  In  1811, 
she  ascended  in  Rome,  and,  after  gouig  a 
distance  of  60  miles,  she  rose  again  to 
proceed  to  Naples.  In  June,  1819,  hav- 
ing ascended  from  Tivoh,  in  Paris,  her 
balloon  took  fire,  at  a  considerable  height, 
owing  to  some  fire-works  which  she  car- 
ried with  her.  The  gondola  fell  down  in 
the  rue  de  Pi'Ovence,  and  the  hapless  aer- 
onaut was  dashed  to  pieces. 

Blanco,  Cape  (Uterally,  fVhite  cape) ;  a 
name  given  to  a  gi'eat  number  of  capes 
by  the  Spaniards,  Portuguese  and  Ital- 
ians. It  corresponds  to  the  French  cap 
Blanc.  The  name  is  as  common  and  as 
unphilosophical  as  tliat  of  White  hill, 
Black  river,  &c. 

Blank  Verse,  in  modem poetiy ;  verses 
without  rhyme ;  e.  g.,  3Iilton's  Paradise 
Lost  Only  those  languages  which  dis- 
tinguish long  and  short  syllables  can  em- 
ploy it.     (See  Verse.) 

Blangini,  Giusepjje  Marco  Maria  Fe- 
lice, born  at  Turin,  1781,  studied  under 
the  abbot  Ottani,  chapel-master  in  the 
cathedral  there.  In  his  12th  or  13th  year, 
he  accompanied  tlie  choir  of  this  church 
on  the  organ.  At  the  age  of  14  years,  he 
executed  a  mass,  with  a  complete  orches- 
tra. In  1799,  he  went  to  Paris,  gave  les- 
sons in  singing,  and  was  soon  employed 
as  a  comjK)ser.  The  completion  of  the 
False  Duenna,  an  opera,  left  unfinished 
by  Delia  IMaria,  was  intrusted  to  him ; 
and  soon  after  appeared  his  Zelie  and 
Tei-ville,  A'aphlhali,  and  other  operas.  His 
concerts,  in  which  he  accompanied  his 
own  singing  with  much  taste  and  expres- 
sion, were  the  resort  of  all  musical  con- 
noisseur and  amateurs.  Having,  in  1805, 
been  invited  to  Munich,  he  executed  an 
opera  there,  in  consequence  of  whicli  the 
king  of  Bavaria  appointed  him  his  chapel- 
master.  In  1806,  the  princess  Borghcse 
appointed  him  her  director  of  music  and 
master  of  concerts;  and,  in  1809,  after  the 
departure  of  Reichardt,  the  king  of  West- 
phalia invited  him,  in  the  same  capacity, 
to  Casscl.  After  the  expulsion  of  the 
Westphalian  court,  he  lived  in  3Iunich, 
Avhere  he  composed  and  performed  his 
Trajan  in Dacia.  Some  time  after,  he  went 
to  Paris,  where  he  is  still  living.  Besides 
many  comic  and  heroic  ojieras,  we  have 
a  collection  of  pleasing  ballads,  nottumos, 
Italian  airs,  and  charming  duets,  composed 
by  him.  In  Italy,  he  is  called  the  Jlna- 
creon  of  music. 

Blasphemy  is  somewhat  variously  de- 
fined. According  to  the  more  general  defi- 


nition, it  means  the  denying  tlie  existence 
of  God ;  assigning  to  him  false  attributes,  or 
denying  his  true  attributes;  speaking  irrev- 
erently of  the  mysteries  of  religion  ;  and, 
formerly,  in  Catholic  countries,  it  also  ui- 
cluded  the  speaking  contemptuously  or 
disrespectfully  of  the  Holy  Virgin  or  the 
saints.  Public  blasphemy  has  been  consid- 
ered, bj'  the  church  of  Rome,  as  an  unpar- 
donable sin  ;  and  it  was,  formerly,  punish- 
ed with  death  by  the  municipal  laws.  The 
77th  novel  of  Justinian  assigned  this  pun- 
ishment to  it ;  and  the  capitularies  inflict- 
ed the  same  punishment  upon  such  as, 
knowing  of  an  act  of  blasphemy,  did  not 
denounce  the  offender.  The  former  laws 
of  France  punished  this  crime  with  fine, 
corjjoreal  punishment,  the  gallows  and 
death,  according  to  the  degree  and  aggra- 
vation of  the  olience.  The  records  of  the 
parliaments  supply  numerous  instances  of 
condemnation  for  this  crime,  and  many 
of  punishment  by  death  ;  others  of  brand- 
ing and  mutilation.  A  man  was,  for  this 
offence,  condemned  to  be  hanged,  and 
to  have  his  tongue  afterwaids  cut  out, 
and  tiie  sentence  was  executed  at  Orleans, 
as  late  as  1748.  But  it  is  very  justly  re- 
marked by  a  ^^Titer  in  the  French  En- 
cyclopedic Moderne,  that  we  should  form 
an  eiToneous  opinion,  from  the  pres- 
ent state  of  society,  of  the  effect  of  this 
oftence,  and  the  disorders  it  might  intro- 
duce in  former  times;  for  religion  was 
once  so  intimately  blended  with  the  gov- 
ernment and  laws,  that  to  treat  the  re- 
ceived articles  of  faith  or  religious  cere- 
monies with  disrespect,  was,  in  effect,  to 
attack  civil  institutions.  The  French  code 
provides  no  punishment  for  blasphemy ; 
but  a  law  has  been  enacted,  since  the  res- 
toration of  the  Bourbons,  which  places  it 
again  on  the  list  of  criminal  offences.  By 
the  common  law  of  England,  blasphemies 
of  God,  as  denying  his  being  and  provi- 
dence, all  contumelious  reproaches  of 
Jesus  Christ,  &c.,  are  punishable  by  fine, 
imprisonment,  ])ilior\",  &c.;  and,  bv  the 
statute  of  9  and  10  William  III,  cIj.  32, 
if  any  one  shall  deny  either  of  the  Persons 
of  the  Trinity  to  be  God,  or  assert  that 
there  are  more  gods  than  one,  he  shall  be 
incapable  of  holding  any  office  ;  and,  for 
a  second  offence,  he  disabled  from  suing 
any  action,  or  being  an  executor,  and  suf- 
fer three  years'  imprisonment.  By  the 
statute  of  53  Geo.  Ill,  ch.  160,  the  words 
in  Italics  were  omitted.  This  law  was 
an  infringement  of  the  hbeity  of  con- 
science, and  certainly  could  not  now  be 
pmctically  enforced  m  England,  since 
some  of  the  doctrines  of  some  sects  of 


130 


BLASPHEMY— BLEMMYES. 


Christians,  openly  and  habitually  incul- 
cated in  their  public  assembhes,  would  be 
violations  of  it.  This  was,  no  doubt,  tlie 
reason  of  omitting  the  part  of  the  statute 
above  referred  to.  The  early  legislation 
of  the  American  colonies  followed  that  of 
the  mother  countiy,  and,  in  some  of  them, 
tlie  crime  of  blasphemy  was  punished 
with  death;  but  tlie  penalty  was  mitigated 
l)efore  the  establishment  of  the  indepen- 
dence of  the  states,  and  imprisonment, 
Mhipping,  setting  on  the  ga]lo\vs,  or  m 
tlie  j)iIlor}',  having  the  tongue  bored  with 
a  red-hot  iron,  &c.  were  substituted.  The 
statutory  provisions  of  the  different  states 
on  this  subject  are  very  various.  In  sonie 
of  iliem,  tlie  offence  of  blasphemy  is  dis- 
tinguished from  that  of  profane  swearing ; 
in  others,  blasphemy  is  not  mentioned  as 
a  distinct  offence.  Several  penalties 
against  blasphemy  are  to  be  found  in  the 
laws  of  some  of  the  New  England  States ; 
according  to  which  it  is  provided  that,  if 
any  persons  shall  blaspheme,  by  denying, 
cursing,  or  contumeliously  reproaching 
God,  his  creation,  government,  or  final 
judging  of  the  world,  or  by  cursing  or  re-  • 
proaching  Jesus  Christ  or  the  Holy  Ghost, 
or  contumehously  reproaching  the  word  of 
God,  consisting  of  the  commonly  received 
books  of  the  Old  and  New  Testament,  he 
is  liable  to  imprisonment  for  a  tenn  not 
exceeding  five  years.  But  the  most  direct 
and  pubhc  violations  of  these  laws  arc 
passed  over  without  punishment  or  pros- 
ecution. In  many,  and,  we  beheve,  the 
greater  number  of  the  states,  the  offence 
of  blasphemy,  not  being  a  subject  of  spe- 
cial statutory  provision,  is  only  punishable 
either  as  an  offence  at  common  law,  or  a 
violation  of  the  statute  laws  against  pro- 
fene  swearing.  The  offence,  considered 
only  as  a  violation  of  positive  statutes, 
would  be  Uable  to  a  great  diversity  of 
punishment  m  the  different  states,  from  a 
fine  of  two  shillings  and  six  pence,  in 
some,  to  an  imprisonment  not  exceeding 
a  period  of  five  years  in  others.  Viewing 
this  subject  in  a  philosophical,  religious  or 
pohtical  view,  it  would  be  difficult  to  lay 
down  any  general  principles  applicable 
to  different  states  of  society ;  but  the  pre- 
vailing principle  on  this  subject  in  the  U. 
States,  and  that  to  wliich  tlie  laws  and 
opinions  of  other  countries  are  strongly 
tending,  is,  that  any  one  may  profess  or  op- 
pose any  doctrine,  provided  he  inculcates 
his  principles,  whether  orally  or  in  writing, 
in  such  manner  as  not  to  commit  a  flagrant 
violation  of  decorum:  what  acts  or  words 
will  constitute  such  an  outrage  must  evi- 
dently depend  upon  the  state  of  the  society. 


Blasting  ;  the  technical  ternj  for  split- 
ting any  object  by  means  of  gunpowder. 

Blazoning,  or  Blazonry,  in  heraldry  j 
the  deciphering  of  coats  of  arms,  from 
the  Gennan  blasen,  to  blow,  because  the 
herald  blew  a  trumpet,  and  called  out  the 
arms  of  a  knight,  when  he  entered  the 
hsts  at  a  tournament.     (See  Heraldry.) 

Bleaching  is  the  art  of  whitenmg  lin- 
en, wool,  cotton,  silk,  wax,  also  the  mate- 
rials of  v^'liich  paper  is  made,  and  other 
things.  It  is  shown,  by  experience,  that 
organic  bodies,  after  being  deprived  of 
life,  and  becoming  sohd  and  dry,  lose 
their  color,  and  become  white  by  the  influ- 
ence of  the  air  and  the  sun-beams.  Upon 
this  fact,  the  manner  of  bleaching,  which 
was  fbnnerly  in  use,  is  grounded :  since, 
however,  the  bleaching  in  the  sun  com- 
monly requires  a  whole  summer,  Berthol- 
let,  in  the  year  1786,  first  proposed  the  use 
of  chlorine.  This,  it  is  known,  has  so  lit- 
tle corrosive  power,  that,  if  diluted,  it  may 
be  taken  inwardly  in  a  considerable  quan- 
tity. This  method  has  since  been  much 
improved,  principally  by  Watt.  It  has 
been  found,  however,  that  hnen  certainly 
may  suffer,  if  too  much  acid  is  apphed. 
In  England,  this  acid,  when  used  to 
bleach  linen,  is  mixed  with  one  half  of 
muriate  of  hme  dissolved  in  water.  The 
quantity  of  this  salt  requisite  for  bleach- 
ing is  very  different,  according  to  the  dif- 
ferent quality  of  linen.  Commonly,  the 
12th  or  20th  part  of  the  weight  of  the  hn- 
en is  employed.  In  manufactories  of  lin- 
en and  cotton  goods,  the  yarn  or  cloth 
passes  through  a  number  of  successive 
processes,  the  principal  of  which  are  the 
steeping,  in  which  the  goods  are  ferment- 
ed in  an  acescent  liquid,  at  a  temperature 
of  about  100  degrees  Fahr.;  the  bucking 
and  boiling,  in  wliich  a  hot  alkaline  lie  is 
made  to  percolate  through  them  for  some 
time ;  the  souring,  performed  with  diluted 
sulphuric  acid ;  the  bleaching  with  chlo- 
rine, in  which  the  stuff  is  exposed  to  the 
action  of  some  compound  of  that  sub- 
stance, usually  chloride  of  lime,  called 
bleaching  salt.  Various  mechanical  ope- 
rations, washings  and  repetitions  of  the 
processes  are  commonly  practised  to  com- 
plete the  discharge  of  the  color.  The 
fibres  of  wool  and  silk  are  not  bleached 
by  chlorine,  but,  after  being  deprived  of 
the  saponaceous  or  gummy  matter  which 
adheres  to  them,  are  exposed  to  the  fumes 
of  burning  sulphur  to  discharge  their  color. 

Blemmyes,  or  Blemtes  ;  a  fabulous 
people  of  Ethiopia,  without  heads,  their 
eyes,  mouths,  &c.  being  placed  hi  their 
breasts.    A  barbarous  tribe  of  this  name 


BLEMMYES— BLENHEIM. 


131 


appeared  in  the  3d  century  as  the  ally  of 
the  Egyptians  against  Diocletian.  With 
a  view  of  opposing  to  the  B.  a  suitable 
adversan',  Diocletian  persuaded  the  No- 
batae,  a  i)eople  of  Nubia,  to  remove  from 
their  ancient  habitations  in  the  deserts  of 
Lil»ya,  and  resigned  to  them  an  extensive 
but  unprofitable  territory,  above  Syene 
and  the  cataracts  of  the  Nile. 

Ble:vde.     (See  Zinc.) 

Blenheim,  or  Blindheim  ;  a  village  sit- 
uated in  the  circle  of  the  Upper  Danube, 
hi  Bavaria,  on  the  Danube.  Here  was 
fouglit,  Aug.  13,  1704,  the  famous  battle 
of  Blenheim,  or,  as  it  is  nioi-e  commonly 
called  on  the  European  continent,  the 
battle  of  Hochstddt,  from  another  village 
of  this  name  in  the  vicinity.  Louis  XIV, 
in  the  war  of  the  Spanish  succession,  had 
to  contend  with  Holland,  England,  Aus- 
tria, Savoy,  Portugal  and  the  German 
emj)h-e;  The  elector  of  Bavaria  was  his 
only  ally  ;  but,  as  the  temtories  of  this 
prince  were  contiguous  to  Austria,  which, 
on  that  side,  was  unprotected,  he  was  die 
more  to  be  feared,  especially  as  he  was 
an  active  and  warlike  prince,  who  took 
tlie  field  himself,  and,  in  case  of  success, 
could  open  the  way  to  Vienna  for  the 
French  armies.  Sept.  20,  1703,  he  de- 
feated, near  Hochstadt,  a  village  in  the 
vicinity  of  Donawert,  the  imperial  'gen- 
eral Stynim,  and  took  the  fortress  of 
Passau.  But  his  dissensions  with  the 
upright  and  unyielding  French  marshal 
Villars  prevented  him  from  reaping,  in 
the  same  year,  all  the  fruits  which  this 
victoiy  might  other\vise  have  afforded 
him.  Villars  was  ordered  to  cede  the 
chief  command  to  marshal  Tallard,  who 
overcame,  on  the  Rhine,  near  Spire,  the 
margrave  Louis  of  Baden,  and  rendered 
the  situation  of  the  hereditary  states  of 
Austria  very  dangerous.  Marlborough, 
however,  the  soul  of  this  whole  war,  in 
the  field  and  in  the  cabinet,  formed  tlie 
plan  of  deciding  the  fate  of  the  contest 
on  the  Danube.  Italy,  Flanders  and  the 
Lower  Rhine  were  to  be  defended  only; 
but  the  decisive  blow  was  to  be  struck  in 
tlie  south  of  Gennany,  whither  the  best 
imperial  troops  marched,  under  Eugene, 
from  the  Rhine.  IMarlborough  attacked 
the  Bavarian  intrenchments,  July  2,  after 
a  violent  combat  on  the  Schellenberg,  and 
made  his  way  over  the  Danube,  in  order 
to  be  able  to  occupy  the  territoiy  of  the 
elector  of  Bavaria,  if  circumstances  re- 
_ quired  it  But,  for  this  latter  purpose,  the 
gaming  of  a  decisive  battle  was  mdis- 
pensable,  since,  without  it,  the  invasion  of 
Bavaria  would  have  been  a  hazardous 


enterprise,  and  a  long  delay,  after  the 
manner  of  carrj'ing  on  wai-  in  those 
times,  required  well-filled  and  secure 
magazines.  The  French  and  Bavarian 
armies  were  drawn  into  an  engagement, 
Aug.  13,  1704,  under  the  most  unfavora- 
ble circumstances.  Both  these  armies 
were  posted,  under  the  command  of  Tal- 
lard, Marsin,  and  the  elector  of  Bavaria 
himself,  between  the  village  of  B.  and 
that  of  Kinzingen,  behind  the  Nebelbach, 
a  small  stream  emptying  hito  the  Dan- 
ube, which  was  on  their  right  flank. 
They  amounted  to  56,000  men,  whilst 
the  forces  of  Marlborough  and  Eugene 
were  about  52,000.  The  first  had  thrown 
their  troops  cliiefly  into  the  two  villages, 
which  they  considered  as  points  of  sup- 
port for  their  wings,  though  they  were  at 
too  great  a  distance  in  front  of  their  main 
position.  A  large  proportion  of  cavahy 
was  in  the  centre,  since  each  army,  tlie 
Bavarian  as  well  as  the  French,  had  their 
horse  on  their  wings,  and  in  diis  way 
those  of  tAvo  wings  must  necessarily  join 
each  other.  Both  the  commanders  would 
undoubtedly  have  perceived  and  coirect- 
ed  this  mistake,  as  Tallard  had  in  B. 
alone,  27  battalions  of  infantry ;  but  they 
expected  so  httle  to  be  attacked,  that 
when  the  fine  of  the  alhes  began  to 
move,  Aug.  13,  at  2  o'clock  in  the  morn- 
ing, they  supposed  them  to  be  marching 
off.  The  greatest  part  of  their  cavalry 
was  sent  to  forage.  Even  at  7  o'clock, 
when  the  heads  of  the  eight  columns, 
with  which  Eugene  and  Marlborough 
advanced  towards  the  Nebelbach,  were 
to  be  seen,  Tallard  thought  the  whole 
a  stratagem  intended  to  cover  the  re- 
treat ;  but  he  soon  saw  his  error.  The 
dispersed  troops  were  recalled  in  the 
greatest  hurry,  and  tlie  cannon  were 
drawn  up  hi  line.  The  Frelich  and  Ba- 
varians made  every  exertion  to  prevent 
the  passage  of  the  enemy  over  the  Nebel- 
bach, and  tlie  capture  of  the  two  villages, 
the  conquest  of  which  was  considered,  by 
]\Iarlborough  and  Eugene,  as  decisive. 
Their  line  of  attack  was  uncommonly 
long,  about  4i  miles.  Marlborough,  in 
order  to  secure  his  right  wing,  attacked 
B.,  but  witliout  success :  he  then  changed 
his  plan,  and  tlirew  himself,  with  his 
principal  forces,  into  the  wide  inter\'al 
between  the  right  wing  and  die  centre  of 
the  enemy,  leaving  only  as  many  troops 
before  B.  as  were  necessary  to  check  the 
body  which  occupied  diis  position.  At 
5  o'clock  in  tlie  afternoon,  he  succeeded, 
after  great  efforts,  m  passing  the  Nebel- 
bach, by  wliich  his  victory  was  decided. 


132 


BLENHEIM— BLIGHT. 


The  French,  in  the  centre,  were  obh'ged 
to  retreat:  their  example  was  followed 
by  the  Bavarians  on  the  left  wing,  who, 
for  a  long  time,  hud  resisted  the  inipetu- 
OU8  attacks  of  prince  Eugene.  Marlbor- 
ough, uistead  of  pursuing  the  retreating 
enemy,  ])laced  himself  between  tlie  line 
of  reti"eat  and  the  position  of  B.,  guarded 
Ijy  18,000  men," who  were  thus  cut  off 
fit>m  assistance,  and  forced  to  surrender. 
The  cavalry  was  routed  by  the  fire  of  the 
English  cannon  and  musketrj' ;  and  a 
large  part  of  tlie  defeated  army  remained 
dead  on  tlie  field  of  battle  (which  was 
covei-ed  with  more  than  11,000  corpses), 
or  were  made  prisoners.  Tallard  him- 
self was  among  the  prisoners ;  his  son 
was  killed.  The  consequences  of  the 
battle  were  decisive.  Bavaria,  as  Marl- 
borough had  anticipated,  fell  into  the 
power  of  Austria.  Fortune  deserted 
Louis  XIV,  as  it  did  Napoleon  after  the 
battle  of  Leipsic,  and,  though  he  was  able 
to  continue  the  war  for  almost  10  years 
longer,  it  was  o^ving  to  the  dissensions 
among  the  allies  themselves,  who  con- 
tended about  the  best  use  of  the  victory 
till  the  opportunity  to  use  it  was  lost 
(See  Marlborough.) 

B1.ESSING,  or  Benediction.  The  ex- 
pression of  wishing  one  well  soon  gave 
rise,  in  early  ages,  to  a  solemn  act,  accom- 
panied, like  other  solemnities  of  those  pe- 
riods, by  symbolic  signs;  this  was  the 
blessiTig  or  benediction.  In  the  patriarchal 
times,  when  the  authority  of  the  head  of 
a  family  included  that  of  the  priest  and 
the  civil  ruler,  the  blessing  of  course  ap- 
pertained chiefly  to  him,  on  account  of 
his  venerable  character,  and,  when  the 
priests  began  to  form  a  separate  class,  be- 
came, in  certahi  cases,  a  prerogative  of 
theirs.  As  the  authority  of  the  father,  in 
the  infancy  of  every  nation,  is  extremely 
great,  tlie  idea  soon  sprung  up,  that  his 
prayers,  invoking  the  favor  of  tlie  Deity, 
were  more  effectual  than  those  of  others, 
and  that  whatever  he  blessed  would  be 
likely  to  receive  the  favor  of  God.  The 
same  importance  was  soon  attributed  to 
blessings  conferred  by  a  priest.  The 
heathens,  the  Jews,  and  many  Chris- 
tian sects,  have  cherished  this  idea.  By 
the  JcAvish  institutions,  certain  benedic- 
tions were  reserved  to  the  priest :  the  same 
is  the  case  in  the  Catholic  church,  in 
which  different  benedictions  are  appro- 
priated to  different  degrees  of  the  clergj-. 
We  shall  mention  only  a  few  of  thein. 
The  Catholic  bishops  alone  can  confer 
those  benedictions  which  are  connected 
with  onctioD,  and  are  called  consecrations. 


as,  for  instance,  the  consecration  of  kings 
and  queens,  of  the  cup  and  patera,  the 
church  and  altar.  To  them,  also,  is  con- 
fined the  benediction  of  abbots  and  ab- 
besses, of  knights,  and  the  holy  oil.  For 
the  benediction  of  the  holy  vestments, 
&c.,  they  may  employ  a  substitute.  Every 
Catholic  clergyman  may  confer  the  bene- 
diction Jianpiak  (that  of  betrothment) ; 
also,  the  marriage  benediction ;  may  bless 
the  fi-uits  of  the  earth,  and  the  holy  water. 
The  benediction  of  a  bishop  is  eagerly 
sought  for  by  a  faithful  Catholic,  as  con- 
tributing peculiarly  to  his  spiritual  wel- 
fare ;  and  the  Catholic  clergy,  in  general, 
use  the  benediction  as  a  salutation,  or  re- 
ward for  a  service,  &c.  When  the  pope 
rides  or  walks  out,  the  Catholics  kn«el 
to  receive  his  blessing,  which  he  gives  by 
a  motion  of  his  hand.  In  his  antecham- 
ber are  often  seen  things  of  different 
kinds,  rosaries,  &c.,  in  large  quantities, 
which  he  blesses  in  passing  by.  The 
CathoUc  church  blesses  things  animate 
and  inanimate,  and  this  is  beheved  by 
many  to  preserve  them  fi-om  sickness,  in-i 
jury,  &c.  (See  ^gnes,  St.)  Among  sever- 
al Protestant  sects,  the  benediction,  at  the 
close  of  the  sermon,  is  in  the  form  given 
by  Moses.  This  is  the  case  with  the  Lu- 
therans. CathoUcs,  in  many  cases,  use 
the  consecrated  water  in  giving  the  bene- 
diction. 

"  Blight;  a  general  name  for  various 
distempers  incident  to  com  and  fruit- 
trees.  The  tenn  has  been  used  in  a  very 
vague  and  indefinite  manner.  The  origin 
of  the  disease  has  been  variously  account- 
ed for.  There  appear  to  be  at  least  three 
distinct  species  of  it.  The  first  originates 
in  cold  and  fi-osty  winds,  in  spring,  which 
nip  and  destroy  the  tender  shoots  of  the 
plant,  by  stopping  the  current  of  the 
juices.  The  leaves  wither  and  fall ;  the 
juices  burst  the  vessels,  and  become  the 
food  of  numerous  insects,  which  are  often 
mistaken  for  the  cause  of  the  disease, 
while  they  are  really  an  effect  of  it.  The 
second  species  originates  in  a  sultry  and 
pestilential  vapor,  and  happens  in  sum- 
mer, when  the  grain  has  attained  its  full 
growth.  The  third  originates  in  fiingi^ 
which  attack  the  leaves  or  stem  of  herba- 
ceous and  woody  plants ;  but  more  gen- 
erally grasses,  and  particularly  the  most 
useful  grains.  It  generally  assumes  the 
appearance  of  a  rusty-looking  powder, 
which  soils  the  finger  when  touched. 
There  aie  several  sorts  of  these  fungi, 
known  to  farmers  under  the  names  of 
red  rust,  red  gum,  &c.  The  only  means 
of  preventing  the  effect  of  blight  is  proper 


BLIGHT— BLIND. 


133 


CTihure.     Palliatives  are  to  be  found  in 
topical  applications. 

BlIxVD,  the;  such  as  are  deprived  of 
their  siglit.  The  loss  of  the  noblest 
sense,  by  means  of  which  man  receives 
an  idea  of  the  world  that  surrounds  him, 
clothed  in  light  and  color,  is  an  event  as 
melancholy  as  it  is  frequent.  Bimdness 
is  difterent,  I.  in  its  degrees,  soine  per- 
sons being  pariialiy  blind,  retaining  a 
slight  perception  of  light,  with  the  power 
of  distinguishing  very  brilliant  colors,  and 
the  general  oudines  of  bodies;  others  be- 
ing entirely  deprived  of  the  faculty  of 
seeing ;  2.  in  its  causes :  some  men  are 
blind  from  their  birth ;  others  have  be- 
come blind  by  local  diseases  of  the  eyes, 
for  uistance,  by  inflammation,  suppura- 
tion, cancer  of  the  eye-ball,  spots,  films, 
tumors  on  the  cornea  (by  which  its  trans- 
parency is  desti-oyed),  also  by  closure  of 
the  i)upil,  by  a  turbid  state  of  the  hu- 
mors, by  a  debility  of  the  optic  nerve,  or 
by  general  diseases  of  the  body,  violent 
fevers,  nervous  fevers,  j)lethora  and  ten- 
dency of  the  blood  to  the  head,  erysipelas 
in  the  face,  small-pox,  scarlet  fever,  &c., 
or  by  excessive  exertion  of  the  eyes,  by 
which  the  optic  nerve  is  enfeebled ;  for 
which  reason,  some  classes  of  mechanics 
and  artists,  as  blacksmiths,  laborers  in 
glass  and  smelting-houses,  watch-makers, 
&c.  not  unfrequently  lose  their  sight,  and, 
in  northern  countries,  which  are  covered 
with  snow  for  a  long  time,  and  which 
dazzle  the  eyes  by  the  reflection  of  the 
sunbeams,  as  well  as  in  the  sandy  deserts 
of  Africa,  bUndness  is  a  frequent  com- 
plaint. Old  age  is  sometimes  accompa- 
nied with  blindness,  occasioned  by  the 
drying  up  of  the  humors  of  the  eye,  or  by 
the  opacity  of  the  cornea,  the  cr}'stalline 
lens,  &c.  There  are  several  causes 
which  produce  blhidness  from  the  birth. 
Sometimes  the  eyelids  adhere  to  each 
other  or  to  the  e}e-ball  itself,  or  a  mem- 
brane covers  the  eyes ;  sometimes  the 
pupil  of  the  eye  is  closed,  or  adheres  to 
the  cornea,  or  is  not  situated  in  the  right 
place,  so  that  the  rays  of  light  do  hot  fall 
in  the  middle  of  the  eye ;  besides  other 
defects.  Those  who  are  bot-n  blind  have 
no  idea  of  vision,  and  are  entirely  desti- 
tute of  all  the  ideas  derived  from  the 
sense  of  sight.  They  cannot,  therefore, 
be  sensible  of  their  misfortune  in  the 
same  degree  as  those  who  have  lost  their 
sight  at  a  later  period.  Experience  has 
shown,  that  those  who  acquire  the  power 
of  seeing  after  being  bom  blind,  or  having 
lost  their  sight  in  tlieir  childhood,  form 
very  different  ideas  of  visible  objects  from 

VOL.  11.  12 


other  persons.  A  young  man,  whom 
Cheselden  couched  for  a  catai-act,  at  tlie 
moment  he  received  sight,  imagined  that 
all  the  objects  which  he  saw  were  in 
contact  with  his  eyes :  he  could  not  dis- 
tinguish objects,  although  of  very  differ- 
ent forms.  Those  with  which  he  was 
already  familiar,  by  the  touch,  he  exam- 
ined with  great  attention,  in  order  to 
recognise  them  another  time ;  but,  having 
too  many  things  to  notice  at  once,  he 
soon  forgot  all  that  he  had  observed.  He 
wondered  that  those  persons  whom  he 
loved  most  were  not  handsomer  than 
others.  Before  he  received  his  sight,  he 
had  expressed  a  great  desire  to  obtain 
this  sense.  The  other  senses  of  persons, 
who  have  been  bhnd  for  a  long  time,  be- 
come more  exquisite,  perhaps,  because 
they  are  not  subject  to  the  distraction 
produced  by  the  sight  of  so  many  objects. 
The  blind,  therefore,  are  often  distin- 
guished for  a  remarkable  mental  activity, 
and  a  wonderful  developement  of  the  in- 
tellectual powers.  Their  touch  and  hear- 
ing, particulaily,  become  very  acute. 
Thus  it  is  related  of  a  bhnd  man,  who 
lived  at  Puisaux,  in  France,  and  was  a 
chemist  and  musician,  that  he  could  ac- 
ciu-ately  estimate  the  proportions  of  ob- 
jects, could  judge  of  the  distance  of  fire 
by  the  degree  of  heat,  determine  the 
quantity  of  fluid  in  vessels  by  the  sound 
it  produced  while  running  from  one  ves- 
sel mto  another,  and  the  proximity  of 
objects  by  the  effect  of  the  air  upon  his 
face.  He  determined  very  accurately  the 
weights  of  bodies  and  the  capacities  of 
vessels.  The  celebrated  Saunderson,  pro- 
fessor of  mathematics  at  Cambridge,  los^ 
his  sight  in  his  early  youth.  He  invented 
several  processes  to  facihtate  his  studies 
m  arithmetic  and  geometry.  His  sense 
of  touch  was  so  acute,  that  he  distin- 
guished spurious  coins  merely  by  letting 
them  pass  through  his  fingers,  though 
they  were  so  well  executed,  that  even 
skilful  judges  were  deceived  by  them. 

Blind,  I>'stitution3  for  the.  In  the 
case  of  persons  destitute  of  sight,  it  is 
necessary  to  have  recourse  to  the  other 
senses  to  supply  the  want  of  the  eye.  If, 
for  instance,  we  wish  to  teach  them  the 
arts  of  reading  and  Avriting,  letters  must 
be  prepai-ed,  which  vnW  be  palpable  to 
the  touch,  and  the  hand  guided  until  they 
are  able  to  copy  them.  If  we  wish  to 
communicate  to  them  a  knowledge  of  the 
surface  of  the  earth,  globes  and  maps 
must  be  prepared  with  the  divisions,  &c., 
in  relief.  Knowledge  obtained  in  this 
way  must,  of  course,  be  acquired  much 


134 


BLIND. 


more  slowly  than  that  received  by  the 
sight.  The  senses  of  toucli  and  of  sight 
differ  in  this  respect,  that  the  former  as- 
cends by  degrees  from  tlie  perception  of 
parts  to  die  perception  of  the  whole, 
whilst  the  latter  views  the  whole  at  a 
single  glance.  It  is,  tlierefore,  evident, 
that  the  blind  cannot  be  instructed  in 
the  common  schools  destined  for  those 
who  see :  in  the  first  place,  because  tlie 
means  of  instruction  by  the  touch  are 
wanting ;  and  secondly,  because  the  prog- 
ress of  die  other  children  would  be  re- 
tarded by  the  slow  apprehension  of  the 
blind  pupils.  For  these  reasons,  and  as 
the  blind  form  no  small  part  of  the  popu- 
lation of  every  country,  particular  institu- 
tions have,  in  many  places,  been  establish- 
ed for  their  instruction.  In  Prussia,  diey 
amount  to  more  than  13,000  souls.  Zeune, 
in  his  Belisar  (1821,  p.  12  et  seq.),  has 
laid  dowTi,  as  a  general  law,  deduced  from 
obsen^ation,  that  die  proportion  of  bUnd 
persons  decreases  from  die  equator  to- 
wards the  poles.  In  Egypt,  he  says,  it  is 
as  1  to  100,  while  in  Norway  the  proportion 
is  1  to  1000. — The  instruction  given  in 
the  schools  for  the  blind  aims,  first,  at  a 
general  cultivation  of  their  intellectual  fac- 
ulties. They  are  afterwards  taught  some 
art  which  may  enable  them  to  provide 
for  their  own  subsistence.  These  arts 
are  of  two  kinds — mechanical  employ- 
ments and  music.  The  instrucdon  of  the 
bhnd,  therefore,  embraces  three  branches 
— ^1.  mechanical  labors ;  2.  the  fine  arts ; 
3.  science ;  because  it  is  impossible  to 
determine,  without  trial,  the  peculiar 
genius  of  tlie  pupils,  whether,  for  instance, 
they  should  be  instructed  as  mechanics, 
musicians,  or  mathematicians.  The  Ger- 
man institutions  for  the  blind,  as  well  as 
those  in  Paris,  have  this  comprehensive 
character,  whilst  the  English  aim,  more 
exclusively,  to  impart  instruction  in  me- 
chanical trades.  The  firet  idea  of  such 
an  institution  for  blind  persons  was  con- 
ceived by  Valentin  HaUy,  brother  of  the 
celebrated  mineralogist :  it  was  suggested 
to  him  by  his  acquaintance  with  a  blind 
German  lady,  the  baroness  von  Paradis, 
of  Vienna,  who  visited  Paris  in  1780,  and 
performed  on  the  organ  with  general  ap- 
plause. HaQy  repeatedly  visited  this  in- 
genious lady,  and  was  much  surprised  to 
find  in  her  apartments  several  contrivances 
for  the  instruction  of  the  bUnd ;  for  in- 
8t6uice,  embroidered  maps  and  a  pocket 
printing-apparatus,  by  m^ans  of  which 
she  corresponded  with  von  Kempelen,  in 
Vienna  (the  inventor  of  the  chess-player 
and   speaking  automaton),  and  widi  a 


learned  blind  gentleman,  named  Weissen- 
burg,  at  Manheim.  HaUy  compared  the 
high  cultivation  of  these  two  Germans 
wth  the  degraded  state  of  the  blind  in 
France,  where,  at  the  annual  fair  of  St- 
Ovide,  an  innkeeper  had  collected  10  poor 
blind  jjcrsons,  attired  in  a  ridiculous  man- 
ner, and  decorated  with  asses'  ears,  pea- 
cocks' tails,  and  spectacles  without  glasses, 
to  perform  a  burlesque  concert.  Nor  did 
the  great  institution  for  the  bhnd,  or  the 
hospital  of  the  300  (commonly  called  les 
quinze-vingt,  founded,  in  1260,  by  St.  Louis, 
after  his  crusade  to  Egvpt,  during  which 
so  many  soldiers  became  blind  by  the  oph- 
thalmia, prevailing  in  that  countrj),  pre- 
sent to  tlie  philanthropic  Hauy  a  pleasing 
picture  of  intellectual  cultivation ;  radier 
a  scene  of  dulness  and  moral  corruption. 
He,  therefore,  resolved  to  do  for  the 
bhnd  in  France  what  die  abb6  de  l'Ep6e 
had  done  for  the  deaf  and  dumb.  In 
1784,  he  opened  an  institution,  in  which 
they  were  instructed,  not  only  in  appro- 
priate mechanical  employments,  as  spin- 
ning, knitting,  making  ropes  or  fringes, 
and  working  in  paste-board,  but  also  in 
music,  in  reading,  writing,  ciphering, 
geography  and  the  sciences.  For  this 
purpose,  he  invented  particular  means  of 
insti'uction,  resembling  those  with  which 
he  had  become  acquainted  by  his  inter- 
course with  the  two  bhnd  Germans 
Paradis  and  Weissenburg.  For  instruc- 
4ion  in  reading,  he  procured  raised  letters 
of  metal,  from  which,  also,  impressions 
may  be  taken  ob  paper :  for  writing,  he 
used  particular  writing-cases,  in  which  a 
frame,  with  wires  to  separate  the  lines, 
could  be  fastened  upon  the  paper :  for 
ciphering,  there  were  movable  figures  of 
metal  and  ciphering-boards,  m  which  the 
figures  could  be  fixed :  for  teaching  geog- 
raphy, maps  were  prepared,  upon  which 
mountains,  rivers,  cities,  and  the  borders 
of  countries,  were  embroidered  in  various 
ways,  &c.  In  the  beginning,  the  phi- 
lanthropic society  paid  the  expenses  of 
12 blind  persons;  afterwards,  in  1791, the 
institution  was  taken  under  the  protection 
of  the  state,  and  united  to  that  for  the 
deaf  and  dumb ;  but,  as  this  was  found 
inconvenient,  it  was,  in  1795,  separated 
from  the  latter,  and,  in  1801,  united  to 
the  hospital  of  the  quinze-vingt.  The 
mingUng  of  young  blind  persons  here  with 
old  soldiers  being  found  very  prejudicial 
to  the  fonner,  HaQy,  full  of  mdignation, 
went  to  Petersburg,  in  1806,  in  order  to 
establish  a  similar  institution  diere.  After 
the  restoration,  in  1815,  the  estabhshment 
was  put  upon  its  original  footing,  and  the 


BLIND— BLINDS. 


135 


physician  doctor  Guillie  appointed  its 
director. — Next  to  France,  the  first  insti- 
tutions for  the  blind  were  estabhslied  in 
Great  Britain,  where,  however,  they  are 
supported  only  by  the  contributions  of 
private  individiials.  In  1790,  an  institu- 
tion of  this  sort  was  established  at  Liver- 
pool, in  which  both  males  and  females  are 
instructed  in  manual  labors,  in  singing 
hymns,  and  playing  on  the  organ.  In 
1791,  a  second  one  was  established  in 
Edinburgh,  in  which  the  making  of  bas- 
kets and  ropes  is  the  principal  occupation. 
Similar  institutions  ]iave  since  arisen  in 
other  places  ;  one  at  London,  in  1800 ;  also 
at  Dublin,  Bristol  and  Norwich. — In  Ger- 
many, the  fii-st  pul)Iic  institution  for  the 
blind  was  established  by  the  king  of  Prus- 
sia at  Berlin,  in  1806,  when  Ilafiy  passed 
through  this  citVi  Zeune  was  appointed 
director  of  it.  He  invented  many  instru- 
ments more  simple  than  those  which  had 
formerly  been  used,  and  which  answered 
the  purpose  veiy  well.  Among  other 
things,  he  brought  to  great  perfection 
maps  and  globes,  destined  for  the  use  of 
the  blind  ;  which,  in  many  parts  of  Eu- 
rope, are  used  for  the  instruction  of  others 
also,  since  they  present,  by  means  of 
elevations  and  depressions  of  the  sur- 
face, proportional  elevations  and  pictures, 
which  strike  the  mind  foi'cibly.  In  arith- 
metic, he  directed  his  attention  almost 
exclusively  to  mental  calculations.  The 
fii-st  institutions  for  tlie  blind  in  Gennany, 
after  that  in  Berlin,  were  established  in 
Vienna  and  Prague,  both  in  1808,  and,  in 
tlie  same  year,  that  in  Amsterdam,  found- 
ed by  free-masons.  In  1809,  the  institu- 
tion in  Dresden  sprang  up— a  branch  of 
that  in  Berlin.  In  1810,  the  institution 
in  Zurich  was  founded  by  the  auxiliary 
society.  In  1811,  a  similar  establishment 
was  instituted  in  Copenhagen,  after  the 
plan  of  professor  Brorson,  by  the  society 
of  the  chain,  as  it  is  called,  ( Verein  der 
Kette).  After  the  great  war  for  Uberty, 
from  181-3  to  15,  when  the  Egyptian  oph- 
thalmia raged  so  dreadfiiUy  among  the 
European  annies,  several  institutions  for 
blind  soldiers  were  established,  on  Zeune'a 
plan,  in  Prussia.  Their  object  was  to 
instruct  soldiers  who  had  become  bUnd, 
and  unable  to  exercise  their  former  busi- 
ness, in  useful  labors.  These  schools 
were,  at  first,  intended  to  continue  only  till 
all  the  soldiers  received  in  them  had 
thoroughly  learned  some  trade:  two  of 
them,  however,  those  at  Breslau  and  K6- 
nigsberg,  have  been  put  upon  a  perma- 
nent footing.  The  institution  for  the 
blind  in  Petersburg,  which  was  established 


by  HaQy,  but  was  never  in  a  very  pros- 
perous state,  seems  to  have  decUned 
greatly,  after  its  founder's  return  to 
France,  in  1816.  The  name  of  its  present 
director  is  Martin  Pilazki.  Whether  the 
institution  projected  at  Barcelona,  in 
1820,  has  been  established,  or  whether  it 
survived  the  political  stonus  of  that  year, 
or  the  yellow  fever  of  the  succeeding, 
we  do  not  know.  Institutions  for  the 
blind  are  confined  almost  entirely  to  Eu- 
rope, and  they  appear  to  be  peculiar  to 
Germany,  Switzerland,  Holland,  Den- 
mark, France,  England  and  Russia.  Fa- 
ther Charlevoix,  indeed,  says,  that,  in  Ja- 
pan, the  records  of  the  empire  are  com- 
mitted to  the  memory  of  the  blind  ;  and 
Golownin  estimates  their  number  in  the 
gigantic  city  of  Jeddo,  alone,  at  36,000 ; 
but  neither  of  them  mentions  that  there 
is  any  institution  established  for  them. 
The  director  of  the  institution  in  Vienna, 
F.  W.  Klein,  has  published  a  good  Lehr- 
huch  zum  Lfnterrichte  der  Blinden,  &c, 
um  sie  zu  biirgerlicher  Brauchbarkeit  zu 
bilden  (Elementary  Work  for  the  Instruc- 
tion of  the  Blind,  &c.,  to  render  them 
usefitl  Citizens). — The  first,  and,  as  yet, 
the  only  institution  of  the  kind  in  Ameri- 
ca, was  commenced'  in  Boston,  in  the 
year  1829.  In  the  beginning  of  that  year, 
an  act  of  incorporation  was  granted,  by 
the  legislature  of  Massachusetts,  to  several 
gentlemen,  authorizing  them  to  establish 
the  New  England  Asylum  for  the  BUnd, 
for  the  purpose  of  educating  bhnd  per- 
sons. This  institution  will  go  into  opera- 
tion as  soon  as  the  necessary  funds  shall 
be  obtained. 

BiixDS,  in  o])erations  against  fortresses ; 
the  name  of  all  preparations  which  tend  to 
intercept  the  view  of  the  enemy.  There 
are  several  species : — 1.  A  fascine  placed 
across  the  embrasures,  to  prevent  the 
enemy  fi-om  obsei-ving  what  passes  near 
the  cannon. — 2.  Blmds  before  port-holes 
are  shuttere  made  of  strong  planks,  which 
are  placed  before  the  port-holes,  as  soon 
as  thp  gvms  are  discharged,  to  obstruct  the 
enemy's  view. — 3.  Single  and  double 
blinds.  The  former.consist  of  three  strong, 
perpendicular  posts,  5  feet  in  height,  be- 
tween which  are  planks  covered  with 
iron  plates  on  the  outside,  and  thus  made 
shot-proof.  This  screen  is  funiished  with 
rollei-s,  to  enable  the  laborers  in  the 
trenches  to  push  it  before  them.  The  latter 
consist  of  large  wooden  chests,  on  four 
block-wheels,  which  are  filled  with  earth, 
or  bags  of  sand,  and  serve  likewise  in  the 
trenches,  &c.,  to  cover  the  soldiers  from 
tlie  fire  of  tlie  enemy. — 4.  Another  kind 


136 


BLINDS— BLOCKS. 


of  blinds  used  to  protect  the  workmen  in 
the  trenches,  are  the  chandeUers.  Two 
square  beams  of  timber  are  placed  paral- 
lel, and  at  a  distance  of  six  feet,  on  the 
ground,  and  fastened  by  two  cross  beams. 
Upon  the  ends,  perpendicular  posts  are 
erected,  and  the  interval  is  filled  uj)  with 
fascines,  at  least  to  a  height  of  five  feet. — 
5.  BliTui  is  also  the  name  given  to  cov- 
erings placed  over  tlie  most  exposed 
parts  in  the  saps  or  the  fortress.  These 
are  made  of  beams,  over  which  hurdles 
or  fascines  are  spread,  that  finally  receive 
a  sufficiently  thick  layer  of  earth  as  a 
cover. 

Blister;  a  topical  application,  which, 
when  applied  to  the  skin,  raises  the  cuti- 
cle in  the  form  of  a  vesicle,  filled  with 
serous  fluid.  The  powder  of  the  cantha- 
ris,  or  Spanish  fly,  operates  with  most 
certainty  and  expedition,  and  is  now  in- 
variably used  for  this  i)urpose.  Morbid 
action  may  ofl;en  be  removed  from  the 
system  by  inducing  an  action  of  a  differ- 
ent kind  in  the  same  or  a  neighboring 
part ;  henfce  the  utility  of  blisters  in  lo- 
cal inflammation  and  spasmodic  action. 
Exciting  one  pain  ofl^en  relieves  another ; 
hence  the  use  of  blisters  in  tooth-ache,  and 
some  other  painful  affections.  Lastly,  blis- 
ters communicate  a  stimulus  to  the  whole 
system,  and  raise  the  vigor  of  the  circula- 
tion ;  hence,  in  part,  their  utility  in  fevere 
of  the  typhoid  kind,  though,  in  such  cases, 
they  are  used  with  still  more  advantage 
to  obviate  or  remove  local  inflammation. 

Block,  Marcus  EHezer;  a  naturalist 
of  Jewish  descent,  bom  at  Anspach, 
in  1723,  of  poor  parents.  In  the  19th 
year  of  his  age,  he  understood  neither  Ger- 
man nor  Latin,  nor  had  he,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  some  rabbinical  writings,  read 
any  thing.  Nevertheless,  he  became  tu- 
tor in  the  house  of  a  Jewish  surgeon  in 
Hamburg.  Here  he  learned  German 
and  Latin,  and,  besides,  acquired  some 
knowledge  of  anatomy.  His  principal 
woi-k  is  the  JVaturgeschicJite  der  Fische 
(Natural  History  of  Fishes),  fol.,  1785 — 
1799,  which  is  adorned  with  many  col- 
ored plates.  He  enjoyed  a  well-deserved 
reputation,  and  died  in  1799. 

Blockade  is  the  interception  by  one 
belligerent  of  communication  with  a  place 
occupied  by  another.  National  sovereign- 
ty confers  the  right  of  declarmg  war,  and 
the  right  which  nations  at  war  have  of 
destroying  or  c&pturing  each  other's  sub- 
jects or  goods,  imposes  on  neutral  nations 
the  obligation  not  to  interfere  with  the 
exercise  of  this  right  within  the  rules  and 
limits  prescribed  by  the  law  of  nations. 


In  order  to  render  the  communication 
with  a  place  unlawful  to  a  neutral,  a 
blockading  or  besieging  force  must  be 
actually  present,  investing  it,  and  suf- 
ficiently jjowerful  to  render  a  commujii- 
cation  with  it  dangerous  to  a  neutral,  and 
expose  him  to  seizure  by  the  blockading 
or  besieging  force.  A  declaration  of 
siege  or  blockade  is  an  act  of  sovereign- 
ty, but  does  not  require,  in  all  cases,  a  di- 
rect declaration  by  the  sovereign  authori- 
ty of  the  besieging  belligerent;  for  its 
officei-s  may  be  invested,  either  expressly, 
or  by  implication,  with  authority  to  insti- 
tute such  siege  or  blockade.  It  must, 
however,  in  order  to  be  lawfid  and  obli- 
gatory on  neutrals,  be  declared,  or  sanc- 
tioned, either  expressly,  or  by  implication, 
by  the  sovereign  power.  It  must  also  be 
declared  or  made  public,  so  that  neutrals 
may  have  notice  of  it.  If  a  blockade  is 
instituted  by  a  sufficient  authority,  and 
maintained  by  a  sufiicient  force,  a  neu- 
tral is  so  far  affected  by  it,  that,  if  he  at- 
tempts to  trade  with  the  place  invested, 
either  by  carrying  goods  to  it  or  bringing 
them  away,  the  property  so  attempted  to 
be  carried  to,  or  from  the  place,  is  hable 
to  be  seized  by  the  investing  party,  and, 
in  case  of  being  seized,  is  forfeited. 

Blockhouse,  in  fortification ;  a  house 
made  of  beams,  joined  together  crosswise, 
and  often  doubled,  with  a  covering  and 
loop-holes,  large  enough  for  25 — 100  men. 
In  addition  to  this,,  it  is  commonly  cover- 
ed with  earth,  to  render  it  entirely  bomb 
and  fire-proof  It  is  usually  sunk  several 
feet  into  the  ground.  Some  foils  of  this 
kind  contain  two  stories;  and  they  are 
often  fitted  up  to  receive  cannon.  Block- 
houses are  generally  built  in  the  form  of 
a  square  or  a  cross.  Their  use  is  to  afford 
a  feeble  garrison  of  an  important  place, 
which  is  very  much  exposed,  an  op])or- 
tunity  of  holding  out  against  the  cannon- 
ade and  assault  of  the  enemy  till  they  are 
relieved.  They  also  serve  for  bomb-proof 
guard-houses,  and  places  of  last  resort,  in 
the  interior  of  intrenchments,  and  in  the 
covered  passages  of  fbrtressae,  where  the 
cannon  are  stationed. 

Blocks  are  pieces  of  wood  in  which 
sheaves  or  pulleys  are  placed,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  forming  tackle,  purchases,  &c.,  in 
various  operations  in  naval  tactics  and 
architectural  constructions.  The  me- 
chanical power  is  described  in  the  article 
Pulley,  (q.  v.)  Blocks  are  single,  double, 
treble,  and  fourfold,  according  as  the 
number  of  sheaves  is  one,  two,  three  or 
four.  The  sheaves  are  grooved  to  re- 
ceive the  rope,  and  have  in  their  centre  a 


BLOCKS— BLOMFIELD. 


137 


brass  bush,  or  triangular  piece  of  bra&s,  to 
receive  tlie  pin  on  which  they  revolve. 
The  sides  of  the  block  are  called  cheeks. 
A  running  block  is  attached  to  tlio  object 
to  be  moved ;  a  standing  block  is  fixed  to 
some  permanent  support  Blocks  also 
receive  different  denominations  from  their 
shape,  piu-pose  and  mode  of  application, 
whicli  cannot  well  be  explained  without 
the  use  of  figures.  No  le^  than  200  dif- 
ferent sorts  and  sizes  are  made  at  Ports- 
mouth, England,  for  the  royal  navy,  be- 
sides wJiich  there  are  .various  sorts  used 
only  in  the  merchant-ships.  The  ma- 
chinery for  supplying  tlie  royal  navy  with 
blocks  is  the  invention  of  Mr.  Brunei,  an 
American  artist.  It  enables  4  men,  in  a 
given  time,  to  complete  the  shells  of  as 
many  blocks  as  50  men  could  do  by  the 
old  method. 

Bloemart,  sometimes  also  Blom,  Abra- 
ham, a  Dutch  painter,  born  at  Gorcum, 
in  15(35,  died  at  Utrecht,  in  1647.  His 
paintings  are  reproached  with  various 
faults,  yet  he  is  distinguished  by  the  bril- 
liancy of  liis  coloring  and  the  richness  of 
his  invention.  In  the  representation  of 
the  chiaro  oscuro,  he  may  be  called  great. 
He  painted  all  sorts  of  objects;  but  his 
landscapes  are  the  most  esteemed.  He 
liad  four  sons,  of  whom  the  youngest, 
Cornelius,  is  the  most  distinguished.  He 
was  bom  at  Utrecht,  in  1603,  and  died  at 
Rome,  in  1680.  He  was  an  engraver,  and 
his  engravings  are  distinguished  for  puri- 
ty, elegance  and  softness.  He  was  the 
founder  of  a  new  school,  from  which  pro- 
ceeded Baudot,  Poilly,  Chasteau,  Speier, 
Iloullet,  &c. 

Blois  (anciently,  Blesce,  and  Castrum 
Blesense) ;  a  city  of  France,  and  capital  of 
Loir-and-Cher ;  36  miles  S.  W.  Orleans ; 
lon.l°20'E.;  lat.  47°  35' N. ;  pop.,  13,054. 
Before  the  revolution,  it  was  a  bishoj»'s 
see,  tlie  seat  of  a  lieutenant-general,  a 
grand  bailiwick,  and  capital  of  the  Blai- 
sois,  once  the  abode  of  the  kings  of  France. 
B.  has  been  several  times  conspicuous  in 
French  history.  There  are  several  foun- 
tains in  different  parts  of  the  town,  sup- 
]>lied  by  an  aqueduct,  supposed  to  have 
been  erected  by  the  Romans. 

Blomfield,  Charles  James ;  doctor  of 
philology,  born  at  Bury  St.  Edmund's,  in 
Suffolk,  in  1786.  In  180,4,  he  entered 
Trinity  college,  Cambridge,  where  he 
distinguished  himself,  not  only  in  the 
usual  examinations,  but  also  in  the  public 
disi)utations.  The  univei-sity,  therefore, 
granted  him,  in  1806,  one  of  the  scholar- 
sliips,  founded  by  lord  Craven — a  high 
acaidemical  honor.     In  1808,  when  he 


received  the  bachelor's  degree,  be  was 
declared  third  wrangler,  and  obtained  the 
firet  medal  for  a  prize  poem.  Not  long 
after,  he  ])ublished  a  new  edition  of  the 
Prometheus  of  iEschylus,  and,  in  1809, 
was  chosen  fellow  of  his  college.  Hia 
bterary  reputation  soon  spread;  and,  in 
1810,  lord  Bristol  conferred  on  him  the 
living  of  Quamngton,  in  Lincolnshire. 
Lord  Spencer,  one  of  the  first  patrons  of 
literature  in  England,  also  voluntarily 
])resented  him  with  another  at  Dunton. 
There  he  remained  seven  years,  during 
which  time  he  published  editions  of  sev- 
eral of  the  plays  of  ^schylus,  among 
them  the  Prometlieus  (which  he  had 
])rinted  once  before),  the  Seven  before 
Thebes,  the  Ptrsa  and  ^Igamemnon ;  also 
a  new  edition  of  Callimachus,  and,  after- 
wards, in  connexion  with  T.  Rennel,  the 
Musoe  Cantabrigienses.  In  1812,  he  edited, 
ivith  professor  Monk,  the  Posthumous 
Tracts  of  Porson.  He  likewise  puMished, 
in  1814,  the  Adversaria  Porsoni.  These 
works  gained  him  such  a  reputation,  that 
lord  Bristol  conferred  on  him  the  livings 
of  Great  and  Little  Chesterford,  in  Essex, 
on  which  account,  with  the  permission  of 
his  patrons,  he  exchanged  his  cure  at  Dun- 
ton  for  that  of  Tuddenham,  in  Suffolk, 
To  the  fame  which  his  philological  and 
theological  studies  procured  hun,  he  was 
also  indebted,  in  1819,  for  the  office  of 
chaplain  to  the  bishop  of  London — a 
choice  which  always  falls  on  a  man  of 
acknowledged  ability,  it  being  his  duty  to 
examine  tlie  candidates,  previously  to  their 
ordination  in  this  diocese.  Places  of  this 
sort  generally  lead  to  high  promotions  in 
the  church,  and  B.  soon  after  received 
the  living  of  St  Botolph's.  Since  that 
time,  he  has  lived  in  London,  visits  in  the 
first  circles,  and  supports  an  establishment 
suitable  to  his  income,  which  is  said  to 
amount  to  £8000.  Among  his  latest  liter- 
ary labors,  the  continuation  of  his  edition 
of  .^schylns  is  the  most  important 

Blomfield,  Edward  Valentine,  brother 
of  the  former,  born  in  1788,  studied  in 
Caius  college,  at  Cambridge,  and  excited 
tlie  highest  expectations.  Among  several 
prizes  which  he  received,  we  may  men- 
tion the  medal  assigned  him,  in  1809,  for 
his  beautiful  ode,  /?i  Desiderium  Porsoni, 
In  1812,  a  fellowship  in  Emmanuel  col- 
lege \^a3  conferred  on  him.  In  1813,  he 
visited  Germany,  where  he  acquired  a 
good  knowledge  of  the  German  language, 
and  became  acquainted  with  Wolf  in  Ber- 
lin, and  Schneider  in  Breslau.  After  his 
return,  he  wrote  in  the  Museum  criticum, 
or  Cambridge  Classical  Researches  (Pt  2), 


138 


BLOMFIELD— BLOOD. 


remarks  on  German  literature,  wliich 
were  received  with  approbation.  Tlie 
university  of  Cambridge  appointed  hira 
one  of  the  preachers  at  St.  Mary's  church. 
He  began  a  translation  of  Schneider's 
Griechisch-devisches  Lexicon,  but  did  not 
live  to  finish  it.  Matthise's  Griechische 
Grammatik,  however,  he  translated  com- 

i)letely.  His  translation  was  published  by 
lis  brother,  and  eveiy  where  well  receiv- 
ed. He  was  in  Switzerland,  in  J816,  witli 
his  pupil,  a  young  nobleman,  and,  in  his 
haste  to  return  to  Cambridge,  on  hearing 
that  he  was  appointed  proctor  for  the  fol- 
lowing year,  the  fatigue  of  rapid  travelling 
occasioned  a  sickness,  of  which  he  died 
in  October,  1816. 

Blondel  ;  a  confidential  sei-vant  and  in- 
structer  in  music  of  Richard  Coeur  de  Lion 
of  England,  about  the  year  1190.  While 
his  master  was  the  prisoner  of  the  duke  of 
Austria,  B.  went  tlirough  Palestine,  and 
all  parts  of  Germany,  in  search  of  him. 
He  understood,  it  is  said,  that  a  prisoner 
of  rank  was  confined  in  Lowenstein  cas- 
tle, and  hastened  thither.  Placing  him- 
self under  a  gi-ated  tower,  he  began  to 
sing  one  of  the  French  lays  which  he 
had  formerly  composed  for  Richard. 
Scarcely  had  he  finished  the  first  stanza, 
when  a  voice  fix)m  the  dungeon  of  the 
tower  responded.  Thus  he  discovered 
his  king,  deUvered  hun,  and  gained  the 
name  of  the  faithful  Blondel.  Gr^try's 
fine  opera,  Richard  Coeur  de  Lion,  is 
founded  on  this  anecdote. 

Blood,  Thomas  (commonly  called  colo- 
nel Blood ),  was  a  disbanded  ofiicer  of  Oli- 
ver Cromwell.  He  took  part  in  the  revolu- 
tion in  various  ways,  and  made  an  attempt 
to  steal  the  crown  and  regaha  from  the 
Tower,  in  which  he  almost  succeeded. 
Being,  however,  taken,  he  confessed  his 
purpose,  without  showing  the  least  fear 
of  death.  Charles  II,  from  idle  curiosity, 
went  to  see  him,  and  B.  persuaded  the 
monarch  to  pardon  him.  Charles  even 
bestowed  an  estate  with  £500  a  year  upon 
him,  whilst  poor  Edwards,  the  keeper  of 
the  jewel-office,  who  vaUantly  defended 
the  crown,  and  was  wounded,  lived  for- 
gotten. 

Blood  is  the  red  fluid  contained  in  the 
blood-vessels  (q.  v.)  of  animal  bodies.  It 
is  found  in  the  mammalia,  in  birds,  in 
reptiles  and  in  fishes.  In  the  last  two 
classes  of  animals,  the  teniperature  of  the 
blood  is  much  lower  than  in  the  fonner, 
for  which  reason  they  are  distinguished 
by  the  name  cold-blooded,  while  the  others 
are  termed  warm-blooded  animals.  Insects 
and  worms,  instead  of  red  blood,  have  a 


juice  of  a  whitish  color,  which  is  called 
white  blood.  In  the  blood,  two  different 
substances  are  contained,  which  are  sepa- 
rated by  coagulation — the  serum,  a  fluid 
like  the  while  of  an  egg,  and  a  thick  mat- 
ter, to  which  tlie  red  color  properly  be- 
longs, which  is  much  heavier  than  the 
former,  and  is  called  the  coagvdum. 
The  last  may  be  divided  again  into  two 
different  parts — into  the  cruor,  or  that 
part  of  the  blood  which  is  intrinsically 
red,  and  coagulable,  and  lymph  or Jibrine,  to 
which  the  coagulation  of  the  blood  must 
be  ascribed.  The  Jibrine,  in  young  ani- 
mals, is  much  whiter  than  in  older  and 
stronger  ones.  The  blood  of  the  latter 
contains  much  more  azote  than  that  of 
the  former.  If  the  nourishment  of  ani- 
mals is  changed,  we  also  find  an  altera- 
tion in  the  constituent  paits  of  their  blood. 
It  is  also  changed  by  diseases.  In  ani- 
mals that  are  hunted  to  death,  or  killed 
by  lightning,  the  blood  does  not  coagulate.  > 
The  blood  of  birds  is  more  highly  col- 
ored, and  warmer,  than  that  of  viviparous 
animals,  and  coagulates  more  easily  in  the 
air.  That  of  reptiles  and  fishes  coagulates 
with  difficulty.  Aided  by  magnifying 
glasses  of  a  strong  power,  one  may  ob- 
serve, in  examining  the  blood  of  the  living 
animal,  or  in  blood  which  is  newly  drawn, 
that  it  consists,  especially  the  cruor,  of 
little  globular  bubbles,  the  globules  of  the 
blood,  as  they  are  called,  the  diameter  of 
which  amounts  to  about  the  three  hun- 
dredth part  of  a  line.  In  blood  that  has 
been  drawn  some  time,  altliough  this  time 
may  be  very  short,  they  are  not  to  be  dis- 
covered. They  are  the  effect  of  the  life 
that  pervades  the  blood.  The  more  robust 
and  healthy  an  animal  is,  the  more  glob- 
ules are  perceived.  They  show,  as  it 
were,  the  transition  from  the  formless 
liquid  to  the  original  form  of  the  first 
organized  matter.  The  blood  is  of  the 
greatest  importance  to  the  life  of  an  ani- 
mal, and  may  be  considered  as  the  source 
of  life.  As  long  as  the  body  is  living, 
the  blood  is  in  perpetual  motion.  When 
it  is  taken  out  of  the  body,  a  remarkable 
change  soon  follows :  it  begins  to  coagu- 
late, and  then  undergoes,  first  an  acetous, 
and,  afl;er  a  few  days,  a  putrid  fermenta- 
tion. All  the  blood  takes  its  origin  from 
the  chyle,  and  deposits,  by  degrees,  the 
nourishing  particles  requisite  to  the  pres- 
ervation and  growth  of  the  body,  by  a 
multitude  of-vessels  adapted  thereto.  This 
is  done  while  it  is  driven  from  tlie  heart 
into  the  remotest  parts  of  the  body,  and 
from  thence  back.  The  circulation  of  the 
blood  is,  as  it  were,  the  principle  and  first 


BLOOD— BLOOD-VESSELS. 


139 


condition  of  life.  With  it,  except  in  cases 
of  fainting,  suffocation,  &c.,  life  ceases. 
The  heart,  the  centre  of  the  circulation 
of  the  blood,  has  a  two-fold  motion,  of 
contraction  and  dilatation,  which  constant- 
ly alternate.  With  the  heart  two  kinds  of 
vessels  are  connected — the  arteries  and  the 
veins.  [See  Blood- Vessels.)  The  circula- 
tion of  the  blood  proceeds  -with  an  aston- 
ishing rapidity :  did  it  flow  at  an  equal 
rate  in  a  straight  line,  it  would  run,  in  the 
space  of  one  minute,  through  149  feet. 
This  swiftness,  however,  exists  only  in 
the  larger  vessels  near  the  heart ;  the  far- 
ther the  blood  recedes  from  the  heart,  the 
slower  its  motion  becomes.  In  a  grown- 
up person,  in  good  health,  we  may  reck- 
on the  mass  of  blood  at  24 — 30  pounds. 
Blood-  Vessels  are  the  tubes  or  vessels 
in  which  the  blood  circulates.  They  are 
divided  into  two  classes, — arteries  and 
veuis, — which  have  two  points  of  union 
or  connexion — the  first  in  the  heart,  from 
which  they  both  originate,  and  the  other 
in  the  ;ninute  vessels  or  net-work,  in 
which  they  terminate.  The  arteries  arise 
from  the  heait,  and  convey  the  blood  to 
all  parts  of  the  body ;  the  veins  return  it 
to  the  heart.  The  arteries  distribute 
throughout  the  body  a  pure,  red  blood, 
for  the  purposes  of  nourishment ;  While 
tlie  veins  return  to  the  heart  a  dark-col- 
oi-ed  blood,  more  or  less  loaded  with  im- 
purities, and  deprived  of  some  of  its  valu- 
able properties.  But  this  is  not  returned 
again  to  the  body  in  the  same  state.  For 
the  heart  is  wisely  divided  into  two  por- 
tions or  sides,  a  right  and  left,  one  of 
which  receives  the  impure  blood  fi'om 
the  veins,  and  sends  it  to  the  lungs  to  be 
defecated  and  freshly  suppUed  with  oxy- 
gen or  vital  air,  while  the  other  receives 
the  pure  red  blood  from  the  lungs,  and 
circulates  it  anew  through  the  arteries. 
The  arteries  arise  from  the  left  ventricle 
of  the  heart  by  one  large  trunk,  nearly  an 
inch  in  diameter,  which  is  gradually  sub- 
divided into  smaller  ones,  as  it  proceeds 
towards  the  limbs,  till  they  termmate,  at 
last,  in  vessels  so  small  as  to  be  almost 
invisible,  and  in  a  fine  net-work  of  cells, 
extending  through  the  whole  body,  in 
which  tlie  blood  is  poured  out,  and  nutri- 
tion or  the  increase  of  the  body  takes 
place,  and  from  which  the  residue  is 
taken  up  by  the  small  veins,  to  be  re- 
turned to  the  heart.  The  arteries  and 
veins  are  widely  different  in  their  struct- 
ure, as  well  as  their  uses.  The  former 
are  composed  of  very  strong,  firm,  elastic 
coats  or  membranes,  which  are  four  in 
number.    The  external  covering  and  the 


internal  lining  of  the  arteries,  although 
belongmg  to  different  classes  of  mem- 
branes, are  both  very  thin  and  soft.  The 
second  coat  is  very  thick,  tough  and  elas- 
tic, being  that  which  chiefly  gives  their 
peculiar  appearance  to  the  arteries.  The 
third  is  formed  of  fibres,  apparently  mus- 
cular, arranged  in  circular  rings  aroimd 
the  tube  of  the  vessels.  It  is  well  known 
that  the  pulse  of  the  heart  is  felt  in  the 
arteries  alone,  although,  in  the  bleeding 
of  a  vein,  we  sometimes  see  the  blood 
start  as  if  in  unison  with  the  beating  of 
the  heart.  The  pulse  is  produced  by  the 
wave  or  stream  of  blood,  which  is  driven 
by  the  heart  through  the  arteries,  dis- 
tending and  slightly  elevating  them,  after 
which  they  instantly  contract  from  their 
elasticity,  and  thus  force  the  blood  into 
the  smaller  vessels.  The  pulse  varies  in 
its  character  with  the  general  state  of  the 
liealth.  (See  Pulse.)  When  arteries  are 
cut  or  wounded,  the  firmness  of  their 
coats  prevents  their  closing,  and  hence 
arises  the  fatal  nature  of  wounds  of  large 
vessels,  which  will  remain  open  till  they 
are  tied  up,  or  till  death  is  produced. — 
The  veins  commence  in  small  capillary 
tubes  in  every  part  of  the  body,  and,  by 
their  gradual  union,  form  large  trunks, 
till  they  at  last  terminate  in  two  (one 
ascending  from  the  lower  parts  of  the 
body,  the  other  descending  fi-om  the  head 
and  arms),  which  pour  their  contents  into 
the  heart.  Their  structure  is  much  less 
firm  than  that  of  the  arteries.  They 
are  very  thin  and  soft,  consisting  of  only 
two  thin  coats  or  membranes.  The  inner, 
or  lining  membrane,  is  frequently  doubled 
into  folds,  forming  valves,  which  nearly 
close  the  passage  in  the  veins,  and  thus 
give  veiy  material  su[)port  to  the  blood 
as  it  is  moving  up  in  them  towards  the 
heart.  These  valves  are  not  found  in  the 
veins  of  the  bowels,  the  lungs  or  the 
head.  The  number  of  the  veins  is  much 
greater  than  that  of  the  arteries,  an  artery 
being  often  accompanied  by  two  veuis. 
They  dift'er  also  in  this,  that,  while  the 
arteries  are  deeply  seated  in  the  flesh,  to 
guard  them  from  injuiy,  the  veins  are 
veiy  fi-equently  superficial,  and  covered 
only  by  the  skin.  The  veins,  it  is  well 
known,  are  the  vessels  commonly  opened 
in  blood-letting,  although,  in  cases  which 
render  it  necessary,  a  small  artery  is 
sometimes  divided. — There  are  two  por- 
tions of  the  venous  system,  which  do  not 
correspond  exactly  with  our  general  de- 
scription ;  these  are  the  veins  of  the  bow- 
els and  of  tlie  lungs.  The  former  circu- 
late their  blood  through  the  liver  before 


140 


BLOOD-VESSELS— BLOWPIPE. 


it  returns  to  the  heart,  and  the  latter,  the 
puhnonary  veins,  convey  red  blood  from 
the  lungs  to  the  heart.  (For  an  account 
of  the  circulation  of  the  blood,  see  Heart.) 
It  should  also  be  mentioned,  that  the 
large  vein,  wliich  brings  back  the  blood 
from  the  lower  part  of  tlie  body,  receives 
from  the  lymphatic  and  lacteal  vessels 
the  chyle  from  the  bowels,  which  sup- 
plies the  waste  of  the  blood  and  nourishes 
the  l)ody,  and  the  serous  and  other  watery 
fluids  which  are  taken  up  by  tlie  absorb- 
ents in  all  parts  of  the  body. 

BloodhounC  ;  a  variety  of  the  com- 
mon dog,  called  C.  sagax  by  Linnaeus, 
chien  courant  by  Buffon,  remarkable  for 
the  perfection  of  its  sense  of  smell.  Ow- 
ing to  this  circumstance,  these  hounds 
were  formerly  much  employed  in  pursu- 
ing criminals  escaped  from  justice,  or  in 
tracing  out  robbers  or  enemies,  whose 
course  was  inevitably  discovered,  when 
once  the  bloodhound  was  placed  upon 
their  trail.  In  the  border  country  of 
Scotland,  they  were  formerly  much  em- 
ployed for  such  uses,  but  at  present  the 
race  has  become  almost  forgotten.  In 
the  countries  of  South  America,  the 
Spaniards  employed  fierce  dogs  to  aid 
them  in  conquering  the  Indians,  but  it  is 
not  certain  tliat  the  dogs,  trained  by  them 
to  this  cruel  business,  belonged  to  the 

})resent  variety.  All  the  varieties  of 
lound,  however,  have  much  sagacity, 
and  most  of  the  larger  and  stronger 
breeds  have  great  acuteness  of  scent,  and 
might,  without  much  difficulty,  be  trained 
to  act  as  bloodhounds. 

Bloomfield,  Robert,  an  English  poet, 
bora  at  Honmgton,  in  1766,  the  son  of  a 
tailor,  learned  to  read  at  the  village 
school,  and,  in  1781,  was  sent  to  leam 
the  trade  of  a  shoemaker  with  his  brother 
in  London.  The  visiting  of  several  places 
of  worship,  of  a  debating  society,  of 
Covent  garden  theatre,  and  the  reading 
of  sundry  books,  called  forth  his  faculties, 
and  he  became,  almost  unconsciously,  a 
poet.  Hearing  him  one  day  repeat  a 
song  which  he  had  composed,  his  aston- 
ished brother  prevailed  on  him  to  offer  it 
to  the  London  Magazine,  and  it  was  ac- 
cepted. The  poem  was  called  the  Milk 
Maid.  A  second,  the  Sailor's  Return, 
likewise  found  a  place  in  that  journal. 
Thomson's  Seasons,  the  Paradise  Lost, 
and  other  works  of  this  kind,  now  be- 
came the  subjects  of  his  constant  study. 
In  the  country,  where  he  resided  for  a 
short  time,  in  1786,  he  first  conceived 
the  idea  of  his  poem,  the  Fanner's  Boy, 
■which  is  characterized  by  a  spirit  of  rural 


simplicity  and  innocence.  It  was  written, 
under  the  most  unfavorable  circumstan- 
ces, by  a  journeyman  shoemaker  in  a 
garret.  It  was  first  shown  to  Capel  LofR, 
in  1798,  who  was  so  much  pleased  with 
it,  that,  in  conjunction  with  his  friend 
Hill,  he  had  it  printed  in  1800.  It  de- 
rives its  principal  value  from  its  strict 
adherence  to  truth  and  nature.  The 
writer,  in  fact,  has  drawn  his  own  por- 
trait in  the  Farmer's  Boy,  and  described 
the  scenes  and  events  which  he  actually 
wimessed.  Hence  there  is  a  degree  of 
spirit  and  originality  in  the  poem,  which 
stamps  it  with  the  impress  of  genius,  and 
renders  it  very  pleasing.  The  versifica- 
tion is  uncommonly  smooth  and  correct. 
B.  also  -wrote  a  volume  entitled  Wild 
Flowers,  containing  a  collection  of  poeti- 
cal tales,  which  was  well  received,  and 
was  not  unworthy  of  his  reputation.  His 
latest  production  was  Hazelwood  Hall,  a 
Aallage  drama,  which  appeared  shortly 
before  his  decease,  a  work  of  not  much 
merit.  B.  was  patronised  by  the  duke  of 
Graflon,  who  bestowed  on  him  a  small 
annuity,  and  made  him  an  under-sealer 
in  the  seal-office.  This  situation  he  was 
forced  to  resign  on  account  of  ill  health. 
He  then  worked  again  at  his  trade,  as  a 
shoemaker,  and  employed  himself  in  con- 
structing iEolian  harps.  Engaging  in  the 
book  trade,  he  became  a  bankrupt,  and,  in 
the  latter  part  of  his  life,  was  afflicted 
with  violent  head-aches,  and  became 
nearly  blind.  He  was  gradually  reduced 
to  such  a  state  of  nervous  irritability,  that 
apprehensions  were  entertained  of  his 
becoming  insane.  These  fears  were  ter-/ 
mmated  by  his  death,  which  took  place 
in  August,  1823. 

BiiOWi.\G-MACHiNES ;  the  larger  instru- 
ments or  contrivances  for  producing  a 
stroHg  and  continued  current  of  air,  such 
as  is  necessary  in  smelting-houses,  in  large 
smitheries,  &c.    (See  Bellows.) 

Blowpipe  is  the  name  applied  to  an 
instrument,  by  means  of  which  the  flame 
of  a  candle  or  lamp  is  made  to  produce 
an  intense  heat,  capable  of  being  apphed 
to  a  variety  of  useful  pui-poses.  Its  most 
simi)le  form  is  tliat  of  a  tapering  tube, 
about  eight  inches  in  lengtli,  and  curved 
nearly  at  right  angles,  within  two  inches 
of  its  smaller  extremity.  At  its  larger 
end,  it  is  nearly  a  quarter  of  an  inch  in 
diameter,  and  at  the  smaller,  only  large 
enough  to  admit  a  common-sized  pin.  It 
is  made  of  brass  or  white  iron;  In  using 
it,  the  flame  of  a  lamp  or  candle  is  turned 
aside  from  its  verticad  to  a  horizontal  di- 
rection, by  a  stream  of  air  impelled  upon 


BLOWPIPE— BLUCHER. 


141 


it,  either  from  tlie  lungs,  or  from  a  double 
bellows.  The  flame,  in  its  new  direction, 
assumes  a  conical  shape,  and  consists  of 
two  parts,  visible  by  their  ditferent  colors ; 
llie  outer  being  reddish-brown,  and  tlie 
iiuier  blue.  The  heat  at  the  apex  of  the 
inner  cone  is  the  most  mtense,  and  is 
equal  to  that  produced  in  the  best  fur- 
naces. It  is  employed  by  the  jeweller 
and  goldsmith  in  the  operation  of  solder- 
ing, and  by  other  artists  who  fabricate 
small  objects  in  metal ;  by  the  glass- 
blower  in  making  thermometers,  barome- 
ters and  other  glass  instruments ;  by  the 
enameller,  and,  indeed,  wherever  it  is  re- 
quired to  subject  a  small  body  to  a  strong 
heat. — The  common  blowpipe  has  under- 
gone a  variety  of  improvements  in  the 
hands  of  the  chemist,  to  whose  researches 
it  has  proved  an  excellent  auxihary. 
These  consist,  principally,  in  providing 
its  stem  with  a  bowl,  or  enlargement, 
where  the  moisture  of  the  breath  may  be 
condensed  and  detained  ;  in  fittuig  tlie 
smaller  end  so  as  to  receive  a  variety  of 
little  caps,  or  hollow  cones,  with  orifices 
of  different  diameters,  so  as  to  be  changed 
according  as  a  flame  is  required  more  or 
less  strong ;  and  in  rendering  the  instru- 
ment more  portable,  by  constructing  it  of 
several  pieces,  capable  of  being  taken 
apart  and  packed  up  in  the  space  of  a 
pencil-case.  Witli  a  part,  or  with  the 
whole  of  these  improvements,  it  is  used 
by  the  chemist  to  make  an  examination 
of  any  doubtful  mineral  substance,  artifi- 
cial alloy,  or  pharmaceutical  preparation. 
This  he  is  capable  of  conducting  (with 
the  aid  of  a  charcoal  support,  and,  occa- 
sionally, a  little  borax)  in  a  moment's 
time,  and  with  the  loss  of  the  smallest 
imaginable  quantity  of  the  substance.  To 
the  analytical  chemist  its  use  is  indis- 
pensable for  enabling  him  to  discover  the 
principal  ingredients  in  a  substance,  pre- 
vious to  his  subsequent  operations  for  as- 
certaining their  relative  proportion.  (For 
an  account  of  the  blowpipe  in  which 
oxygen  and  hydrogen  gases  are  em- 
ployed, see  Compound  Bloicpipe.) 

Blucher,  Lebrecht  von,  of^  the  family 
of  Grossen-Rensow,  in  Mecklenburg, 
prince  of  Wahlstadt,  field-marshal  of  the 
king  of  Prussia,  and  knight  of  almost  all 
the  distinguished  miUtaiy  orders  of  Eu- 
rope, was  bom  at  Rostock,  Dec.  16, 1742. 
When  he  was  14  years  of  age,  his  father, 
a  captain  of  horse  in  the  service  of  Hesse- 
Cassel,  sent  him  to  the  island  of  Riigeji. 
Here  the  sight  of  some  Swedish  hussars 
excited  in  him  the  desire  of  becoming  a 
Boldier.'  His  parents  and  relations  m  vain 


attempted  to  dissuade  him  from  this  step ; 
he  took  ser^^ce  in  a  Swedish  regiment  of 
hussars  in  the  cai)acity  of  a  cornet.  His 
fii-st  campaign  was  against  the  Prussians, 
and  he  was  taken  prisoner  by  the  same 
regiment  of  hussars,  which  he  afterwards 
commanded  witli  so  much  honor.  The 
commander  of  this  regiment,  colonel  von 
Belling,  induced  him  to  enter  into  the 
Prussian  service.  An  exchange  was 
agreed  upon  with  the  Swedes,  and  B. 
was  made  heutenant  in  Belling's  regi- 
ment. Discontented  at  the  promotion  of 
other  officers  over  his  head,  he  left  the 
army,  devoted  himself  to  agriculture,  and, 
by  mdustry  and  prudence,  acquired  an 
estate.  After  the  death  of  Frederic  II, 
he  became  a  major  in  his  former  regi- 
ment, which  he  commanded  with  dis- 
tinction on  the  Rhine,  in  1793  and  1794. 
Orchies,  Luxemburg,  Frankenstein,  Op- 
penheim  (Jan.  IG,  1794),  Kirweiler  and 
Edesheim  hi  the  l?alatinate,  bear  witness 
to  his  acliievements.  After  the  battle  of 
Leystadt,  Sept.  18,  1794,  which  added 
greatly  to  his  reputation,  he  was  appoint- 
ed major-general  of  the  army  of  observa- 
tion stationed  on  the  Lower  Rhine.  In 
1802,  in  the  name  of  the  king  of  Prussia, 
he  took  possession  of  Erfurt  and  Muehl- 
liausen.  Oct.  14,  1806,  he  fought  at  the 
battle  of  Aueretfidt.  He  then,  with  the 
greater  part  of  the  cavalrj',  followed  the 
retreat  of  the  prince  of  Hohenlohe  to 
Pomerania.  His  squatlron,  moving  on 
the  left  of  the  main  army,  became  sepa- 
rated from  it  so  far  that  a  junction  Avaa 
possible  only  by  means  of  forced  marches, 
both  in  the  day  time  and  at  night.  The 
latter,  B.  thought  himself  not  authorized 
to  venture  upon,  and  the  prince  of  Ho- 
henlohe was  forced  to  surrender  at  Prenz- 
lau.  Ba,  cut  off  from  Stettin  by  this  ac- 
cident, threw  himself  into  Mecklenburg, 
where  he  joined,  at  Dambeck,  the  corps 
of  tlie  duke  of  Weimar,  commanded  by 
prince  WiUiam  of  Brunswick-Oels.  All 
the  troops,  however,  were  too  much  fa- 
tigued to  undertake  any  enterprise.  Hav- 
ing the  giand-duke  of  Berg  on  his  left 
flank,  the  prince  of  Ponte-corvo  ui  his 
front,  and  marshal  Soult  on  his  right,  B. 
was  obliged  to  take  post  behind  the 
Trave,  in  order  to  draw  off  the  three 
great  divisions  of  tlie  French  forces  from 
the  Oder  as  long  as  possible.  With  this 
view,  he  entered  into  the  territory  of  the 
free  city  of  Liibeck.  This  city  was  soon 
stormed  by  the  overwhehning  power  of 
the  French.  Altliough  B.,  with  some 
troops,  escaped  out  of  the  city,  yet,  being 
deprived  of  all  means  of  defending  him- 


142 


BLUCHER. 


self,  or  continuing  his  flight,  he  was 
obliged  to  surrender  at  Ratkau,  on  the 
6th  of  November.  This,  however,  he 
would  not  do,  until  permission  had  been 
granted  hun  to  add  the  following  clause 
to  the  instrument,  that  "  the  capitulation 
was  offered  to  him  by  the  prince  of  Ponte- 
corvo,  and  that  he  accepted  it  only  from 
want  of  ammunition,  provisions  and  for- 
age." B.  was  now  a  prisoner  of  war ;  but 
he  was  soon  exchanged  for  the  French 
general  Victor,  and,  immediately  after  his 
arrival  at  Konigsberg,  placed  at  the  head 
of  a  coqjs,  and  sent  by  water  to  Swedish 
Pomerania,  to  share  in  tlie  defence  of 
Stralsund,  and  to  assist  the  efforts  of  the 
Swedes.  After  the  peace  of  Tilsit,  he 
labored  in  the  department  of  war  at  Ko- 
nigsberg and  Berhn.  He  then  received 
the  chief  military  command  in  Pomera- 
nia, but,  at  the  instigation  of  Napoleon, 
was  afterwards,  with  Several  otlier  dis- 
tinguished men,  dismissed  from  the  ser- 
vice. In  the  campaign  of  1812,  when 
the  Prussians  assisted  the  French,  he 
took  no  part ;  but  no  sooner  did  Prussia 
rise  against  her  oppressors,  than  B.,  al- 
ready 70  years  old,  engaged  in  the  cause 
with  all  his  fonner  activity.  He  was  ap- 
pointed commander  in  chief  of  the  Prus- 
sians and  the  Russian  corps  under  general 
Winzingerode,  which,  at  a  later  period, 
was  separated  from  him.  His  heroism  in 
the  battle  of  Liitzen  (May  2, 1813)  was 
rewarded  by  the  emperor  Alexander  with 
the  order  of  St.  George.  The  battles  of 
Bautzen  and  Haynau,  those  on  the  Katz- 
bach  (see  Wafdstadt)  and  at  Leipsic,  added 
to  his  glory.  On  the  Katzbach,  B.  de- 
feated the  anny  of  marshal  Macdonald, 
and  delivered  all  Silesia.  His  army  now 
received  the  name  of  the  Silesian.  Napo- 
leon himself  endeavored  in  vain  to  check 
the  old  general  of  hussars,  as  he  called 
him.  Oct.  3,  B.  crossed  the  Elbe  at 
Wartenburg.'  This  bold  step  compelled 
the  great  Bohemian  army  under  Schwart- 
zenberg,  and  the  northern  army  under 
the  crown-prince  of  Sweden,  to  act  with 
more  spirit.  The  great  battle  of  Leipsic 
approached.  Oct.  16,  he  gained  a  sig- 
nal advantage  over  marshal  Marmont,  at 
Mockem^  forcing  his  way  as  far  as  the 
suburbs  of  Leipsic.  On  tlie  18th,  in  con- 
nexion with  the  cro\vn-prince  of  Sweden, 
he  contributed  greatly  to  the  defeat  of 
the  enemy,  and,  on  the  19th,  his  troops 
made  the  first  assault  upon  Leipsic.  His 
promptitude  and  pecuUar  manner  of  at- 
tacking had  already,  in  the  beginning  of 
the  campaign,  procured  him  from  the 
Buasians  the  name  of  marshal  Forward. 


From  that  time  it  became  his  name  of 
honor  throughout  the  whole  German  ter- 
ritor}'.  Jan.  1,  1814,  with  the  Silesian 
army,  which  now  consisted  of  tvvo  Prus- 
sian, two  Russian,  one  Hessian  and  one 
mixed  coi-ps,  he  crossed  the  Rhine  at 
Kaub,  took  possession  of  Nancy  on  the 
17th,  gained,  Feb.  1,  tlie  battle  of  La  Ro- 
thiere,  and  pushed  forward  towards  Paris. 
His  detached  corps  were,  however,  check- 
ed by  Napoleon ;  yet  B.,  though  Avith  a 
great  loss,  effected  his  retreat  towards 
Chalons.  He  then  crossed  the  Aisne  at 
Soissons,  joined  the  northern  army,  ob- 
tained, March  9,  a  victory  over  Napoleon 
at  Laon,  and,  in  connexion  with  Schwart- 
zenberg,  at  the  close  of  the  month,  pressed 
forward  to  Paris.  The  day  of  Montmar- 
tre  crowiied  this  campaign,  and,  March 
31,  B.  entered  the  capital  of  France.  His 
king,  in  remembrance  of  the  victoiy 
which  he  had  gained  near  Wahlstadt, 
made  him  prince  of  Wahlstadt,  with  a 
suitable  income.  In  England,  whither 
he  followed  the  allied  monarchs,  in  June 
of  the  same  year,  he  was  received  by  the 
people  with  enthusiasm.  The  univei-sity 
of  Oxford  conferred  on  him  the  degree 
of  doctor  of  laws.  He  aftenvards  lived 
on  his  estates  in  Silesia  till  1815,  when 
the  chief  command  was  again  committed 
to  him,  and  he  led  his  army  into  the 
Netherlands.  June  15,  Napoleon  threw 
himself  upon  him,  and  B.,  on  tlie  16th, 
was  defeated  at  Ligny.  In  this  engage- 
ment, liis  horse  was  killed,  and  he  was 
thrown  under  his  body.  After  this  un- 
fortunate, yet  honorable  day,  the  tn\e 
greatness  of  the  field-marshal  and  his 
army  became  apparent.  In  the  battle  of 
the  18th,  B.  arrived,  at  the  most  decisive 
moment,  upon  the  ground,  and,  taking 
Napoleon  in  the  rear  and  flank,  gained, 
in  union  with  Welhngton,  the  great  vic- 
tory of  Belle  Alliance,  or  Waterloo,  (q.  v.) 
He  refused  the  proffered  annistice,  and 
forced  Paris  to  surrender ;  opposing,  wth 
energy,  on  this  second  conquest  of  the 
capital,  the  system  of  forbearance  prac-. 
tised  on  the  former  occasion.  As  he  was 
already  a  knight  of  all  the  miUtaiy  ordei"8 
of  Europe,  tlie  king  of  Prussia,  to  reward 
his  new  services,  created  a  new  order 
expressly  for  him.  After  the  peace  of 
Paris,  tlie  prince  retired  to  his  estates. 
Aug.  26, 1819,  the  amiiversary  of  the  bat- 
tle on  the  Katzbach,  the  hero  received  at 
Rostock,  his  native  place,  an  honor  which 
is  seldom  bestowed  in  Germany.  The 
whole  body  of  his  countrymen,  the  in- 
habitants of  Mecklenburg,  united  to  erect 
a  monument  commemorating  his  glory, 


BLUCHER— BLUEBIRD. 


143 


executed  by  Schadow  m  Berlin.  B.  died, 
after  a  short  illness,  at  his  estate  of  Krib- 
lowitz,  in  Silesia,  Sept.  12,  1819,  aged 
almost  77  years.  June  16,  1826,  a  statue 
of  bronze  was  erected  to  him,  in  Berlin, 
12  feet  in  height,  modelled  by  Ilauch, 
and  cast  by  Le  Quuie  and  Reisinger. — 
B.  was  not  so  eminent  for  military  sci- 
ence as  for  ability  in  action.  He  himself 
often  acknowledged  this,  when  he  was 
praising  the  merits  of  Gneisenau,  to  whose 
assistance  he  was  greatly  indebted.  In 
battle,  however,  he  had  the  eye  of  a  fal- 
con. His  simplicity,  good-nature  and 
bravery  endeared  him  to  his  soldiers, 
who  loved  him  hke  a  father.  His  ad- 
dresses and  proclamations  are  distin- 
guished for  their  brevity,  precision  and 
simplicity,  forming  a  striking  contrast  to 
the  high-sounding  French  proclamations 
of  the  time.  (See  Bluecher''s  Lebensbe- 
schreibung  (Bliicher's  Life),  by  Vanihagen 
von  Ense,  Berlin,  1827.) 

Blue.    (See  Color.) 

Blue,  Prussian ;  a  coloring  matter,  of  a 
pure  dark-blue  color,  a  dull  fracture,  ino- 
dorous and  insipid,  insoluble  in  water, 
spirits  of  wine  or  ether ;  it  is  soluble  only 
by  the  action  of  coiTosive  alkalies.  The 
discovery  of  this  color  was  accidentally 
made,  in  1704,  by  Diesbach,  a  manufac- 
turer of  colors,  who,  with  the  intention  of 
precipitating  the  coloring  matter  from 
cochineal,  with  which  alum  and  vitriol  of 
iron  were  dissolved,  procured  some  alkali 
from  the  laboratoiy  of  Dippel.  This  al- 
kali, which  Dippel  had  been  heating  with 
some  animal  matter,  produced  a  beautiful 
blue  precipitate.  Dippel,  discovering  that 
the  alkali  had  acquired  this  power  of 
forming  a  blue  precipitate  of  iron  on  ac- 
count of  its  mixture  with  animal  oil,  soon 
learned  to  prepare  it  in  a  more  simple 
way,  since  all  animal  substances,  ami 
even  all  vegetables,  which  contain  much 
azote,  will  give  the  same  result.  It  is, 
however,  necessary,  that  all  the  materials 
should  be  perfectly  pure,  since  the  puiifi- 
cation  would  be  too  expensive.  The  ad- 
dition of  alum  gives  to  this  blue  more 
body  and  a  brighter  color.  This  blue 
substance  is  a  prussiate  of  iron  (52  parts 
red  oxyde  of  iron,  and  48  of  prussic  acid). 
The  alumine  added  amounts  to  from  20  to 
80  per  cent. ;  but  the  greater  the  quantity, 
the  poorer  is  the  quality  of  the  blue. 

Bluebird  (sylvia  sialis,  Wils. ;  saJtico- 
la  sialis,  Bonaparte).  This  beautiful  little 
bird  is  one  of  the  earliest  messengers  of 
spring,  and  is  occasionally  seen  as  early 
as  the  month  of  Febniary,  in  mild  sea- 
eons.    The  middle  of  March  is  the  ordi- 


nary time  of  mating,  when  the  male  blue- 
bird is  observed  to  be  extremely  devoted 
to  the  female,  and  shows  the  ardor  of  his 
attachment  by  every  attention  m  his  pow- 
er, by  the  rapturous  animation  of  his  song, 
and  the  angry  jealousy  with  which  he  re- 
pels the  approaches  of  a  rival.  The  nest 
of  the  former  year  is  then  repaired,  and 
the  female  begins  to  lay  her  eggs,  usually 
five,  sometimes  six,  of  a  pale-blue  color. 
Two  or  three  broods  are  raised  in  a  sea- 
son, the  youngest  of  which  are  taken  care 
of  by  the  male,  while  the  mother  is  still 
attending  to  the  nest.  The  princijjal  food 
of  this  species  is  insects,  especially  large 
beetles,  and  other  hard- wing  or  coleopte- 
rous bugs,  to  be  found  about  dead  or  rot- 
tuig  trees :  berries,  persimmon,  and  the 
seeds  of  various  plants,  are  also  discovered 
in  their  stomachs.  Large  and  numerous 
tape-worms  mfest  their  bowels,  and  they 
are  also  exceedingly  annoyed  by  vermin 
externally.  Wilson  says,  that,  in  this  re- 
spect, they  are  more  plagued  than  any 
other  bird,  except  the  woodcock.  The 
spring  and  summer  song  of  the  bluebird 
is  a  soft  and  often-repeated  warble :  in 
the  month  of  October,  his  song  changes 
to  a  single  plaintive  note.  About  the 
middle  of  November,  the  bluebirds  disap- 
pear, though,  occasionally,  one  or  two 
may  be  seen  during  the  wnter,  in  mild 
weather.  The  manners  of  this  species 
are  so  gentle,  and  they  render  so  much 
service  by  the  destruction  of  insects,  that 
they  are  always  regarded  with  favor  by 
the  farmer.  The  male  bluebird  is  six 
inches  and  three  quarters  long,  with  very 
full  and  broad  wings.  All  the  upper 
parts  are  of  a  rich  sky-blue,  with  purple 
reflections:  the  bill  and  legs  are  black. 
The  female  is  easily  known  by  the  duller 
cast  of  the  plumage  on  the  back,  and  by 
the  red  on  the  breast  not  descending  so 
low  as  in  the  male,  and  being  much 
fainter.  The  bluebird  inhabits  the  whole 
of  the  U.  States,  also  Mexico,  Brazil,  Gui- 
ana and  the  Bahama  islands. — Wilson 
states  that  "  nothing  is  more  common,  in 
Pennsylvania,  than  to  see  large  flocks  of 
these  birds,  in  the  spring  and  fall,  passing 
at  considerable  heights  in  the  air,  from 
the  south  in  the  former,  and  from  the 
north  in  the  latter  season.  I  have  seen, 
in  the  month  of  October,  about  an  hour 
after  sunrise,  10  or  15  of  them  descend 
from  a  gx-eat  height,  and  settle  on  the  top 
of  a  tall,  detached  tree,  appearing,  from 
their  silence  and  sedateness,  to  be  sti-an- 
gers  and  fatigued.  After  a  pause  of  a  few 
minutes,  they  began  to  dress  and  arrange 
their  plumage,  and  continued  so  employ- 


144 


BLUEBIRD— BOA. 


ed  for  10  or  15  minutes  more ;  then,  on  a 
few  warning  notes  being  given,  perhaps 
by  the  leader  of  the  party,  the  whole  re- 
mounted to  a  vast  height,  steering  in  a 
direct  line  for  the  south-west." 

Blue  Ridge  ;  one  of  the  ranges  of  the 
Alleghany  or  Appalachian  mountains, 
which  extends  from  the  river  Hudson  to 
Georgia,  and  intersects  the  state  of  Vir- 
ginia from  N.  E.  to  S.  W.,  dividing  it  into 
two  parts,  nearly  equal.  The  great  lime- 
stone valley  extends  along  the  N.  W. 
side  of  this  range.  The  most  elevated 
summits  of  the  Blue  Ridge  are  the 
peaks  of  Otter,  in  Bedford  county,  Vir- 
ginia. 

Blue-Stocking  ;  a  pedantic  female  ; 
one  who  sacrifices  the  characteristic  ex- 
cellences of  her  sex  to  learning.  The 
origin  of  this  name,  in  England,  is  thus 
given  by  Boswell,  in  his  Life  of  Johnson : 
"About  this  time  (1780),  it  was  much  the 
fashion  for  several  ladies  to  have  evening 
assemblies,  where  the  fair  sex  might  par- 
ticipate in  conversation  with  literary  and 
ingenious  men,  animated  vdth  a  desire  to 
please.  These  societies  were  denomi- 
nated blue-stocking  clubs,  the  origin  of 
which  name  was  as  follows : — One  of  the 
most  eminent  members  of  tliese  societies 
•was  Mr.  Stillingfleel,  who  always  wore 
blue  stockings.  Such  was  the  excellence 
of  his  conversation,  that  his  absence  was 
felt  as  a  great  loss,  and  it  used  to  be  said, 
*We  can  do  nothing  without  the  blue 
stockings ;'  and  thus,  by  degrees,  the  title 
was  established." — In  Germany,  blue- 
stocking [blau-strumpfe]  signifies  a  traitor, 
a  slanderer,  an  infamous  lover,  &c.,  and 
the  term,  in  that  country,  is  said  to  b&  de- 
rived from  tlie  blue  stockings  formerly 
worn  by  procurers. 

Blumauer,  Aloysius,  a  poet,  and  famous 
parodist,  bom  at  Steyr,  in  Austria,  above  the 
Ens,  in  1755,  studied  in  his  native  city,  en- 
tered (1772)  into  the  order  of  the  Jesuits  in 
Vienna,  lived  there  privately,  after  the  abo>- 
lition  of  his  order,  till  he  was  appointed 
censor,  which  place  he  resigned  in  1793, 
and  took  the  establishment  of  the  booksel- 
ler Graeffer,  in  which  he  had  been  concern- 
ed since  1786.  He  died  in  1798.  By  his 
^neid  travestied,  he  distinguished  himself 
as  a  burlesque  poet.  It  is  a  poetical  farce, 
rich  in  burlesque  wit  and  droll  contrasts. 
These  qualities  are  also  to  be  found  in 
several  others  of  his  nunjerous  poems. 
Some  of  them  are  full  of  animation,  and 
are  written  in  a  pure,  manly  style.  At 
times,  his  wit  is  vulgar,  his  language  in- 
correct and  prosaic.  A  collection  of  his 
works  appeared  at  Leipsic,  1801 — 3, 8  vols. 


Blumenbach,  John  Frederic,  doctor. 
This  profound  naturalist  is,  at  present, 
one  of  the  first  ornaments  of  the  univer- 
sity at  Gottingefi,  where  he  has  lectured, 
for  50  years,  with  unabated  industry,  on 
natural  history,  physiology,  osteology, 
comparative  anatomy,  pathologj',  and  the 
history  of  medical  literature,  to  very  nu- 
merous audiences.  He  has  written  on 
almost  all  these  sciences  with  acuteness, 
method  and  precision.  His  works  bear 
the  stamp  of  his  pecuUar  genius,  and 
some  of  them  have  been  several  times 
published.  His  masterly,  but,  at  present, 
somewhat  antiquated  Handbuch  der  JVa- 
tuigeschichte  (Compendium  of  Natural 
History)  was  pubhshed,  in  1825,  for  the 
11th  time.  Of  his  Handbuch  der  Physio- 
logic (Compendium  of  Physiolog)')  there 
is  an  English  translation,  the  second  edi- 
tion of  which  (1818)  is  also  remarkable 
for  being  the  first  book  ever  printed  by 
mechanical  power. — B.  was  bom  at  Go- 
tha.  May  11,  1752 ;  studied  in  Jena  and 
Gottingen,  where  he  received  his  degi'ee 
of  doctor  of  medicine,  Sept.  19,  1775.  In 
1776,  he  was  appouited  director  of  the 
cabinet  of  natural  curiosities  belonging  to 
the  university,- and  professor  extraordina- 
ry of  medicine,  and,  in  1778,  ordinary 
professor  of  the  same.  In  1783,  he  un- 
dertook a  literary  joiuney  to  Switzerland, 
and,  at  a  later  period,  one  to  England, 
where  the  attentions  of  the  celebrated  sir 
Joseph  Banks  were  particularly  serA'icea- 
ble  to  him.  He  possesses  an  excellent 
collection  of  books  and  engravings  illus- 
trating natural  history,  and  numerous  spe- 
cimens of  natural  curiosities.  The  collec- 
tion of  skulls  is  not,  perhaps,  equalled  in 
the  world.  On  this  collection  is  founded 
his  Collectio  Craniorum  divers,  gent,  il- 
lustr.,  with  engravings,  of  which  six 
numbers  (Gottingen,  1790—1820)  have 
appeared.  Schnader  called  a  newly-dis- 
covered species  of  plants  afler  his  name, 
Blumenbachia  insignis.  The  50th  anni- 
versary of  his  professorship  in  the  univer- 
sity of  Gottingen  was  celebrated  Feb.  26, 
1826. 

Boa  ;  the  name  of  a  genus  of  reptiles 
belonging  to  Cuvier's  tribe  of  serpents 
proper  ;  having  the  tympanic  bone  or 
pedicle  of  the  lower  jaw  movable,  which 
is  itself  almost  always  suspended  to  an- 
other bone  analogous  to  the  mastoid,  at- 
tached to  the  skull  by  muscles  and  liga- 
ments, which  contribute  to  its  mobility. 
The  branches  of  this  jaw  are  not  united, 
and  those  of  the  upper  jaw  are  attached 
to  the  intemiaxillary  bone  only  by  liga- 
ments, so  that  these  animals  can  dilate 


BOA. 


145 


the  mouth  sufficiently  to  swallow  bodies 
larger  than  themselves.     Their    palatic 
arches  partake  of  this  mobility.     In  the 
species  of  this  tribe  not  possessed  of  ven- 
om, tlje  branches  of  the  upper  and  lower 
jaw,   throughout  tiieir  entire   length,  as 
well  as  the  palate  bones,  are  armed  with 
pointed,  recurved,  solid  and   permanent 
teeth,   forming   four  neai-ly   equal    rows 
above,  and  two  below. — The  genus  boa 
comprises  all  those  serpents  which,  in  ad- 
dition to  the  preceding  characters,  have 
the  scuta  on  the  under  part  of  the  tail  sin- 
gle ;  a  hook  on  each  side  of  the  vent ;  the 
tail  preliensile  ;  the  body  compressed  and 
largest  in  the   middle,   and   with    small 
scales,  at  least  on  the  jjosterior  part  of  the 
Lead. — The   species   properly   belonging 
to  this  genus  are  among  the   largest  of 
the  serj)ent  tribe,  some  of  then),  when 
lull  grown,  beuig  30  and  even  40  feet 
long.    Though  destitute  of  fangs  and  ven- 
om, nature  has  endowed  them  with  a  de- 
gree of  muscular  power  which  renders 
them  terrible.    Happily,  they  are  not  com- 
mon  in   situations   much  frequented  by 
mankind,   but  are   cliiefly  found  in  the 
vast  marshy  regions  of  Guiana,  and  other 
hot  parts  of  the  American  continent.     Al- 
though sufficiently  active   when   fasting 
or  hungiT,   they  become   very  sluggish 
and  inert  after  having  gorged  their  prey, 
at  which  time  they  are  most  easily  de- 
stroyed.    In  order  to  obtain  then-  food,  the 
boa;  of  largest  size  attach  themselves  to 
the  trunk  or  branches  of  a  tree,  in  a  situa- 
tion likely  to  be  visited  by  quadrupeds 
for  the  sake  of  pasture  or  water.     There 
the  serpent  swings  about  in  the  air,  as  if 
a  branch  or  pendent  of  the  tree,  until 
some  luckless  animal  approaches ;  then, 
suddenly  relinquishing  its  position,  swift 
as  lightning  he  seizes  the  victim,  and  coils 
his  body  spirally  round  its  throat  and  chest, 
until,  after  a  few  ineffectual  cries  and  strug- 
gles, the  animal  is  suffocated,  and  expires. 
In  producing  this  effect,  the  serpent  does 
not  merely  wreathe  itself  around  its  prey, 
but  places  fold  over  fold,  as  if  desirous  of 
adding  as  much  weight  as  ])ossible  to  the 
muscular  effort:    these    folds    are   then 
gradually  tightened  with  enomious  force, 
and  speedily  induce  death.     The  animals 
thus  destroyed  by  the  lai-ger  bocE  are  deer, 
dogs,  and  even  bullocks.    The  prey  is 
then  prepared  for  being  swallowed,  which 
the  creature  accomplishes  by  pushing  tlie 
limbs  into  the  most  convenient  position, 
and  then  covermg  tlie  surface  witli  a  glu- 
tinous saliva.     The  reptile  commences 
the  act  of  deglutition  by  taking  the  muz- 
zle of  the  prey  into  its  mouth,  which  is 
VOL.  II.  13 


capable  of  vast  extension ;  and,  by  a  suc- 
cession of  wonderful  muscular  contrac- 
tions, the   rest  of  the  body  is  gradually 
drawn   in,    Avith   a  steady   and    regular 
motion.     As  the  mass  advances  in   the 
gullet,  the   ])arts  through   which   it   has 
passed  resume  their  former  dimensions, 
though  its  immediate  situation  is  always 
betrayed  by  external  protuberance. — As 
already  mentioned,  the  species  of  boa  are 
peculiar  to  the  hot  parts  of  South  Ameri- 
ca, though  nothing  is  more  common  than 
the  error  of  confounding  the  great  ser- 
pents of  India,  Africa,    &c.,  with  the 
proper  boa.     According  to  the  researches 
of  Cuvier,  all  the  boa,  at  present  well  de- 
termined, are  natives  of  the  new  conti- 
nent.   The  gi-eat  serpents  of  the  old  con- 
tinent belong  to  the  genus  python  (Daud.), 
and  will  be  treated  of  under  that  title.  •  It 
is  nevertheless  true,  that  Pliny  has  spoken 
of  the  huge  serpents  of  India,  and  after- 
wards of  large  serpents  of  Italy,  which 
were  called  bocE,  thus  named  from  the  cir- 
cumstance of  their  being  at  fii'St  fed  with 
cow's  milk. — Among  the  most  celebrated 
species  is  the  boa  constrictor  (L.),  distin- 
guished by  a  large  chain,  formed  alter- 
nately of  large,  blackish,  irregular  hexag- 
onal, spots,  with  pale,  oval  spots,  notch- 
ed at  their  two  extremities,  along  the 
back.    This  is  the  largest  species,  and  is 
usually  confounded,  by  casual  observers, 
with  the  python  Tigris  of  the  old  world. 
The  B.  cenchris  (L.),  and  the  B.  scytale,  et 
musina  (L.),  attain  to  nearly  an  equal  size 
with  the  constrictor  (from  20  to  30  feet 
long),  and  are  all  natives  of  the  torrid  and 
marshy  regions  of Ainerica.  The  other  spe- 
cies are  of  smaller  size,  and  some  do  not 
much  exceed  that  of  the  largest  common 
snakes.  We  cannot  reflect  upon  the  natural 
history  of  these  great  reptiles,  without  be- 
ing struck  with  their  peculiar  adaptation  to 
the  situations  in  which  they  are  common- 
ly most  abundant.    In  regions  bordering 
on  great  rivers,  which,  like  the  Orinoco, 
&c.,  annually  inundate  vast  ti*acts  of  coun- 
try, tiiese  seipents  hve  securely  among 
the  trees  with  which  the  soil  is  covered, 
and  are  capable   of  enduruig  very  pro- 
tracted hunger  without  much  apparent 
suffering  or  diminution  of  vigor.     Nox- 
ious as  such  districts  are  to  human  life, 
they  teem  with  a  gigantic  and  luxuriant 
vegetation,  and  are  the  favorite  haunts  of 
numerous  animals,  preyed  upon,  and,  to  a 
certaui  degree,  restricted  in  their  increase, 
by  the  bom.    As  their  prey  come  within 
tlieir  reach,  they  require  no  deadly  appa- 
ratus of  poison  to  produce  their  destruc- 
tion, since  nature  has  endowed  them  with 


146 


BOA— BOCCACCIO. 


muECular  strength  surpassing  that  of  almost 
every  other  creature,  in  proportion  to  their 
size.  Once  fairly  involved  in  the  crushing 
folds  of  the  constrictor,  the  strength  of  the 
strongest  man  would  not  pro^e  of  the 
slightest  avaU  ;  indeed,  from  the  ease  Avith 
which  larger  and  more  powerful  crea- 
tures are  put  to  death  by  these  serpents, 
it  is  evident  that  any  number  of  unanned 
men  would  act  very  unwisely  to  provoke 
a  combat  with  enemies  endowed  with 
powers  of  such  dreadful  energy. 

BoADicEA  ;  queen  of  thelceni,  in  Brit- 
ain, during  the  reign  of  Nero.  Having 
been  treated  in  the  most  ignominious 
manner  by  the  Romans,  she  lieaded  a 
general  insurrection  of  the  Britons,  at- 
tacked the  Roman  settlements,  reduced 
London  to  ashes,  and  put  to  the  sword  all 
strangers,  to  the  number  of  70,000.  Sue- 
tonius, tiie  Roman  general,  defeated  her 
in  a  decisive  battle,  and  B.,  rather  than 
fidl  into  the  hands  of  her  enemies,  put  an 
end  to  her  own  life  by  poison. 

Boat  ;  properly,  a  vessel  propelled  by 
oars.  In  a  more  extensive  sense,  the  word 
is  applied  to  other  small  vessels,  which 
differ  in  constniction  and  name,  according 
to  the  sei-vices  in  which  they  are  em- 
ployed. Thus  they  are  light  or  strong, 
sharp  or  flat-bottomed,  open  or  decked, 
&c.,  according  as  they  are  intended  for 
swiftness  or  burden,  deep  or  shallow  wa- 
ter, &c. — The  harge  is  a  long,  light,  nar- 
row boat,  employed  in  harbore,  but  unfit 
lor  sea. — The  long-boat  is  the  largest  boat 
belonging  to  a  ship,  generally  furnished 
with  sails,  and  is  employed  for  cruising 
short  distances,  bringing  heavy  articles  on 
board,  &c. — The  launch  is  more  flat-bot- 
tomed tlian  the  long-boat,  which  it  has 
generally  superseded. — The  pinnace  re- 
sembles a  ijarge,  but  is  smaller. — The 
cutters  of  a  ship  are  broader  and  deeper 
than  the  barge  or  pinnace,  and  are  em- 
ployed in  carrying  light  articles,  passen- 
gers, &c.  on  board. — Yawls  are  used  for 
similar  purposes,  and  are  smaller  than 
cutters. — A  gig  is  a  long,  narrow  boat, 
used  for  expedition,  and  rowed  with  six 
or  eight  oars. — ^The  jolly-boat  is  smaller 
tlian  a  yawl,  and  is  used  for  going  on 
shore. — A  merchant-ship  seldom  has  more 
than  two  boats,  a  long-boat  and  a  yawl. — 
A  wherry  is  a  light,  sharp  boat,  used  in  a 
river  or  harbor,  for  transporting  passen- 
gers.— A  punt  is  a  flat-bottomed  boat, 
chiefly  used  for  one  person  to  go  on  shore 
fitjm  small  vessels. — A  skiff  is  a  small 
boat,  like  a  yawl,  used  for  passing  rivers. 
— ^A  Moses  is  a  flat-bottomed  boat,  used  in 
the  West  Indies  for  carrying  hogsheads 


from  the  shore  to  ships  in  the  roads. — A 
Jelucca  is  a  large  passage-boat,  used  in 
the  Slediterranean,  with  from  10  to  16 
banks  of  oars. — Scow  is  an  American 
word,  signifying  a  large,  flat-bottomed, 
heavy  boat,  about  30  feet  long,  and  12 
wide.  In  some  parts  of  tlie  U.  States,  it 
is  called  a  gondola.  (See  Canoe,  Galley, 
&c.) 

Boccaccio,  Giovanni,  whose  name 
alone,  as  MazzucheUi  justly  says,  is  equiv- 
alent to  a  thousand  encomiums,  was  the 
son  of  a  Florentine  merchant.  His  family 
came,  originally,  from  Certaldo,  a  village 
in  Tuscany  ;  whence  he  gives  himself 
the  appellation  da  Certaldo.  He  was  the 
offspring  of  an  illicit  connexion  which  his 
father  formed,  while  on  a  visit  of  busi- 
ness, at  Paris,  and  was  bom  in  that  city, 
1313.  He  early  removed  to  Florence, 
where  he  began  his  studies,  and,  even  in 
childhood,  discovered  a  decided  fondness 
for  poetry.  In  his  10th  year,  his  father 
put  him  under  the  care  of  a  merchant,  to 
be  educated  in  his  business.  With  hirrt 
he  returned  to  Paris,  and  remained  there 
six  years,  without  acquiring  any  fondness 
for  his  profession.  His  residence  of  eight 
yeare  at  Naples  was  equally  ineffectual 
to  this  purpose.  Instead  of  attending  to 
trade,  he  formed  the  closest  intimacy  with 
several  learned  men  of  Florence  and 
Naples,  who  had  been  drawn  thither  by 
that  patron  of  the  arts,  king,  Robert.  There 
is  nothing  to  prove  that  he  shared  in  the 
favor  of  the  prince ;  but  he  enjoyed  the 
particular  affection  of  a  natural  daughter 
of  his,  for  whom  he  composed  many  pieces 
in  prose  and  vei-se,  and  to  whom  he  often 
pays  homage  under  the  name  of  Fiam- 
mdla.  Placed  in  fortunate  circumstances, 
Avith  a  lively  and  cheerful  disposition,  of 
a  sofl  and  pleasing  address,  the  favored 
lover  of  a  king's  daughter,  he  regarded 
with  more  aversion  than  ever  the  sta- 
tion for  which  he  had  been  intended. 
The  fondness  of  the  princess  for  poetry; 
his  own  intimacy  with  scientific  and  lite- 
i-arymen ;  the  tomb  of  Virgil,  near  Naples, 
which  he  used  to  visit  in  his  walks ;  the 
presence  of  Peti-arch,  who  Avas  received 
witli  the  highest  distinction  at  the  court 
of  Naples,  and  who  went  from  that  city 
to  Rome,  to  be  crowned  with  the  poetic 
laurel ;  the  intimacy  which  had  arisen  be- 
tween the  two  poets  ; — all  operated  power- 
fully on  B.,  to  strengthen  and  fix  his 
natiu«l  inclination  for  poetry  and  htera- 
ture.  After  hving  two  years  at  Florence 
with  his  father,  he  returned  to  Naples, 
where  he  was  very  graciously  received 
by  the  queen  Joanna.    It  is  thought  tliat 


.B0CCACCI6. 


147 


it  was  no  less  to  gratify  tlie  young  queen, 
than  his  Fiammetta,  that  he  wrote  his 
Decameron^  whicli  has  raised  him  to  the 
rank  of  the  fii-st  ItaUan  prose-Avriter.  On 
the  death  of  his  father,  becoming  master 
of  his  owni  inchnations,  he  settled  at 
Florence,  where  his  first  work  was  a  de- 
scription of  the  plague,  which  forms  the 
opening  of  the  Decameron.  He  after- 
wards wrote  tJie  life  of  Dante.  He  was 
chosen  to  inibrm  Petrarch,  at  Padua,  of 
Ins  recall  from  exile,  and  the  restoration 
of  tlie  property  belonging  to  his  father, 
who  had  died  during  his  absence.  The 
friendship  of  these  two  men  of  genius 
continued  for  life.  When  B.,  some  yeai-s 
after,  had  exhausted  his  fortune  in  the 
purchase  of  costly  books,  and  in  expen- 
sive pleasures,  he  fomid  in  Petrarch  tlie 
most  generous  assistance  :  the  wise  coun- 
sels of  his  friend  were  now  as  beneficial 
to  his  morals  as  they  hati  been  to  liis 
writings ;  in  fact,  to  him  he  was  indebted 
f(>r  the  change  which  took  place  in  his 
character.  A  dying  Carthusian  had  per- 
suaded him  ta  renounce  all  the  pleas- 
mes  of  the  world :  Petrarch  softened  his 
determination,  and  brought  liim  back  to 
that  proper  medium  which  marks  the 
truly  wise  man.  New  troubles  in  Flor- 
ence induced  him  to  retire  to  Certaldo, 
where  he  owned  a  small  estate.  There 
he  prosecuted  his  labors  in  tranquillity. 
He  now  composed  several  historical 
works  ui  Latin.  Among  these  is  the 
first  modem  work  which  contains,  in  a 
collected  form,  the  mythological  notices, 
which  are  scattered  m  the  writings  of  the 
ancients.  He  was  well  versed  in  Greek, 
and  liad,  at  his  own  expense,  brought 
Leontius  Pilatus  of  Thessalonica  from 
Venice  to  Florence,  and  maintained  him 
three  years  at  his  house,  in  order  to  learn 
Greek  of  him,  and  to  have  his  assistance 
in  explaining  the  poems  of  Homer,  and 
translating  them  into  Latin.  He  was  the 
first  who  procured  copies  of  the  Iliad 
and  Odyssey  fi-om  Greece,  at  his  own 
expense,  and  spared  neither  cost  nor 
trouble  to  obtain  good  Greek  and  Latin 
manuscripts.  At  the  same  time,  he  used 
all  his  influence  to  excite  his  contem- 
jKiraries  to  leani  the  Greek  language, 
and  substitute  the  study  of  tlie  ancients 
for  that  of  the  scholastic  philosoi)hy. 
The  reputation  which  he  had  gained 
twice  procured  for  him  impoitant  mis- 
sions to  pojie  Urban  V.  Having  fulfilled 
these,  he  returned  to  Certaldo,  and  re- 
sumed his  studies.  Here  he  was  attacked 
by  a  severe  aiid  fingering  disorder,  which 
^pall^'  left  hun  in  a  state  of  debility  as 


painful  as  the  disease  itself.  Upon  his 
recovery,  he  was  charged  with  a  diflScult, 
but  very  flattering  trust.  Dante  liad  al- 
ways been  the  oljject  of  his  highest  ad- 
miration. The  Florentines,  who  had 
once  ])ersecuted  and  banished  that  illus- 
trious jjoet,  but  now  did  justice  to  his 
merits,  had  resolved,  by  way  of  atone- 
ment to  his  niemor}',  to  establish  a  public 
j)rofessorship  for  the  illustration  of  liis 
poems,  which  were  every  day  becoming 
more  oi)scure,  as  the  distance  of  tlie  time 
wlien  they  were  written  became  greater. 
This  new  professorship  was  conferred 
upon  B.,  who  devoted  himself  to  it  with 
so  much  ardor,  that  his  health  could  never 
be  firmly  reestablished.  This  received  a 
further  shock  from>the  death  of  his  in- 
structor and  dearest  friend  Petrarch.  He 
survived  him  not  much  more  than  a  year, 
and  died  at  Certaldo,  Dec.  21,  1375.  On 
his  tomb  was  placed  this  inscription,  com- 
posed by  himself: 

Hac  sub  mole  jciceirt  cineres  ac  ossa  Joaimis, 
Mcr.3  sedet  ante  Deum  meritis  oniaia  labonun, 
Monalis  viiae.    (Jcuilor  Bocchaccius  illi, 
Palria  Certaldum,  studium  fuit  alma  poesis. 

— B.  apj)ears,  in  all  his  works,  to  be  a  poet 
of  the  richest  invention,  the  most  lively 
ijnagination,  and  the  teuderest  and  warm- 
est feeling.  In  prose,  he  is  a  perfect 
master  of  comjwsition.  His  Decameron, 
which  contains  a  collection  of  a  hundred 
tales,  partly  borrowed  from  the  Provencal 
poets,  is  the  work  on  which  his  fame 
chiefly  rests.  In  this  he  painted,  as  it 
were,  on  one  vast  canvas,  men  of  all 
ranks,  characters  and  ages,  and  incidents 
of  every  kind,  the  most  extravagant  and 
comical,  as  well  as  the  most  touching  and 
tragic ;  and  improved  the  Italian  lan- 
guage to  a  degree  of  excellence  never 
before  attained.  Of  his  other  works,  we 
will  mention  only  the  following :  La  Te- 
seide,  the  firet  attempt  towards  an  Italian 
epic,  and  written  in  oftava  rima,  of  which 
B.  is  considered  'the  inventor ;  Amorosa 
Visione,  a  long  poem  in  terza  rima  (the 
initial  lettere  of  which  form  two  sonnets 
and  -a  canzonet,  in  praise  of  the  princess 
IVIaria,  his  mistress,  whom  he  here  ven- 
tures to  address  by  her  proper  name) ;  U 
Filostrato,  a  romantic  poem  in  ottava  riina ; 
Nimfide  Fiesoluno,  in  tlie  same  measure ; 
Rime ;  (most  of  his  sonnets,  canzonets, 
and  other  amatory  poems,  he  consigned 
to  the  flanies,  after  readuig  the  Italian 
poems  of  Petrarch  ;  those  which  remain 
appear  to  have  been  preserved  against  his 
will) ;  11  Filocopo,  omiero  amorosa  Fatica,  a 
hunting  romance  ;  Uamorosa  Fiammet- 
ta, a.  channing  tale;  UUrbano  (thought 


148 


BOCCACCIO— BOCHICA. 


by  some  to  be  spurious) ;  L^Amtto  ossia 
JVimfale  (PAmeto,  a  mixed  composition, 
partly  in  pi'ose,  and  partly  in  verse;  11 
Corbaccio,  ossia  Laberinto  dfAviore,  a  pun- 
gent satire  against  a  lady  who  had  of- 
fended him ;  and,  finally,  Origine,  vita  e 
Costumi  di  Dante  Aligkieri,  a  work  inter- 
esting for  the  characteristic  traits  which 
it  records ;  and  his  Commento  sopra  la 
Commedia  di  Dante,  which,  however,  is 
carried  no  farther  than  the  17th  canto  of 
Dante's  Hell.  His  Latin  works  are,  De 
Genealogia  Deorum,  lAbri  xv;  De  Mon- 
tium,  Lacuum,  Sylvarum,Fluviorum,  Stag- 
norum  et  Marium  JVominibiis  lAber ;  De 
Casibus  Virorum  et  Feminarum  illiistnum, 
Lihri  iv ;  De  clans  Midieribus  ;  and  Ec- 
logce. — A  new  critical  edition  of  the  De- 
cameron, with  a  historical  literaiy  com- 
mentary, and  the  life  of  B.,  v.as  published 
at  Paris,  1823,  in  5  vols. — In  the  ducal 
library  at  Florence,  among  the  manu- 
scripts collected  by  the  celebrated  Mag- 
liabecchi,  prof  Ciampi  lately  discovered 
a  memorandum-book  of  B.,  containing  a 
record  of  his  studies,  and  some  curious 
circumstances  relating  to  himself  and  a 
number  of  his  distinguished  contempora- 
ries.   It  has  been  pubhshed. 

BoccAGE,  Max-ie  Anne  du,  a  celebrated 
French  poetess,  member  of  the  acade- 
mies of  Rome,  Bologna,  Padua,  Lyons 
and  Rouen,  was  born  in  Rouen,  1710, 
died  1802.  She  was  educated  in  Paris, 
in  a  nimnery,  where  she  discovered  a 
love  of  poetry.  She  became  the  wife  of 
a  receiver,  of  taxes  in  Dieppe,  who  died 
Boon  after  the  marriage,  leaving  her  a 
youthful  widow.  She  concealed  her  tal- 
ents, however,  till  the  charms  of  youth 
were  past,  and  first  published  her  pro- 
ductions in  1746.  The  first  was  a  poem 
on  the  mutual  influence  of  the  fine  arts  and 
sciences.  This  gained  the  prize  from  the 
academy  of  Rouen.  She  next  attempted 
an  imitation  of  Paradise  Lost,  in  six  can- 
tos ;  then,  of  the  Death  of  Abel ;  next,  a 
tragedy,  the  Amazons  ;  and  a  poem  in 
10  cantos,  called  the  Columbiad.  Madame 
du  Boccage  was  praised  by  her  contem- 
poraries with  an  extravagance,  for  which 
only  her  sex  and  the  charms  of  her  per- 
son can  account.  Fornm  Venus,  arte 
Minerva,  was  the  motto  of  her  admirere, 
among  whom  were  Voltaire,  Fontenelle, 
and  Clairaut.  She  was  always  surrounded 
by  distinguished  men,  and  extolled  in  a 
multitude  of  poems,  which,  if  collected, 
would  fill  several  volumes.  There  is  a 
great  deal  of  entertaining  matter  in  the 
letters  which  she  wrote  on  her  travels  in 
England  and  Holland,  and  in  which  one 


may  plainly  see  the  impression  she  made 
upon  her  contemporaries.  Her  works 
have  been  translated  into  English,  Span- 
ish, German  and  Italian. 

BoccHERiNi,  Luigi,  a  celebrated  com- 
])oser  of  instrumental  music,  was  bom  in 
1740,  at  Lucca,  and  received  from  the 
abbot  Vanucci,  music-master  of  the  aj-ch- 
bishop,  his  first  instruction  in  music  and 
on  the  violoncello.  He  further  improved 
liimself  in  the  art  at  Rome,  and  afterwards 
went,  with  Filippo  Manfredi,  his  friend 
and  countrj'man,  to  Spain,  where  he  was 
loaded  with  honors  and  presents  by  the 
king,  and  was  appointed  by  the  academy 
to  furnish  nine  pieces  of  his  composition 
annually,  which  he  continued  to  do  till 
his  death,  in  1805.  The  king  of  Prussia, 
Frederic  William  II,  who  was  a  great 
lover  of  the  violoncello,  and  admired  B.'s 
compositions,  settled  upon  him  a  consid- 
erable pension,  on  condition  of  his  send- 
ing him  yearly  some  of  his  quartets  and 
quintets.  The  compositions  which  B. 
has  published  himself  consist  of  sympho- 
nies, sextets,  quintets,  quatuors,  trios,  du- 
ets and  sonatas  for  the  violin,  violoncello 
and  piano-forte.  He  never  composed  any 
thing  for  the  theatre,  and  of  church  com- 
positions we  find  but  one,  his  Stabat  Ma- 
ter. The  adagios  of  B.  excited  the  admi- 
ration of  the  connoisseurs,  and  the  des]>air 
of  the  composers  of  his  time.  He  may 
be  regarded  as  the  precursor  of  Haydn,  as 
he  was  the  fiist  who  wrote  instiumental 
quartets,  of  which  all  the  parts  are  obli- 
gato,  and  determined  the  true  character 
of  this  species  of  music.  His  melodies 
ai'e  more  highly  esteemed  in  France  and 
Spain  than  in  Gennany. 

Bocc  HETTA ;  a  narrow  pass  of  the  Apen- 
nines, leading  from  Lombardy  to  Genoa. 
It  is  defended  by  three  fortifications.  In 
the  Austrian  war  of  succession  (1746  and 
1747),  and  in  the  French  war,  towards 
the  end  of  the  18th  century,  it  was  the 
scene  of  several  important  events. 

BocHicA  was  the  founder  of  the  Inc^an 
empire  of  Cundinamarca,  The  inhabit- 
ants of  the  valley  of  Bogota  had  a  tradi- 
tion, at  the  period  of  the  Spanish  con- 
quest, that,  in  remote  times,  tlieir  ancestors, 
the  Muisca  Indians,  lived  without  agricul- 
ture, laws  or  religion.  At  length  there 
appeared  among  them  a  venerable  old 
man,  of  foreign  aspect,  dress  and  manners, 
who  taught  them  die  arts  of  life,  and  re- 
claimed them  from  their  savage  condition. 
He  was  known  by  three  names — Bochi- 
ca,  JVemqueteba  and  Zuhe.  Accompany- 
ing him  was  a  beautiful  female,  named 
Chia,  who,  unlike  the  wife  of  Manco  Ca- 


BOCHICA— BODIN. 


149 


pac,  prided  herself  in  thwarting  her  hus- 
band^ beneficent  purposes.  Making  tlie 
river  of  Bogota  to  overflow  by  magic,  she 
deluged  the  whole  valley,  and  reduced 
the  inhabitants  to  the  necessity  of  fleeing 
to  the  mountains  for  safety.  Hereujxjn 
Bochica  expelled  the  malevolent  Chia 
from  tlie  earth,  and  she  became  the  moon. 
Then,  tearing  asunder  the  rocks  of  Te- 
quendama,  lie  gave  the  waters  an  exit  by 
these  celebrated  falls,  and  freed  the  valley 
of  Bogota  from  inundation.  Introducing 
the  worship  of  the  sun,  and  persuading  the 
inhabitants  to  cultivate  the  soil,  he  laid  the 
foundations  of  a  state,  which  held  the  same 
rank,  in  this  part  of  America,  whicli  Peru 
did  farther  to  the  south.  The  institutions 
of  this  people  very  strikingly  resembled 
those  of  the  incas,  and  perhajjs  had  a 
common  origin ;  but,  at  the  time  of  the 
conquest  of  South  America,  they  consti- 
tuted a  distinct  people,  and  possessed  a  dis- 
tinct religion.  (Hee  Bogota,  Cundlnamarca, 
Muisca ;  Compagnoni,  America,  xix,  107). 
BocKii,  Augustus,  one  of  the  greatest 
philologists  of  our  times,  was  born  at 
Carlsrulie,  1785,  studied  at  Halle,  and,  in 
1811,  became  professor  of  classical  litera- 
ture at  Berlin.  Two  works  will  immor- 
tahze  the  name  of  B.  with  the  students 
of  ancient  literature;  fii-st,  his  edition  of 
Pindar,  which  he  announced  to  the  pub- 
lic by  his  Specimen  Einendationuvi  in  Pin- 
dari  Carinina  {1810),  and  by  Observationes 
Criticce  in  Pindari,  Prim.,  Olymp.,  Carm, 
(1811;  the  large  Leipsic  edition,  1811 — 
1821,  is  in  3  vols.,  4to.).  A  new  arrange- 
ment of  the  Puidaric  measures  is  here 
proposed,  founded  on  deep  and  extensive 
researches  into  the  music  of  the  Greeks. 
Even  those  who  entirely  reject  the  hy- 
potheses of  this  philologist  cannot  but 
acknowledge  his  erudition,  and  admire 
his  acuteness.  The  other  work,  to  which 
we  have  alluded,  is  on  the  Pohtical  Econ- 
omy of  the  Athenians  (4  books,  Berlin, 
1817,  2  vols.).  No  work  has  hitherto 
appeared  in  Germany,  which  throws  so 
much  lighten  the  political  life  and  public 
administration  of  any  ancient  peojile,  as 
this  of  B.  It  has  furnished  new  means 
for  illustrating  the  Attic  orators  and  histo- 
rians. B.  has  added  to  this  work  21  in- 
scriptions. Of  late  years,  he  has  been 
busily  engaged  in  preparing  a  work  under 
the  patronage  of  the  Berlin  academy  of 
science,  of  which  he  is  a  member,  called 
Corpus  Inscriptionum  Grcecanim,  of  which 
the  first  volume  appeared,  in  1825,  at  Ber- 
lin, in  folio.  The  smaller  writings  of  this 
author  relate  chiefly  to  Plato  (of  whose 
works  he  promised,  some  time  .since,  to 
13* 


give  a  new  edition),  and  to  the  Platonic 
pliilosophei-s. 

Bode,  John  Elert,  an  astronomer,  bom 
at  Hamburg,  1747,  early  discovered  an 
inclination  for  mathematical  science,  in 
which  his  father,  and,  aftenvards,  the 
famous  J.  G.  Biisch,  instructed  him.  He 
gave  the  firet  public  proof  of  his  knowl- 
edge by  a  short  work  on  the  solar  eclipse 
of  Aug.  5,  17G6.  The  approbation  which 
this  received  encouraged  him  to  greater 
labors,  and  in  1768  aj)peared  his  Intro- 
duction to  the  Knowledge  of  the  Starry 
Heavens  (9th  ed.  1822) ;  a  familiar  trea- 
tise on  astronomy,  which  has  done  much 
for  the  extension  of  correct  views  upon 
the  subject,  and  continues  to  do  so,  as  it 
has  kept  pace,  in  its  successive  editions, 
with  the  progi'ess  of  the  science.  In 
1772,  the  Berlin  academy  chose  him  their 
asti'onomer,  and,  ten  years  afterwards,  he 
was  made  a  member  of  that  institution. 
His  best  works  are  his  Astronomical  Al- 
manac (commencing  1774) — a  work  indis- 
j)ensable  to  every  astronomer ;  and  his 
large  Celestial  Atlas  [Himmelsatlas],  in 
20  sheets,  in  which  the  industrious  editor 
lias  given  a  catalogue  of  17,240  stars 
(12,000  more  than  in  any  former  charts). 
]>.  was  released  in  1825,  at  his  own  wish, 
from  his  duties  in  the  academy  of  science, 
and  the  observatory  in  Berlin.  His  place 
was  filled  by  professor  Encke,  formerly 
astronomer  at  Gotha.     ' 

BoDiN,  Jean,  a  pohtical  writer  of  the 
16th  century,  was  bom  in  1530  or  1529, 
at  Angei-S;  studied  law  at  Toulouse ;  de-r 
livered  lectures  on  jurisprudence  there, 
and  afterwaixlssWent  to  Vans  and  practis- 
ed. Being  unsuccessful  in  his  profession, 
he  turned  his  talents  to  literaiy  labors; 
was  invited  by  Henry  III  to  his  court ; 
and  aftenvards  travelled  with  the  king's 
brother  Francis,  duke  of  Alengon  and 
Anjou,  to  Flanders  and  England,  where 
he  had  the  gratification  of  hearing  lec- 
tures, in  Cambridge,  on  his  work  De  la 
R^publique  (originally  written  in  French, 
but  afterwards  translated,  by  B.  himself, 
into  Latin).  When  the  duke  died,  he* 
went  to  Laon,  married  there,  obtained  a, 
judicial  office,  and  was  sent,  by  the  third 
estate  in  Vermandois,  1576,  as  deputy,  to 
the  estates  of  Blois,  Here  lie  defended 
the  rights  of  the  people,  and  the  liberty  of 
conscience.  His  conduct  made  him  many 
enemies  at  court.  He  also  prevailed  on 
the  city  of  Laon  to  declare  itself  for  the 
league,  in  1589,  representing  to  the  people, 
that  the  rising  of  so  many  towns  and  par- 
liaments, in  favor  of  the  duke  of  Guise, 
was  not  a  rebeUion,  but  rather  a  powerful 


150 


BODIN— BODONI, 


political  revolution.  He  afterwards,  how- 
ever, submitted  to  Henrj'  IV.  He  died, 
1596,  at  Laon,  of  the  plague.  His  great 
work  is  that  entitled  De  la  Repuhlique,  in 
which  he  gave  the  first  complete  essay 
towards  a  scientific  treatise  on  polit'cs, 
and,  guided  by  his  own  experience,  sought 
to  strike  out  a  middle  course  between  the 
advocates  of  monarchy  and  democracy. 
His  Demoiwmanie,  and  his  Thtatruvi  Uni- 
verse JVatiirw  (Lyons,  159(5),  show  how 
superstition  and  learning  were  united  in 
his  character ;  but  the  cliarge  of  atheism, 
which  is  grounded  particularly  on  a  work 
entitled  Hcptaplomeron,  {)roceeds  from  the 
religious  indifference  which  was  noticed 
in  him  by  his  contemporaries. 

Bodleian  Library.    (See  Lnbraries.) 
BoDLEY,  sir  Thomas ;  the  founder  of 
the  Bodleian  Ubrary  at  Oxford.     He  was 
bom  at  Exeter,  in  1544,    and  educated 
partly  at  Geneva,  whither  his  parents,  who 
were  Protestants,  had  retired  in  the  reign 
of  queen  Mary.     On  the  accession  of 
Elizabeth,  they  returned  home,  and  he 
completed  his  studies  at  Magdalen  col- 
lege, Oxford.     He  afterwards  became  a 
fellow  of  Merton  college,  and  read  lectures 
on  the  Greek  language  and  philosophy. 
He  went  to  the  continent  ui  1576,   and 
spent  four  years  in  travelhng.    He  was 
afterwards  employed  in  various  embassies 
to  Denmark,  Germany,  France  and  Hol- 
land.   In  1597,  he  returned  home,  and 
dedicated  tlie  remainder  of  his  life  to  the 
reestablishment  and  augmentation  of  the 
pubUc  library  at  Oxford.   This  he  accom- 
''•  plished,  procuring  books  and  manuscripts 
nimself,  both  at  home  and  abroad,  at  a 
great  expense,  and,  by  his  influence  and 
pereuasions,  inducing  liis  friends  and  ac- 
quaintance to  assist  in  his  undertaking. 
Sir  Robert  Cotton,  sir  Henry  Savile,  and 
Thomas  Allen,  tlie  mathematician,  were 
among  the  principal  contributors  on  this 
occasion.    The  Ubrary  was  so  much  aug- 
mented, that  sir  Thomas  B.,  who  was 
knighted  at  the  accession  of  James  I,  was 
induced  to  erect  an  additional  structure 
for  the  reception  of  the  increasing  quan- 
tity of  valuable  books  and  manuscripts. 
He  died  in  London,  1612,  and  was  interred 
in  the  chapel  of  Merton  college,  in  tlie 
university.      He  bequeathed  neai-ly  the 
whole  of  his  property  to  the  support  and 
augmentation  of  the  library,  which  has 
been  so  much  enriched  by  subsequent 
benefactions,  that  it  is,  at  present,  one  of 
the  most  magnificent  institutions  of  the 
kind  in  Europe.    (See  Reliquiw  Bodlei- 
ants,  London,  170.3.) 
BoDMER,  John  Jacob;  a  celebrated  Ger- 


man poet  and  scholar,  bom  at  Greifensee, 
near  Zurich,  July  19,  1698.  Although 
he  produced  nothing  remarkable  of  his 
own  in  poetrj',  he  helped  to  open  the  way 
for  the  new  German  literature  in  this  de- 
partment. He  was  the  antagonist  of  Gott- 
sched,  in  Leipsic,  who  aspired  to  be  the 
literary  dictator  of  the  day,  and  had  em- 
braced the  French  theory  of  taste,  while 
B.  inclined  to  the  English.  He  has  the 
honor  of  having  had  Klopstock  and  Wie- 
land  among  his  scjiolai-s.  B.  was,  for  a 
long  time,  professor  of  history  in  Switzer- 
land. He  was  a  copious  and  indefatigable 
writer,  entertained  many  incon-ect  views, 
but  was  of  senice,  as  we  have  already 
said,  to  the  German  literature,  which  was 
then  in  a  low  and  barbarous  state.  He 
died  at  Zurich,  1783. 

BoDOM,  Giambatista,  superintendent  of 
the  royal  press  at  Parma,  chief  printer  of 
his  Catliolic  majestj-,  member  of  several 
academies  of  Italy,  knight  of  several  high 
orders,  was  born,  1740,  at  Saluzzo,  in 
Piedmont,  where  his  father  owned  a 
printing  establishment.  He  began,  while 
yet  a  boy,  to  employ  himself  in  engraving 
on  wood.  His  labors  meeting  with  suc- 
cess, he  went,  in  1758,  to  Rome,  and  was 
made  compositor  for  the  press  of  the 
Propaganda.  By  the  advice  of  the  su- 
perintendent, he  made  himself  acquainted 
with  the  Oriental  languages,  in  order  to 
qualify  himself  for  the  kind  of  printing 
required  in  them.  He  thereby  enabled 
himself  to  be  of  great  service  to  this  press 
by  restoring  and  putting  in  place  the 
types  of  several  Oriental  alphabets,  which 
had  fallen  into  disorder.  The  infant  don 
Ferdinand,  about  1766,  had,  with  a  view 
ofdiffusiug  knowledge,  established  a  print- 
ing-house in  Parma,  after  the  model  of 
those  in  Paris,  Madrid  and  Turin.  B.  was 
placed  at  the  head  of  this  establishment, 
which  he  made  the  first  of  the  kind  in 
Europe,  and  gained  the  reputation  of 
having  far  surpassed  all  the  splendid  and 
beautiful  productions  of  his  predecessors 
in  the  art.  The  beauty  of  his  type,  ink 
and  paper,  as  well  as  the  whole  manage- 
ment of  the  technical  part  of  the  work, 
leaves  nothing  for  us  to  Viish ;  but  the 
intrinsic  value  of  his  editions  is  seldom 
equal  to  their  outward  splendor.  His 
Homer  is  a  truly  admirable  and  magnifi- 
cent work ;  indeed,  his  Greek  lettei-s  are 
the  most  perfect  imitations  that  have  been 
attempted,  in  modern  times,  of  Greek 
manuscript.  His  splendid  editions  of 
Greek,  Latin,  Italian  and  French  classics 
are  highlv  prized.  He  died  at  Padua, 
Nov.  29, 1813. 


BOEHME— BCEOTIA. 


151 


BoECE.    (See  BoHhius.) 

BoEHME,  or  BoEHM,  Jacol) ;  one  of  the 
most  renowned  mystics  of  modem  times; 
bom,  in  1575,  at  Altseidenberg,  a  village 
in  Upper  Lusatia,  near  Gorlitz ;  was  the 
son  of  poor  peasants;  remained  to  his 
10th  year  without  instruction,  and  era- 
ployed  in  tending  cattle.  The  beautiful 
and  sublime  objects  of  nature  kindled  his 
imagination,  and  inspirfed  him  with  a 
profound  piety.  Raised  by  contempla- 
tion above  his  circumstances,  and  luulis- 
turbed  by  exterior  influences,  a  strong 
sense  of  the  spiritual,  particularly  of  tlie 
mysterious,  was  awakened  in  him,  and 
he  saw  in  all  the  workings  of  nature 
upon  his  mind  a  i-evelation  of  God,  and 
even  imagined  himself  favored  by  divine 
inspirations.  The  education  which  he 
received  at  school,  though  very  imper- 
fect, consisting  only  of  writing,  spelling 
and  reading  the  Bible,  supplied  new  food 
for  the  excited  mind  of  the  boy.  He  be- 
came afterwards  a  shoemaker;  and  this 
sedentary  hfe  seems  to  have  strengthened 
Ills  contemplative  habits.  He  was  much 
interested  in  the  disputes  which  prevailed 
on  the  subject  of  Cryptocalvinism  in 
Saxony  ;  though  he  never  took  a  pei*sonal 
part  in  sectarian  controversies,  and  knew 
no  higher  delight  than  to  elevate  himself, 
undisturbed,  to  the  contemplation  of  the 
infinite.  B.  withdrew  himself  more  and 
more  from  the  world.  If  Ave  take  into 
view  his  retirement,  his  piety,  his  rich 
and  hvely  imagination,  his  imperfect  ed- 
ucation, his  philosophical  desire  for  truth, 
together  with  his  abundance  of  ideas,  and 
his  delusion  in  considering  many  of  those 
ideas  as  immediate  communications  of 
the  Deity,  we  have  the  sources  of  his 
doctrine  and  his  works.  His  Avritings 
are  veiy  unequal,  but  always  display  a 
profound  feeling,  and  must  be  judged 
with  indulgence  for  the  causes  just  men- 
tioned. In  1594,  B.  became  a  master 
slioemaker  in  Gorlitz,  married,  and  con- 
tinued a  shoemaker  during  his  life.  Sev- 
eral visions  and  raptures,  that  is,  moments 
of  strong  enthusiasm,  led  him  to  take  the 
pen.  His  fii-st  work  appeared  in  1616, 
and  was  called  Aurora.  It  contains  his 
revelations  on  God,  man  and  nature. 
This  gave  rise  to  a  prosecution  against 
him ;  but  he  was  acquitted,  and  called 
upon,  from  all  sides,  to  continue  writing. 
He  did  not,  however,  resume  his  pen 
until  1619.  One  of  his  most  important 
works  is,  Descri[»tion  of  the  three  Princi- 
ples of  the  Divine  Being.  His  works 
contain,  profound  and  lofty  ideas,  min- 
gled Avith  many  absurd  and  confused  no- 


tions. He  died,  after  several  prosecutions 
and  acquittals,  in  1624.  Abraham  von 
Frankenberg  (who  died  in  1652),  his  bi- 
ographer and  admirer,  has  also  published 
and  explained  his  writmgs.  The  first  col- 
lection of  them  was  made  in  Holland,  in 
1675,  by  Henry  Betke  ;  a  more  complete 
one,  in  1662,  by  GTichtel  (10  vols.,  Amster- 
dam); from  whom  the  followers  of  B.,  a 
religious  sect  highly  valued  for  their  si- 
lent, virtuous  and  benevolent  Ufe,  have 
received  the  name  GichteUans.  Another 
edition  appeared  in  Amsteidam,  in  1730, 
imder  the  title  Theologia  revelata,  2  vols. 
4to. ;  the  most  complete,  in  6  vols.  In 
England,  also,  B.'s  writings  have  found 
many  admirers.  William  Law  published 
an  English  ti'anslation  of  them,  2  vols., 
4to.  A  sect,  taking  their  name  fi-om  B., 
was  likewise  fonned  in  England,  and 
in  1697,  Jane  Leade,  ah  enthusiastic  ad- 
mirer of  his,  established  a  particular  soci- 
ety for  the  explanation  of  his  writings, 
under  the  name  of  the  PMladelphisls.  It 
is  said  that  such  a  society  still  exists. 
John  Pordage,  an  Enghsh  physician,  is 
also  Avell  knoAvn  as  a  commentator  on  B. 
BffiOTiA  ;  a  country  of  ancient  Greece, 
bounded  N.  by  Phocis  and  the  country 
of  the  Opuntian  Locrians ;  E.  by  the 
Euripus,  or  stitut  of  Euboea;  S.  by  Attica 
and  Megaris ;  and  W.  by  the  Alcyonian 
sea  and  Phocis ;  but  the  boundaries  were 
not  always  the  same.  In  the  north,  it  is 
mountainous  and  cold,  and  the  air  is 
pure  and  healthy,  but  the  soil  is  less  fer- 
tile than  that  of  the  other  portion,  which, 
however,  is  infested  by  unhealthy  vajjors. 
The  mountainous  part  in  the  north  was 
called,  in  earher  times,  Aonia.  Among 
its  mountains  are  several  remarkable  in 
history  and  mythology:  Helicon  (now 
Sagara),  the  mountain  of  the  Sphinx,  the 
Taumessus,  Libethrus  and  Petrachus. — 
The  chief  occupation  of  the  inhabitants 
was  agriculture  and  the  raising  of  cattle. 
It  was  first  occupied  by  Pelasgian  tribes. 
In  the  time  of  Bceotus  (son  of  Itonus  and 
grandson  of  Amphictyon,  from  whom  it 
is  said  to  have  derived  its  name),  these 
were  subject  to  the  Hellenists.  It  \yias 
divided  into  small  states,  until  Cadmus 
the  Plicenician  founded  the  govennnent 
of  Thebes.  In  later  times,  all  Greece 
worshipped  the  Hercules  of  Thebes.  Af- 
ter the  death  of  the  Theban  king  Xanthus, 
most  of  the  cities  of  B.  formed  a  kind  of 
republic,  of  which  Thebes  was  the  chief 
city.  Epaminondas  and  Pelopidas  raised 
Thebes,  for  a  short  time,  to  the  rank  of 
the  most  powerful  states  of  Greece.  ,  la 
B.  ai'e  several  celebrated  ancient  battle-t 


152 


BCEOTIA— BOERHAAVE. 


fields,  the  former  glory  of  which  has  been 
increased  by  late  events,  namely,  Plataea 
(now  the  village  Kokla),  where  Pausanias 
and  Aristides  established  the  liberty  of 
Greece  by  their  victory  over  the  300,000 
Persians  under  Mardonius ;  Leuctra  (now 
the  village  Parapogia),  where  Epaminon- 
das  checked  the  ambitious  Spartans ;  Co- 
ronea,  where  the  Spartan  Agesilaus  de- 
feated the  Thebans ;  and  Chaeronea  (now 
Capranu),  where  Phihp  founded  the 
Macedonian  greatness  on  the  ruins  of 
Grecian  liberty.  Near  Tanagra,  the  birth- 
place of  Corinna  (q.  v.),  the  best  wine 
was  produced ;  here,  also,  cocks  were 
bred,  of  remarkable  size,  beauty  and 
courage,  with  which  the  Grecian  cities, 
passionately  fond  of  cock-fighting,  were 
supplied.  Refinement  and  cultivation  of 
muid  never  made  such  progress  in  B.  as 
in  Attica.  The  Bceotians  were  vigorous, 
but  slow  and  heavy.  Several  Thebans, 
however,  were  worthy  disciples  of  Soc- 
rates, and  Epaminondas  distinguished 
himself  as  much  in  philosophy  as  by  his 
military  talents.  The  people  were  par- 
ticularly fond  of  music,  and  excelled  in 
it.  They  had  also  some  great  poets  and 
artists.  Hesiod,  Pindar,  the  poetess  Co- 
rinna, and  Plutarch,  were  Boeotians. 

BoERHAAVE,  HennaHU,  one  of  the  most 
celebrated  j)hysicians  of  the  18th  century, 
was  bom,  Dec.  13<  1668,  atWoorhout, 
near  Leyden,  and  received  from  his  fa- 
ther a  hberal  education.  Before  he  was 
11  years  old,  he  was  well  acquainted 
with  Latin  and  Greek.  An  obstinate  ul- 
cer on  his  lefl;  thigh,  which,  for  7  years, 
resisted  all  medical  remedies,  was  the 
means  of  directing  his  tlioughts  and  in- 
chnations  to  the  study  of  medicine.  In 
1682,  he  was  sent  to  Leyden  to  study 
theology.  Here  he  gave,  at  the  age  of 
20,  the  first  public  proof  of  his  learning 
and  eloquence.  He  pronoimced  an  aca- 
demic oration  before  Gronovius,  with 
whom  he  studied  Greek,  QttA  probatur, 
bene  intellectam  a  Cicerone,  et  confutatam 
esse  Sententiam  Epicuri  de  sumvio  Bono 
(Leyden,  1690,  4to.)  In  this,  B.  attacked 
the  doctrine  of  Spinoza  with  so  much 
talent,  that  the  city  rewarded  liim  with  a 
gold  medal.  In  1689,  he  received  the 
degree  of  doctor  of  philosophy,  and  main- 
tained an  inaugural  dissertation,  De  Dis- 
tindione  Meiiiis  a  Corpore  (Leyden,  1690). 
He  now  commenced,  at  the  age  of  22, 
the  study  of  medicine.  Drehncourt  was 
his  first  and  only  teacher.  From  him  he 
received  only  a  little  mstraction ;  and  it  is 
worthy  of  notice,  that  B.  learned  by  his 
own  solitary  study  a  science  on  which 


he  was  afterwards  to  exert  so  important 
an  influence.  He  first  studied  anatomy, 
but  rather  in  the  works  then  in  vogue,  of 
Vesale,  Bartholin,  &c.,  than  in  the  dis- 
secting room.  He  was  present,  indeed, 
at  most  of  the  dissections  of  Nuck,  but 
still  the  want  of  a  practical  study  of 
anatomy  is  evident  in  all  his  writings. 
The  influence  which  he  had  in  improving 
anatomy,  notwithstanding  the  defect  we 
liave  noticed,  must  be  traced  to  the  close 
connexion  of  this  mechanical  science 
Avith  physiology  and  medicine.  As,  in 
these  last,  he  made  use  of  mechanical 
illustrations,  his  example  induced  the 
anatomists  to  apply  themselves  to  an  ac- 
curate study  of  tlie  forjns  of  the  organs, 
as  may  be  noticed  in  all  the  anatomists 
of  that  time — Santorini,  Morgagni,  Val- 
salva, Wmslow,  Albinus,  &c.  After  this 
preliminary  study,  which,  in  fact,  is  the 
groundwork  of  medical  science,  B.  read 
all  the  works,  ancient  and  modern,  on 
medicine,  in  the  order  of  time,  proceed- 
ing fi-om  his  contemporaries  to  Hippocra- 
tes, with  whose  superior  excellence  and 
correct  inethod  he  was  forcibly  struck  in 
this  course  of  reading.  He  also  studied 
botany  and  chemistry,  and,  although  still 
preparing  himself  for  the  clerical  profes- 
sion, was  made,  in  1693,  doctor  of  medi- 
cine at  Harderwick.  His  dissertation 
was  De  Ulilitate  explorandoi-um  "Excremen- 
torum  in  JEgris,  vi  Signorum.  After  his 
return  to  Leyden,  some  doubts  being 
raised  as  to  his  orthodoxy,  he  finally  de- 
termined to  follow  the  profession  of  med^ 
icine.  In  1701,  the  university  of  Leyden 
chose  him,  on  the  death  of  Drelincourt, 
to  deUver  lectures  on  the  theory  of  medi- 
cine ;  on  which  occasion,  he  pronounced 
his  disseitation  De  commendando  Studio 
Hippocratico.  In  this,  with  an  enthusi- 
asm excited  by  the  study  of  Hippocrates, 
he  demonstrates  the  correctness  of  the 
method  pursued  by  that  great  man,  and 
establishes  its  exclusive  superiority :  it 
had  been  well  if  he  himself  had  never 
deviated  fi*om  it.  B.  now  began  to  devel- 
ope  those  great  and  peculiar  excellences, 
which  make  him  a  pattern  to  all  who 
undertake  the  office  of  instruction.  Pu- 
pils crowded  from  all  quarter^  to  hear 
him.  In  1703,  he  delivered  another  dis- 
seitation,  De  Usu  Raliodnii  mechanici  in 
Medicina,  Leyden,  1703.  In  this,  he  be- 
gan to  deviate  from  tlie  Hippocratic 
method,  and  to  introduce  the  first  prin- 
ciples of  a  defective  system,  to  which  his 
eminent  talents  gave  afterwards  exclusive 
currency.  In  1709,  the  university  of 
Leyden  was  at  length  enabled  to  reward 


BOERHAAVE— BOETHIUS. 


153 


him  for  his  services,  by  appointing  him 
professor  of  medicine  and  botany  m  Hot- 
ton's  place.  It  is  remarkable,  tliat,  on  this 
occasion,  he  dehvered  a  dissertation,  Qitd 
repurgatce  Medicina  facilis  asseritur  Sim- 
plicitas,  which  deserves  to  be  placed  by 
the  side  of  those  in  which  he  recom- 
mends the  study  of  Hippocrates.  In  this 
dissertation,  he  is  for  cairying  back  the 
science  to  its  original  simplicity — to  obser- 
vation and  experience — quite  contrary  to 
the  spirit  which  guided  his  own  system. 
The  coui-se  of  instruction,  to  which  B. 
was  now  devoted,  induced  him  to  pub- 
Hsh  two  works,  on  which  his  fame  still 
rests,  viz.  Institutiones  Medicce  in  Usus 
annuce  Exercitationis  doinesticos ;  and 
Aphorismi  de  cognoscendis  et  curandis 
Morhis  in  Usum  Dodrina  Medicince.  In 
the  former,  which  is  a  model  of  compre- 
hensive eiiidition  and  clear  method,  he 
unfolds  his  system  ui  its  full  extent :  in 
the  latter,  he  undertakes  the  classification 
of  diseases,  and  discourses  separately  on 
tJieir  causes,  nature  and  treatment.  T^he 
professorship  of  botany,  which  he  also 
filled,  contributed  no  less  to  his  reputa- 
tion. He  rendered  essential  services  to 
botany  by  his  two  catalogues  of  plants  in 
the  garden  of  Leyden,  the  number  of 
which  he  had  very  much  increased.  We 
are  indebted  to  him  for  the  description 
and  delineation  of  several  new  plants, 
and  the  introduction  of  some  new  spe- 
cies. In  1714,  he  was  made  rector  of  the 
university,  and,  at  the  close  of  his  term  of 
office,  delivered  an  oration,  De  compa- 
rando  certo  in  Physicis,  one  of  his  best 
pieces.  At  the  end  of  this  year,  he  took 
Bidloo's  place  in  the  office  of  practical 
instruction,  in  which  he  was  employed 
more  than  10  years.  Anticipating  the 
great  advantages  of  clinical  institutions, 
and  wshing  to  unite  practice  with  theory, 
lie  opened  an  hospital,  where  he  lectured 
to  his  pupils  twice  a  week,  on  the  history 
of  the  diseases  before  them,  confining 
himself  to  the  particular  phenomena  in 
each  case  presented  to  their  observation. 
Busily  occupied  as  he  already  was,  the 
miivei-sity  conferred  on  him,  at  the  death 
of  Lemort,  the  jirofessorship  of  chemistiy, 
w^hich  science  he  had  taught  since  1703. 
On  this  occasion  he  dehvered  his  disser- 
tation De  Ckemia  suos  Errores  expur- 
gante.  Although  the  relations  which  B. 
Bupjioses  to  exist  between  chemistry  and 
medicine  are  ill-founded,  he  deserves 
credit  for  rendering  the  science  intelligi- 
ble and  familiar  hi  his  excellent  works  on 
this  subject.  His  Elements  of  Chemistry 
is,  perhaps,  liis  finest  production,  and, 


notwithstanding  the  entire  revolution 
which  has  taken  place  in  this  branch  of 
science,  is  still  highly  valuable.  His  ex- 
periments are  remarkable  for  their  accu- 
racy. The  part  which  treats  of  organic 
bodies  is  exceedingly  good  for  that  pe- 
riod. So  extensive  a  sphere  of  action 
gained  for  B.  a  fame  that  few  learned, 
men  have  enjoyed.  People  came  from 
all  parts  of  Europe  to  ask  his  advice. 
His  property  amounted,  at  his  death,  to 
2,000,000  florins — a  very  extraordinary 
fortune  for  a  man  of  his  profession  in 
Europe.  Peter  the  Great  visited  him  on 
his  travels,  and  a  Chinese  mandarin  wrote 
to  him  with  the  address,  "  To  Boerhaave, 
the  celebrated  physician  in  Europe."  In 
1722,  an  attack  of  the  gout,  accompanied 
with  a  stroke  of  the  apoplexy,  obliged 
him  to  remit  his  active  pursuits.  New 
returns  of  his  disorder,  in  1727  and  1729, 
compelled  him  to  resign  the  professorships 
of  chemistry  and  botany,  which  he  had 
held  for  20  years.  In  1730,  he  was  again 
appointed  rector,  and,  at  the  close  of  his 
term,  delivered  a  celebrated  address,  De 
Honor e,  Medici  Servitute,  perhaps  the  best 
of  all  those  essays,  in  which  he  represents 
the  physician  as  the  servant  of  nature, 
whose  activity  he  is  to  awaken  and  di- 
rect. In  this  he  returned,  in  some  meas- 
ure, to  the  principles  of  Hippocrates, 
from  which,  indeed,  he  had  never  depart- 
ed far  in  practice.  In  1738,  his  disorder 
returned  with  increased  violence,  and, 
after  a  few  months,  put  an  end  to  his  life, 
at  the  age  of  70.  The  city  erected  a, 
monument  to  him  in  St.  Peter's  church, 
with  his  favorite  motto  upon  it — Simplex 
sigillum  veri. 

BoiiTHius,  Anicius  Manhus  Torquatus 
Severinus,  a  man  celebrated  for  his  vir- 
tues, services,  honoi*s  and  tragical  end, 
w^as  born  about  470  A.  D.,  in  Rome  or 
Milan,  of  a  rich,  ancient  and  respectable 
family ;  was  educated  in  Rome,  in  a  man- 
ner well  calculated  to  develope  his  ex- 
traordinaiy  abilities;  afterwards  went  to 
Athens,  which  was  still  the  centre  of 
taste  and  science,  and  studied  philosophy 
under  Proelus  and  othei-s.  Returning  to 
Rome,  he  was  graciously  received  by 
Theodoric,  king  of  the  Ostrogoths,  then 
master  of  Italj,  loaded  with  marks  of  fa- 
vor and  esteem,  and  soon  raised  to  the 
first  offices  in  the  empire.  He  exerted 
the  best  influence  on  the  administration 
of  this  monarch,  so  that  the  dominion  of 
the  Goths  promoted  the  welfare  and  hap- 
piness of  the  people  who  were  subject  to 
them.  He  was  long  the  oracle  of  his 
sovereign  and  the  idol  of  the  people. 


194 


BOETHIUS— BOGOTA. 


The  highest  honors  were  thought  inade- 
quate to  reward  his  virtues  and  services. 
But  Theodoric,  as  lie  grew  old,  became 
irritable,  jealous,  and  distrustful  of  those 
about  hiin.  The  Goths  now  indulged  in 
all  sorts  of  oppression  and  extortion, 
while  B.  exerted  himself  in  vain  to  re- 
strain them.  He  had  already  made  ma- 
ny enemies  by  his  strict  integrity  and 
vigilant  justice.  These  at  last  succeeded 
in  prejudicing  tlie  king  against  him,  and 
rendering  him  suspicious  of  B.  The  op- 
position of  B.  to  their  unjust  measures 
was  construed  into  a  rebeUious  temper, 
and  he  was  even  accused  of  a  treasonable 
correspondence  with  the  court  of  Con- 
stantinople. He  was  arrested,  imprisoned 
and  executed,  A.  D.  524  or  526. — While 
he  was  at  the  helm  of  state,  he  found  rec- 
reation from  his  toilsome  occupations  in 
the  study  of  the.  sciences,  and  devoted  a 
part  of  his  leisure  to  the  construction  of 
mathematical  and  musical  instruments, 
some  of  which  he  sent  to  Clothaire,  king 
of  France.  He  was  also  much  given  to 
the  study  of  the  old  Greek  philosoi)hers 
and  mathematicians,  and  wrote  Latin 
translations  of  several  of  them.  His  most 
celebrated  work  is  that  composed  during 
his  imprisonment.  On  the  Consolations  of 
Philosophy.  It  is  written  in  prose  and 
verse  intermixed.  The  elevation  of 
thought,  the  nobleness  of  feeling,  the  ease 
and  distinctness  of  style,  which  it  exhib- 
its, make  this  composition,  short  as  it  is, 
far  superior  to  any  other  of  the  age. 
(Principal  edition,  Basil,  1570,  folio.  A 
modem  one  of  some  value  appeared  at 
Glasgow,  1751,  4to.) 

BoETTCHER,  Jolm  Fredcric,  the  invent- 
or of  the  Dresden  porcelain,  born  Feb.  5, 
1682,  at  Schleiz,  in  the  Voigtland,  in  his 
15th  year  went  from  Magdeburg,  where 
he  received  his  early  education,  to  BerUn, 
as  apprentice  of  an  apothecarj'.  There 
he  devoted  his  nights  to  the  art  of  making 
gold.  His  want  of  sleep  rendered  him  so 
stupid,  during  the  day,  as  to  draw  upon 
him  many  reproofs,  till,  at  last,  he  acquir- 
ed some  consideration  by  showing  little 
pieces  of  gold,  which  he  pretended  to 
have  made.  Oct  1,  1701,  he  changed,  as 
it  is  said,  in  the  presence  of  seveml  wit- 
nesses, 18  pieces  of  silver  into  fine  gold. 
As  this  was  much  talked  of,  the  king  de- 
sired to  see  him,  and  B.,  believing  he  was  ~ 
to  be  arrested  as  an  adept  (q.  v.),  fled  to 
Saxony.  The  king  of  Saxony  gave  him 
large  sums  of  money,  which  he  wasted,  sti  11 
keeping  his  employer  in  suspense.  His 
majesty  finally  became  very  impatient  to 
see  the  gold.    B.,  therefore,  in  1704,  at- 


tempted to  escape,  but  was  overtaken,  and, 
with  the  assistance  of  one  Tschimhausen, 
who  had  discovered  a  kind  of  porcelain, in- 
vented an  improved  composition  of  it,  with 
which  he  hoped  to  appease  the  king,  who 
spent  immense  sums  in  China  ware.  In 
1705,  B.  invented  the  Dresden  porcelain, 
wliich  has  since  become  so  famous.  He 
made  use  of  a  clay  found  in  the  vicin- 
ity of  Meissen.  The  king,  upon  this, 
made  him  a  baron  of  the  empire  and  di- 
rector of  the  new  manufactory  of  porce- 
lain in  Meissen,  though  he  was  often 
treated  as  a  prisoner,  lest  the  secret  should 
be  betrayed.  He  was  finally  removed 
from  his  dignitj',  on  account  of  his  im- 
moral life,  and  died,  March  13,  1719,  in 
the  greatest  poverty,  so  that  he  did  not 
even  leave  sufiicient  to  pay  the  expenses 
of  bis  funeral. 

BoGDANOwiTscH,  Hippolyt  Federo- 
witsch,  the  Russian  Anacreon,  was  bom 
in  1743,  at  Perewolotschna,  in  White 
Russia.  His  father  was  a  physician.  He 
was  designed  for  an  engineer ;  went,  for 
the  purpose  of  studying  engineering,  to 
Moscow,  in  1754,  and  entered  an  acad- 
emy there ;  but  the  sight  of  a  splendid 
play,  and  the  reading  of  Lomonosgow's 
poems,  turned  his  incUnation  to  poetiy. 
He  wished  to  become  an  actor,  but  the 
manager  of  the  theatre,  Cheraskow,  dis- 
suaded him  from  his  purpose.  By  his 
advice,  he  applied  himself  to  the  study 
of  the  fine  arts,  and  to  learning  foreign 
languages.  He  gained  patrons  and  friends, 
and,  in  1761,  was  made  inspector  in  the 
university  of  Moscow,  and  afterwards 
translator  in  the  department  of  foreign 
affairs.  In  1762,  he  travelled  with  count 
Beloselsky,  as  secretary  of  legation,  to 
Dresden,  where  he  devoted  his  whole  at- 
tention to  the  study  of  the  fine  arts  ancl 
of  poetry,  till  1768.  The  beautiful  pic- 
tures in  tlie  gallery  of  that  place  insjiired 
him  to  write  his  Psyche  [Duschenka), 
which  appeared  in  1775,  and  fixed  Jiis 
fame  on  a  lasting  foundation.  After  this, 
he  devoted  himself  to  music  and  poetrj', 
in  solitary  study  at  Petersburg,  till  Cath- 
arine called  him  fi'om  his  retirement. 
He  then  wrote,  on  diflTerent  occasions, 
several  dramatic  and  historical  pieces.  In 
1788,  he  was  made  president  of  the  im- 
j)erial  archives.  In  1795,  he  took  leave 
of  the  court,  and  lived  as  a  private  man 
in  Little  Russia.  Alexander  recalled  him 
to  Petersburg,  where  he  lived  till  1803. 
He  was  as  remarkable  for  modestj"  as  for 
genius,  and  a  man  of  cliildlike  goodness 
and  vivacity. 

BogotX,  at  the  time  of  the  Spanish 


m 


BOGOTA— BOHEMIA. 


155 


conquest,  was  the  seat  of  empire  of  one 
of  the  most  civiUzed  states  of  America, 
tliat  of  the  IMuisca  Indians,  Owing  to 
the  fertility  of  the  great  valley  of  Bogota, 
wliich  has  been  thougiit  capable  of  sus- 
taining a  population  of  two  or  three  mil- 
lions, it  contained  a  comparatively  dense 
population  of  Indians,  whose  advances  in 
rehnement  rendered  them,  in  a  certain 
sense,  the  rivals  of  the  inliabitants  of 
Cuzco.  They  traced  the  foundation  of 
tlieir  religious  and  political  institutions  to 
Bochica,  whose  history  greatly  resembles 
that  of  3Ianco  Capac.  They  were  sub- 
dued by  the  Spanish  general  Gonzalo 
Ximenez  di  Quesada.  (See  Bochica, 
Cundinamarca,  Muisca ;  Compagnoni,  t. 
six;  Humboldt;  Robinson's  Bogota.) 

Bogota,  or  Santa  Fe  de  BogotA  ;  a 
city  of  South  America,  the  capital  of  the 
republic  of  Colombia,  and  formerly  the 
capital  of  the  vice-royalty  of  New  Grena- 
da. Lon.  74°  15'  W. ;  lat.  4^  36'  N.  The 
population  has  of  late  been  variously 
stated,  from  less  than  30,000  to  60,000. 
It  is  situated  in  a  spacious  and  luxuriant 
plain,  elevated  8721  feet  above  the  level 
of  the  sea,  and  lies  to  the  east  of  the  prin- 
cipal chain  of  the  Andes.  Two  small 
streams  flow  through  the  town,  which 
join  the  river  Funza,  or  Bogota,  at  a  short 
distance.  The  city  contauis  a  magnifi- 
cent cathedi'al,  a  university,  a  mint,  an  hos- 
pital, and  various  other  public  buildings. 
The  streets  are  wide  and  well  paved. 
The  citj',  by  reason  of  its  elevation,  en- 
joys tlie  temperature  of  perpetual  spring ; 
the  mean  heat  being  57.74,  and  the  ther- 
mometer having  a  range  of  only  a  few 
degrees.  The  plains  around  Bogota  pro- 
duce two  regular  hai-vests  in  a  year. 

Bogota  or  Fuxza  river.  (See  Tequen- 
dama,  Cataract  of.) 

Bohemia,  B(eheim,  Bojenheim,  has  its 
name  from  the  Boii,  a  Celtic  nation,  who 
settled  there  about  600  B.  C,  under  their 
leader  Segovesus,  a  nephew  of  Ambiga- 
tus,  king  of  the  Bituriges,  but  -were  after- 
wards almost  all  driven  out  by  the  3Iar- 
comanni.  About  the  middle  of  the  4th 
century,  B.,  then  inhabited  by  German 
nations,  enjoyed  a  settled  and  "quiet  gov- 
ernment under  its  dukes,  who  were,  as 
yet,  but  httle  known.  In  the  middle  of 
the  6th  century,  a  numerous  army  of 
Sclavonians  ( Czechoioe,  Tscliechcn,  as  the 
Bohemians  still  call  themselves),  who  had 
hitherto  inhabited  the  shores  of  the  Black 
Sea,  invaded  B.  (as  some  say,  under  the 
command  of  one  Zecko),  conquered  the 
country,  and  put  it  imder  cultivation. 
According  to  others,  Zecko  was  entirely 


imconnected  with  the  Sclavonians,  and 
his  successors  were  hard  })ressed  by  that 
people,  although  his  descendants  were 
never  quite  expelled  from  the  land.  The 
fii-st  of  them  who  is  known  to  us  by 
name  was  Przemislas,  a  peasant,  whom 
the  princess  Libussa  espoused,  6.32,  and 
raised  to  the  throne.  Although  Charle- 
magne and  some  of  his  successors  com- 
pelled B.  to  pay  tribute,  this  subjection 
did  not  continue  long.  In  840,  B.,  Si- 
lesia and  INIoravia  were  free  from  all  for- 
eign dominion,  and  governed  by  their 
own  dukes,  although  still  mamtaiuing  a 
sort  of  confederacy  with  the  German  em- 
pire. In  1061,  Henry  IV  gave  the  title 
of  king  to  the  duke  of  B.,  which  was  not, 
however,  generally  recognised  till  the 
time  of  Wmtislaus,  in  1086.  Afterwards, 
about  1230,  Philip  confeired  the  royal 
dignity  on  Przemislas  and  his  successors. 
It  was  confimied  by  Frederic  II,  since 
whose  time  B.  has  remained  a  kingdom. 
The  male  descendants  of  the  old  kings 
ceased  with  Wenzel  V,  in  1305,  on  whose 
death,  John  of  Luxemburg  obtained  the 
crown  by  marriage,  in  1310,  and  left  it  to 
his  descendants.  After  this,  Charles  IV 
(of  the  house  of  Luxemburg,  under  the 
name  of  Charles  I,  who  very  much  im- 
proved the  kingdom),  and  his  sons,  Wen- 
zeslaus  and  Sigismund  (the  latter  near- 
ly lost  B.  in  the  religious  war  with  the 
Hussites),  united  the  crown  of  B.  to  that 
of  the  German  empire.  After  Sigis- 
mund's  death,  1437,  B.  came  into  the  pos- 
session of  his  son-in-law,  Albert  of  Aus- 
tria, who  died  in  14.39,  and  the  crown 
descended  to  his  son  Ladislaus,  bom  after 
his  death,  1440  (hence  surnamed  Posthu- 
mus),  who  being  at  the  same  time  king  of 
Hungary,  B.  was  sepai'ated  again  from 
the  German  states.  After  his  death,  1457, 
the  people  chose  George  von  Podiebrad, 
who  had  been  regent,  for  their  king,  in 
1458,  and,  in  1469,  when  he  was  excom- 
municated by  the  pope,  they  elected  the 
Polish  prince  Wladislaus,  who,  however, 
did  not  come  into  possession  of  the  throne 
till  the  death  of  George,  in  1471.  He 
was  succeeded,  1516,  after  a  reign  of  45 
years,  by  his  son  Louis.  These  were 
ijoth  also  kings  of  Hungary.  Lewis  be- 
ing killed  in  a  battle  with  the  Turks  near 
Tilohatz,  in  1526,  B.  fell  to  the  house  of 
Austria.  The  brother-in-law  of  Louis, 
MaximiUan's  second  grandson,  tlie  arch- 
duke Ferdinand,  succeeded  to  the  crown. 
This  prince  desired  the  Bohemians  to 
take  up  arms  in  the  Smalkaldic  war 
against  the  elector  of  Saxony ;  but,  find- 
ing them  averse  to  his  wishes,  and  threat- 


156 


BOHEMIA. 


ening  to  rebel  against  him,  he  conducted 
towards  them  with  great  harshness,  after 
the  victory  of  Charles  V,  at  Miihlberg, 
and  declared  B.  an  absolute  monarchy. 
He  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Maximilian 
(1564),  and  he  by  his  sons  Rodolph  (157 (J), 
and  Matthias  (1612).  Towards  the  close 
of  the  reign  of  the  latter  prince,  in  conse- 
quence of  the  infringements  upon  the  re- 
ligious hberty  of  the  Protestants,  troubles 
arose,  which  threatened  the  house  of 
Austria  with  the  loss  of  B.  In  1G19,  the 
people  invited  Frederic  V,  elector  of  the 
Palatinate,  to  the  throne,  to  the  exclusion 
of  Ferdinand  II,  who  had  been  already 
crowned  king  during  the  life-time  of  his 
cousin  Matthias.  .  But,  when  the  victoiy 
at  Prague,  Nov.  9,  1620,  had  decided  the 
war  in  favor  of  the  emperor,  those  who 
had  joined  iu  the  rebelhon  were  most  rig- 
orously dealt  with :  27  of  them  were  ex- 
ecuted, 16  banished  or  imprisoned  for  hfe, 
and  their  goods  confiscated.  The  sen- 
tence of  confiscation  wj(s  also  extended 
to  those  who  had  already  died,  and  to  29 
who  had  escaped,  as  well  as  to  728 
wealthy  lords  and  knights,  who  had  vol- 
untarily acknowledged  their  offence. 
The  Protestant  religion,  which  was  held 
by  three  fourths  of  the  people,  was  rooted 
out ;  Rodolph's  imperial  edict  was  revok- 
ed (1627),  and  B.  reduced  to  an  absolute 
and  hereditary  monarchy,  and  the  Roman 
Catholic  faith  established  to  the  entire 
exclusion  of  all  others.  From  this  time 
B.  continually  decUned.  History  hardly 
furnishes  a  parallel  instance  of  such  a 
complete  triumph  of  mere  brute  force 
over  the  spirit  of  a  pedple.  The  house  of 
Hapsborg  has  to  answer  for  this  violation 
of  human  rights.  More  than  30,000  fam- 
ilies (185  of  which  were  of  the  rank  of 
lords  and  knights),  all  the  Protestant  min- 
isters and  teachers,  a  multitude  of  aitists, 
tradesmen  and  mechanics,  who  refused 
to  become  Catholics,  emigrated  to  Saxo- 
ny, Brandenburg,  Holland,  Swtzerland, 
&c.  In  the  mountain  and  forest  villages, 
however,  out  of  the  way  of  the  Jesuits 
and  soldiers,  many  secret  Protestants  still 
i*emained.  Since  that  period,  the  Bohe- 
mian language  has  been  disused  in  public 
transactions.  In  the  30  years'  war,  B. 
was  entirely  desolated ;  it  lost  the  best 
of  its  strength  and  wealth.  When  Fer- 
dinand II  died,  in  1637,  there  remain- 
ed of  the  7-32  towns,  34,700  villages,  and 
3,000,000  of  inhabitants,  which  B.  con- 
tained in  1617,  only  130  towms,  a  Uttle 
more  than  6000  villages,  and  780,000  in- 
habitants! After  the  death  of  Charles 
VI  (1740),  Charles  Albert,  elector  of  Ba- 


varia, laid  claim  to  the  crown,  and  the 
oath  of  allegiance  was  taken  to  him  in 
Prague  ;  but  Maria  Theresa  succeeded  in 
obtainhig  possession  of  B.,  which  has 
remained  ever  since  one  of  the  richest 
jewels  in  the  Austrian  diadem. — The 
kingdom  of  Bohemia  is  bounded  on  the 
west  by  Bavaria,  on  the  east  by  Moravia 
and  Silesia,  on  the  north  by  Lusatia  and 
Misnia,  and  on  the  south  by  Austria  and 
Bavaria.  It  contams  20,200  square  miles, 
and  over  3,:380,000  inhabitants  (of  whom 
2,170,000  are  Czechs,  and  more  than 
50,000  Jews),  in  286  large  towns  [stadtt), 
275  market-towns,  and  11,924  villages. 
The  prevailing  religion  is  the  Roman 
Catholic  ;  other  sects,  however,  are  toler- 
ated. Tlie  language  of  the  country  is 
Bohemian,  a  dialect  of  the  Sclavonic :  in 
some  districts,  and  in  most  of  the  cities, 
German  is  spoken.  B.  ig  surrounded  on 
all  sides  by  mountains,  is  covered  with 
large  forests,  and  considerable  ponds. 
The  number  of  the  latter  is  reckoned  at 
20,000.  Its  plains  are  remarkably  fertile. 
The  largest  rivers  are  the  Elbe  and  the 
Moldau.  All  sorts  of  grain,  flax,  hops 
(the  best  in  Europe)  and  fruits  are  ex- 
])orted.  Wme  is  not  abimdant,  but,  in 
the  neighborhood  of  IMelnic,  of  pretty 
good  quality.  The  raising  of  sheep, 
horses,  swine  and  poultry  is  carried  on  to 
a  considerable  extent.  The  mines  yield 
silver  (182:3,  13,873  marks),  copper,  excel- 
lent tin  (1800  c^vt.),  ganietsand  other  pre- 
cious stones,  iron  (200,000  cwt.),  cobalt, 
arsenic,  uranium  and  tungsten,  antimony, 
vitriol,  alum,  calamine,  sulphur,  and  coal 
in  abundance.  There  are  also  numerous 
mineral  springs  (1 50),  but  little  salt  Man- 
ufactories of  different  kinds  are  establish- 
ed in  all  parts  of  the  country.  The  most 
important  of  these  are  the  linen,  cambric, 
lace,  thread  and  veil  factories,  and  others 
of  a  similar  kind.  These,  in  1801,  yielded 
goods  to  the  value  of  more  than  20,000,000 
florins:  half  of  this;  amount  was  exported 
from  the  country.  The  woollen  manu- 
factories produced  an  amount  of  10,000,000 
florins.  The  woollens  have  advanced,  of 
late  yeai-s,  both  in  quantity  and  quality. 
The  Bohemian  glass  (there  are  78  glass- 
houses) is  tlie  best  in  Europe,  and  is  car- 
ried to  Spain,  America,  Russia  and  the 
Levant,  to  the  amount  of  2,500,0(X)  florins. 
Besides  these,  there  are  8  mirror  factories. 
At  Tumau  there  are  manufactories  of 
composition-stones,  porcelain  and  earthen 
ware,  &c.  Of  considerable  importance, 
too,  is  the  manufactm-e  of  hats  of  the  fin- 
est sort,  of  paper,  of  silk  stuffs,  polished 
garnets,  musical  instniments,  and  many 


BOHEMIA— BOHEMIAN  BRETHREN. 


157 


other  articles.  B.  contains,  besides  the 
city  of  Prague,  16  circles,  governed  by 
officers  appointed  yearly.  The  most  im- 
portant places  are  the  cities  of  Buntzlau, 
3Ielnik,  Tuniau,  Reichenberg,  Trautenau, 
Kiittenberg,  Budweis,  Pilsen,  Carlsbad 
(q.  v.),  Joachimsthal,  TepUtz  (q.  v.),  Eger ; 
the  fortresses  of  Konigingnitz,  Joseph- 
stadt,  Theresienstadt;  the  manufacturing 
town  of  Rumburg;  the  villages  of  Ader- 
bach,  Sedlitz,  Seidschiitz,  Pullna,  Konigs- 
wart,  Franzensbrunnen  (q.  v.),  Marien- 
bad  (q.  v.),  &c.  For  internal  intercouree, 
there  are  excellent  highways,  extending 
1060  miles;  and,  in  182(5,  a  rail-road  was 
laid  to  connect  the  Danube  with  the  Mol- 
dau. — The  Bohemians  of  all  ranks  are 
distinguished  for  their  public  spirit,  exert- 
ing itself  in  the  most  noble  and  useful 
plans.  In  1822,  they  had  2*J9G  public 
establishments  for  education,  a  university, 
3  theological  academies,  2t)  gj-mnasiums, 
2961  common  schools,  and  a  consenatory 
for  music,  6709  teachers,  410,463  pupils ; 
among  tJiem,  2055  students  in  the  liigh 
schools.  (See  prof  Schnabel's  Statistical 
Account  of  Bohemia.) 

Bohemian  Brethrex  ;  the  name  of  a 
Christian  sect,  which  arose  in  Bohemia, 
about  the  middle  of  the  15th  centurj', 
from  the  remains  of  the  stricter  sort  of 
Hussites,  (q.  v.)  Dissatisfied  with  the  ad- 
vances towards  popery,  by  which  the 
Cahxtines  (q.  v.)  had  made  themselves 
the  ruling  party  in  Bohemia,  they  refused 
to  receive  the  cotnpacts,  as  they  were  call- 
ed, i.  e.,  the  articles  of  agreement  between 
that  party  and  the  council  at  Basil  (30th 
Nov.  14.33),  and  began,  about  1457,  under 
the  direction  of  a  clergyman,  3Iichael 
Bradatz,  to  form  themselves  into  separate 
parishes,  to  hold  meetings  of  their  own, 
and  to  distinguish  themselves  from  the 
rest  of  the  Hussites  by  the  name  of  Bro- 
thers, or  Brothers^  Union  ;  but  they  were 
often  confounded  by  their  opponents  with 
the  Walden^es  and  Picards,  and,  on  ac- 
count of  their  seclusion,  were  called  Cav- 
ern-hunters {Griibenheimer).  Amidst  tlie 
hardships  and  oppressions  which  they 
suffered  fi-om  the  Calixtines  and  Catho- 
lics, without  making  any  resistance,  their 
immbers  increased  so  much,  through  their 
constancy  in  their  belief  and  the  purity 
of  their  morals,  that,  in  1500,  their  par- 
ishes amounted  to  200,  most  of  which 
had  chapels  belonging  to  them.  The  pe- 
cuUarities  of  their  reUgious  beUef  are  seen 
in  their  confessions  of  faith,  especially 
their  opuiions  with  regard  to  the  Lord's 
supper.  They  rejected  the  idea  of  tran- 
fiubstantiatioD,  and  admitted  only  a  mys- 

VOL.  II.  14 


tical  spiritual  presence  of  Christ  in  the 
eucharist.     In  other  points,  they  took  the 
Scriptures  as  the  ground  of  their  doctrines 
throughout,  and  for  this,  but  more  espe- 
cially for  the  constitution  and  disciphne 
of  their  churches,  received  the  approba- 
tion of  the  reformers  of  the  16th  centuiy. 
This  constitution  of  theirs  was  framed 
according  to  the  accounts  which  remain 
of  the  oldest  apostohc  churches.    They 
aimed  to  restore  the  primitive  purity  of 
Christianity,  by  the  exclusion  of  the  vi- 
cious  from   their  communion,    and    by 
jnaking  three  degrees  of  excommunica- 
tion, as  well  as  by  the  careful  sejjaration 
of  the  sexes,  and  the  distribution  of  the 
membei^    of  their    society    into    three 
classes — the    beginners,    the    proficients 
and  the    perfect.      Their  strict   system 
of  superintendence,  extending  even   to 
the  minute  details  of  domestic  hfe,  did 
much  towiu-ds  promoting  this  object.     To 
cany  on  their  system,  they  had  a  multi- 
tude of  officers,  of  different  degrees :  viz. 
ordauiing  bishops,  seniors  and  conseniors, 
presbytei-s  or  preachers,  deacons,  aediles 
and  acolytes,  among  whom  the  manage- 
ment of  the  ecclesiastical,  moral  and  civil 
affairs  of  the  community  was  judiciously 
distributed.     Their  first  bishop  received 
liis  oi-dination  from  a  Waldensian  bishop, 
though  their  churches  held  no  commun- 
ion with  the  Waldenses    in    Bohemia. 
They  were  destined,  however,  to  ex])eri- 
ence  a  like  fate  with  that  oppressed  sect. 
When,  in  conformity  to  theii-  principle  not 
to  perfbrm  military  service,  they  refused 
to  take  up  arms  in  the  Smalkaldic  war 
against  the  Protestants,  Ferdinand  took 
their  churches  from  them,  and,  ui  1548, 
1000  of  their  society  retired  into  Poland 
and  Prussia,  where  they  at  fii"st  settled  in 
Marienwenler.      The   agreement  which 
they  concluded  at  Sendomir,  14th  April, 
1570,  with  tlie  Polish  Lutherans  and  Cal- 
vinistic  churches,  and  still  more  the  Dis- 
senlei-s'  Peace  Act  of  the  Polish  conven- 
tion, 1572,  obtained  toleration  for  them  in 
Poland,  where  they  united  more  closely 
with  the  Calvinists  under  the  persecutions 
of  the  Swedish  Sigismund,  and  have  con- 
tinued in  this  comiexion  to  the  present 
day. — Their  brethren,  who   remained  in 
Moravia  and  Bohemia,  recovered  a  cer- 
tain degree  of  liberty  under  Maximilian 
II,  and  had  tlieir  cliief  residence  at  Ful- 
nek,  in  Moravia,  and  hence  have  been 
called  Moravian  Brethren.    The  issue  of 
the  30  years'  war,  which  terminated  so 
unfortunately   for  the  Protestants,  occa- 
sioned the  entire    destruction    of  their 
churches,  and  their  last  bishop,  Come- 


158 


BOHEMIAN  BRETHREN— BOHEMIAN  LANGUAGE. 


iiius  (q.  v.),  who  had  rendered  important 
services  in  the  education  of  youth,  was 
compelled  to  fly.  From  this  time,  they 
made  frequent  emigrations,  the  most  im- 
portant of  which  took  place  in  1722,  and 
occasioned  the  estabhshment  of  the  new 
churches  of  tlie  Brethren  by  count  Zin- 
zendorf.  (For  the  history  of  the  old 
churches  of  this  sect,  we  refer  the  reader 
to  Cranzen's  History  of  the  Brethren,  and 
to  SchiUz  071  the  Ongin  and  Constitution 
of  the  Evangelical  Brethren's  Church 
(Gotha,  1822),  a  sensible  and  impartial 
work.)  Although  the  old  Bohemian 
Brethren  must  be  regarded  as  now  ex- 
tinct, this  society  will  ever  deserve  re- 
membrance, as  a  quiet  guardian  of  Chris- 
tian tnith  and  piety,  in  tunes  just  emerging 
from  the  barbarity  of  the  middle  ages ;  as 
a  promoter  of  pure  iqorals,  sucli  as  the 
reformers  of  the  16th  century  were  una- 
ble to  establish  in  their  churches ;  and  as 
the  parent  of  the  esteemed  and  widely  ex- 
tended association  of  the  United  Brethren 
(q.  v.),  whose  constitution  has  been  mod- 
elled after  theirs. 

Bohemian  and  Bavarian  Forest. 
From  the  Fichtelgebirge,  southward,  to- 
wards the  confluence  of  the  Ilz  and  the 
Danube,  extends  a  ridge  of  mountains, 
covered  with  wood,  called  the  Bohemian 
Forest,  in  ancient  times  a  part  of  the  Sylva 
Hercynia,  the  highest  peaks  of  which  are 
the  Arber  (4320  feet  high),  Rachel  and 
others.  It  separates  Bavaria  and  Bohe- 
mia. The  great  abundance  of  wood  has 
occasioned  the  estabhshment  of  many 
glass-houses,  forges,  &c.  in  this  region. 
The  inhabitants  have  acquired,  in  their 
seclusion  from  the  world,  many  charac- 
teristic virtues  and  vices. 

Bohemian  Language.  The  Czechish 
(Bohemian)  dialect  was  the  first  of  the 
Sclavonic  idioms  which  was  cultivated 
scientifically.  This  dialect  is  spoken  in 
Bohemia,  Moravia,  with  slight  variations 
in  Austrian  Silesia,  in  half  of  Hungary, 
and  in  Sclavonia.  That  the  Czechish 
has  been  widely  spread  as  a  dialect  of  the 
Sclavonian,  is  proved,  as  well  by  its  anti- 
quity, and  its  degree  of  cultivation,  as  by 
the  size  of  the  countries  whose  national 
language  it  is.  We  shall  consider  first 
tlie  richness  of  the  vocabulary  of  this  lan- 
guage. This  richness  consists  in  the 
number  of  inflexions  of  the  syllables 
at  the  beginning  and  end  of  words. 
Thus  from  the  single  radical  word  byti 
(his)  there  are  more  than  110  derivatives ; 
from  the  radical  word  (Mge  se  (i  read  like 
ea),  signifying  it  happens,  there  are  more 
than  95,  without  reckoning  the  firequent- 


ative  verbs,  verbal  substantives  and  adjec 
tivcs.  By  the  simple  j)refixing  of  the 
letters  s,  to,  v,  z,  the  verb  acquires  a  dif- 
ferent signification  ;  e.  g.,  s-razyti,  v-razyti, 
w-razyti,  convey  the  meanings  to  heat  doivn, 
to  beat  off,  to  beat  in.  Hence  this  lan- 
guage has  formed,  from  native  roots,  all 
the  scientific  terms  of  theology,  jurispru- 
dence and  philosophy,  and,  with  every 
new  invention,  can  be  further  developed. 
A  proof  of  its  richness  is  to  be  found  also 
in  the  numerous  synonymes,  as  psyce 
(c  read  like  the  Italian  ce),  kidjJca,  tjsta,  the 
bitch  ;  hodmost,  dustognost,  dignity ;  hnug, 
mnva,  manure ;  ices,  ivesnice,  didina,  the 
village. — If  one  compares  the  Bohemian 
radical  words  with  the  analogous  terms  in 
other  languages,  he  will  be  astonished  at 
the  number  of  inflexions  and  derivations 
by  which  the  language  of  the  Czechi  is 
distinguished.  A  great  part  of  the  facility 
with  which  it  receives  new  forms  and  ad- 
ditions rests  upon  its  manifold  declensions 
and  its  numerous  tenses  and  participles. 
In  this  respect,  the  language  of  the  Bohe- 
mians excels  that  of  all  other  modem  na- 
tions, with  the  exception  of  the  other 
races  of  Sclavonic  origin.  In  the  variety  of 
declensions,  which  are  terminated  almost 
all  with  a  vowel,  are  inflected  only  at  the 
end,  and  are  used  without  an  article  (see 
the  Grammar  of  IN'egedly,  Prague,  1821), 
the  Bohemian  equals  the  precise  Latin ; 
for  instance,  muzi  [viro),  zene  {femina),  [z 
read  like  the  French  ch),  &c.  The  par- 
ticiples give  it  a  great  deal  of  pliability,  as 
they  unite  in  themselves  the  advantage 
of  verbs  and  adjectives,  by  denoting,  as 
verbal  adjectives,  at  once  the  quality  of 
the  thing  and  the  determination  of  the 
time,  saving  thus  the  use  of  the  relatives 
which,  who,  as,  and  the  prepositions  after, 
since,  &c.,  by  which  periods  become  so 
dragging:  hence  its  conciseness. — An- 
other advantage  of  the  pliability  of  the 
Bohemian  language  is  the  means  which 
it  aflTords  of  compounding  words ;  as, 
Samowlddce,  he  who  rules  alone;  Hro^ 
moxvladny,  the  ruler  of  the  thunder,  &c. 
The  Bohemian  expresses  the  compound 
words  of  the  Greeks  and  Grermans  some- 
times by  a  particular  form  of  the  adjec- 
tive, sometimes  by  particular  substantives ; 
as,  kostnic,  the  charnel-house ;  chmelnice, 
the  hop-yard;  duha,  the  rainbow. — An- 
other pecuharity  is  the  great  variety  of 
diminutives,  by  which  not  only  small,  but 
agreeable  and  dear  objects  are  designat- 
ed ;  as,  panacek,  the  little  gentleman  ;  mi- 
lenka,  the  much  beloved ;  panenka,  the 
little  maid,  and  many  others:  also  the 
ways  of  expressing  concisely  the  firequent 


BOHEMIAN  LANGUAGE. 


159 


naming  of  a  thing ;  for  instance,  Frantis- 
kowati  se  {s  read  as  sch),  to  use  frequently 
the  name  Francis ;  macechowati  se,  to  use 
frequently  the  name  step-motlier.  It  pos- 
sesses also  the  patronymic  nouns ;  for  in- 
stance, kralotcec,  the  king's  son.  It  indi- 
cates concisely  that  an  action  is  complet- 
ed ;  as,  dopsaii.,  to  write  to  an  end.  It 
contains  the  inceptive  verbs ;  for  example, 
hrbaijnu,  I  am  becoming  hunch-backed  ; 
and  many  othei-s. — Second!}',  the  Bohe- 
mian language  has  much  expressiveness 
and  energy,  as  it  is  not  weakened  by  a 
number  of  articles,  auxiliary  words,  con- 
jimctions  and  words  of  transition,  but  is 
able  to  represent  the  objects  of  imagina- 
tion, of  passion,  and  all  the  higher  emo- 
tions of  the  poet  and  orator,  in  a  quick, 
vigorous  and  hvely  manner,  by  its  brev- 
ity, heaping  together  the  most  significant 
Avords,  and  arranging  the  connexion  of 
tlie  parts  of  speech  according  to  the  de- 
gree of  feeling  to  be  expressed,  so  as  to 
give  the  style  spirit  and  energy,  or  gentle- 
ness and  equability.  The  Bohemian  des- 
ignates many  objects  by  the  imitation  of 
natural  sounds.  Thus  the  names  of  many 
animals  are  taken  from  their  voices  ;  as, 
kruta,  the  turkey ;  kachna,  the  duck, 
fliany  plants  he  names  from  their  effects ; 
as,  bolehlaw]  hemlock  (from  head-ache). 
The  conciseness  of  the  language  is  in- 
creased by  the  absence  of  auxiliai-ies  in 
the  greater  jjart  of  the  verbs  ;  as,  dam,  I 
shall  give.  The  preterites,  in  the  third 
person,  singular  and  plui-al,  express  a 
meaning  still  further  condensed,  as  the 
variation  in  the  last  syllable  is  made  to 
designate  the  sex ;  for  example,  psal, 
psala,  psalo,  he,  she,  it  has  written ; 
pstdi,  psaly,  psala,  they  have  written ; 
narozen,  narozena,  narozeno,  he,  she,  it 
has  been  born.  Thus  the  absence  of  the 
personal  pronouns  in  the  verbs,  of  the  ar- 
ticle in  the  substantives,  and  the  use  of 
many  participles  and  participial  forms,  give 
to  this  language  the  expressiveness  and 
power  of  the  Latin.  In  like  manner,  the 
Bohemian  saves  many  ])repositions  and 
much  circumlocution  of  other  kinds,  by 
the  use  of  the  vistrumental,  agreemg 
A\  ith  the  Latin  ablative ;  for  instance, 
secenjm  nitce  Maivu  mu  sV  al  [t  read  like 
te),  with  a  blow  of  the  sword  he  has  cut 
off  his  head.  This  language  is,  therefore, 
very  well  fitted  for  the  translation  of  the 
Latin  classics.  By  tlie  use  of  the  part, 
prat,  adivi,  the  Bohemian  can  designate, 
as  well  as  the  Greek,  who  has  really  per- 
formed the  action  contained  in  the  predi- 
cate of  the  accessary  clause,  which  the 
JUitin,    with   his    ablative    absolute,    or 


participle    passive,    must    leave    always 
undefined    and    dubious ;    for    instance, 

TlivSapoi    rTacKcAta    arro^£(|aj    tirirpoirov    Kit     ruv 
ruitfoj  Kai  ru>v  ■)(^oqjiaTwv  aTrrjptv  tif  Xlc\oT!ovvriaov  ; 

Pindarus  vstanmoiio  Pasiklea  za  porucnjka 
sijna  sweho  a  gtho  gmenj,  tuhl  do  Pelopon- 
nesu  ;  Pindarus  constitiUo  Pasicle  turn 
Jilii  turn  hononun  tutore,  in  Pdoponneswn 
abiit.  This  contributes  to  the  perspicuity 
and  precision  of  the  Bohemian  language. 
Every  notion,  moreover,  is  expressed  by  a 
peculiar  word  ;  for  example,  the  verbs  zjti, 
strjkati,  krageti,  rezati,  denote  to  cut  with 
the  scissors,  with  the  sickle,  with  the 
knife,  and  with  thesithe ;  while  most  lan- 
guages use  one  verb,  to  cut,  in  all  these 
cases.  In  the  subtilty  of  grammatical 
structure,  the  Bohemian  is  hke  the  Greek, 
and  has  the  advantage  over  the  Latin  and 
other  languages.  In  speaking  of  two 
hands,  two  eyes,  &c.,  the  dual  number  is 
used  ;  e.  g.,  7-uce,  oci,  <Scc.  The  language 
is  also  capable  of  expressing  the  idea  of 
duration  referring  to  an  indefinite  past 
time,  hke  the  Greek  aorist ;  for  mstance, 
kupowal  dum,  ale  nekaupil  ho,  which  we 
have  no  means  of  rendering  precisely,  for 
kupoiDoti  means  to  buy,  and  kaupiti  means 
also  to  buy :  accordingly  the  phrase  would 
be,  literally,  he  bought  the  house,  and 
bought  it  not,  which  would  be  a  contra- 
diction: he  was  about  to  buy  the  house, 
hut  did  not  buy  it,  would  be  also  an  in- 
con-ect  expression  of  this  idea,  for  the 
action  was  already  going  on — he  was  al- 
ready buyuig.  The  language  affords 
several  preterite  tenses,  which  are  dis- 
tinguished with  great  subtilty ;  as,  prat, 
sing.  unit,  (time  which  has  only  past 
once) — kaupil,  he  has  bought  once  ;  plus~ 
quamperf.  primum — kupowal,  he  had  pur- 
chased for  a  long  time ;  plusquamperf. 
secundum — kupowaival,  he  had  purchased 
formerly  several  times  ;  plusquamperf. 
tertium — kupoiouwawal,  he  seldom  had 
purchased  in  former  times ;  where,  by 
adding  the  auxiliary  verb  byl,  a  time  still 
longer  passed  may  be  expressed,  tliough 
this  is  very  seldom  used;  for  instance, 
byl  kupowawal,  he  had  purchased  in  times 
long  past.  Another  advantage  of  the  lan- 
guage consists  in  the  many  future  tenses 
by  which  the  Bohemian  denotes  not  oidy 
the  time,  but  also  the  duration,  and  the 
more  or  less  frequent  repetition  of  the 
action  ;  viz.  futurum  simplex — kaupjm, 
I  shall  purchase  once  ;  futurum  duraiwum 
— for  instance,  budu  kupowati,  I  shall  be 
purchasing  for  a  long  time  ;  fut.  frequen- 
tativum — budu  kupowawati,  I  shall  pur- 
chase several  times  ;  and  fut.  iterativum 
— budu  kupowawati,  I  shall  be  purchasing 


160 


BOHEMIAN  LANGUAGE— BOHEMIAN  LITERATURE. 


very  often.  Not  less  manifold  in  sig- 
nification, and  equally  subtile  in  the  de- 
termination of  time,  are  the  participles 
and  the  participial  constructions.  The 
determination  of  the  sex  and  the  nun)ber 
by  the  final  syllable  of  the  participle  gives 
tlie  Czechish  language  no  small  prefer- 
ence above  others.  The  Bohemian  can 
express  himself  as  elegantly  and  politely, 
and  at  the  same  time  as  concisely,  as  the 
Greek  wth  his  optative ;  for  instance, 
nechalo  toho,  she  may  let  it  go ;  vcinil,  let 
him  do  it.  The  small,  connective  parti- 
cles of  speech,  w^hich  the  Bohemian  has, 
in  common  with  the  Greek,  must  be  con- 
sidered as  so  many  touches  and  shadings, 
by  which  the  whole  idea  and  feeling  is 
more  distinctly  expressed.  The  Greek 
aXXo  iiev,  yop,  Sc,  re,  &c.  agree  with  the 
Bohemian  ele  pak,  wsak,  li,  z,  V;  only  the 
three  latter  are  always  affixed  to  a  word. 
Finally,  the  free,  mirestrained  arrange- 
ment of  the  words  contributes  much  to 
perspicuity,  as  the  Bohemian  is  less  fet- 
tered than  any  of  the  other  modern  lan- 
guages to  a  particular  construction. — By 
a  happy  mixture  of  vowels  and  conso- 
nants, and  by  a  combination  of  the  latter 
favorable  for  the  pronunciation,  the  lan- 
guage has  also  much  euphony,  though 
many  call  it  rough  on  account  of  tlie  r 
(read  rsh) ;  but  the  sound  of  entire  words, 
not  that  of  the  single  letters  which  com- 
pose them,  determines  the  roughness  or 
smoothness  of  their  pronunciation ;  be- 
sides, every  language,  on  account  of  the 
difference  of  the  feelings  which  it  has  to 
convey, — some  gentle,  others  hai-sh  and 
violent, — ought  to  be  able  to  form  some 
harsh  sounds.  The  terminations  of  the 
various  declensions  and  conjugations  are 
mostly  vowels,  or  the  smoother  conso- 
nants. In  general,  the  Bohemian  has  a 
natural  melody,  like  that  of  the  Greek ; 
for  the  tongue  stops  longer  on  a  syllable 
containing  a  long  vowel,  a,  e,j,  u,  y,  than 
on  one  containing  a  short  vowel.  In  the 
Bohemian  alphabet  of  42  letters  (a  num- 
ber in  which  it  is  surpassed  only  by  the 
Indian,  the  most  copious  of  kno^vn  alpha- 
bets, and  the  Russian,  which  comes  next 
to  it),  there  are  to  be  found  all  the  sounds 
of  the  other  languages.  The  English 
sound  of  ts  the  Bohemian  expresses  witli 
c,  the  Enghsh  y  with  g,  the  sh  with  ss  or 
s,  the  Italian  ce  or  ci  with  c,  the  French 
ge  and  gi  with  the  2,  the  Italian  u  with 
the  y,  the  gTi  with  the  n,  the  English  w 
with  the  w,  particularly  at  the  end  of 
words.  Hence  his  alphabet  enables  him 
to  write  all  languages  so  as  to  give  their 
.correct  pronunciation,  and  to  pronounce 


them  easily  and  well,  so  as  to  be  consid- 
ered by  Frenchmen,  Germans  and  Ital- 
ians as  their  countryman.  He  never 
confounds  smooth  and  rough  letters ;  his 
singing  is  easy  and  graceful,  and  the  Bo- 
Iiemian  opera  pleases,  like  the  Italian,  as 
it  suppresses  no  syllables,  but  gives  a  full 
sound  to  each  word.  It  is  very  seldom 
that  combinations  of  difiicult  consonants 
are  to  be  found  in  the  Sclavonic  idioms, 
and  these  may  be  softened  by  the  free- 
dom of  construction  which  the  language 
allows.  The  euphony  of  the  language  is 
also  the  reason  why  the  Bohemian  takes 
a  rank  in  music  inferior  only  to  that  of 
the  Italian.  Throughout  Europe,  Bohe- 
mian musicians  are  to  be  found :  the  dis- 
tinguished musicians  of  Austria  are  mostly 
from  Bohemia.  Taste  and  feeling  for 
music  almost  always  keep  pace  with  the 
melody  of  the  language  of  a  nation. 

Bohemian  lAterature  has  five  periods. 
The  first  extends  from  the  mythological 
times  to  1409.  It  is  certain,  that,  among 
the  Sclavonian  tribes,  the  Czechi  were 
the  first  who  cultivated  and  fixed  their 
language.  (See  Sclavoniaiis  and  Sclavonic 
Language.)  It  affords  no  written  docu- 
ments of  remote  kntiquity,  unless  we  be- 
lieve the  Runic  characters  to  have  been 
in  use  before  the  introduction  of  Chris- 
tianity. We  laiow,  however,  that  the 
language  of  that  period  was  similar  to  the 
present,  from  the  names  of  the  gods, 
dukes,  rivers,  cities,  mountains,  which 
have  been  preser\'ed,  such  as  Perun, 
Prcemysl,  Boriwog,  Wltawa,  Bila,  Praha, 
Tetin,  Krkonose.  The  Sclavonian  apos- 
tle Method,  and  the  philosopher  Constan- 
tine,  called  CyrU,  made  the  Sclavonians 
in  Moravia  acquainted  with  Christianity. 
From  thence  it  penetrated,  imder  duke 
Boirwog,  to  Bohemia,  and  thus  the  peo- 
ple of  this  country  received  the  Grseco- 
Sclavonic  ritual  in  the  year  845.  The 
same  Constantine  invented  for  the  sounds 
of  the  Sclavonic  language  the  Cyrillic- 
Sclavonic  alphabet — Az,  Buky,  Wiedi, 
Glagol,  Dobro,  &c.,  borrowed  mosdy  from 
the  Greek.  In  later  times,  the  Glagolitic 
alphabet  sprung  up,  of  which,  however, 
less  use  was  made.  When  the  Latin 
church  supplanted  the  Greek  in  Moravia, 
Bohemia  and  Pannonia,  the  Latin  alpha- 
bet came  also  into  use,  mstead  of  the 
Cyrillic.  In  Bohemia,  the  Cyrillic  char- 
acter was  in  use  only  witli  the  monks  of 
Sazawa,  who  observed  the  Sclavonic  ritu- 
al. King  Wratislaus,  intending  to  intro- 
duce it  again  in  other  places,  and  asking 
the  permission  of  pope  Gregory  VII,  re- 
ceived a  refusal.    As  the  Latins  endeav- 


BOHEMIAN  LITERATURE. 


161 


ored  to  anniliilate  all  the  wTitings  of  the 
old  ritual,  and  the  Sclavonic  language 
was,  in  many  cases,  obliged  to  give  way 
to  the  Latin,  Bohemian  literature  suffered 
fi-om  popery  incalculable  injur}' :  hence 
we  possess,  from  the  earlier  centuries,  but 
a  few  insignificant  remains  in  the  cliarac- 
tei-s  above  mentioned.  In  the  10th  cen- 
tury, the  Bohemians  had  a  school  at  Ku- 
det,  in  which  they  learnt  Latin.  Their 
most  ancient  relic  is  the  hymn  [Hospodine 
Pomihiyny)  of  bishop  Adalbert  (Wegtech), 
a  native  Bohemian,  Avhich  is  sung  to  the 
present  day,  even  by  the  Russians  and 
Poles.  Some  think  it  of  still  greater  an- 
tiquity. From  the  11th  century,  we  have 
no  complete  works ;  but,  in  Latin  docu- 
ments, Sclavonic  names  are  frequently 
fomid.  The  12th  and  13lh  centuries 
were  more  fertile.  When  king  Wratislaus 
issued  the  summons  for  tlie  renowned 
expedition  to  Milan,  all  Prague  resound- 
ed with  the  songs  of  the  valiant  young 
knights ;  but  none  of  them  has  been 
preserved.  Zawis  Z.  Rozmberka  wrote, 
in  1290,  several  good  ])oems.  The  Bo- 
hemians possess  the  remains  of  a  collec- 
tion of  lyric-epic  national  songs,  without 
rhyme,  which  seem  to  have  been  of  great 
merit;  but  only  two  sheets  of  parchment, 
in  duodecimo,  and  two  small  strips,  have 
been  preserved.  Mr.  Hanka,  keeper  of 
the  Bohemian  national  museum,  discov- 
ered these  valuable  remains  in  a  room  in 
the  church  at  Koniginbof,  in  a  pile  of 
neglected  papers.  The  manuscript  ap- 
pears to  have  been  written  in  the  years 
1290  and  1.310 :  somexif  the  poems  may 
be  still  older :  the  more  is  the  loss  of  the 
greater  part  of  them  to  be  regretted.  This 
whole  collection  consisted  of  3  books,  as 
may  be  concluded  from  the  inscription  of 
the  remaining  chapters  of  the  3d  book, 
which  are  inscribed  26th,  27th,  28th.  14 
poems  are  preserved,  which  constitute 
those  3  chapters.  (See  Rukopi's  Kralod- 
ivorshj  uiydany  od  JFac,  Hanky,  1819.) 
We  cannot  determine  the  subject  of  the 
fii-st  song,  Bole^law,  by  the  part  which 
Jias  come  down  to  us ;  the  second  poem, 
Jf'ihori  Dub,  calls  upon  duke  Udalrich  to 
drive  the  Poles  from  Prague  (1003) ;  the 
third,  Benes,  celebrates  the  repulse  of  the 
Saxons  who  advanced  from  Gorlitz ;  the 
fourth  relates  Jaroslaw  Sternberg's  victo- 
ry over  the  Teutars,  near  Olmiitz,  m  1241 ; 
and  so  on.  Gothe  found  these  nation* 
al  songs  worthy  of  particular  attention. 
They  deserve,  perhaps,  to  be  placed  by 
the  side  of  Ossian's  poems.  A  Bohe- 
mian psalter,  and  a  legend,  in  rhyme,  on 
the  12  apostles  (the  latter  only  a  fragment 
14* 


of  70  verses,  at  Vienna),  have  also  been 
j)reser\ed  ;  likewise,  the  Complaint  of  a 
Lover  on  the  Banks  of  the  Muldau  (Wel- 
tawa),  in  prose  ;  a  fragment  of  a  history 
of  the  passion  of  Jesus,  in  rhyme ;  the 
Jiymn  Swaty  Waclawt ;  besides  a  number 
of  poems,  songs,  fables  and  satires,  in 
vei-ses  of  four  feet,  also  in  rhyme.  The 
14th  century  is  more  productive.  Under 
the  emperor  Charles  IV,  who  promoted 
the  cultivation  of  the  Bohemian  language, 
the  university  of  Prague  was  founded,  in 
1 348.  In  the  golden  bull,  he  commanded 
the  sons  of  the  German  electors  to  leara 
the  Bohemian  language.  Under  his  son, 
the  emperor  Wenceslaus,  all  decrees  were 
written  in  Bohemian,  which  formerly 
were  in  Latin.  Prague  was  then  not 
only  the  most  populous  city  in  Germany, 
l)ut  also,  on  account  of  its  splendid  court 
and  the  wealth  of  its  citizens,  the  centre 
of  the  arts  and  sciences.  Dalemil  Me- 
zericky  wrote  a  histoiy  of  Bohemia  in 
verse  ;  Ondreg  Z.  Dube,  a  collection  of 
Bohemian  laws,  in  3  vols. ;  Warinec  Z, 
Brezowa,  a  history  of  the  Roman  empe- 
rors, and  translated  IMandeville's  Travels  ; 
Pribik  Pulkawa,  a  Bohemian  history  ; 
and  Benes  Z.  Horowic,  a  history  of  the 
empire  to  the  time  of  Wenzel.  This 
j)eriod  aflbrds,  also,  many  vocabularies, 
jioems  and  songs;  also  a  translation  of 
the  life  of  Alexander  the  Great ;  the  life 
of  the  emperor  and  king  Charles  IV ;  the 
description  of  the  heroic  feats  of  Plieht^ 
of  Zerotin,  and  of  the  battle  of  Cressy,  in 
1346,  and  an  account  of  the  death  of  king 
John,  which  celebrates  his  fame  and  that 
of  the  other  Bohemian  heroes ;  a  descrip- 
tion of  the  tournament  in  1315 ;  the  eXf 
j)edition  of  king  John  against  count  Mat-r 
thias  of  Trenzcin,  &c. — With  Huss  com- 
meuced  the  second  period,  from  1409  to 
1500,  which  elevated  the  character  of  the 
Bohemian  language  and  nation.  The 
assembled  fathers  ar  Constance  and  Bale 
beheld  with  astonishment,  among  the  Bo- 
hemian nobiUty  and  citizens,  men  not 
only  distinguished  for  their  intrepidity, 
but  able,  also,  to  explain  with  profound 
learning  the  word  of  God.  The  Bohe- 
mian nobility  of  those  times  not  only 
wielded  with  a  vigorous  arm  the  national 
weapon  of  their  country  in  defence  of  the 
rights  of  the  nation,  but  stood,  also,  in  the 
first  rank  of  scientific  cultivation.  The 
prevalence  of  religious  disputes  caused 
the  Bible  to  be  generally  read  and  under- 
stood, ^neas  Sylvius,  then  pope,  says, 
Piideat  Italia  sacerdotes,  quos  ne  semel 
quidevi  novam  legem  constat  legisse,  apud 
fabofitas  vix  midierculam  inveniea,  qmt 


162 


BOHEMIAN  LITERATURE. 


dt  J^'ovo  Testamento  et  veteri  respondere 
nesciat.  (Com.  in  Diet.  Alph.  Reg.,  sec. 
ii,  17.)  Huss  of  HHssinetz  translated 
Wickliffe's  book  Trialogus  into  tlie  Bo- 
hemian tongue,  and  sent  it  to  the  laymen 
as  presents.  The  ti-eatise  of  the  six  er- 
rors he  caused  to  be  inscribed,  in  Bohe- 
mian, on  the  walls  of  the  chapel  of  Beth- 
lehem. He  wrote  hi*  first  collection  of 
sermons  when  at  the  castle  of  Kozy 
(1413),  besides  an  appeal  to  the  pope,  a 
commentary  on  the  ten  commandments, 
an  explanation  of  the  twelve  articles,  two 
sermons  on  the  Antichrist,  the  Trij)le 
Cord,  and  several  excellent  hymns.  His 
letters  fi-om  the  dungeon  in  Constance  to 
the  Bohemians  were  translated  by  Lu- 
ther into  Latin,  accompanied  with  a 
preface,  and  printed  at  Wittenberg  in 
1536.  He,  and  Jakobellus  and  Jerome, 
improved  and  distributed  the  Bohemian 
Bible,  of  which  several  copies  have  been 
jjreserved  to  our  times.  How  many  of 
his  works  perished  by  the  hands  of  the 
Jesuits  is  unkno\vn.  The  cruel  execu- 
tion of  the  Bohemian  martj^rs  Huss  and 
Jerome,  for  their  faith,  was  considered 
by  their  countrymen  as  an  outrage  upon 
the  whole  nation,  of  which  they  com- 
plained bitterly  ;  many  satires,  also,  were 
written  at  that  time.  Of  Zisca  of  Troc- 
now,  one  of  the  greatest  generals  in  his- 
tory, several  letters,  and  his  rules  of  war, 
have  been  preserved.  From  this  period, 
there  have  come  down  to  us,  also,  several 
war-songs  of  the  Taborites ;  as 
Kdoz  gst£  Bor/  bogoicnjou  a  zakona  gdw, 
(Who  are  3'ou,"  warriors  of  God  and  of  his  law),  &,c. 
Nuz  mniskmce  poskakugte, 
(Well  now,  ye  monks,  be  chaste),  &c. ; 

also  some  songs  of  Prague.  Martin  Lu- 
pac  undertook,  with  the  assistance  of 
some  learned  men,  the  labor  of  translating 
the  whole  New  Testament,  and  rendered 
it,  in  many  places,  more  correct  and 
plain.  The  church-service  was  now 
performed  entirely  in  the  Bohemian  lan- 
guage. The  bishop  of  the  Taborites, 
Nicholas  of  Pelhrimow,  Avrote  a  Bohe- 
mian and  Latin  tlieological  tract.  Kristan 
Prachatitzky  wrote  a  book  on  medicine ; 
Martin  Kabatnik,  a  Journey  to  Jerusalem ; 
P.  Prespole,  the  mining  laws  of  Kutten- 
berg  and  Iglaw,  which  have  since  be- 
come so  famous.  Johann  Rokycana,  H. 
Litomericky,  W.  Koranda  and  others 
wrote  different  works  on  rehgious  sub- 
jects. P.  Chelcicky  gave  an  explanation 
of  the  Lessons  of  the  Gospel  for  every 
Sunday ;  wrote  the  Net  of  Faith  (Sj<  Wjry), 
a  discourse  on  the  13th  chapter  of  Reve- 
lation, of  the  beast  and  its  image  ( O  Selme 


a  Ohrazu  Gegjm),  and  an  essay  on  the  love 
of  God.  The  most  famous  book  of  his 
was  one  ui  40  chapters,  which  he  called 
Kopyla  (Last).  Many  controversial  writ- 
ings of  this  period  might  be  mentioned. 
Bohuslaw  of  Sechtic  wrote  the  Avork 
Zrcadlo  wscho  Krestanstwa  (Mirror  of  the 
whole  of  Christianity).  In  this,  the  differ- 
ence between  the  conduct  of  the  apostles 
and  of  the  Roman  bishops  is  represented 
by  various  drawings.  Three  other  draw- 
ings represent  Huss  preaching,  and  at  the 
stiike ;  besides  16  leaves,  upon  which  the 
hfe  and  the  letters  of  Huss  are  contained. 
After  two  })ictures,  of  which  one  repre- 
sents the  worship  of  the  Hussites,  the 
other  the  exjjedition  of  the  Taborites, 
comes  a  satirical  letter  of  Lucifer :  an- 
other plate  represents  the  blind  hero  Zisca 
at  the  head  of  his  army,  imder  which 
tliere  are  quotations  from  the  Taborite 
war-song,  JVeprutel  se  nelekeyte — JVa  ko- 
ristech  se  nezastaunigme  (Fear  not  tlie 
foes — Stop  not  for  plundering) :  besides 
a  dialogue,  in  which  the  father  tells  his 
son  how  the  cup  and  the  law  of  God  had 
been  introduced  into  Bohemia.  The  whole 
consists  of  118  leaves,  of  which  88  have 
pictures.  Stibor  of  Cimburg  and  Towa- 
cow  wrote  the  very  ingenious  work  on 
the  possessions  of  the  clergj',  which  he 
dedicated  to  king  Gfeorge,  in  1467,  and 
the  collection  of  the  rights  and  privileges 
of  the  margraviate  of  Moravia.  Walcow- 
sky  Z.  Knezmosta  wrote  on  the  vices  and 
hypocrisy  of  the  clergy ;  P.  Zidek  wrote, 
in  3  vols.,  the  Art  of  Governing,  1471 
(Zprdwa  Krdlowska).  The  first  volume 
treats  of  the  duties  of  a  king  with  regard 
to  the  public  welfare ;  the  second,  on  liis 
personal  behavior ;  the  third  is  a  general 
view  of  histor}',  from  the  beginning  of  the 
world  to  the  time  of  the  author,  wherein 
frequent  hints  are  given,  as  to  what  a  king 
should  do,  and  what  avoid.  William  Cor- 
nelius of  Wsehrd  wrote  nine  books  on  the 
laws,  judiciarj'  offices  and  the  register  of 
lands  in  Bohemia.  King  G«orge  was  the 
author  of  an  ordinance  respecting  meas- 
ures, money,  weights,  &c.  V.  Mladieno- 
wic,  who,  when  notary  at  Constance,  was 
an  eye-witness  of  the  execution  of  Huss, 
"\ATOte  an  account  of  his  life.  This  used 
to  be  read  in  the  Bohemian  churches. 
Procopius  continued  tlie  rhyming  chron- 
icles of  Dalemil.  J.  Lodkowic  related 
his  Journey  to  the  Holy  Sepulchre.  Sasek 
of  Mezyhor  wrote  Notes  and  Travels 
through  Gennany,  England,  France, 
Spain,  Portugal  and  Italy,  of  the  Bohe- 
mian baron  Loew  of  Rozmital  and  Vlatna 
(whom  he  accompanied) ;  a  contribution 


BOHEMIAN  LITERATURE. 


163 


to  our  knowledge  of  the  manners  of  the 
15th  centurj-,  which  was  pubUshed  by 
Jos.  Edni.  Horky,  in  a  German  transla- 
tion printed  at  Briinn,  1824.  M.  Gallus, 
Albjk,  Chrislan,  Zidek,  J.  Cerny,  J. 
Blowic  and  Sindel,  wrote  on  medicine, 
astrology  and  agriculture.  As  early  as 
1447,  we  have  an  anonymous  work  on 
the  grafting  of  trees.  We  have  also  the 
rhyming  legend  of  the  10,000  knights,  a 
translation  of  the  fables  of  ^sop,  the 
council  of  tlie  beasts  and  birds,  in  prose 
and  vei-se,  in  3  vols.  [Placj  Rada).  Each 
lesson,  which  flows  in  rhJ^ne  from  the 
mouths  of  the  animals,  is  preceded  by  the 
natural  history  of  the  animals  and  the 
,  moral.  It  was  printed  three  times  in  the 
Bohemian  language,  and  pubUshed  at 
Cracow  in  Latin  verse,  1521,  4to.  There 
is,  likewise,  a  satire,  in  132  verses,  on  the 
persecution  of  the  priests  of  the  Tabor- 
ites ;  the  Maitraum  of  Hynek  of  Podie- 
brad,  the  younger  son  of  king  George; 
besides  several  vocabularies  and  roman- 
ces, among  which  is  Tkadlecek,  which 
has  been  published  at  Vienna,  in  a  Ger- 
man translation.  Of  the  Bible,  14  trans- 
lations have  come  down  to  us,  besides  10 
of  the  New  Testament.  The  oldest,  of 
llie  year  1400,  is  in  Dresden.  The  typo- 
*  gra})iiic  art  made  a  rapid  progress  in  Bo- 
hemia. The  first  printed  work  was  the 
epistie  of  Huss  from  Constance,  in  1459  ; 
the  second,  the  Trojan  War,  in  1408  ;  the 
third,  a  New  Testament,  in  1474 ;  the 
whole  Bible,  in  1488 ;  the  first  almanac, 
in  1489.— The  third  age,  from  1500  to 
1620,  may  be  called  the  golden  age  of 
the  Bohemian  language.  During  those 
dreadful  tiunults,  in  which,  not  only  in 
this  kuigdom,  but  also  in  the  neighboring 
countries,  populous  cities  became  heaps 
of  ashes,  and  innumeralile  villages  en- 
tirely disappeared,  the  pecuUar  inclination 
of  the  nation  to  investigation,  and  their 
jiredilection  for  science  and  art,  devel- 
oped themselves.  The  cultivation  of 
learning — in  other  countries,  with  only  a 
few  exceptions,  the  monopoly  of  the 
clergy — was,  in  this  favoured  land,  open 
to  the  whole  nation.  All  branches  of 
science  were  elaborated,  and  brought  to 
an  unconniionly  high  degree  of  improve- 
ment for  that  time.  The  purpose  of  this 
work  does  not  allow  us  to  enumerate  all 
the  authors  of  this  age,  since,  under  Ro- 
dolph  II  alone,  there  were  more  than  150. 
Gregory  Ilruby  of  Geleni  translated  the 
work  of  Petrarch,  De  Reniediis  utriusquc 
FortuncE.  W.  Pisecky  translated  from  the 
Greek  the  Exliortation  of  Isocrates  to 
Demonikos.  John  Amos  Comenius  wrote 


54  works,  some  of  which  were  very  ex- 
cellent.   He  published  liis  Janua  and  aii 
Orbis  Pidus,  which  were  translated,  in  his 
lifetime,  into  11  languages,  have  passed 
through  innumerable  editions,  and  are 
not  yet  surpassed.    In  all  the  north  of 
Europe,  Comenius  attracted  attention  by 
his    projects    for    improving    education, 
which  were  deliberated  upon  even  by  the 
diet  of  Sweden  and  the  parhament  of  Eng- 
land.    The  hymns  of  this  and  the  earlier 
ages,  part  of  which  have  been  translated 
by  Luther,  may  serve  as  standards  for  all 
languages.    In  Prague  alone,  there  were, 
at  this  period,  18  printing-presses ;  in  the 
countiy-towns  of  B.  7,  and  in  Moravia 
also  7 :  many  Bohemian  books,  too,  were 
printed  in  foreign  countries,  as  m  Venice, 
Niiremberg,  Holland,  Poland,  Dresden, " 
Wittenberg  and  Leipsic. — The  fourth  pe- 
riod begins  Avith   1620,  and  ends  with 
1774.      After    the  battle   at  the  White 
moimtain,  the  whole  Bohemian  nation 
submitted  entirely  to  the  conqueror.    The 
population  of  most  of  the  cities  and  of 
whole  districts  migi'ated,  in  order  not  to 
be  false  to  their  faith.    More  than  70,000 
men,  and  almost  the  whole  of  the  nobility, 
all  the  Protestant  clergy,  scholars  and  ar- 
tists, in  general,  the  most  cultivated  part 
of  the  nation,  left  their  native  countr}\ 
Of  these    emigrants,    the    greater    part 
formed  the  flower  of  the  army  of  count 
Mansfeld.    Hence  the  30  years'  war  de- 
populated Bohemia  more  than  any  other 
countiy,  since  these  fugitives  endeavored 
to  regain  their  native  country  by  repeated 
mvasions.    Nothing,  however,  was  so  dis- 
advantageous to  Bohemian  literature  as 
the  introduction  of  monks,  who  were 
mostly  Italians,  Spaniai'ds  and  Southern 
Germans,  who  condemned  every  Bohe- 
mian work,  as  lieretical,  to  the  flames,  so 
that  individuals  boasted  of  having  burnt 
about    60,000  manuscripts,  which   they 
took    from    the    jjeople  by  force,  after 
searching  their  houses.    Such  works  as 
escaped    the   flames  were    shut    up  in 
monasteries,  in  carefully-secm-ed  rooms, 
fastened  with   iron   grates,  dooi-s,  locks, 
bolts  and  chains,  and  often  inscribed  with 
the  warning  title  Hell.    Instead  of  these 
excellent  remains  of  the  classical  times 
of  the  country,  they  gave  the  Bohemians 
nonsense  of  all  kinds ;  accounts  of  hell 
and    purgatory,   the    reading  of  which 
made  many  of  the   populace   maniacs ; 
though    even  this  stuflT  was,  in  many 
cases,  burnt,  and  mostly  forbidden.     The 
fugitives  estabUshed  at  Amsterdam,  Dres- 
den, Berlin,  Breslau  and  Halle,  printing- 
presses,  and  sent  to  their  brethren  in 


164 


BOHEMIAN  LITERATURE— BOIL. 


Bohemia,  Moravia  and  Hungary,  a  num- 
ber of  books,  mostly  new  editions.    Some 
Bohemians,  who  observed  the  decay  of 
their  language,  strove  to  remedy  it;  as 
Pesina  Z.  Cechorodu  ;  Joh.  Beckowsky, 
who  continued  the  Bohemian  history  to 
1620 ;  W.  Weseley,  who  wrote  a  work 
on  geometry  and  trigonometry,  &c. ;  but 
the  decay  was  too  great  to  admit  of  being 
checked  ;  the  nobility  had  become  stran- 
gers, and  the    goveniment    encouraged 
only  German  literature.    From  this  time, 
therefore,  tlie  Bohemians  wrote  more  in 
the  German  language. — In  the  fifth  pe- 
riod, from  1774  to  1826,  a  new  ray  of  hope 
shone  on  Bohemian  hterature  ;    when, 
under  the  emperor  Joseph  II,  a  deputa- 
tion of  secret  Bohemian  Protestants,  trust- 
ing to  his  liberal  views,  made  him  ac- 
quainted with  the  great  number  of  their 
brethren  of  the  same  faith.    He  perceived 
the  necessity  of  introducing  toleration, 
and  hundreds  of  thousands  of  Protestants, 
in  Bohemia  and  Moravia,  came  to  light : 
their  concealed  works  were  printed  anew, 
their  classical  language  was  again  ac- 
khowledged  and  cultivated.    This  is  done 
still  more  under  the  present  government, 
who  perceive  the  necessity  and  utility  of 
the  Sclavonian  language,  which,  in  the 
Austrian  states,  is  spoken  by  14,000,000 
people,  and  of  which  the  Bohemian  is 
the  written  dialect.    Under  this  protec- 
tion, many  men   of  merit,  mindful  of 
the  fame  of  their  ancestors,  have  endeav- 
ored to  cultivate  anew  all  branches  of  the 
sciences,  and  to  reach,  if  possible,  their 
more  advanced  neighbora.    In  particular, 
the  membei-s  of  the  Bohemian  society  of 
sciences,  of  the  national  museum,  and  of 
other  patriotic  societies,  above  ail,  count 
Kollowrath-Liebsteinsky  and  count  Cas- 
pai*  of  Sternberg,  deserve  to  be  named 
with  high  respect. — The  Bohemian  has 
natural  talents  for  mathematics,  as  Co- 
pernicus, Vega,  Stmad,  Wydra,  Littrow, 
&c.,  may  prove.    The  coips  of  Austrian 
aitillery,  which  are  recruited  in  Bohemia 
and  Moravia,  have  always  contained  men 
distinguished  for  acquaintance  with  this 
science.     In   philology  and  music,  the 
Bohemians  are  likewise  eminent.     The 
teacher  of  Mozart  was  Kluck,  a  Bohe- 
mian.     Recently,    Adlabert    Sedlaczek, 
canon  of  a  chapter  of  the  Prsemonstra- 
tenses,  has  distinguished  liimself  by  phys- 
ical and  mathematical  compendiums  in 
the  Bohemian  language. — Compare  the 
Vollstandige  Bohmische  Liter atur  of  pro- 
fessor    Jungmann     (Prague,     1825,    2 
vols.). 
BoiARDo,  Matteo  Maria,  count  of  Scan- 


diano,  was  born  at  a  seat  belonging  to  his 
family  near  Ferrara,  in  1434.  From  1488 
to  1494,  the  period  of  his  death,  he  was 
commander  of  the  city  and  castle  of  Reg- 
gio,  in  the  service  of  his  protector,  Ercole 
d'Este,  duke  of  Modena.  This  accom- 
plished courtier,  scholar  and  knight  was 
])articularly  distinguished  as  a  poet.  His 
Orlando  Jnnamorato  (Scandiano,  1496) 
is  continued  to  the  79th  canto,  but  not 
completed.  He  immortahzed  the  names 
of  his  own  peasants,  and  the  charms  of  the 
scenery  at  Scandiano,  in  the  pereons  of  his 
heroes  and  his  descriptions  of  the  beauties 
of  nature.  In  language  and  versification, 
he  has  been  since  surpassed  by  Ariosto» 
whom  he  equalled  in  invention,  grace,  and 
skilful  conduct  of  complicated  episodes, 
Dominichi,  Bemi  and  Agostini  new 
modelled  and  continued  the  work  of  B. 
without  improving  it.  One  continuation, 
only,  will  never  be  forgotten — the  im- 
mortal Orlando  of  Ariosto.  In  some  of 
his  works,  B.  was  led,  by  the  spirit  of  his 
times,  to  a  close  imitation  of  the  ancients; 
e.  g.,  in  his  Capitoli;  also,  in  a  comedy 
bon-owed  from  Lucian's  Timon ;  and  in 
his  Latin  eclogues  and  translations  of 
Herodotus  and  Apuleius.  In  his  sonnets 
and  canzoni  (first  printed  at  Reggio,  1499), 
he  has  displayed  great  talents  as  a  lyric  ♦ 
poet. 

Boil  ;  to  heat  a  fluid  until  it  bubbles 
and  becomes  changed  into  vapor.  If  the 
requisite  heat  is  appUed  a  suflicient  time, 
bubbles  continually  arise,  until  the  fluid  is 
entirely  consumed.  A  singular  circum- 
stance is  to  be  remarked,  that  the  fluid, 
in  open  vessels,  when  it  has  once  begun 
to  boil,  receives  no  increase  of  heat,  even 
from  the  hottest  fire.  The  reason  is  this, 
that  the  additional  caloric  goes  to  form 
steam,  and  ascends  with  it  into  the  air. 
The  steam  itself,  when  formed,  may  be 
raised  to  a  much  higher  degree  of  temper- 
ature. During  the  period  of  boiling,  the 
surface  of  the  fluid  exhibits  a  violent  un- 
dulating motion,  and  the  stratum  of  air 
immediately  over  it  is  filled  with  vapor. 
The  noise  which  accompanies  boihng, 
arises,  without  doubt,  from  the  displacing 
of  the  steam-bubbles,  and  varies  very 
inuch  with  the  nature  and  situation  of 
the  vessel.  The  vaporization  of  fluids  is, 
very  probably,  nothing  more  than  a  me- 
chanical union  of  caloric  wth  the  fluid. 
The  degree  of  heat  at  which  different 
fluids  boil  is  very  different.  Spirits  boil 
at  the  lowest  temperature;  pure  water 
next;  at  a  still  higher  temperature,  the 
fixed  oils.  The  degree  of  heat  at  which 
a  fluid  boils  is  called  its  hoUing  point. 


BOIL— BOIS-LE-DUC. 


165 


This  is  used  as  one  of  the  fixed  points  in 
tlie  graduation  of  thermometers.  This 
point  is  uniform  only  in  case  of  complete 
boiling,  and  under  a  uniform  pressure  of 
the  atmosphere.  The  influence  of  this 
pressure  appears  from  experiments.  In 
an  exhausted  receiver,  the  heat  of  the 
human  hand  is  sufficient  to  make  water 
boil ;  while,  on  the  contrary,  in  Papin's 
digester,  where  the  confinement  prevents 
evaporation,  it  may  be  heated  to  300  or 
400  degrees  without  boiling.  Under  the 
common  pressure  of  the  atmosphere,  the 
boiling  point  of  rain-water  is  212°  Fahren- 
heit ;  that  of  alcohol,  174° ;  that  of  mer- 
cuiy,  GGO° ;  that  of  ether,  98°.  From  the 
experiments  of  prof  Robinson,  it  appears, 
that,  in  a  vacuum,  all  hquids  boil  about 
145°  lower  than  in  the  open  air,  under  a 
l)ressure  of  30  inches  of  mercury  ;  water, 
therefore,  would  boil  in  a  vacuum  at  67° 
Ether  may  be  made  to  boil  at  the  com- 
mon temperature,  by  merely  exhausting 
the  air  from  the  vessel  in  which  it  is  con- 
tained. 

BoiLEAU,  Despreaux  Nicholas,  bom  in 
1636,  at  Ci'osne,  near  Paris,  commenced 
his  studies  in  the  college  cTHarcourt,  and 
continued  them  in  the  college  de  Beau- 
vais.  Even  in  liis  early  youth,  he  read 
with  ardor  the  great  poets  of  antiquity, 
and  tried  his  own  powers  in  a  tragedy, 
though  with  little  success.  Afl;er  having 
completed  his  academical  studies,  he  en- 
tered upon  the  career  of  the  law;  but 
soon  left  it  from  disinclination,  tried  some 
other  pursuits,  and  resolved,  finally,  to 
devote  himself  entirely  to  belles-lettres. 
His  first  satire,  Les  adieux  a  Paris,  made 
known  his  talents.  In  1666,  he  published 
seven  satires,  with  an  introduction,  ad- 
dressed to  the  king.  They  met  with  ex- 
traordinary applause ;  for  no  one,  be- 
fore him,  had  written  with  such  ele- 
gance of  versification.  But  in  this,  and 
in  the  purity  of  his  language,  and  the 
clearness  with  which  he  sets  forth  his 
Juniinous  principles,  consists  their  chief 
merit ;  novel,  profound,  original  ideas, 
we  should  look  for  in  vain,  though  the 
pieces  are  not  destitute  of  graceful  touches 
and  delicate  strokes.  They  are  unequal 
in  merit.  The  satires  Sur  Vl^quivoque  and 
Sur  VHommt  have  undenialtle  defects. 
That  on  AVomen,  which  he  wrote  at  a  more 
advanced  age,  is  monotonous,  and  de- 
ficient in  humor.  His  epistles,  in  which 
he  is  the  successful  rival  of  Horace,  are 
more  esteemed  at  the  present  day.  They 
display  a  gracefid  versification,  a  natural 
and  sustained  style,  vigorous  and  well 
connected  ideas.    These  were  followed 


by  his  Art  PoMque,  in  which  he  describes, 
with  precision  and  taste,  all  the  different 
kinds  of  poetry  (with  the  exception  of  tlie 
apologue),  and  lays  down  rules  for  them. 
In  regularity  of  plan,  happy  transitions, 
and  continual  elegance  of  style,  this  poem 
is  superior  to  the  Ars  Poetica  of  Horace. 
It  was  long  regarded,  not  only  in  France, 
but  also  in  foreign  countries,  as  a  poetical 
code,  and  has  every  where  had  a  favora- 
ble influence,  as  it  inculcates  purity  and 
regularity,  and  subjects  all  the  produc- 
tions of  poetical  genius  to  a  fixed  standard. 
B.'s  censures  of  Tasso  and  Quinault,  with 
some  other  equally  unfounded  opinions, 
display  a  narrowness  of  spirit.  He  had 
many  opjionents,  who  accused  him  of 
want  of  fertility,  invention  and  variety. 
To  refute  them,  he  wrote  his  Lnitrin,  a 
mock-heroic  poem,  which  is  still  un- 
rivalled in  the  eyes  of  the  French.  A 
music-stand,  which  had  been  removed 
from  its  place,  had  occasioned  dissensions 
in  a  chapter :  this  is  the  subject  of  B.'s 
])oem,  in  which  his  art  of  making  petty 
details  interesting  deserves  as  much  pi-aise 
as  the  other  excellences  of  his  poetry  al- 
ready enumerated.  In  his  life,  B.  was 
amiable  and  generous.  Louis  XIV  gave 
him  the  place  of  historiographer,  in  con- 
nexion with  Racine.  As  he  had  attacked 
the  academicians  in  several  of  his  WTit- 
ings,  he  was  not  received  into  their  socie- 
ty until  1684,  and  then  only  by  the  inter- 
ference of  tlie  king.  He  died  in  1711, 
of  the  dropsy.  M.  de  St.  Surin  has  pub- 
lished (Euvres  de  Boileau,  with  a  com- 
mentary, Paris,  1824,  4  vols.  The  first 
volume  of  Daunou's  (member  of  the  in- 
stitute) (Euvres  completes  de  Boileau,  with 
a  literary  and  historical  commentary,  ap- 
peared in  Paris,  1825. 

Boiler.  (See  Steam  and  Steam  En- 
gine.) 

Bois-LE-Duc  (the  French  name  for  the 
Dutch  Hertogenbosh,  also  Im  Bosh);  a 
fortified  city  m  the  province  of  North 
Brabant,  in  the  kingdom  of  the  Nether- 
lands, with  3770  houses  and  13,300  in- 
habitants, at  the  confluence  of  the  Dom- 
mel  and  the  Aa,  which  form,  by  their 
junction,  the  Diest.  Lon.  5°  9'  E. ;  lat. 
51°  40'  N.  It  has  many  manufactories, 
and  much  trade  in  corn,  some  salt- 
works, a  lyceum,  10  Catholic  churches, 
4  Calvinistic,  1  Lutheran.  Godfrey,  duke 
of  Brabant,  founded  this  important  mili- 
tarj'  post  in  1184.  The  fortifications  now 
consist  of  strong  walls  and  seven  bastions, 
but  it  owes  its  security,  chiefly,  to  the  fa- 
cility with  which  the  whole  country 
around  can  be  laid  under  water  (the  new 


166 


BOIS-LE-DUC— BOLEYN. 


canal  to  Maestricht  has  16  sluices).    B.  is 
defended  by  several  forts  and  a  citadel. 
The  city  has  four  gates,  and  three  en- 
trances from  the  water.    The  cathedral 
is  one  of  the  finest  in  the  Netherlands. 
The  city  suffered  much  in  the  religious 
wars  of  the  16th  centurj^,  and  fell  into  the 
hands  of  the  Dutch  in  1629.    Sept.  14, 
1794,  the  French  defeated  the  English 
here ;  Oct.  9  of  the  same  year,  it  surren- 
,dered  to  Pichegru.    In  Januarj',  1814,  it 
was  taken  by  the  Prussian  general  Bulow. 
BoissEREE.     A  celebrated  gallery  of 
pictures  is  exhibited  in  Stuttgart,  which 
was  collected  by  the  brothers    Sulpice 
and  Melchior  Boisser6e,  and  John  Ber- 
tram, men  who,  animated  by  love  of  the 
arts,  began,  at  the  tiilie  of  the  destruction 
of  the  monasteries,  during  and  after  the 
French  revolution,  to  purchase  old  pic- 
tures, and    afterwards   completed    tlieir 
collection  by  the  addition  of  many  valua- 
ble painting's  of  the  old  Gennan  school. 
By  this  collection,  the  brothers  Boisseree, 
and  Bertram,  have  happily  reahzed  the 
idea  of  a  historical  series  of  old  German 
paintings.    It  is  to  their  endeavors  that 
we  owe  the  discovery,  that  Germany  pos- 
sessed, as  early  as  the  13th  century,  a 
school  of  paintei-s  of  much  merit,  which, 
like  tlie  Italian,  proceeded  fi-om  the  old 
Byzantine  school,  but  became,  in  the  se-  , 
quel,  distinguished  by  excellences  of  its 
own.    We  owe  to  these  collectors,  also, 
the  restoration  to  favor  of  the  forgotten 
Low  German  masters,  and  a  just  estima- 
tion of  John  von  Eyck,  as  the  creator  of 
the  genuine  German  style  of  painting. 
By  this  collection,  the  names  of  von  Eyck, 
Wilhehn  von  Koln,  Hemling,  Goes,  Mec- 
kenem,  Wohlgemuth,  Schoen,  Mabuse, 
Schoorel,  and  many  others,  have  attained 
deserved  honor.    The  most  distinguished 
connoisseurs  and  artists,  including  Gothe, 
Canova,  Dannecker   and    Thorwaldsen, 
have  strongly  expressed  their  admiration 
of  this  collection.    The  proprietoi-s  are 

})ublishing  a  work  consisting  of  excellent 
ithographic  prints  from  their  pictures. 
In  the  autumn  of  1820,  the  pubhcation 
of  llie  splendid  engravings,  illustrative  of 
the  cathedral  in  Cologne,  was  resolved 
on.  The  plates  surpass,  in  size  and  exe- 
cution, every  thing  wliich  had  appeared 
in  the  department  of  architectural  deline- 
ations, and  were  partly  made  in  Paris. 
(See  Boisser6e's  Geschichte  und  Beschrei- 
bung  des  Doms  von  Koln,  Stuttgart,  1823.) 
BoissoNADE,  Jean  FranQois,  bom  at 
Paris,  1774,  one  of  the  most  distinguished 
Greek  scholars  in  France,  was  made  as- 
sistant professor  of  the  Greek  language 


in  the  university  of  Paris,  in  1809 ;  and, 
m  1812,  after  the  death  of  Larcher,  whom 
he  succeeded  in  the  institute,  principal 
professor.  The  king  made  him  a  mem- 
ber of  the  legion  of  honor  in  1814,  and, 
in  1816,  member  of  the  academy  of  in- 
scriptions. Besides  valuable  contributions 
to  the  Journal  des  Debats,  to  the  Mercure, 
to  the  Magazin  Encydoptdiqne,  to  the 
Biographie  Universelk,  and  to  the  .^i'otices 
et  Extraits  (10  vols.),  we  ai-e  indebted  to 
him  for  an  edition  of  the  Heroica  of  Plii-  " 
lostratus  (1806),  and  of  the  Rhetoric  of 
Tiberius  (1815).  Still  more  important 
are  his  editions  of  Eunapus'  Lives  of  the 
Sophists,  of  Proclus'  Commentary  on  the 
Cratylus  of  Plato,  never  before  printed ; 
of  a  Greek  romance  by  Nicetas  Eugenia- 
nus,  &c.  He  compiled,  also,  a  French 
dictionar}',  on  the  plan  of  Johnson's. 

BoJACA,  Battle  of,  so  called,  from 
having  been  fought  near  the  bridge  of  the 
small  town  of  Bojaca,  not  far  from  the 
city  of  Tunja,  between  the  Spaniards, 
under  Ban-eyro,  and  the  united  forces 
of  Venezuela  and  New  Grenada,  com- 
manded by  Bohvar.  It  occurred  August 
7th,  1819,  and  was  decisive  of  the  inde- 
pendence of  New  Grenada.  Among  the 
republicans,  generals  Anzuategui,  Paez 
and  Santander  disthiguished  themselves ; 
,  and  the  Spaniards  sustained  a  total  de- 
feat, their  general,  most  of  their  officers 
and  men  who  survived  the  battle,  together 
with  all  their  arms,  ammunition  and 
equipments,  falling  into  the  hands  of 
Bolivar.  So  complete  was  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  Spanish  army,  that  the  vice- 
roy instantly  fled  from  Santa  F6,  leaving 
even  the  pubUc  treasure  a  prey  to  the 
conquerors. 

Bole  ;  a  fossil  of  a  yellow,  brown,  or  red 
color,  oflen  marked  with  black  dendrites ; 
found  in  different  parts  of  Bohemia,  Si- 
lesia and  Stiria,  also  in  Lemnos,  and  at 
Sienna  in  Italy.  It  is  made  into  pipes 
for  smoking,  and  vessels  for  cooling  water 
in  hot  weather.  The  terra  sigUlata  is 
nothing  but  bole. 

BoLEYN,  or  BoLEN,  Anuc,  second  wife 
of  Henry  VIII  of  England,  was  the 
youngest  child  of  sir  Thomas  Boleyn  and 
a  daughter  of  the  duke  of  Norfolk.  She 
was  bom,  according  to  some  accounts,  in 
1507,  but,  according  to  other  more  prob- 
able ones,  in  1499  or  1500.  She  attended 
Mary,  sister  of  Henry,  on  her  marriage 
with  Louis  XII,  to  France,  as  lady  of 
honor.  On  the  return  of  that  princess, 
after  the  king's  death,  she  entered  the 
service  of  queen  Claude,  wife  of  Francis 
I,  and,  after  her  death,  that  of  the  duchess 


BOLEYN— BOLINGBROKE. 


167 


of  AlenQon,  sister  of  the  French  king. 
Young,  beautiful,  gay  and  witty,  she  was 
au  object  of  great  attraction  in  the  gallant 
court  of  Francis  I.    She  returned  to  Eng- 
land about  1525  or  1527,  and  became  lady 
of  honor  to  the  queen,  whom  she  soon 
supplanted.  The  king,  passionately  enam- 
ored of  her,  found  an  unexpected  opposi- 
tion to  his  wishes,  and  Ainie  firmly  de- 
clared that  she  could  be  had  on  no  terms 
but  those  of  mairiage.    She  knew  that 
the  king  already  meditated  a  divorce  from 
his  wife,  Cathaiine  of  Aragon ;  but  she 
also  knew  what  difficulties  the  Catholic 
rehgion  opposed  to  the  execution  of  this 
plan.     Cranmer  offered  his  services  to 
bring  about  tlie  accomplishment  of  the 
king's  wishes,  and  thus  gave  the  first  oc- 
casion to  the  separation  of  England  from 
the  Roman  church.    But  tlie  impetuous 
Henry  did  not  wait  for  the  ministers  of 
his  new  religion  to  confirm  his  divorce : 
on  the  contrarj',    he  privately  married 
Anne,  Nov.  14,  1532,  having  previously 
created  her  marchioness  of  Pembroke. 
When  her  pregnancy  revealed  the  secret, 
Cranmer  declared  the  first  marriage  void, 
and  the  second    valid,   and  Anne  was 
crowned  queen  at  Westminster,  with  un- 
paralleled splendor.    In  1533,  she  became 
the  mother  of  the  famous  Elizabeth.   She 
could  not,  however,  retain  the  affections 
of  the  king,  as  mconstant  as  he  was  tyran- 
nical ;  and,  as  she  had  supplanted  her 
queen,  while  lady  of  honor  to  Catharine, 
she  was  now  supplanted  herself  by  Jane 
Seymour,  her  own  lady  of  honor.     Sus- 
picions of  infidelity  were  added  to  the 
disgust  of  Henry,  which  seem  to  be  not 
entirely  unfounded,  although  the  judicial 
process  instituted  against  her  was  wholly 
iiregular.    In  1535,  she  was  imprisoned, 
accused,  and  brought  before  a  juiy  of 
peers.     Smeaton,  a  musician,  who  was 
arrested  with  others,  confessed  that  he 
had  enjoyed  the  queen's  favors,  and,  IMay 
17,  1536,  she  was  condemned  to  death  by 
26  judges.    Anne  in  vain  affirmed  that 
she  had  long  before  been  contracted  to 
the  duke  of  Northumberland,  and,  tliere- 
fore,  had  never  been  the  lawful  wife  of 
Henry.      Cranmer  in  vain  declared  the 
maniage  void.    The  sentence  of  death 
was  executed  by  the  conmiand  of  the  in- 
flexible Henry,  who  esteemed  it  a  great 
exercise  of  clemency  to  substitute  the 
scafibld  for  the  stake.    The  last  day  of 
the  life  of  this  unhappy  woman.  May  19, 
1536,  presyits  many  interesting  moments. 
She  sent  for  the  wife  of  the  lieutenant  of 
the  Tower,  threw  herself  upon  her  knees 
before  her,  and  said,  "  Go  to  the  princess 


Mary  (daughter  of  Catharine)  in  my  name, 
and,  in  this  position,  beg  her  forgiveness 
for  all  the  sufferuigs  I  have  drawn  upon 
her  and  her  mother."  "  She  sent  her  last 
message  to  the  king,"  says  Hume,  "  and 
acknowledged  the  obligations  which  she 
owed  him  in  uniformly  continuing  his 
endeavors  for  her  advancement."  "From 
a  private  gentlewoman,  you  have  made 
me,  first,  a  marcliioness,  then  a  queen ; 
and,  as  you  can  raise  me  no  higher  in 
this  world,  you  are  now  sending  me  to  be 
a  saint  in  heaven." 

BoLiNGBROKE,  Hcury  St  John,  viscount, 
bom  in  1672,  at  Battersea,  near  London, 
of  an  ancient  family,  the  members  of 
which  had  distinguished  themselves  in 
military  and  civil  offices,  received  an  edu- 
cation adapted  to  his  rank,  and  completed 
his  studies  at  Oxford,  where  he  early  ex- 
hibited unconnnon  talents,  and  attracted 
general  attention.  On  entering  the  world, 
he  displayed  a  rare  union  of  brilhant  parts 
and  elegance  of  manners,  with  beauty  of 
person,  dignity  and  affability,  and  such 
fascinating  eloquence,  that,  according  to 
the  unanimous  testimony  of  his  contem- 
poraries, nobody  could  resist  him.  Unfor- 
tunately, the  passions  of  his  youth  oppos- 
ed the  developement  of  his  talents ;  and, 
in  his  23d  year,  he  was  distinguished  prin- 
cipally as  an  accomplished  libertine.  His 
parents,  supposing  that  marriage  would 
have  a  salutary  influence  upon  him,  pro- 
posed to  him  a  lady,  the  heiress  of  a  mil- 
lion, who  united  with  a  channing  figure  a 
cultivated  mind  and  noble  birth.  But  the 
young  couple  had  hved  but  a  short  time 
together,  when  irreconcilable  disputes 
arose  bet^veen  them,  in  consequence  of 
which  they  separated  for  ever.  Another 
plan  was  adopted  to  give  a  better  direction 
to  the  impetuous  character  of  B.  By  the 
influence  of  his  father,  he  obtained  a  seat 
in  the  house  of  commons.  Here  his  elo- 
quence, his  acuteness,  and  the  strength  of 
his  judgment,  attracted  univei-sal  attention. 
His  former  idleness  was  changed  at  once 
into  the  most  incessant  activity.  In  1704, 
he  was  made  secretary  of  war,  and  came 
into  immediate  connexion  Avith  the  duke 
of  Marlborough,  whose  talents  he  discern- 
ed, and  whose  enterprises  he  supported 
with  all  his  influence.  AVhen,  however, 
the  whigs  gained  the  ascendency,  B.  gave 
in  his  resignation.  Now  followed,  as  he 
said  himself,  the  two  most  active  years  of 
his  life,  in  which  he  devoted  himself  to 
study,  but  by  no  means  neglected  pubUc 
affairs.  He  continued  to  maintain  a  con- 
stant intercourse  with  the  queen,  who 
preferred  him  to  her  other  coimsellors. 


168 


BOLINGBROKE. 


The  whig  ministry  was  overthrown,  to 
tlie  astonishment  of  all  Europe ;  and  B. 
received  tlie  department  of  foreign  affairs, 
in  which  post  he  concluded  the  peace 
of  Utrecht,  of  which  he  was  always 
proud,  and  which  gained  him  general 
admiration.  In  concluding  this  peace, 
every  tiling  was  unfiivorable  to  him — the 
whigs,  the  peers,  the  bank,  the  East  India 
society,  Marlborough,  Eugene,  the  empe- 
ror, Holland,  the  jealousy  of  all  the  Euro- 
pean powers,  the  weakness  of  his  OAvn 
queen,  the  irresolution,  imprudence,  and 
even  the  envy  of  his  colleagues.  B.  after- 
wards became  a  prey  to  the  impetuosity 
of  his  passions,  and  exhibited  a  versatility 
of  conduct  that  has  rendered  his  loyalty, 
his  patriotism  and  his  whole  character 
suspected.  The  collision  of  the  whigs 
and  tories  produced  such  a  general  excite- 
ment, that  the  ministers  were  attacked, 
the  peace  was  decried  as  disastrous,  and 
the  Protestant  succession  was  declared  in 
danger.  At  this  moment,  a  fatal  conten- 
tion broke  out  between  the  lord  high 
treasurer  (the  earl  of  Oxford)  and  B., 
iimnediately  after  the  conclusion  of  the 
peace.  Swift,  the  friend  of  both,  but  par- 
ticularly intimate  with  the  lord  high  treas- 
urer, accused  B.  of  having  principally 
contributed  to  the  ruin  of  their  party.  Be 
this  as  it  may,  queen  Anne,  provoked  to 
the  utmost  by  Oxford,  dismissed  him  four 
days  before  her  death,  and  made  B.  prime 
minister.  But  the  death  of  Anne  changed 
the  whole  scene.  George  I  of  Hanover 
ascended  the  throne,  and  the  whigs  tri- 
umphed more  completely  than  ever.  B., 
who  could  not  impose  on  the  Hanoverian 
court  by  his  plausible  pretences,  and  who 
was  as  much  envied  as  he  was  hated,  was 
dismissed  by  king  George,  while  yet  in 
Germany,  and  fled  to  France,  upon  learn- 
ing that  the  opposite  party  intended  to 
bring  him  to  the  scaffold.  James  III,  the 
Pretender,  as  he  was  called,  invited  him  to 
Lorraine,  and  made  him  his  secretary  of 
state.  But,  when  Louis  XIV  died,  B. 
lost  all  hope  of  the  success  of  the  Pretend- 
er, and  repented  of  having  entered  into  so 
close  a  comiexion  with  him.  Whatever 
the  feelings  and  plans  of  B.  may  have 
been,  his  intentions,  with  regard  to  James 
III,  were  doubtless  honest.  Nevertheless, 
the  latter  deprived  him  of  liis  dignity,  and 
transferred  it  to  the  duke  of  Ormond. 
Thus  it  was  the  strange  fate  of  B.  to  be 
charged  with  treachery,  both  by  the  king 
and  the  Pretender.  Offers  were  made  to 
him  by  king  George,  on  condition  of  his 
revealing  the  secrets  of  the  Pretender. 
This  proposal  he  at  first  declined,  but 


afterwards  yielded  so  far  as  to  promise  a 
decisive  blow  against  the  cause  of  the 
Pretender,  on  condition  of  the  total  obliv- 
ion of  what  had  already  passed,  and  of  an 
entire  confidence  for  the  future.  Wal- 
pole,  however,  was  afi-aid  of  B.'s  influence 
in  parliament,  and  opposed  his  recall.  B., 
in  order  to  forget  his  situation,  aj)plied 
himself  to  writing  philosophical  consola- 
tions after  the  manner  of  Seneca,  but 
soon  found  sweeter  ones  in  his  marriage 
>vith  a  rich  and  amiable  lady,  niece  of 
madame  de  Maintenon.  In  172-3,  the  par- 
liament, which  had  been  so  hostile  to  B., 
was  at  length  dissolved,  and  he  was  per- 
mitted to  return  to  England.  His  estates, 
however,  were  not  restored  until  two 
years  after,  by  a  particular  act  of  pai'lia- 
ment.  On  his  return,  he  lived  at  first 
retired  in  the  country,  maintaining,  how- 
ever, a  con'espondence  with  Swift  and 
Pope.  But  no  sooner  was  the  voice  of 
opposition  heard  in  parliament,  than  he 
hastened  to  London,  and,  as  the  restora- 
tion of  his  seat  in  the  house  of  lords  was 
still  denied  him,  attacked  the  ministry 
during  eight  years,  in  the  journals  or  in 
pamphlets,  with  great  success.  He  drew 
upon  himself  powerful  enemies,  against 
whom  he  directed  his  Treatise  on  Parties, 
which  is  considered  as  his  masterpiece. 
He  then  returned  to  France,  with  the  in- 
tention, as  even  Swift  supposed,  of  throw- 
ing himself  into  the  arms  of  the  Pretend- 
er's party,  against  which  charge  Pope 
defended  him,  and  declared  that  he  had 
himself  advised  his  noble  friend  to  leave 
an  ungratefiil  country,  by  which  he  was 
suspected  and  persecuted.  In  France,  B. 
wrote",  1735,  his  Letters  upon  History, 
which  are  admired  even  at  the  present 
day,  but  in  which  the  individual  character 
of  the  author  appears  to  the  exclusion  of 
general  views,  and  which  were  blamed,  in 
particular,  for  attacking  revealed  rehgion, 
which  he  had  once  wamily  defended.  In 
1729,  in  the  midst  of  his  contest  with 
Walpole,  he  had  suggested  to  Pope  his 
Essay  on  Man,  assisted  him  in  the  com- 
position, and  supplied  him  witli  the  most 
important  materials.  His  feelings  finally 
carried  him  back  to  his  country,  where 
he  wrote,  1738,  his  Idea  of  a  Patriot 
King,  under  the  eyes  of  the  heir  apparent. 
He  died  in  1751,  in  his  80th  year,  after  a 
long  and  dreadfiil  disease,  during  which 
he  composed  Considerations  on  the  State 
of  the  Nation.  He  bequeathed  his  manu- 
scripts to  the  Scotch  poet  Mallet,  who 
published  them  in  1753;  but  scarcely  had 
they  appeared,  when  a  general  cry  was 
raised  against  them,  on  account  of  their 


BOLINGBROKE— BOLIVAR. 


169 


revoltiug  attacks  on  Christianity.  They 
were  presented  by  the  grand  jury  of 
Westminster  as  subversive  of  religion, 
government  and  morality.  B.  was  capa- 
ble of  inspiring  the  wannest  friendship 
and  the  bitterest  enmity.  He  was  accus- 
ed of  immoderate  ambition,  and  of  a  proud, 
passionate,  envious  and  implacable  tem- 
|)er. '  His  memoirs  are  useful,  as  illustrat- 
ing English  history  during  the  first  quar- 
ter of  the  18th  century. 

Bolivar,  Simon,  the  great  military 
captain  of  South  America,  and  the  most 
prominent  individual  yet  produced  by  the 
revolution  in  the  late  Spanish  colonies, 
was  born  in  the  city  of  Caraccas,  July  24, 
1783.  His  father  was  don  Juan  Vicente 
Bolivar  y  Ponte,  and  his  mother,  doiia 
Maria  Concepcion  Palacios  y  Sojo,  both 
of  noble  and  distinguished  families  in 
Venezuela.  After  acquii'ing  the  first  ele- 
ments of  a  hberal  education  at  home,  B. 
repaired  to  Europe,  in  pui-suit  of  njore 
extended  means  of  gaining  knowledge, 
visiting  Havana  and  Mexico  on  his  way. 
He  completed  his  studies  in  Madrid,  and 
then  spent  some  time  in  travelling,  chiefly 
in  the  south  of  Eurojie.  He  was  particu- 
larly attracted  to  the  capital  of  France, 
where  he  was  an  eye-witness  of  some  of 
the  later  events  of  the  revolution,  and 
there,  probably,  conceived  the  idea  of 
lil)ei-ating  his  countiy  from  the  tyranny 
of  Spain.  Returning  to  Madrid,  he  mar- 
ried the  daughter  of  don  N.  Toro,  uncle 
of  the  marquis  of  Toro,  in  Caraccas,  and 
embarked  with  her  for  America,  intend- 
ing to  dedicate  himself,  for  a  while,  to 
domestic  hfe  and  the  superintendence  of 
his  large  estate.  But  the  premature  and 
sudden  death  of  his  v^^fe,  who  fell  a  vic- 
tim to  the  yellow  fever,  dispelled  his  vis- 
ions of  domestic  happiness  ;  and  he  again 
visited  Europe  as  a  relief  to  his  son-ovv 
for  her  loss.  On  his  return  home,  he 
})assed  through  the  U.  States ;  and  the 
lesson  of  liberty  was  not  without  its  fruits ; 
for,  on  his  arrival  in  Venezuela,  he  em- 
barked in  the  plans  antl  intrigues  of  the 
patriots,  and  pledged  liimselfto  the  cause 
of  independence.  Being  one  of  the  chief 
promotera  of  the  movement  in  Caraccas 
of  April  19,  1810,  which  is  considered  as 
the  beginning  of  the  revolution,  he  re- 
ceived a  colonel's  commission  from  the 
supreme  junta  then  established,  and  was 
associated  with  don  Luis  Lopez  Mendez, 
for  the  purpose  of  conununicating  intelli- 
gence of  the  change  of  government  to 
Great  Britain.  He  took  part  in  the  first 
military  operations  of  the  Venezuelan 
patriots  ailer  the  declaration  of  indepen- 

VOL.  n.  15 


dence,  July  5,  1811,  ser\'ing  under  Mi- 
randa in  an  expedition  against  a  body  of 
I)ei-sons  in  Valencia,  who  thus  early  took 
a  stand  opposed  to  the  revolution.  After 
the  eai-thquake  of  March,  1812,  the  war  was 
commenced  in  earnest  by  the  advance  of 
Monteverde  with  the  Spanish  troops;  and 
the  command  of  the  important  post  of 
Puerto  Cabello  was  intrusted  to  B.  But, 
unfortunately,  the  Spanish  prisoners  in 
the  castle  of  San  Felipe,  which  com- 
manded the  town,  coiTupted  one  of  the 
patriot  otKcei*s,  and  obtained  possession 
of  the  castle ;  so  that  B.  was  compelled  to 
evacuate  the  place.  This  mishap  con- 
tributed greatly  to  produce  the  submission 
of  Miranda,  which  left  Venezuela  in  the 
full  control  of  iMonleverde.  Many  of 
those  persons,  who  were  deeply  commit- 
ted in  the  revolution,  now  sought  to  leave 
their  country ;  and  B.  succeeded  in  ob- 
taining a  passport  and  escaping  to  Cura- 
Qoa.  Unable,  however,  to  remain  a  cold 
spectator  of  the  events  occuiring  on  the 
continent,  he  repaired  to  Carthagena,  in 
September,  1812,  and,  with  other  emi- 
grants from  Caraccas,  entered  into  the 
service  of  the  patriots  of  New  Grenada. 
They  gave  him  the  command  in  the 
small  town  of  Baranca,  nominally  under 
the  orders  of  Labatut,  the  republican  gov- 
ernor of  Santa  3Iai-ta ;  but  B.  could  not 
be  content  with  the  obscure  part  which 
must  have  fallen  to  him  had  he  remained 
at  Baranca.  Instead  of  this,  he  imder- 
took  an  expedition  against  Tenerifie,  a 
town  higher  up  on  the  river  Magdalena, 
occupied  by  the  Spaniards,  captured  it, 
and,  gatliering  forces  on  the  waj',  he 
]iroceeded,  on  his  own  responsibility,  to 
Mompox,  driving  the  Spaniards  before 
him  from  all  their  posts  in  the  Upper 
Magdalena,  and  finally  entering  the  city 
of  Ocaiia  in  triinnph,  amid  the  acclama- 
tions of  the  inhabitants,  whom  he  deliv- 
ered. These  happy  and  successful  move- 
ments now  turned  the  public  attention 
U[)on  him  ;  and  he  was  invited  to  march 
upon  Cucuta,  and  attempt  to  expel  the 
Spanish  division  commanded  by  Correa. 
This  operation,  also,  he  achieved,  without 
any  loss,  by  the  celerity  and  skill  of  his 
movements,  and  now  conceived  the 
great  and  bold  project  of  invading  Vene- 
zuela with  his  little  army,  and  delivering 
it  from  the  powerful  forces  under  3Ionte- 
verde.  The  congress  of  New  Grenada 
gratified  him  in  this  respect,  and  gave 
him  a  commission  of  brigadier ;  but 
many  obstacles  were  thrown  in  his  way 
by  colonel  Manuel  Castillo,  commandant- 
general,  under  the  congress,  in  the  prov- 


170 


BOLIVAR. 


ince  of  Pamplona,  which  led  to  an  irrec- 
oncilahle  difterence  between  them.  At 
length,  having  overcome  a  multitude  of 
difficulties  which  retarded  his  advance, 
and  driven  Correa  from  the  valleys  of 
Cucuta,  he  commenced  his  march  for 
Venezuela,  with  a  small  force  of  but  little 
more  than  500  men,  but  accomj>anied  by 
excellent  officers,  some  of  whom  after- 
wards acquired  great  celebrity,  such  as 
Rivas,  Jirardot,  Urdaneta  and  d'Eluyar. — 
Heedless  of  the  accusations  of  rashness 
lavished  on  his  enterprise,  B.  plunged  into 
the  province  of  Merida.  The  inhabitants 
of  the  provincial  capital  rose  upon  the 
Spaniards  on  learning  the  news  of  his 
approach.  He  hastily  reestablished  the 
repubhcan  authorities  there,  wliile  his 
van-guard  was  proceeding  upon  Trujillo, 
under  Jirardot.  A  single  engagement 
took  place  in  Carache,  where  Jirardot 
defeated  a  sti'ong  corps  of  royalists  under 
Caiias,  after  which  the  provinces  of  Me- 
rida and  Trujillo  remained  wholly  free 
from  the  Spaniards.  B.  had  detached 
from  his  troops  a  small  body  under 
colonel  Briceiio  for  the  occupation  of 
Varinas.  Briceiio  was  defeated  ;  and, 
falling  into  the  hands  of  the  S|)aniards, 
was  shot  in  cold  blood,  with  17  of  his 
companions,  and  many  of  the  patriots  of 
Varinas,  by  tlie  Spanish  commandant 
Fiscar.  Meanwhile,  B.  obtained  authen- 
tic intelligence  of  the  homd  and  shame- 
less cruelties  and  oppressions  every  where 
perpetrated  in  Venezuela  by  Monteverde 
and  his  subordinate  officers,  analogous  to 
the  butcheries  of  Fiscar.  Exasperated  by 
the  knowledge  of  tliese  events,  he  issued 
the  famous  decree  of  guerra  a  muerte, 
condemning  to  death  all  the  S[)anish 
prisoners  who  might  fall  into  his  hands. 
But  he  is  not  of  a  cruel  or  sanguinary 
temper;  and  this  decree  seems  to  have 
been  intended  rather  to  intimidate  the 
royalists  than  hterally  to  be  put  in  execu- 
tion. His  army  increasing  daily,  he  sep- 
arated it  into  two  divisions,  committing 
one  of  them  to  the  charge  of  Rivas,  and 
both  rapidly  advanced  upon  Caraccas 
through  the  provinces  of  Trujillo  and 
Varinas.  Several  engagements  ensued, 
in  wliich  the  patriots  were  successful ; 
and,  at  length,  the  decisive  victory  of 
Lastoguanes,  in  which  tlie  flower  of 
Monteverde's  troops  were  completely  de- 
feated, left  open  the  road  to  Caraccas. 
Monteverde  shut  liimself  up  hi  Puerto 
Cabello,  and  B.  lost  no  time  in  marching 
upon  the  capital,  which  was  evacuated 
by  the  Spaniards  without  a  struggle,  and 
entered  in  triumph  by  B.,  Aug.  4,  1813. 


Meantime,  Mariiio  had  effected  the  liber- 
ation of  the  eastern  pi'ovinces  of  Venezu- 
ela, of  wliich  the  patriots  had  regained 
entire  possession,  excepting  only  the  for- 
tress of  Puerto  Cabello. — At  this  period, 
tlie  whole  authority  in  Venezuela  centred 
in  B.,  as  the  commander  of  the  liberating 
army,  and  the  oppressions  of  some  of  his 
suboi-dinate  officers  excited  loud  com- 
plaints. Nevertheless,  convinced  of  the 
necessity  of  having  the  resources  of  the 
countr}',  at  such  an  emergency,  in  tlie 
hands  of  a  single  individual,  it  was  re- 
solved, in  a  convention  of  the  principal 
civil  and  niilhary  officers,  assembled  at 
Caraccas,  Jan.  2,  1814,  to  confirm  the  dic- 
tatorial powers  which  circumstances  had 
already  tlirown  upon  B.  A  desperate 
contest  now  ensued  between  the  royalist 
and  patriot  parties  and  forces ;  and  to 
narrate  the  part  which  B.  took  therein, 
would  be  to  relate  the  history  of  the  war. 
Suffice  it  to  say,  that,  after  various  vicis- 
situdes of  fortune,  B.  was  beaten  by 
Boves,  in  a  battle  fought  in  the  plains  of 
La  Puerta,  near  Cura,  and  compelled  to 
embark  for  Cumana,  with  the  shattered 
remnant  of  his  forces ;  so  that  Caraccas 
was  retaken  by  the  Spaniards  in  July, 
1814,  and,  before  the  end  of  the  year, 
the  royalists  were  again  undisputed  mas- 
ters of  Venezuela.  Once  more,  therefore, 
B.  appeai-ed  in  Carthagena  as  a  fugitive, 
and  proceeded  to  Tunja,  where  the  con- 
gi-ess  of  New  Grenada  was  sitting,  to  give 
an  account  of  his  brilliant,  but,  in  the  re- 
sult, disastrous  expedition.  Notwithstand- 
ing his  misfortunes,  and  the  efforts  of  his 
I>ersonal  enemies,  he  was  treated  with 
gi"eat  consideration,  and  received  the  ap- 
plause merited  by  one  who  had  needed 
only  resources  proportionate  to  his  tal- 
ents to  have  accomphshed  the  permanent 
deliverance  of  his  countrj'. — When  B. 
arrived  at  Tunja,  the  congress  was  or- 
ganizing an  expedition  against  the  city 
of  Bogota,  for  the  purpose  of  compelling 
the  province  of  Cundinamarca  to  accede 
to  the  genei-al  union  of  the  provinces  of 
New  Grenada,  and  thus  put  an  end  to  the 
collision  which  divided  the  means  and 
crippled  the  exertions  of  the  republicans. 
Eveiy  conciliatory  measure  having  failed 
to  effect  a  union  of  the  provinces,  the 
government  had  recourse  to  arms.  B. 
was  intrusted  with  the  delicate  task  of 
commanding  the  forces  of  the  union  upon 
this  occasion,  and  marched  against  Santa 
F6  early  in  December,  1814,  at  the  head 
of  nearly  2000  troops.  He  invested  the 
city,  drove  in  tlie  outposts,  obtamed  pos- 
session of  the  suburbs  by  storm,  and  was 


BOLIVAR. 


171 


prei>aring  to  assault  the  great  square, 
where  the  dictator  Alvarez  and  the  troojjs 
of  Cundinaniarca  were  posted,  when  tlie 
Jatter  cai)itulated,  December  12,  and  be- 
came subject,  thenceforth,  to  the  general 
government  of  New  Gi-enada,  which  was 
peaceably  transferred  to  Bogota.  The  con- 
gress passed  a  vote  of  dianks  to  B.  for 
tlie  wisdom  and  courage  with  which  lie 
had  directed  the  campaign,  and  brought 
it  so  speedily  to  a  happy  termination; 
and  the  inhabitants  of  the  city  tliemselves 
expressed  dieir  approbation  of  his  person- 
al conduct, — Previous  to  this  time,  Santa 
Malta  had  fallen  into  the  possession  of 
the  royalists,  in  consequence  of  the  inca- 
pacity of  Labatut ;  and  the  general  gov- 
ernment justly  appreciated  the  impor- 
tance of  regaining  it.  B.  was  accordingly 
cmijloyed  upon  this  service,  and  was  to 
receive  tlie  necessaiy  munitions  of  war 
from  the  citadel  of  Caithagena ;  but  tlie 
rivahy  and  jealousy  of  the  military  com- 
Miandant  Castillo,  the  origin  of  which  we 
Jiave  already  explained,  defeated  all  his 
I)lans.  Indignant  at  Castillo's  conduct 
in  refusing  him  the  requisite  supplies,  B., 
after  the  season  for  acting  against  Santa 
I\Iarta  to  advantage  had  been  wasted  in 
ruinous  delays,  invested  Carthagena  with 
his  troops,  hoping  to  intimidate  Castillo 
into  submission,  or,  if  not,  to  reduce  him 
to  reason  by  force.  But,  in  the  midst  of 
these  wretched  dissensions,  wherein  both 
parties  listened  too  much  to  resentment, 
IMorillo  arrived  at  the  isle  of  JMargarita 
with  an  overwhelming  force  from  Sjjam ; 
and  B.,  aware  that  all  further  views  upon 
Santa  Malta  were  hopeless,  threw  up  his 
commaiKl,  and,  finding  that  he  could  not 
be  usefully  ein})loyed  at  Carthagena,  em- 
barked for  Jamaica,  in  May,  1815,  to  wait 
for  better  times.  He  remained  in  Kings- 
ton most  of  the  year,  whilst  Morillo  was 
reducing  Caitliagena,  and  overrunning 
New  Grenada.  During  his  residence 
there,  a  hireling  Si)aniard  made  an  at- 
tempt upon  his  life,  and  would  have  as- 
sassinated him,  if  it  had  not  happened 
that  another  person  occupied  B.'s  bed 
at  the  time,  who  was  stabbed  to  the  heart. 
— From  Kingston,  B.  repaired  to  Aux 
Cayes,  in  the  island  of  Hayti,  and,  assisted 
by  private  individuals,  and  with  a  small 
force  furnished  by  Petion,  formed  an  ex- 
pedition, in  conjunction  with  commodore 
Brion,  to  join  Arismendi,  who  liad  raised 
the  standard  of  independence  anew  in 
the  isle  of  jMargarita.  He  arrived  in  safe- 
ty at  Margarita  in  May,  181G,  and,  sailing 
thence,  landed  on  the  main  land  near 
Cumana,  but,  in  a  few  months,  was  en- 


countered by  the  Spaniards  under  Mo- 
rales at  Ocuinare,  and  compelled  to  re- 
embark.  Nothing  disheartened  by  this 
failure,  he  obtained  reinforcements  at 
Aux  Cayes,  and,  in  December,  181G,  land- 
ed once  more  in  Margarita.  There  he 
issued  a  proclamation  convoking  the 
representatives  of  Venezuela  in  a  general 
congress ;  and  from  thence  passed  over 
to  Barcelona,  where  he  organized  a  pro- 
visional government,  and  gathered  forces 
to  resist  Morillo,  who  was  approaching 
with  a  powerful  division.  They  encoun- 
tered each  other  on  the  IGtli,  17th  and 
18th  of  Februar\%  in  a  desperate  conflict, 
which  ended  in  B.'s  obtaining  the  victor^^ 
Morillo  retreated  in  disorder,  and  was 
met  and  defeated  anew  by  general  Paez, 
with  his  in-esistible  Llaneros.  B.,  being 
now  recognised  as  supreme  chief,  pro- 
ceeded in  his  career  of  victory,  and,  be- 
fore the  close  of  the  year  1617,  had  fixed 
liis  head-quarters  at  Angostura.  The 
sanguinary  battles  of  this  period,  in  the 
most  important  of  which  he  was  engaged 
in  pereon,  belong  rather  to  the  history  of 
Colombia  (q.  v.)  than  to  B.'s  own  fife. 
He  found  time,  however,  to  preside  at 
the  opening  of  the  congress  of  Angostu- 
ra, February  15th,  1819,  and  to  submit  a 
long  and  elaborate  exposition  of  liis  views 
of  government.  He  also  surrendered  his 
authority  into  the  hands  of  the  congress, 
which  required  him  to  resume  it,  and  to 
retain  it  until  the  independence  of  his 
countiy  should  be  fully  achieved.  B. 
soon  reorganized  his  forces,  and  set  out 
from  Angostura,  with  the  purpose  of  cross- 
ing the  Cordilleras,  and  efifecting  a  junc- 
tion with  general  Santander,  who  com- 
manded the  republican  forces  in  New 
Grenada,  so  that  the  united  EU'ins  of  the 
two  repubhcs  might  act  with  the  greater 
efficiency.  He  succeeded,  in  July,  1819, 
in  reaching  Tunja,  which  city  he  entered 
after  a  battle  on  the  neighboring  heights, 
and,  on  the  7th  of  August,  gained  the 
great  and  splendid  victoiy  of  Bojaca, 
which  gave  him  immediate  possession  of 
Santa  Fe  and  all  New  Grenada.  The 
viceroy  Samano  fled  precipitately  before 
him ;  and  he  was  enthusiastically  wel- 
comed in  Santa  Fe  as  a  deliverer,  ap- 
pointed president  and  captain-general  of 
the  repubUc,  and  enabled  by  the  new  re- 
sources of  men,  money  and  munitions  of 
war,  which  he  found  there,  to  jirepare  for 
returning  into  Venezuela  with  an  army 
sufficient  to  ensure  the  complete  expul- 
sion of  the  Spaniards. — B.'s  entry  into 
Angostura,  after  his  glorious  campaign  in 
New  Grenada,  was  a  peculiarly  gratify-- 


172 


BOLIVAR. 


ing  and  affecting  spectacle.  Its  whole 
])opulation  hailed  him  as  the  liberator  and 
father  of  his  country.  He  embraced  the 
favorable  moment  to  obtain  the  funda- 
mental law  of  December  17th,  1819,  by 
which  the  repubUcs  of  Venezuela  and 
New  Grenada  were  to  be  thenceforth 
united  m  a  single  state,  under  the  presi- 
dency of  B.,  and  by  the  title  of  the  repub- 
lic of  Colonibia.  Meanwhile,  tlie  seat  of 
government  was  transferred  provisional- 
ly to  Rosario  de  Cucuta ;  and  B.  again 
took  the  field,  at  the  head  of  the  most 
formidable  army  that  had  been  assembled 
by  the  independents.  After  a  series  of 
memorable  advantages  over  the  Spmi- 
iards,  an  armistice  of  six  months  was  ne- 
gotiated at  Trujillo,  between  B.  and  Mo- 
rillo,    and    subscribed    November    25th, 

1820.  Morillo  soon  afterwards  returned 
to  Spaui,  leaving  La  Torre  in  command. 
At  the  termination  of  the  armistice,  B. 
made  a  great  effort  to  finish  the  war  by 
a  decisive  blow,  and  attained  his  object 
by  vanquishing  La  Torre,  in  the  famous 
battle  of  Carabobo,  leaving  to  tlie  Span- 
iards only  the  broken  fragments  of  an 
army,  wliich  took  refuge  in  Puerto  Ca- 
bello,  and  there,  after  a  protracted  and 
obstinate  struggle  of  more  than  two  yeare, 
surrendered  to  general  Paez. — The  battle 
of  Carabobo  may  be  regarded  as  having 
put  an  end  to  the  war  in  Venezuela.  B. 
entered  Caraccas,  June  29th,  1820,  having 
now,  for  the  third  time,  rescued  his  na- 
tive city  from  its  oppressors,  and  was  re- 
ceived with  transports  of  joy.  By  the 
close  of  the  year,  the  Spaniards  were 
driven  from  every  part  of  the  country,  ex- 
cept Puerto  Cabello  and  Quito ;  and  the 
time  was  deemed  auspicious  for  establish- 
ing permanent  pohtical  institutions  in 
Colombia.  The  present  constitution  was 
completed    and    adopted    August    30th, 

1821,  and  B.  was  elected  the  first  con- 
stitutional president,  with  general  San- 
tander  for  vice-president.  Having  thus 
achieved  the  independence  of  his  own 
country,  B.  placed  himself  at  the  head  of 
the  liberating  army  destined  to  expel  the 
Spaniards  from  Uuito  and  Peru.  The 
fate  of  Quito  was  decided  by  the  battle 
of  Pichincha,  fought  in  June,  1822,  and 
gained  by  the  talents  and  prowess  of 
Sucre.  Aware  that  the  southern  prov- 
inces of  Colombia  could  never  be  secui-e 
while  Peru  remained  subject  to  Spain, 
aJid  anxious  to  extend  the  blessings  of 
independence  to  all  America,  B.  resolved 
to  march  upon  Lima,  and  assist  the  Peru- 
vians. The  royahsts,  not  being  prepared 
to  meet  him,  evacuated  Lima  at  his  ap- 


proach ;  and  B.,  entering  the  capital  amid 
the  acclamations  of  the  people,  was  in- 
vested with  supreme  power  as  dictator, 
and  authorized  to  call  into  action  all  the 
resources  of  the  country  for  its  hberation. 
But,  opposed  and  denounced  by  some 
of  the  factions  which  distracted  Peru,  he 
found  himself  under  the  necessity  of  re- 
turning to  Trujillo,  in  Northern  Peru,  leav- 
ing Lima  to  be  retaken  by  the  Spaniai-ds 
under  Canterac. — At  length,  in  June,  1824, 
the  liberating  army  was  completely  or- 
ganized, and  soon  after,  taking  the  field, 
routed  the  vanguard  of  the  enemy.  B. 
was  anxious  for  the  opportunity  of  a 
decisive  engagement,  and,  m  fact,  soon 
obtauied  a  brilliant  victorj>  August  G,  on 
the  plains  of  Junin.  Leaving  Sucre  to 
follow  the  royahsts  in  tlieir  retreat  into 
Upper  Peru,  he  repaired  to  Lima,  to  or- 
ganize the  government ;  and,  during  his 
absence  from  the  army,  Sucre  gained 
the  splendid  victory  of  Ayacucho.  Notli- 
ing  was  now  held  by  the  Spaniai'ds  in 
Peru  but  the  castles  of  Callao ;  which 
Rodil  maintained  for  upwards  of  a  year, 
B.  employing  all  the  resources  of  the 
government  for  their  reduction,  until  Jan- 
uary, 1826.  In  June,  1825,  B.  visited 
Upper  Peru,  which  detached  itself  from 
the  government  of  Buenos  Ayres,  and 
was  formed  into  a  new  republic,  named 
Bolivia,  in  honor  of  the  hberator.  The 
members  of  the  congi'ess  of  the  new  re- 
public, assembled  m  August,  1825,  seem- 
ed to  vie  with  one  another  in  extrava- 
gant resolutions,  testifying  their  gratitude 
to  B.  and  Sucre.  The  former  was  de- 
clai-ed  perpetual  protector  of  the  republic, 
and  requested  to  prepare  for  it  a  consti- 
tution of  govennneut.  Returning  to  Lima, 
he  occupied  hijnself  in  performing  this 
task. — We  touch  now  upon  a  period 
when  B.  appears  in  a  new  aspect.  Hith- 
erto, we  have  traced  his  military  career, 
at  first  uncertain,  and  abounding  in  great 
reverses,  but  at  length  splendidly  success- 
ful. His  remarkable  fertility  in  resources, 
his  courage,  conduct,  and  preeminent 
genius  for  the  art  of  war,  are  all  undenia- 
ble, and  are  proved  not  less  by  his  brilliant 
success,  tlian  by  the  testimony  of  all  the 
most  competent  judges.  But  he  now 
comes  before  us  in  the  capacity  of  a  law- 
giver ;  and  imputations  on  the  purity  of 
his  political  views  arise  contemporaneous- 
ly with  his  assuming  the  delicate  task  of 
consolidating  the  goveraments  which  his 
militaiy  prowess  had  created. — In  De- 
cemlKjr,  1824,  B.  issued  a  decree,  convok- 
ing a  constituent  congress  to  assemble  in 
Lima  the  ensuing  February.    This  body 


BOLIVAR. 


173 


assembled  accordingly ;  but,  in  considera- 
tion of  the  unsettled  state  of  the  country, 
resolved  to  contmue  the  dictatorial  pow- 
ers of  B.  anotlier  year,  without  attempt- 
ing to  settle  the  government  permanently. 
They  also  urged  on  B.  a  grant  of  a  million 
of  dollars,  which  he,  with  the  hberality 
of  feeling,  and  contempt  of  mercenary 
motives,  Avhich  have  invariably  distin- 
guished him,  rejected.  Congress  soon 
adjourned,  and  B.  remained  sole  and 
absolute  governor  of  Peru.  Residing 
partly  at  Lima,  and  partly  at  JNIagdalena, 
he  directed  the  acts  of  the  government, 
and,  at  this  period,  proi)osed  the  cele- 
brated congress  of  Panama,  for  the  j)ur- 
pose  of  establishing  a  stable  alliance 
between  all  the  indeiiendent  states  of 
America.  Having  completed  his  project 
of  a  constitution  for  Bolivia,  he  presented 
it  to  the  congress  of  that  state,  with  an  ad- 
dress, dated  May  25th,  182G,  wherein  he 
solemnly  recorded  his  opinions  of  the 
form  of  government  required  by  the  new 
republics  of  the  south.  Of  this  famous 
code,  an  account  will  be  found  iii  the 
article  Bolivia.  It  is  enough  to  state  here, 
that,  among  other  features  which  alarmed 
the  friends  of  liberty,  the  most  exception- 
able was  a  provision  for  lodging  the  exec- 
utive authority  in  the  hands  of  a  president 
for  life,  without  responsibility,  and  with 
power  to  nominate  his  successor.  When 
the  nature  of  this  constitution  became 
generally  known  in  South  America,  it 
excited  the  liveliest  apprehensions,  es- 
jtecially  among  the  republicans  of  Bue- 
nos Ayres  and  Chile,  who  feared,  or 
pretended  to  fear,  an  invasion  from  B. ; 
and  not  less  in  Peru,  where  he  began  to 
be  accused  of  a  design  to  unite  perma- 
nently Colombia,  Peru  and  Bolivia,  and 
to  make  himself  pei*petual  dictator  of  the 
same. — These  im])utations  received  coun- 
tenance, at  least,  from  the  proceedings  of 
B.  himself  The  surrender  of  CaUao,  by 
completely  freeing  Peru  from  the  Span- 
iards, finished  the  business  for  which  B., 
and  the  Colombian  troops,  had  been 
called  into  the  country.  But  he  mani- 
fested no  intention  of  departing,  or  of  re- 
signing his  authority.  On  the  contrary, 
when  the  deputies  for  the  constituent 
congress  of  1826  assembled,  they  saw  fit, 
or  were  induced,  for  alleged  irregulaiities 
in  their  appointment,  and  for  other  causes, 
to  decline  acting  in  their  legislative  ca- 
pacity. A  majority  of  the  de])uties  pub- 
lished an  address,  in  which  they  urged 
B.  to  continue  at  tlie  helm  another  year, 
and,  meantime,  to  consult  the  provinces 
individually  as  to  the  form  of  government 
15* 


which  they  might  desire,  and  the  person 
who  should  be  placed  at  its  head.  Ac- 
cordingly, circular  letters,  written  in  the 
name  of  B.  lind  his  council  of  govern- 
ment, and  issued  from  the  bureau  of  his 
minister  Pando,  were  addressed  to  the 
several  prefects  of  departments,  com- 
manding them  to  assemble  the  electoral 
colleges,  and  submit,  for  their  sanction,  a 
form  of  constitution  precisely  the  same 
with  the  Bolivian  code,  only  adajited  to 
Peru.  This  constitution  was  adoi)ted  by 
the  colleges,  who  also  nominated  B. 
jjresident  for  life  under  it,  with  a  una- 
nimity too  extraordinary  not  to  have 
been  the  result  either  of  intimidation  or 
of  management.  Before  this  time,  how- 
ever, events  had  transpired  in  Colombia, 
which  demanded  the  presence  of  B.  in 
his  own  country.  During  his  absence, 
the  vice-president,  Santander,  had  ad- 
ministered the  government  with  ability 
and  uprightness.  Colombia  had  been 
recognised  by  other  countries  as  an  inde- 
pendent state;  its  territory  was  divided 
into  departments,  and  its  government 
regularly  oi'ganized.  But,  in  April,  182(5, 
general  Paez,  who  commanded  in  Ven- 
ezuela, being  accused  before  the  Colom- 
bian senate  of  arbitrary  conduct  in  the 
enrolment  of  the  citizens  of  Caraccas  in 
the  militia,  refused  obedience  to  the  sum- 
mons of  the  senate,  and  placed  himself  in 
open  rebellion  to  the  national  government 
and  constitution.  Taking  advantage  of 
this  unhappy  incident,  the  disatfccted 
party  in  the  ancient  Venezuela,  all  those 
opjiosed  to  a  central  form  of  government, 
and  all  those  opposed  to  the  existing  ad- 
ministratoi-s  of  the  government,  united 
with  Paez ;  and  thus  the  northern  depart- 
ments became  virtually  separated,  for  the 
time  being,  fi-om  the  rest  of  the  republic. 
But  all  professed  a  readiness  to  submit 
their  grievances  to  the  decision  of  B.,  and 
anxiously  required  his  return  to  Colom- 
bia. While  these  movements  were  taking 
l)lace  in  Venezuela,  professedly  with  a 
view  to  obtain  a  federal,  instead  of  a  cen- 
tral form  of  government,  various  muni- 
cipalities in  the  southern  departments, 
formed  from  what  had  been  the  presi- 
dency of  Quito,  held  public  meetings,  in 
which  they  voted  to  adopt  the  BoUviau 
code,  and  lodged  the  authority  of  dictator 
in  the  hands  of  B.  Evidence  has  been 
adduced,  showing  that  the  latter  proceed- 
iujra  were  in  accordance  with  the  wishes 
of  B.,  and  that  the  meetings  were  actual- 
ly summoned  by  the  personal  interven- 
tion of  Leocadio  Guzman,  an  emissary 
of  his,  who  suggested  the  resolutions  they 


174 


BOLIVAR. 


should  pass ;  and  suspicions  have  not 
been  wanting,  that  Paez  was  either  in- 
cited, or  sustained,  by  intimations  received 
from  the  same  quarter.  On  these  things 
it  would  be  premature  now  to  decide. 
Certain  it  is,  that,  to  all  appearance,  the 
central  departments  alone,  answering  to 
New  Grenada,  continued  faithful  to  the 
constitution.  These  circumstances  most 
imperiously  demanded  the  presence  of  B., 
wliether  as  the  cause  and  object  of 
the  public  distractions,  or  as  the  means 
of  composing  them.  Accordingly,  he 
set  out  from  Lima  in  September,  182(3, 
committuig  the  government  to  a  council 
of  his  own  appointment,  and  responsible 
to  Wm  alone,  with  general  Santa  Cruz  at 
its  head,  and  leaving  the  whole  of  the 
Colombian  auxihary  army  in  Pern  and 
Bolivia.  B.  made  all  haste  to  reach  Bo- 
gota, which  he  entered  Nov.  14,  182G, 
and,  assuming  tlie  extraordinary  powers 
which,  by  the  constitution,  the  president 
is  authorized  to  exercise  in  case  of  rebel- 
lion, he  remained  only  a  few  days  in  the 
capital,  and  pressed  on  to  stop  the  effusion 
of  blood  in  Venezuela.  He  went,  accom- 
panied merely  by  a  small  escort,  although 
forces  were  in  readiness  to  sustain  him  if 
requisite,  and  all  the  demonstrations  of 
insurrection  vanished  at  his  approach. 
He  reached  Puerto  Cabello  December 
3l8t,  and  immediately  issued  a  decree, 
dated  Jan.  1,  1827,  giving  assurance  of 
a  general  amnesty  to  the  insurgents,  on 
their  peaceably  submitting  to  his  author- 
ity, and  engaging  to  call  a  convention  for 
the  reform  of  the  constitution.  He  had  a 
friendly  meeting  with  Paez,  and,  soon 
afterwards,  entered  Caraccas,  where  he 
fixed  his  head  quaiters,  having  the  north- 
ern departments  under  his  immediate 
personal  authority,  and  separated  from 
the  body  of  the  republic,  wliich  pro- 
ceeded in  its  ordinary  routine.  B.  and 
Santander  had  respectively  been  reelected 
to  the  offices  of  president  and  vice-presi- 
dent, and  should  have  been  qualified  anew 
as  such  in  January,  1827.  But,  in  Feb- 
ruary, B.  addressed  a  letter  from  Carac- 
cas to  tlie  president  of  the  senate,  renounc- 
ing tlie  presidency  of  the  republic,  and 
expressing  a  detennination  to  repel  the 
imputations  of  ambition  cast  upon  him,  by 
retiring  to  seclusion  upon  his  patrimonial 
estate.  Santander,  in  reply,  urged  him 
to  resume  his  station  as  constitutional 
president,  convinced  that  the  troubles  and 
agitations  of  the  country,  if  they  were  not 
occasioned  by  the  intrigues  of  B.  himself) 
might  at  any  moment  1)6  quieted  by  his 
lending  tiie  authority  of  his  name,  and 


his  personal  mfluence,  to  the  cause  of  the 
constitution.  But  distrust,  suspicion  and 
jealousy  of  the  conduct  and  intentions  of 
B.  now  filled  all  the  friends  of  republican 
institutions.  He  had  recorded  his  confes- 
sion of  political  faith,  to  use  his  own  ex- 
pression, in  the  anti-republican  Bolivian 
code,  and  he  was  believed  to  be  anxious 
for  its  introduction  into  Colombia.  When 
his  renunciation  of  the  presidency  was 
submitted  to  the  consideration  of  the  con- 
gress, a  portion  of  the  members  urged 
that  body  to  accept  the  renunciation. 
They  publicly  accused  him  of  being  in 
concert  with  Paez ;  of  having  designedly 
thrown  the  whole  nation  mto  discord  and 
confusion,  m  order  to  create  a  false  im- 
pression of  the  necessity  of  bestowing 
upon  himself  the  dictatorship.  But  a 
majority  of  the  members  insisted  upon  his 
retaining  the  presidency,  and  required  his 
presence  at  Bogota  to  take  the  constitu- 
tional oaths.  Before  he  came,  however, 
they  had  passed  a  decree  of  general  am- 
nesty ;  a  decree  for  assembUng  a  national 
convention  at  Ocaiia,and  a  decree  for  re- 
establishing constitutional  order  through- 
out Colombia.  His  arrival  was  hastened 
by  unexpected  events,  touching  him  per- 
sonally, which  had  occurred  in  Pent  and 
the  southern  depaitments.  Not  long  after 
his  departure  from  Lima,  the  returns  of 
the  electoral  colleges  were  received  by 
the  council  of  government,  by  which  the 
Bohvian  code  was  pronounced  to  be  the 
constitution  of  Peru,  and  B.  the  president 
for  life.  The  constitution  was  accord- 
ingly promulgated  officially,  and  was 
sworn  to,  by  the  public  functionaries  in 
Lima,  Dec.  9, 1826,  tlie  anniversary  of  the 
victoiy  of  Ayacucho.  At  this  time,  the 
Colombian  auxihary  army  m  Peru  was 
cantoned  ni  three  divisions ;  one  stationed 
in  Upper  Peru,  and  two  m  Lower  Peru ; 
one  of  these  at  Arequipa,  and  one  in  Lima. 
This  third  division  consisted  of  veteran 
companions  of  B.'s  triumphs,  and  was 
commanded  by  his  personal  friends,  gen- 
erals Lara  and  Sands.  Notwithstanding 
the  attachment  of  these  troops  to  B.,  they 
had  lately  been  growing  distrustful  of  his 
designs ;  and,  although  they  did  not  feel 
disposed,  it  \Vould  seem,  to  thwart  his 
views  upon  Pern,  they  took  fire  immedi- 
ately when  they  saw  cause  to  beheve  that 
he  had  similar  views  upon  theu*  own  na- 
tive Colombia.  The  consequence  was, 
that,  m  the  short  space  of  six  weeks  after 
the  new  constitution  was  solemnly  adopt- 
ed, they  came  forward,  and  revolutionized 
the  government  of  Peru.  So  well  were 
their  measures  taken,  that,  Jan.  26, 1827, 


BOLIVAR. 


175 


tliey  arrested  their  general  officers  witliout 
any  conflict  or  opposition ;  placed  them- 
selves under  tlie  command  of  Bustamante, 
one  of  their  colonels ;  and  announced  to 
the  inhabitants  of  Lima,  that  their  sole 
object  was  to  relieve  the  Peruvians  from 
oppression,  and  to  return  home  to  protect 
their  own   countiy   against  tlie  alleged 
ambitious  schemes  of  B.    The  Peruvians 
immefUately  abjured  the  Bolivian  code, 
deposed   B.'s   comicil   of  nunistei-s,   and 
proceeded,  in  perfect  freedom,  to  organ- 
ize a  provisional  government  for  tliem- 
selves.      Arrangements    Avere    speedily 
made,  after  this  bloodless  revolution  was 
eftected,  to  transport  the  third  division  to 
Guayaquil,  according  to  their  own  desire. 
They  embarked  at  Callao,  INIarch  17,  and 
landed  in  tlie  southern  department  of  Co- 
lombia, in  April,  part  of  them  proceeding 
for  Guayaquil,  and  part  for  CuenQa  and 
Quito,  uniformly  declaring  their  object  to 
be  the  restoration  of  constitutional  order, 
in  opposition  to  any  designs  upon  the 
republic  entertained  by  B.    Intelligence 
of  tliese  events  reached  B.  while  he  was 
still  m  the  north  of  Colombia.    Rousing 
himself  instantly  from  his  long-continued 
inactivity,    he    made    preparations    for 
marching  to  the  other  extremity  of  the 
republic,  and  reducing  the  third  division. 
But  these  troops,  finding  the  government 
was  in  the  hands  of  the  regular  national 
executive,  had    peaceably  submitted  to 
general  Ovando,  who  was  sent,  by  the 
constitutional  autliorities,  for  the  purpose 
of  taking  the  command.     B.  meanwhile 
signified  his  consent  to  be  qualified   as 
president,  and  proceeded,  with  this  intent, 
to   Bowot'v,  where  he  arrived  Sept.  10, 
took  the  oaths  prescribed  by  the  constitu- 
tion, and  resumed  the  functions  belonguig 
to  his  official  station.    To  external  appear- 
ance, therefore,  Colombia  was  restored  to 
tranquillity,  under  the  rule  of  her  consti- 
tutional magistrates.     But  the  nation  was 
divided  between  two  great  parties,  and 
agitated  to  its  centre  by  theiropposite  views 
of  the  political  condition  of  the  country. 
B.  had  regained  the  personal  confidence 
of  the  soldiei-s  and  oflicei"S  of  the  third 
division,  who  expressed  the  deepest  re- 
pentance for  their  distrust  of  his  charac- 
ter, and  their  entire  devotion  to  liis  inter- 
ests.   But  the  republican  party,  and  the 
friends  of  the  constitution,  with  Santander 
at  their  head,  continued  to   regard   his 
ascendency  over  the  army,  and  his  pohti- 
cal  movements,  with  undisguised  and  not 
unfounded  apprehension,  universally  ac- 
cusing or  suspecting  him  of  a  desire  to 
emulate  the  career  of  Napoleon.    They 


looked  to  the  convention  of  Ocaiia,  which 
was  to  assemble  in  March,  1828,  for  a 
decided  expression  of  the  will  of  the  na- 
tion in  favor  of  the  existing  republican 
forms.     The  military-,  on  the  other  hand, 
did  not  conceal  their  conviction  that  a 
stronger  and  more   permanent  fonn   of 
government  was  necessaiy  for  .the  public 
welfare ;  that  the  people  were  unprepared 
for  purely  republican  institutions,  and  that 
B.  ought  to  be  intrusted  with  discretionary 
power  to  administer  the  aftairs  of  Colom- 
bia.— In  1828,  B.  assumed  the  supreme 
power  in  Colombia,  by  a  decree,  dated 
Bogota,  Aug.  27,  which  gives  him  author- 
ity to  mauitain  peace  at  home,  and  to 
defend  the  coimtrv'  against  foreign  inva- 
sions ;  to  have  the  command  of  the  land 
and  sea  forces ;  to  negotiate  with  foreign 
])owers ;  to  make  peace  and  declare  war ; 
to  make  treaties ;  to  appoint  the  civil  and 
military  oflicers ;  to  pass  decrees,  and  ordi- 
nances of  every  description ;  to  regulate 
the  administration  of  justice,  &:c.     The 
decree  provides,  however,  that  he  is  to  be 
assisted  in  the  exercise  of  executive  pow- 
er by  the  council  of  ministers.     If  B.  is 
to  be  the  Ctesar  of  South  America,  even 
his  enennes  admit  that,  like  Csesar,  his 
purposes  are  ultimately  good.     He  desues 
the  jiure  administration  of  justice,  encour- 
ages the  arts  and  sciences,  fosters  all  the 
great  national  interests,  and,  if  he  attains 
absolute  power,  will  probably  use  it  wisely 
and  nobly.  But  it  is  premature  to  denom- 
inate him  the  JFashington  of  tJie  South, 
before  it  well  appeal's  whether  the  liber- 
ties of  his  country  are  safe  fi*om  his  am- 
bition.— In  his  person,  B.  is  described  as 
being  of  ordinary  stature;  ungraceful  in 
his  air  and  movements;  thin  and  spare, 
but  capable  of  gi-eat  endurance ;  of  an 
olive  complexion,  with  black,  coarse  hair, 
thin  in  front ;  broad,  bushy  eye-brows  over- 
shadowing an  eye  somewhat  sunken,  but 
full  of  fire  and  expression.     His  intellect 
is  undoubtedly  of  the  liighest  order,  and 
his  general  character  of  that  ardent,  lofty 
cast,  which  civil  commotions  are  apt  to 
fonn,  and  whicli  qualifies  its  possessor  to 
ride  on  the  tempest.     His  ordinary  state- 
papere  do  not  bespeak  a  veiy  pure  taste, 
nor  an  undei-standing  ever  subjected  to 
any    well-directed   cultivation,   and    are 
frequently  conceived  in  language  which 
even  the  lofty  idiom  of  his  vernacular 
tongue  will  hardly  sanction.    Being  now 
only  46  years  of  age,  he  may  have  a  long 
career  of  varied  fortmie  yet  before  liim, 
wherein  he  may  do  much,  either  to  fill 
the  fi-iends  of  republican  institutions  with 
sorrow,  or  to  build  for  himself  a  durable 


176 


BOLIVAR— BOLIVIA. 


monument  of  glory.  (Restrepo's  Colom- 
Ma,  vols.  3 — 6 ;  Columbia,  vol.  2 ;  Amer. 
An.  Register,  vols.  1  and  2.) — There  has 
lately  appeared  a  work,  entitled  Memoirs 
of  Simon  Bolivar,  and  of  his  principal  Gen- 
erals, with  an  Introduction,  &c.,  by  general 
H.  L.  V.  Ducoudray  Holstein ;  Boston, 
1829.  The  book  is  a  violent  philippic 
against  B.,  and  evidently  colored  too  highly 
to  be  a  safe  authority.  It  does  not  be- 
come the  biographer  to  adopt  the  views 
of  a  political  partis£in,  nor  to  pronounce 
a  decisive  judgment  until  the  career  of 
his  subject  is  closed. 

Bolivia;  the  name  of  a  country  in 
South  America.  It  is  bounded  N.  W. 
by  Peru,  N.  E.  and  E.  by  Brazil,  S.  by 
Buenos  Ayres  or  the  United  Provinces  of 
South  America,  and  W.  by  the  Pacific 
ocean  and  Peru.  It  is  elevated  and  moun- 
tainous, giving  rise  to  several  large  tribu- 
taries, both  of  the  Amazon  and  La  Plata. 
It  includes  lake  Titicaca.  It  contains  rich 
silver  mines,  of  which  those  of  Potosi, 
that  were  formerly  very  productive,  are 
the  most  celebrated.  The  town  of  Chu- 
quisaca,  or  La  Plata,  is  the  capital.  Some 
of  the  other  principal  towns  are  Potosi, 
Charcas,  Oropesa,  Oruro,  La  Paz  and  Co- 
chabamba.  The  population  has  been  re- 
cently estimated  at  1,000,000  or  1,200,000. 
— ^This  republic  dates  its  origin  from  the 
battle  of  Ayacucho,  fought  Dec.  9,  1824, 
in  which  general  Antonio  Jose  de  Sucre, 
at  the  head  of  the  Colombian  forces,  de- 
feated the  viceroy  La  Sema,  and  insured 
the  independence  of  the  country.  It  con- 
sists of  the  provinces  knowTi  under  the 
Spanish  government  as  Upper  Peru,  and 
then  governed  as  a  dependency  of  the 
viceroyalty  of  Buenos  Ayres.  Olaneta 
maintained  a  show  of  opposition  for  a 
short  time  after  the  battle  of  Ayacucho; 
but  Sucre  quickly  drove  him  into  the 
province  of  Saita,  where  his  forces  were 
dispersed  by  the  Buenos  Ayrean  authori- 
ties, in  April,  1825.  No  obstacle  now  re- 
mained to  prevent  die  organization  of  an 
independent  government.  A  congress 
assembled  at  Chuquisaca,  in  August,  1825, 
and  resolved  to  establish  a  separate  repub- 
lic, independent  both  of  Lower  Pent  and 
of  Buenos  Ayres,  to  be  named  Bolivia,  in 
honor  of  the  liberator  Bolivai-.  Among 
other  testimonials  of 'their  gratitude  to- 
wards him,  they  requested  him  to  prepare 
the  draft  of  a  constitution  for  the  republic, 
lodging  the  authority  of  president,  mean- 
while, in  the  hands  of  Sucre.  Bolivar 
accordingly  prepared  the  project  of  a  con- 
stitution, which  he  presented  to  them 
May  25, 1826,  accompanied  by  an  address, 


containing  his  general  views  upon  the 
subject  of  government.  By  this  code,  the 
powers  of  goveniment  are  distributed  into 
four  sections — the  electoral,  legislative, 
executive  and  judicial.  The  electoral  body 
is  composed  of  persons  chosen,  for  a  peri- 
od of  four  years,  by  the  citizens  at  large, 
at  the  rate  of  one  elector  for  every  hundred 
citizens.  The  legislative  power  resides 
in  three  chambers,  the  first  of  tribunes, 
the  next  of  senators,  and  the  highest  of 
censors.  The  tribunes  are  to  be  chosen 
for  a  period  of  four  years,  half  of  the 
chamber  being  renewed  eveiy  second 
year;  and  the  senators  for  eight  years, 
half  of  their  body  being  renewed  every 
fourth  year.  Between  these  two  bodies, 
the  ordinary  duties  of  legislation  are  ap- 
portioned in  a  manner  peculiarly  artificial 
and  inconvenient,  together  with  various 
other  functions  of  a  judicial  and  executive 
character.  The  censors  are  for  life,  and 
their  business  is  to  watch  over  the  gov- 
ernment, to  accuse  the  executive  before 
the  senate,  to  regulate  the  press,  educa- 
tion, and  the  arts  and  sciences,  to  grant 
rewards  for  public  services,  and  to  de- 
nounce the  enemies  of  the  state.  The 
executive  power  resides  in  a  president  for 
hfe,  a  vice-president  and  four  secretaries. 
The  president  commands  all  the  military 
and  naval  forces,  and  exercises  the  whole 
patronage  of  the  government,  nominating 
all  the  civil  and  military  servants  of  the 
state,  officers  of  the  army,  navy  and  treas- 
ury, foreign  ministers,  and  the  vice-presi- 
dent, who  is  to  be  his  successor:  he  is, 
moreover,  without  any  responsibility  for 
the  acts  of  his  administration.  The  judi- 
cial power  is  regulated  so  as  to  secure  the 
due  administration  of  justice;  and  the 
private  rights  of  individuals  are  carefully 
protected  by  suitable  guarantees.  This 
form  of  constitution,  it  is  evident,  would 
give  the  executive  such  preponderating 
power,  that  all  the  measures  of  govern- 
ment would,  in  fact,  be  subject  to  his  will, 
and  he  would  be,  to  all  intents  and  pur- 
poses, the  elective  prince  of  a  monarchy, 
limited  in  theory,  but  absolute  in  opera- 
tion. This  code  was  presented  to  the 
constituent  congi'ess  of  Bolivia,  whicli 
assembled  at  Chuquisaca,  in  May,  182G, 
and  by  that  body  adopted  as  the  constitu- 
tion of  the  repubhc.  The  9th  of  Decem- 
ber, the  anniversaiy  of  the  battle  of  Aya- 
cucho, being  fixed  upon  as  the  period 
when  it  should  be  carried  into  effect,  Su- 
cre resigned  his  discretionary  authority 
into  the  hands  of  congress,  and  solicited 
them  to  appoint  a  native  of  the  country 
to  be  his  successor.     But  they  resolved 


BOLIVIA— BOLOGNA. 


177 


that  he  should  retain  the  executive  power 
until  the  election  of  a  constitutional  pres- 
ident should  take  place.  Sucre  consented 
to  continue  in  office  until  that  time ;  re- 
quiring, however,  that  the  electoral  col- 
leges should  present  a  candidate  for  the 
higli  office  of  president,  previous  to  the 
assembUng  of  the  constitutional  legisla- 
ture. This  resulted  in  the  election  of 
Sucre  as  president  for  life  under  the  con- 
stitution. Whether  the  choice  was  en- 
tirely a  free  one  or  not  is  yet  uncertain. 
A  large  body  of  Colombian  troops  i-e- 
mained  in  Upper  Peru,  under  circum- 
stances analogous  to  the  situation  of  other 
troops  of  the  same  nation  in  Lower  Peru, 
and,  of  course,  atlbrding  like  reason  to  pre- 
sume that  military  influence  may  have 
affected  the  election. — The  gcograpliical 
position  of  B.  being  mostly  inland,  its  po- 
litical condition  is  less  accurately  known 
than  that  of  the  neighboring  countries,  and 
less  an  object  of  general  interest.  In  the 
natural  progress  of  things,  it  would  seem 
likely  to  be  reunited  to  Lower  Peru, 
from  which  it  was  arbitrarily  severed  by 
the  Spanish  government.  But  hitherto 
the  congress  of  the  Rio  de  la  Plata  has 
refijsed  to  recognise  its  independence, 
insisting  that  the  limits  of  tlieir  repubhc 
shall  be  coextensive  with  the  ancient 
boundaries  of  the  viceroyalty  of  Buenos 
Ayres,  and,  of  course,  claiming  the  prov- 
inces of  U{)per  Peru  by  the  same  title 
under  which  they  lay  claim  to  Paraguay 
and  the  Banda  Oriental.  But  it  is  not 
probable,  in  any  event  that  can  be  reason- 
ably anticipated,  that  Bolivia  will  again 
be  joined  to  Buenos  Ayres.  {Const,  of 
Bolivia ;  Amer.  An.  Reg.  vols.  1  and  2.) 

BoLLANDisTs  ;  a  society  of  Jesuits  in 
Antwerp,  which  has  published,  under  the 
title  Acta  Sanctorum  (q.  v.),  the  well- 
known  collection  of  the  traditions  of  the 
saints  of  the  Roman  Catholic  church. 
They  received  this  name  liom  John  Bol- 
land,  who  first  undertook  to  digest  the 
materials  already  accumulated  by  Heri- 
lx;rt  Roswey. 

BoLLMAN,  Erich,  a  man  distinguished 
for  knowledge,  chai'acter  and  enterprise, 
burn  in  1770,  at  Hoya,  in  Hanover,  went, 
in  1792,  to  Paris,  to  practise  as  a  i)hysi- 
cian.  Here  he  saved  count  Narbonne 
from  the  Jacobins.  In  1794,  he  resolved 
to  free  Lafayette  from  his  prison  in  Ol- 
miitz.  By  his  efforts,  and  those  of  Mr. 
Huger,  a  gendeman  belonging  to  the  U. 
States,  Lafayette  was  enabled  to  quit  his 
dungeon,  Nov.  8,  but  was  unfortunately 
retaken  soon  after.  B.  was  cast  into 
prison,  but  after  a  while  set  at  liberty,  and 


banished  from  the  Austrian  dominions. 
He  afterwards  settled  in  the  U.  States, 
and  subsequently  went  to  England. 

BoLOG.NA  [Bononia  Felsinia) ;  one  of 
the  oldest,  largest  and  richest  cities  of 
Italy,  with  colonnades  along  the  sides  of 
the  streets  for  foot-passengers.  It  is  call- 
ed la  grassa  (the  fat) ;  lies  at  the  foot  of 
the  Ai)ennines,  between  the  rivere  Reno 
and  Savena,  and  contains  65,300  inhabit- 
ants and  8000  houses,  with  mainifactories 
of  cordage,  soap,  pa])er,  artiftcial  flowers 
and  arms.  B.  is  the  capital  of  the  papal 
delegation  of  the  same  name  ;  the  secular 
concerns  of  which  are  administered  by  a 
cardinal  legate,  who  resides  here  ;  whilst 
the  archbishop  directs  in  spiritual  affairs. 
A  gonfaloniere,  chosen  every  2  months, 
with  50  senators  and  8  elders  from  the 
citizens,  form  a  republican  government, 
Avhich  has  almost  the  whole  management 
of  the  affairs  of  the  city.  The  people  of 
B.  voluntarily  submitted  to  the  papal  see 
in  151.3,  being  tired  of  the  party  struggles 
among  the  nobles,  by  which  the  strength 
of  the  state  was  exhausted.  B.  has  an 
ambassador  in  Ronic,  whose  duty  it  is 
to  maintain  the  limitations  of  the  papal 
authority,  according  to  the  constitution, 
and  who,  after  every  new  election  of  a 
pope,  presents  complaints  of  the  en- 
croachments of  his  predecessor.  The 
city  chooses,  also,  one  of  the  judges  com- 
}iosing  the  high  court  of  appeals  at 
Rome.  Her  armorial  bearings  are  even 
now  sun'ounded  by  the  charmed  word 
lAbertas.  The  pope,  by  the  constitution, 
can  exact  no  other  tax  than  the  excise  on 
wine.  During  three  centuries,  the  pajjal 
government  endeavored  to  introduce  in 
B.  the  excise  on  corn  {annona),  but  could 
not  succeed.  The  rich  nobility  of  the 
papal  states  live  in  B.,  and  are  on  bad 
terms  with  the  head  of  the  church. — This 
city  is  also  the  residence  of  the  old  Bo- 
lognese  patrician  families,  who  have  given 
many  popes  to  the  church.  The  most 
liberal  men  in  the  papal  dominions  are  to 
be  found  among  the  learned  of  tliis  city. 
In  1816,  the  nobility,  scholars  and  citi- 
zens founded  a  Socratic  society  for  the 
promotion  of  social  happiness,  which  Wiis, 
however,  suspected  of  Carbonarism.  B. 
was  long  renowned  for  its  university, 
founded,  according  to  tradition,  by  Theo- 
dosius  the  younger,  in  425,  which,  in  the 
centuries  of  barbarism,  spread  the  light 
of  knowledge  over  all  Euro[)e.  It  once 
had  10,000  students,  but  the  number  at 
present  is  only  300.  Here  the  famous 
Irnerius  taught  the  civil  law  in  the  11th 
century ;  and  men  like  Bulgerus,  Marti- 


178 


BOLOGNA— BOMB. 


nus,  Jacobus  and  Hugo  attracted  pupils 
from  every  quarter.  The  univei*sity  for- 
merly possessed  so  much  influence,  that 
even  the  coins  of  tlie  city  bore  its  motto, 
Bononia  dotet.  The  law  school  enjoyed 
I  the  greatest  fame.  Its  teachers  had  the 
reputation  of  inculcating  principles  favor- 
able to  despotism,  and  were  coiisequently 
rewarded  by  the  favor  of  the  emperors 
and  of  the  ItaUan  sovereigns.  During 
1400  ycai-s,  eveiy  new  discovery  in  sci- 
ence and  the  ails  found  patrons  here,  and 
tlie  scientific  journals  prove  that  curiosity 
on  these  subjects  is  still  awalce  in  B.  A 
citizen  of  B.,  general  count  Fern.  Mar- 
sigli,  founded,  in  1709,  the  instituto  delle 
scienze^  and  gave  it  a  library  of  almost 
200,000  volumes ;  to  which,  in  1825,  the 
abbate  Mezzofanli,  professor  of  Oriental 
languages,  was  appointed  librarian.  This 
learned  man  speaks  a  large  number  of 
living  languages  correctly  and  fluently 
(for  instance,  German,  in  several  dialects, 
Kussian,  Hungarian,  Walachian,  the  lan- 
guage of  the  Gipsies,  &c.),  without  ever 
having  lefl;  B.  The  foreign  tioops  in  Italy 
gave  him  opportunities  for  leaining  them. 
Coimt  Marsigli  founded  and  endowed, 
also,  an  observatory,  an  anatomical  hall, 
a  botanical  garden,  and  accumulated  val- 
uable collections  for  all  branches  of  sci- 
ence and  ait.  These  are  at  present  con- 
nected with  the  accademia  Clementina 
of  pope  Clement  XI.  In  the  16th  cen- 
tury, the  famous  painters  and  sculptors 
Caiacci,  Guido  Reni,  Domenichino  and 
Albano  founded  a  school,  to  which  their 
works  have  given  great  reputation.  (See 
Pairding.)  There  were,  even  as  eai'ly  as 
the  12th  and  13th  centuries,  great  paint- 
ers in  B.  Francesco,  called  U  Francia, 
was  famous  in  the  loth  century.  The 
chief  place  of  the  city  is  adorned  by  sev- 
eral venerable  buildings :  among  them  are 
the  senate  hall  (which  contains  a  number 
of  excellent  pictures  and  statues,  and  the 
200  folio  volumes  of  the  famous  natural 
philosopher  Ulysses  Aldrovandus,  written 
with  his  own  hand,  as  materials  for  future 
works),  the  palace  of  justice  of  the  podes- 
th,  and  the  cathedral  of  St.  Petronio,  with 
its  unfinished  fi-ont  and  the  meridian  of 
Cassini  drawn  upon  a  copper  plate  in  the 
floor.  Among  the  73  other  churches,  the 
following  are  distinguished  :  S.  Pietro,  S. 
Salvatore,  S.  Domenicho,  S.  Giovanni  in 
Monte,  S.  Giacomo  maggiore,  all  pos- 
sessed of  ricli  treasures  of  art.  The  col- 
lections of  works  of  art  are  numerous : 
tliey  are  part  of  rich  family  fortunes, 
transmitted  in  trust,  and  are  continually 
increased  by  each  generation.    The  gal- 


leries Sampieri  and  Zambeccari  formerly 
excelled  all  others,  but  are  now  sui-jiassed 
by  those  of  Marescalchi  and  Ercolani. 
The  collection  of  the  academy  of  painting, 
endowed,  in  modem  times,  by  the  muni- 
cipality, principally  with  the  treasures  of 
abolished  churches  and  monasteries,  is 
rich,  and  full  of  historical  interest.  The 
admired  fountain  of  the  market  is  defi- 
cient in  nothing  but  water.  It  is  adorned 
witli  a  Neptune  in  bronze,  by  John  of 
Bologna.  The  towere  degli  Asinelli  and 
Garisenda  were  fonnerly  objects  of  ad- 
mu-ation ;  the  former  for  its  slendemess, 
which  gave  it  the  appearance  of  an  Ori- 
ental minaret;  the  latter  for  its  inclination 
from  the  perjiendicular,  which  amounted 
to  14  feet.  It  has  since,  however,  been 
reduced  to  one  third  of  its  former  height, 
from  precaution.  B.  has  always  been 
famous  for  cheap  living,  and  has  been 
chosen  as  a  residence  by  many  hterary 
men.  Gourmands  praise  it  as  the  native 
country  of  excellent  maccaroni,  sausages, 
liquors  and  presened  fruits.  The  schools 
for  training  animals  enjoy,  Ukewise,  some 
reputation.  The  pilgiimage  to  the  Ala- 
donna  di  S.  Lucca,  whose  church  is  situ- 
ated at  the  foot  of  the  Apennines,  half  a 
league  distant  from  B.,  and  to  which  an 
arcade  of  640  arches  leads,  annually  at- 
tracts a  great  number  of  people  from  aU 
parts  of  Italy. 

Bomb  ;  a  large,  hollow,  fron  ball  or 
shell,  formerly  often  made  of  cannon- 
metal,  and  sometimes  of  an  oval  form, 
with  a  hole  in  which  a  wooden  fiise  is 
cemented,  and  with  two  little  handles. 
Bombs  are  thrown  from  mortars.  They 
are  filled  with  powder  and  combustible 
matter  (which  consists  of  equal  parts  of 
sulphur  and  nitre,  mixed  Avith  some 
mealed  powder),  and  are  used  for  setting 
fire  to  houses,  blowing  up  magazines,  &c. 
The  charge  in  bombs  of  74  pounds  con-, 
tains  from  5  to  8  pounds  of  powder,  and 

1  pound  of  tlie  other  composition  above- 
mentioned.  In  bombs  of  10  pounds,  it 
amounts  to  1  pound  of  powder  and  from 

2  to  3  ounces  of  the  mixture.  The  fuse, 
which  is  hollow,  and  filled  with  powder 
and  other  inflammable  ingredients,  sets 
fire  to  the  charge.  The  length  and  the 
composition  of  the  fuse  must  be  calcu- 
lated in  such  a  way  that  the  bomb  shall 
burst  the  moment  it  arrives  at  the  des- 
tined place.  Bomb-shells  are  generally 
cast  somewhat  thicker  at  the  bottom  than 
above,  that  they  may  not  fall  upon  the 
fuse  and  extinguish  the  fire  ;  yet  they  are, 
at  present,  often  cast  of  an  equal  thickness 
in  every  part,  because  it  has  been  found 


^ 


BOMB— BOMBAY. 


179 


that  the  fuse  remains  at  the  top,  nonvith- 
standing. — As  early  as  the  7th  century, 
balls,  filled  with  burning  matter,  Avere 
throAAai  from  vessels  of  clay,  then  from 
machines  called  blydes  or  manges,  or 
with  hand-shngs  made  of  a  small  net  of 
iron  wire.  In  1238,  James  I,  king  of  Ar- 
ragon,  used,  at  the  siege  of  Valencia,  a 
kind  of  large  rockets,  made  of  four  parch- 
ment skins,  which  burst  in  falling.  After- 
wards, large  u-on  balls,  heated  red  hot, 
came  into  use.  In  the  middle  of  the  15th 
century,  prince  Rimini  Sigismund  Pan- 
dulf  Malatesta  invented  mortars  and 
bombs.  They  consisted,  at  first,  of  two 
hollow  hemispheres  of  metal,  filled  with 
j)owder,  and  held  together  by  chains.  By 
degrees,  they  received  their  present  shape. 
An  English  engineer,  Malthus,  whom 
Louis  XIII  took  into  his  service,  intro- 
duced them  into  France,  and  used  them 
first  (1634)  at  the  siege  of  Lamotte,  in 
Lon-aine. — The  grenades,  which  are 
thrown  from  howitzers,  are  easily  distin- 
guished from  the  bombs,  which  are  cast 
from  mortai-3.  The  first  are  used  ojdy  in 
the  field,  the  latter  in  sieges.  The  Prus- 
sian general  von  Tempelhoff  has  in  vain 
attempted  to  bring  10  pound  mortars  into 
the  field. — In  order  to  make  a  wall  bomb- 
proof, it  should  be  three  feet  and  a  half 
thick. 

Bombast,  in  composition  ;  an  attempt, 
by  strained  description,  to  raise  a  low  or 
familiar  subject  beyond  its  rank,  which, 
instead  of  being  sublime,  becomes  ridicu- 
lous. Its  origuial  signification  was,  a  stuff 
of  soft,  loose  texture,  used  to  swell  out 
garments. 

Bombay  ;  a  presidency,  island  and  citv 
in  Biitish  India ;  lat.  18°  56'  N. ;  Ion.  72° 
7'  E.  The  island  was  formerly  subdi- 
vided into  several  smaller  ones,  but  jnany 
thousand  acres,  once  entirely  under  water, 
have  been  recovered,  and  the  two  ranges 
of  hills  which  cross  the  island  have  thus 
been  united  by  a  line  of  fertile  valleys. 
It  is  of  little  importance  as  regards  its 
internal  resources,  but  in  a  commercial 
point  of  view  is  of  great  value.  Its  prox- 
imity to  the  main  land  gives  it  a  facility 
of  communication  with  all  the  different 
points  of  that  long  line  of  coast,  as  well 
as  with  the  shores  of  Persia  and  Arabia. 
The  island  is  easily  defended,  and  the 
rise  of  the  tide  is  sufficient  to  allow  the 
construction  of  docks  on  a  large  scale. 
The  surface  is  either  naked  rock  or  low 
ground  exposed  to  inundation  :  the  quan- 
tity of  grain,  which  it  is  capable  of  pro- 
ducing, is,  therefore,  very  small.  The 
causeway  which  connects  it  with  Sal- 


sette,  an  island  lying  between  B.  and  the 
coast  of  Malabar,  affords,  however,  an  easy 
way  of  introducingprovisions.  When  firet 
known  to  Europeans,  it  was  considered 
a  very  unhealthy  place ;  but  it  has  been 
improved  by  draining  and  embankments. 
The  population,  in  1816,  was  161,550,  of 
whom  104,000  were  Hmdoos,  28,000  Mo- 
hammedans, 11,000  native  Christians,  and 
4300  English.  There  were  also  about 
13,000  Parsees,  who  here  found  an  asy- 
lum from  the  persecutions  of  the  Moham- 
medans, and  are  almost  the  exclusive 
proprietors  of  the  island.  On  a  narrow 
neck  of  land,  near  the  south-eastern  ex- 
tremity of  the  island,  stands  the  city, 
which  is  about  a  mile  in  length  and  a 
quarter  of  a  mile  in  breadth.  It  is  sur- 
rounded by  fortifications,  which  have 
been  gradually  improved,  in  proportion 
to  the  growing  importance  of  the  place. 
It  is  the  seat  of  government  for  the  south- 
western part  of  the  British  possessions  in 
India.  In  front  of  the  fort  is  an  espla- 
nade :  at  the  commencement  of  the  hot 
season,  those  Europeans,  who  are  obliged 
to  have  their  principal  residences  within 
the  fort,  erect  bungalows  on  this  spot, 
which  are,  many  of  them,  elegant  build- 
ings, but  unfit  to  resist  the  violence  of 
the  monsoons.  As  soon  as  the  rains  be- 
gin, they  are  taken  down,  and  preserved 
for  another  year.  There  are  three  gov- 
ernment residencies  m  the  island.  Tlie 
one  within  the  fort  is  used  principally  for 
holding  councils,  and  for  despatching 
business.  It  is  a  spacious,  dismal-looking 
building,  like  many  of  the  other  large 
liouses  in  B.  The  European  society  here 
is  neither  so  numerous  nor  so  expensive 
as  that  in  the  other  presidencies ;  but,  if 
not  rivals  in  splendor,  they  are  quite  equal 
in  comfort  and  hospitality  to  their  coun- 
trj^men  in  Calcutta  or  Madi-as. — As  tliis 
place  is  the  emporium  of  all  the  north- 
western coast  of  the  peninsula,  and  of  the 
Persian  and  Arabian  gulfs,  its  trade  is 
very  considerable.  To  China  it  sends  a 
large  quantity  of  cotton.  Pepper,  sandal- 
wood, gums,  drugs,  pearls,  ivory,  gems, 
sharks'  fins,  edible  birds'  nests,  form  the 
remainder  of  the  cargoes  for  Canton. 
Hemp,  coffee,  bai'illa,  manufactured  goods 
from  Surat,  and  other  articles,  are  sent  to 
Europe.  The  trade  to  America  is  incon- 
siderable.— The  company's  marine  estab- 
lishment consists  of  18  cruisers,  besides 
boats:  the  military  and  marine  corps 
amount  to  less  than  3000  men.  Besides 
the  governor  and  comicil,  stationed  at  the 
citj',  there  are  magistrates  and  commer- 
cid  residents  in  tlie  chief  towns  of  the 


180 


BOMBAY— BONAPARTE. 


different  provinces  subject  to  tlieir  gov- 
ernment. There  is  one  supreme  court 
of  judicature,  held  under  a  single  judge, 
called  the  recorder. — Suice  1814,  B.  has 
been  a  station  of  the  American  board  of 
commissionei-s  for  foreign  missions,  and, 
in  1828,  they  had  4  missionaries  and  a 
printing  press  emploj-ed  here  and  in  the 
vichiity ;  with  16  schools  for  boys,  con- 
taining 1049  pupils,  and  10  for  girls,  con- 
taining 577. — B.  was  obtained  by  the  Por- 
tuguese, in  1530,  from  an  Indian  chief  at 
Salsette ;  by  them  it  was  ceded  to  Great 
Britain,  in  1661,  and,  ui  1668,  it  was 
transferred,  by  tlie  king,  to  the  East  India 
company.  From  the  commencement  of 
the  last  century,  it  has  gradually  increased 
in  imiwrtance,  and  has  now  attained  a 
high  degree  of  prosperity.  It  is  difficult 
to  fix,  with  precision,  the  extent  of  the 
ten-itories  included  within  the  presidency 
of  B.,  as  some  districts  belonging  to  the 
native  powers  are  uitermingled  widi 
them.  They  may  be  calculated  at  about 
10,000  square  miles,  with  a  population  of 
2,500,000. 

BoMBELLEs,  Louis,  marquis  de;  bom 
1780,  at  Ratisbon,  where  his  father  was 
French  ambassador  at  the  diet.  His 
mother  had  been  governess  in  the  royal 
family  {des  enfans  de  France),  and  an  in- 
timate friend  of  the  virtuous  Elizabeth, 
sister  of  Louis  XVI.  The  son  inherited 
a  feeling  of  devotion  for  the  family  of 
Bourbon.  Under  the  protection  of  prince 
Metternich,  he  was  sent,  in  a  diplomatic 
capacity,  to  Berlin,  and  when,  m  1813, 
the  king  letl  this  city  to  declare  himself 
against  Napoleon,  he  carried  the  archives 
of  the  Austrian  embassy,  in  tlie  absence 
of  the  ambassador,  to  Silesia.  In  1814, 
at  the  entry  of  the  allies  into  Paris,  he 
was  appointed,  by  the  emperor  of  Austria, 
to  carry  to  the  count  of  Artois  the  white 
cockade,  and  was  repeatedly  sent  to  Den- 
mark. In  1816,  he  went  to  Dresden,  as 
Austrian  ambassador,  and  mamed  Ida 
Brun,  the  daughter  of  the  poetess  of  this 
name.  Since  1821,  he  has  been  Austiiau 
ambassador  in  Florence,  Modena  and 
Lucca. 

Bomb-Ketch  ;  a  vessel  built  for  the 
use  of  mortai-s  at  sea,  and  furnished  with 
all  the  apparatus  necessary  for  a  vigor- 
ous bombardment.  Bomb-ketches  are 
built  remarkably  strong,  to  sustain  the  vi- 
olent shock  produced  by  the  discharge 
of  the  mortars.  The  modern  bomb-ves- 
sels generally  carry  two  10  inch  mortai-s, 
four  68  pounders,  and  six  18  pound  car- 
ronades ;  and  the  mortars  may  be  fii-ed  at 
as  low  an  angle  as  20  degrees }  their 


principal  purpose,  at  these  low  angles, 
being  to  cover  the  landing  of  troops,  and 
j)rotect  the  coast  and  harboi-s.  A  bomb- 
ketch  is  generally  from  60  to  70  feet  long, 
from  stem  to  stem,  and  chaws  8  or  9  feet 
of  water,  carrjing  2  masts,  and  is  usually 
of  100  to  150  tons  burden.  The  tender  is 
generally  a  brig,  on  board  of  which  t})e 
party  of  artillerj'  remain  till  their  sen'ices 
are  required  on  board  the  bomb-vessels. 

Bo>A  (the  Aphrodisium  of  Ptolemy) ;  a 
seaport  of  Algiei-s,  66  miles  N.  N.  E.  Con- 
stantina ;  Ion.  7°  36'  E. ;  lat.  36°  32'  N. 
Pop.  8000.  This  town  is  built  above  a  mile 
south  of  the  ancient  Hippo,  or  Ilippona. 
The  harbor,  which  is  situated  to  the  east 
of  the  town,  is  capacious,  and  a  considera- 
ble trade  is  canned  on  here  in  corn,  wool, 
hides  and  wax.  The  situation  is  good,  be- 
ing near  the  mouth  of  the  Seibouse,  and, 
with  proper  care,  it  might  be  made  one  of 
the  most  flourishing  to\vns  in  Barbary. 

Bona  Dea  ;  a  name  given  to  Ops,  Ves- 
ta, Cybele,  Rhea,  by  the  Greeks,  and  by 
the  Latins  to  Fauna  or  Fatua.  She  was 
so  chaste  that  no  man  saw  her,  after  her 
marriage,  but  her  husband ;  for  which 
reason,  her  festivals  were  celebrated  by 
night,  in  private  houses,  and  all  statues  of 
men  were  veiled  during  the  ceremony. 

BojfALD,  Louis  Gabriel  Ambroise,  \\s- 
count  de,  member  of  the  French  cham- 
ber of  deputies,  is  one  of  the  first  speakers 
of  the  ultramontanist  party.  He  emigrat- 
ed in  1791,  and  wrote,  in  Heidelberg,  af- 
ter the  dissolution  of  the  corps  of  the 
emigi'ants,  in  which  he  had  served,  his 
well-known  Theorie  du  Pouvoir,  politique 
et  rdigieitx  (3  vols.  1796).  The  charac- 
ter of  this,  and  of  his  later  poUtical  writ- 
ings, is  that  of  metaphysical  abstraction, 
which  is  by  no  means  popular  among  the 
French.  After  he  returned  to  France,  he 
succeeded  in  insinuating  himself  into  the 
favor  of  Napoleon  and  of  his  brothers. 
The  emperor  made  him  a  counsellor  at 
the  imiversity,  with  a  salaiy  of  10,000 
francs.  Louis  proposed  to  him  to  under- 
take the  education  of  his  son,  then  crown- 
prince  of  Holland,  but  B.  declined  the 
offer.  He  was  closely  connected  with 
Chateaubriand,  and  assisted  in  the  editing 
of  the  Mercure  de  France.  After  the  res- 
toration of  the  Bourbons,  he  was  cliosen, 
in  1815,  member  of  the  chamber  of  depu- 
ties. He  voted,  in  this  chambre  introuva- 
ble  (q.  v.),  with  the  majority.  In  1816, 
he  was  admitted  into  the  French  acade- 
my. His  most  important  work  is  the 
Legislation  primitive  (3  vols.  1802). 

Bonaparte  is  the  name  of  an  ancient 
Italian  family,  which,  Louis  Bonaparte 


BONAPARTE— BONAVENTURA. 


181 


says,  in  his  Documens  historiqiies  sur  le 
Gowvememait  de  la  HoUande,  was  settled 
hi  Ti'eviso  as  early  as  1272,  when  a  Nar- 
diiius  Bonaparte  gained  renown  as  podes- 
th  of  Parma  and  knight  of  St.  3Iaria  or 
Gaudentius.  An  author  of  this  name, 
James  Bonaparte,  a  Tuscan  nobleman, 
who  lived  about  1527,  remarks  that  his 
family  held  important  offices  in  the  re- 
public of  San  Miniato,  in  the  Tuscan 
territory',  and  had  been  disthiguished  in 
the  wars  of  Florence.  A  branch  of  it 
existed  at  Sarzana,  in  tlie  Genoese  do- 
minions, and,  during  the  contests  of  the 
Guelphs  and  Ghibellines,  settled  at  Ajac- 
cio,  in  Corsica.  From  this  branch  sprung 
the  fatlier  of  Napoleon,  Charles  Bona- 
parte, who  at  first  fought  with  Paoli  for 
the  independence  of  Corsica,  and  in  com- 
pany with  him  left  the  island,  but  eventu- 
ally returned,  at  the  invitation  of  Louis 
XV.  In  1776,  Corsica  chose  him  one  of 
the  deputies  of  the  nobility  who  were  to 
be  sent  to  the  king  of  France.  Before 
the  French  revolution,  he  wrote  his  name 
di  Bonaparte.  On  account  of  his  health, 
he  subsequently  retired  to  Mont[)eUier, 
where  he  died  in  1785, 40  years  old. — His 
wife,  the  beautiful  JMaria  Letitia,  bom  at 
Ajaccio,  Aug.  34,  17.50,  was  descended 
from  the  house  of  Ramolini,  which  was 
of  Itahan  origin.  She  bore  him  the  fol- 
lowing children,  whose  names  arc  cited 
in  the  order  of  birth  : — Giuseppe,  Napo- 
lione,  Luciano,  Luigi,  Mariana,  Carletta, 
Annunziada  and  Girolamo.  Left  a  young 
widow,  destitute  of  property,  she  sought 
and  obtained  friends  among  the  powerful. 
Her  acquaintance  with  the  count  of  Mar- 
boeuf  was  the  foundation  of  the  fortune 
of  her  family.  The  Corsicans  maintained 
that  they  were  all  nobles,  and  refused, 
theretbre,  to  pay  taxes.  Louis  XV,  in 
consequence,  commanded  the  governor 
to  select  400  famihes,  who  were  alone  to 
be  considered  as  noble.  In  this  list 
Marboeuf  inserted  the  Bonapartes.  When 
the  English  conquered  Corsica,  in  1793, 
madame  Letitia,  whose  second  husband 
was  captain  Francis  Fesch,  of  Bale  (see 
Fesch,  Joseph,  cardinal),  fled,  with  her 
daughters,  to  Mai-seilles.  Soon  after  the 
18th  Brumau-e  (9th  November),  1799,  she 
went  to  Pai-is;  but  not  till  after  Napo- 
leon's elevation  to  the  imperial  dignity, 
was  homage  paid  to  madame  Mere,  who, 
in  pronunciation  and  language,  was  half 
Itahan,  half  French.  She  maintained  a 
separate  household,  and  was  appointed, 
by  Napoleon,  protedrice  generate  des  etab- 
lissemejis  de  chariU.  Her  benevolence,  at 
this  period,  was  much  praised.  Some 
vol,.  II.  16 


persons,  however,  deemed  her  avaricious. 
She  was  not  dazzled  by  the  greatness 
which  surrounded  her.  Of  her  children, 
she  entertained  the  greatest  affection  for 
Louis,  the  ex-king  of  Holland.  In 
1814,  she  went  to  live  at  Rome,  with  her 
brother-in-law,  cardinal  Fesch.  Napole- 
on seems  to  have  always  had  much  affec- 
tion for  her.  She  died  at  Marseilles  in 
the  year  1822. — By  the  treaty  of  Paris,  of 
Nov.  20,  1815,  the  whole  family  of  Bona- 
parte was  banished  from  France ;  and,  in 
the  edict  of  amnesty  issued  by  Louis 
XVIII,  Jan.  6,  1816,  all  Napoleon  Bona- 
parte's relations  were  excepted.  They 
were  to  remain  in  banishment,  hold  no 
possessions  in  France,  and  dispose  of 
all  their  property  there  within  six  months. 
The  royal  ordinance  of  May  22,  1816,  de- 
creed, that  the  property  and  income  of 
the  members  of  the  Bonaparte  family  who 
had  come  back  on  Napoleon's  return 
from  Elba,  which  had  been  confiscated 
b}'  the  law  of  Jan.  12,  1816,  should  be 
appropriated  to  the  support  of  meritorious 
soldiers  and  such  donees  as  had  lost  their 
donations  in  foreign  countries. — For  ac- 
counts of  Joseph,  JVdpoleon,  Lucien,  Louis 
and  Jerome  Bonaparte,  see  these  heads ; 
for  information  respectmg  Mariana,  after- 
wards called  Eli^a,  we  refer  the  reader  to 
the  article  Bacciochi;  respecting  Carletta, 
aftenvards  called  Marie  Paidine,  to  the 
article  Borghese ;  respecting  Annunziuda, 
afterwards  called  Annonciade  Caroline,  to 
the  article  Murat.  See,  moreover,  Fesch, 
Eugene  (whose  sister,  HoHensia,  is  men- 
tioned ui  the  article  Louis  Bonaparte), 
and  Mana  Louisa  [Leopoldine  Caroline). 
— The  members  of  the  family  of  Napo- 
leon live  retired  and  much  resi)ected, 
manifcslmg  great  taste  for  the  fine  arts 
and  the  sciences.  Almost  all  have  ap- 
peared as  authors,  with  more  or  less  suc- 
cess, as  will  be  seen  under  the  different 
heads. 

BoNAVENTURA,  John  of  Fidanza ;  one 
of  the  most  renowned  scholastic  philoso- 
phers ;  born,  1221j  in  Tuscany ;  became,  m 
1243,  a  Franciscan  monk ;  in  1255,  teacher 
of  theology  at  Paris,  where  he  had  studied ; 
in  1256,  general  of  his  order,  which  h» 
ruled  with  a  prudent  mixture  of  gentle- 
ness, and  firmness.  He  died  in  1274,  at 
the  age  of  53.  At  this  time,  he  was  a 
cardinal  and  papal  legate  at  the  council 
of  Lyons.  His  death  was  hastened  by 
his  ascetic  severities.  On  account  of  his 
blameless  conduct  from  his  earliest  youth, 
and  of  some  miracles  ascribed  to  him,  he 
enjoyed,  during  his  life,  the  greatest  ven- 
eration, and  was  canonized  by  pope  Six- 


182 


BONA  VENTURA— BONE. 


tus  IV.  The  elevation  of  thought  in  his 
writings,  and  hisdignitj^  as  general  of  the 
Seraphic  order,  procured  him  the  name 
doctor  Seraphicus.  The  Franciscans  op- 
posed him  as  their  hero  to  the  Dominican 
scholastic  Thomas  Aquinas.  He  wrote 
for  the  honor  and  improvement  of  his 
order,  for  the  promotion  of  the  worship 
of  the  virgin,  on  celibacy,  transubstantia- 
tion  and  other  doctrines.  He  is  frequent- 
ly obscure  by  his  attempts  to  support  the 
creed  of  the  church  with  arguments 
drawn  from  the  Aristotelian  and  new 
Platonic  philosophy,  and  by  his  mystical 
views  in  treating  of  the  moral  and  intel- 
lectual perfection  of  the  human  character. 
Yet  he  is  distinguished  from  other  scho- 
lastics by  perspicuity,  avoidance  of  use- 
less subtleties,  and  greater  wai-jnth  of 
religious  feeling.  Amon^  his  writings 
are,  Rinerarium  Mentis  in  Deiim;  Re- 
ductio  Arlium  in  Theologiam ;  Centiloqui- 
um,  and  Breviloquium.  The  whole  was 
published  1588 — ^96,  at  Rome,  7  vols,  folio. 
But  many  pieces  in  that  collection  are  not 
genuine. 

Bond,  in  law,  is  a  deed  whereby  the 
party  obliges  himself^  his  executors  or 
administrators(and,  if  thedeed  so  express 
it,  his  heirs  also),  to  pay  a  certain  sum  of 
money  to  another  at  a  day  appointed. 
If  this  be  all,  the  bond  is  called  a  simple 
one  {simplex  obligatio).  But  there  is 
generally  a  condition  added,  that,  if  the 
obligor  does  some  particular  act,  the  obli- 
gation shall  be  void,  or  else  shall  remain 
in  full  force ;  as  payment  of  rent,  per- 
formance of  covenants  in  a  deed,  or  re- 
payment of  a  principal  sum  of  money 
borrowed  of  the  obligee,  with  interest ; 
which  principal  suni  is  usually  one  half 
of  the  penal  sum  specified  in  the  bond. 
In  case  this  condition  is  not  performed, 
the  bond  becomes  forfeited,  or  absolute  at 
law,  and  charges  the  obligor  while  living, 
and,  after  his  death,  his  personal  repre- 
sentatives, and  his  heirs,  if  the  heirs  be 
named  in  the  bond.  In  case  of  a  failure 
to  perform  the  condition  of  the  bond,  the 
obligee  can  recover  only  his  principal, 
interest  and  expenses,  if  the  bond  yveve 
given  to  secure  the  payment  of  money, 
or,  if  it  were  given  to  secure  the  per- 
formance of  a  covenant,  he  can  recover 
only  reasonable  damages  for  the  breach. 

Bondage.    (See  Villenage.) 

BoNDi,  Cleniente,  abbate,  one  of  the 
most  esteemed  modern  poets  of  Italy, 
bom  at  Mantua,  or,  according  to  some 
accounts,  at  Parma,  entered  the  order  of 
the  Jesuits  a  few  years  before  its  abolition. 
After  his  talents  became  known  to  the 


archduke  Ferduiand,  governor  of  Milan, 
and  his  lady,  Maria  Beatrice  of  Este,  a 
princess  worthy  of  that  name,  which  has 
been  immortalized  by  Ariosto  and  Tasso, 
he  was  appointed  tutor  of  their  children, 
and  appeared  successively  as  a  lyric,  de- 
scriptive, satirical  and  elegiac  poet ;  often, 
also,  as  a  poetical  translator.  By  the  ele* 
gance,  flow  and  harmony  of  his  vei-sifi- 
cation,  and  by  the  nobleness  of  his  style, 
disfigured  neither  by  extravagance  nor 
by  affectation,  he  became  a  favorite  in 
Italy.  We  possess  all  the  poetry  of  B. 
in  an  elegant  edition  (1808,  .3  vols,  by 
Degen,  Vienna).  The  first  volume  con- 
tains tiie  longer  poems,  La  Conversazione ; 
La  Fclicita ;  II  Govenio  Pacifico ;  La 
Moda,  and  La  Giomata  VUlereccia.  The 
second  and  third  contain  sonnets,  epistles, 
elegies,  canzoni,  cantatas,  and  other  small 
poems.  The  third  concludes  witli  the 
translation  of  Virgil's  Georgics. 

BoNDY,  Taillepied,  count  of;  bom  at 
Paris,  17C6,  of  an  ancient  family.  In 
1792,  he  was  made  director  of  the  manu- 
factoiy  of  assjgnats.  August  10th  of  this 
year,  he  retired  from  jjublic  ofiice  until 
1805,  when  Napoleon  made  him  a  cham- 
berlain, and  afterwards  prefect  of  the  de- 
partment of  the  Rhone,  where  he  con- 
ducted with  mildness,  and  promoted  the 
public  works  in  his  district.  In  1812,  he 
was  very  usefid  to  Lyons  by  his  care  to 
prevent  a  scarcity  of  food  in  the  city. 
In  1814,  he  maintained  the  city  for  a  long 
time  against  the  allies.  In  1815,  he  was 
appointed,  by  Napoleon,  prefect  of  the 
Seine,  with  a  vote  in  the  council  of  state. 
Here  he  spoke,  usually,  with  great  finnk- 
ness  to  Napoleon,  on  the  necessity  of  a 
constitutional  system  of  govemment.  July 
3d,  1815,  he  was  one  of  tlie  three  com- 
missioners of  the  govennnent  for  conclud- 
ing with  the  generals  of  the  allies  the 
terms  for  the  surrender  of  the  capital. 
In  1816  and  18,  he  was  deputy  for  the 
department  of  the  Indre,  and  advocated 
the  principles  of  the  left  side. 

Bone.  The  bones  are  the  hardest  and 
most  sohd  parts  of  animals ;  they  consti- 
tute the  frame,  serve  as  points  of  attach- 
ment to  the  muscles,  and  afford  support 
to  the  softer  solids.  They  are  the  instru- 
ments, as  muscles  are  the  organs,  of  mo- 
tion.— In  tlie  mammalia,  birds,  fish  and 
reptiles,  the  whole  system  of  bones  unit- 
ed by  the  vertebral  column  is  called  the 
skeleton. — In  the  foetus,  they  are  first  a 
vascular,  gelatinous  substance,  in  diflferent 
points  of  which  earthy  matter  is  gradual- 
ly deposited.  This  process  is  perceptible 
towards  the  end  of  the  second  month, 


BONE— BONIFACE. 


18& 


and,  at  the  time  of  maturity,  the  bone  is 
completely  formed.  After  birth,  the  bones 
become  gradually  more  solid,  and,  in  the 
temperate  zones,  reach  their  perfection  in 
men  between  the  ages  of  15  and  20. 
From  this  age  till  50,  they  change  but 
slightly;  after  that  period,  they  grow 
thinner,  lighter,  and  more  brittle.  Those 
of  the  two  fii-st  classes  of  animals  are 
harder  on  their  exterior  than  they  are  in- 
ternally. Their  material,  except  in  the 
teeth,  is  nearly  the  same  throughout. 
Their  structure  is  Avascular,  and  they  are 
traversed  by  the  blood-vessels  and  the  ab- 
sorbents. They  are  hardest  at  the  surface, 
which  is  formed  by  a  firm  membrane, 
called  the  periosteum ;  the  hiternal  parts 
are  cellular,  containing  a  substance  called 
marrow.  The  use  of  the  maiTow  is  to 
prevent  the  too  great  dryness  and  brittle- 
nessof  the  bones. — Chemistry  decomposes 
bone  into  gelatin,  fat,  cartilage  and  earthy 
salts.  A  fresh  bone  boiled  in  water,  or 
exposed  to  the  action  of  an  acid,  gives  out 
its  gelatin  ;  if  boiled  in  water,  on  cooling 
the  decoction,  a  jelly  is  formed,  which 
makes  a  good  portable  soup.  A  pound 
of  bone  yields  twice  as  much  as  the  same 
quantity  of  flesh.  The  earth  of  bones  is 
ol»tained  by  calcination ;  that  is,  by  ex- 
I)osing  them  to  a  red  heat,  by  which  they 
are  deprived  of  the  soft  substances. — Tliat 
part  of  anatomy  which  treats  of  the  boiies 
is  called  osteology. 

Boner,  Ulrich,  the  most  ancient  Ger- 
man fabulist,  was  a  Dominican  friar  at 
Berne,  in  the  first  half  of  the  14th  centu- 
ry. He  lived  when  the  age  of  minstrelsy 
and  chivalrous  poetry  was  in  its  decline, 
and  has  published  a  collection  of  fables, 
under  the  title  Der  Eddstdn  (The  Gem), 
which  is  distinguished  by  purity  of  lan- 
guage and  picturesque  simplicity  of  de- 
scription. The  first  editions  of  these 
fables  were  by  Bodmer  and  Eschen- 
burg.  Benecke  in  Gottingen  has  pubUsh- 
ed  a  very  good  edition  more  recently,  and 
added  a  vocabulary  (Berlin,  1816). 

BoNESET.  The  herb  known  by  the 
name  of  bonesct  or  thoroughwort  [etipato- 
rium  perfoliatum)  is  a  veiy  uselVil  annual 
plant,  indigenous  to  the  United  States.  It 
is  easily  distinguished,  in  the  autumn,  in 
marshy  grounds,  by  its  tall  stem,  four  or 
five  feet  in  height,  passing  through  the 
middle  of  a  large,  double,  hairy  leaf,  which 
is  perforated  by  the  stalk,  and  surmounted 
by  a  broad,  flat  head  of  light-pur|)le 
flowers. — It  is  much  used  as  a  medicine, 
throughout  the  country,  in  the  form  of  an 
infusion  of  the  heads  of  the  flowers,  and 
part  of  the   remainder  of  the  plant,  in 


boiling  water,  which  is  allowed  to  stand 
a  few  minutes  upon  the  fire.  It  is  one 
of  the  best  domestic  articles  for  breaking 
up  and  throwing  oflT  a  violent  cold,  for 
which  purpose,  from  a  half  pint  to  a  pint 
of  the  above  infusion  may  be  drank  cold, 
at  bed-time,  which  will  be  found  to  purge 
by  morning ;  or  it  may  be  taken  warni 
before  eating,  in  the  morning,  when  it 
will  generally  operate  as  an  emetic  and 
purgative.  Smaller  quantities  of  the  in- 
fusion, taken  warm  through  the  day,  in 
bed,  and  in  combination  with  other  med- 
icines, will  be  found  highly  serviceable  in 
rheumatism  and  rheumatic  fevei-s.  As  a 
safe  and  valuable  family  medicine,  it  can- 
not be  too  highly  recommended. 

Boniface  ;  the  name  of  several  popes. 
B.  I,  elected,  418,  by  a  party  of  the  clergy, 
and  confirmed  by  the  emperor  Honorius, 
who  declared  the  antipope  Eulalius  a 
usurper.  B.  persecuted  the  Pelagians, 
and  extended  his  authority  by  prudent 
measures.  A  decree  of  the  emperor  The- 
odosius  deprived  him,  in  421,  of  the 
spiritual  sovereignty  over  Eastern  Illyria. 
He  died  422.  His  history  proves  the 
Roman  bishop  to  have  been,  in  his  time, 
dependent  on  the  secular  power. — B.  II, 
elected  530.  The  death  of  his  rival,  the 
antipope  Dioscorus,  a  few  days  after  his 
election,  left  him  in  quiet  possession  of 
the  papal  chair.  He  acknowledged  the 
supremacy  of  the  secular  sovereign,  in  a 
council  held  at  Rome. — B.  Ill,  chosen 
607,  died  nine  months  after  his  election. 
— B.  IV,  elected  608.  He  consecrated  the 
Pantheon  (q.  v.)  to  the  virgin  and  all  the 
saints. — B.  V,  a  Neapolitan,  was  pope  from 
619  to  625.  He  confirmed  the  inviola- 
bility of  the  asylums,  and  endeavored  to 
diffiise  Christianity  among  the  English. 
— B.  VI,  a  Roman,  elected  896,  died  of 
the  gout  a  fortnight  after. — B.  VII,  anti- 
pope,  elected  974,  during  the  lifetime  of 
Benedict  VI,  whose  death  he  was  sus- 
pected of  having  caused.  Expelled  from 
Rome,  he  returned  on  the  death  of  Bencr 
diet  VII,  and  found  the  chair  occupied 
by  John  XIV,  whom  he  deposed  and 
threw  into  prison,  where  he  allowed  him 
to  die  of  hunger.  B.  died  11  months  af- 
ter his  return. — B.  VIII,  see  the  article. — 
B.  IX,  Pietro  Tomacelli  of  Naples,  suc- 
ceeded Urban  VI  at  Rome,  during  the 
schism  in  the  church,  while  Clement  VII 
resided  at  Avignon.  He  was  disthiguish- 
ed  for  the  beauty  of  his  person,  and  the 
elegance  of  his  manners,  rather  than  for 
a  profound  knowledge  of  theology  and 
canon  law.  Even  tlie  counsel  of  his  ex- 
perienced cardinals  could  not  save  him 


184 


BONIFACE. 


from  the  commission  of  gi-oss  blunders. 
He  was  more  skilled  in  the  arts  of  siiuony 
and  extortion.  He  sold  the  same  bene- 
fice repeatedly,  established  the  annates  in 
1372,  and  lavished  the  treasures  thus  pro- 
cured on  his  relations,  or  in  costly  edi- 
fices ;  the  fortification  of  the  castle  of  St. 
Angelo,  for  instance,  and  the  capitol. — 
He  supported  the  pretensions  of  Ladis- 
laus  to  the  thi-one  of  Naples,  and,  during 
the  greatest  part  of  his  pontificate,  was 
engaged  in  negotiations  with  his  rivals 
at  Avignon,  Clement  VII  and  Benedict 
XIII.    He  died  iu  1404. 

Bo:mface  VIII,  Benedict  Cajetan ;  bom 
at  Anagni,  of  an  ancient  Catalonian  fami- 
ly; elected  pope  Dec.  24th,  1294.  He 
received  a  careful  education,  studied  ju- 
rispi'udence,  was  a  canon  at  Paris  and 
Lyons,  advocate  of  the  consistory,  and 
prothonotary  of  the  pope  at  Rome.  After 
Martin  IV  had  elevated  him  to  the  dignity 
of  a  cardinal  (1251),  he  went  as  legate  to 
Sicily  and  Portugal,  and  was  intrusted 
with  embassies  at  several  courts ;  in  par- 
ticular, with  the  charge  of  reconciling  the 
king  of  Sicily  with  Alphonso  of  Arragon, 
and  Philip  the  Fair  with  Edward  I  of 
England.  After  Ccelestine  V  had  resigned 
the  papal  dignity,  at  Naples,  in  1294,  at 
the  instigation  of  B.,  the  latter  was  chosen 
pope.  He  met  with  opposition  from  the 
cardinals  of  the  family  Colonna,  and  re- 
venged himselfljy  excommunicating  them. 
His  induction  w£is  magnificent.  The 
kings  of  Hungary  and  Sicily  held  his 
bridle  on  his  way  to  the  Lateran,  and 
served  him,  at  table,  with  their  crowns  on 
their  heads.  B.,  however,  was  not  suc- 
cessful in  his  first  efibrts  for  the  increase 
of  his  power.  The  sovereignty  of  Sicily 
was  denied  him,  and  Frederic  II  was 
croAvned  king  there  in  spite  of  his  excom- 
munication. He  was  equally  unsuccess- 
ful in  his  attempt  to  arbitrate  between 
England  and  France.  The  bulls  which 
he  issued,  at  this  time,  against  king  Philip 
the  Fair  of  Fi-ance,  obtained  no  considera- 
tion. This  was  also  the  case  with  the 
interdict  which  he  pronounced  against 
him  at  the  council  of  Rome,  in  1302. 
Supported  by  the  states  and  the  clergy 
of  France,  Phihp  defended  his  royal  rights 
against  tlie  encroachments  of  the  i)ope. 
The  pope  was  accused  of  dupUcity,  of 
simony,  of  usurpation,  of  heresy,  of  uii- 
chastity ;  and  it  was  resolved  to  condemn 
and  depose  him  at  a  general  council  at 
Lyons.  Philip  went  still  fiirtlier :  he  sent 
Nogaret  to  Italy,  in  order  to  seize  his 
person,  and  bring  him  to  Lyons.  Nogaret 
united  himself,  for  this  purpose,  witli  Sci- 


arra  Colonna,  who,  with  his  whole  fami* 
ly,  had  been  oppressed  by  B.,  and  was, 
in  consequence,  his  enemy.  B.  fled  to 
Ajiagni,  where  Nogaret  and  Colonna  sur- 
prised him.  B.,  on  this  occasion,  acted 
with  s])irit.  "  Since  I  am  betrayed,"  said 
he,  "  as  Jesus  Christ  was  betrayed,  I  will 
die  at  least  as  a  pope."  He  assumed  the 
pontifical  robes  and  the  tiara,  took  the 
keys  and  the  cross  in  his  hand,  and  seated 
himself  in  the  papal  chair.  But  the  insig- 
nia of  his  holy  office  did  not  save  him 
from  aiTesL  Nay,  Colonna  went  so  far 
as  to  use  personal  violence.  B.  remained 
in  a  disagreeable  confinement  for  two 
days,  when  the  Anagnese  took  uj)  arms, 
and  dehvered  him.  After  this,  he  depart- 
ed to  Rome,  where  he  died,  a  month  later, 
in  1303.  From  fear  of  ])oison,  he  had 
not  taken  any  food  during  his  captivity. 
This  abstinence  brought  on  a  fever,  which 
terminated  fatally.  Boldness  in  his  views, 
and  perseverance  in  his  resolutions,  can- 
not be  denied  to  B. ;  but  these  qualities 
were  stained  by  ambition,  vanity,  a  spirit 
of  revenge,  and  a  mean  pliabiUty.  Dante 
assigns  to  him,  as  guilty  of  simony,  a 
place  in  hell,  between  Nicholas  III  and 
Clement  V. .  B.  founded,  in  1300,  the  cen- 
tennial jubilee,  and  enriched  his  treasury 
by  the  frequent  sale  of  indulgences.  He 
was  an  accompUshed  man,  for  the  times 
in  which  he  lived. 

Boniface,  St. ;  the  apostle  of  Grermany, 
who  first  preached  Christianity,  and  spread 
civilization  among  the  Germans.  He  was 
bom  in  England  (680),  and  his  original 
name  was  Winfrid.  In  his  30th  year,  he 
was  consecrated  a  priest.  A  great  part 
of  Europe,  at  this  period,  was  inhabited 
by  heathens,  and  several  missionaries  set 
out  from  England  to  convert  them.  Gal-' 
lus,  in  614,  went  to  Allemania ;  Emme- 
ran,  who  died  652,  to  Bavaria;  Kilian, 
who  died  689,  to  Franconia ;  Willibrord, 
who  died  696,  to  Friesland;  Sigfrid  to 
Sweden  ;  Swidvert  to  Friesland.  In  716, 
B.  conceived  the  plan  of  preaching  Chris- 
tianity among  the  Frieslanders ;  but  was 
preverrted  by  the  war  between  Charles 
Martel  and  the  king  of  Friesland,  Rad- 
bod.  He  therefore  returned  to  England, 
where  he  was  chosen  abbot.  In  718,  he 
went  to  Rome,  where  Gregory  'II  au- 
thorized him  to  preach  the  gospel  to  all 
the  nations  of  Gennany.  He  commenced 
his  labors  in  Thuringia  and  Bavaria^ 
passed  three  years  in  Friesland,  and  jour- 
neyed through  Hesse  in  Saxony,  baptiz- 
ing every  where,  and  converting  the  pa- 
gan temples  to  Christian  churches.  In 
723,  he  was  invited  to  Rome,  made  a 


ST.  BONIFACE— BONN. 


185 


biahop,  by  Gregory  II,  and  recommended 
to  Charles  Martel  and  all  princes  and 
bishops.  His  name  Winfrid  he  changed 
to  B.  In  724,  he  destroyed  the  oak  sa- 
cred to  Thor,  near  Geismar,  in  Hesse, 
founded  churches  and  monasteries,  invit- 
ed from  England  priests,  monks  and  nuns, 
and  sent  them  to  Saxony,  Friesland  and 
Bavaria.  In  732,  Gregory  III  made  him 
archbishop  and  primate  of  all  Germany, 
and  authorized  him  to  establish  bisliop- 
rics,  the  only  existing  bishopric  being 
the  one  at  Passau.  He  founded  those  of 
Freisingen,  Ratisbon,  Erfurt,  Barabourg 
(transferred  afterwards  to  Paderborn), 
Wiirtzburg  and  Aichstadt.  In  739,  he 
restored  the  episcopal  see  of  St  Rupert, 
at  Salzburg.  After  the  death  of  Charles 
Martel,  he  consecrated  Pepin  the  Short 
king  of  the  Franks,  in  Soissons,  by  whom 
he  was  made  bishop  of  Mentz.  He  held 
eight  ecclesiastical  councils  in  Germany, 
founded  the  famous  abbey  of  Fulda,  antl 
undertook,  in  754,  new  journeys  for  the 
conversion  of  the  infidels.  He  was  killed 
at  Dockum,  in  West  Friesland,  by  some 
barbarians,  in  755,  in  his  75lh  year.  In 
Fulda,  a  copy  of  the  Gospels,  in  his  own 
handwriting,  is  to  be  seen.  At  the  place 
where  B.  built,  in  724,  the  first  Christian 
church  in  North  Grermany,  near  the  vil- 
lage of  Altenburg,  in  the  Thuringian  for- 
est, a  monument  has  been  erected  to  his 
nieuiory,  consistuig  of  a  candelabrum,  30 
feet  higli.  The  most  complete  collection 
of  the  lettei-s  of  B.  was  published  at  Mentz, 
1789,  folio. 

Bonn  ;  capital  of  the  Prussian  govern- 
ment of  Cologne,  formerly  the  residence 
of  the  elector  of  Cologne,  on  the  left  bank 
of  the  Rhine,  with  1109  houses,  four 
Catholic,  and,  since  1817,  one  Protestant 
church.  It  contains  10,600  inhabitants, 
among  whom  are  200  Jews,  who  dwell 
in  a  particular  street.  B.  was  fonnerly 
fortified :  the  works  were  demolished  in 
1717.  A  lyceum  was  instituted  here  in 
1802.  An  academy  had  been  established 
in  1777,  and,  in  178(5,  erected  into  a  uni- 
vereity.  This  institution  was  superseded 
by  the  lyceum.  The  manufactures  are 
not  iniportaut.  The  commerce  is  chiefly 
in  the  hands  of  the  Jews.  A  walk,  with 
four  rows  of  trees,  and  ]200  paces  in 
lengdi,  loads  to  the  l)eautiful  palace  of 
Cleinensrube,  near  the  village  of  Poppels- 
dorf.  B.  contains  tlie  university  of  the 
Rhino,  the  charter  of  which  was  given, 
Oct.  18,  1818,  at  Aix-la-Chapelle,  by  the 
king  of  Prussia,  who,  at  tlie  same  time, 
endowed  it  with  an  annual  income  of 
fc0,0C0  Prussian  dollars,  16,000  of  which 
16* 


are  appropriated  to  the  botanical  garden. 
The  former  residence  of  the  elector  of 
Cologne  was  bestowed  on  the  univereity. 
It  has  been  fitted  up  at  great  expense,  and 
is  surpassed,  in  extent  and  beauty,  by  no 
university  buildings  in  Europe.  It  con- 
tains all  the  lecture  halls,  a  library  of 
more  than  50,000  volumes,  a  museum  of 
antiquities,  a  collection  of  casts  of  the 
principal  ancient  statues,  a  cabinet  for 
natural  philosophy,  clinical  institutions  of 
uncommon  extent  and  order,  to  which 
will  be  added  a  Catholic  theological  seni- 
intu^',  and  a  convictorium  (refectory).  The 
paintings  in  the  aida  minor  (among  oth- 
ers, the  great  allegorical  pictm-e,  the 
Christian  Church)  were  executed  by  some 
pupils  of  Cornelius.  To  the  Uberality  of 
the  king,  the  university  owes  also  an  ana- 
tomical hall,  a  new  riding-school,  and  an 
edifice,  once  a  royal  palace,  in  Poppels- 
dorf,  ten  minutes'  walk  from  the  city, 
which  contains  tlie  mineralogical  and 
zoological  collections,  and  before  whicii 
lies  the  botanical  garden.  Adjoining  it 
are  lands  and  buildings  for  the  use  of  the 
agricultural  institute.  The  tower  of  the 
old  custom-house,  whicli  commands  a 
fine  view,  is  destined  for  an  observatory. 
The  king  has  also  established  here  a  print- 
ing ])ress  for  Sanscrit,  under  the  inspec- 
tion of  A.  W.  von  Schlegel.  The  museum 
of  German  and  Roman  antiquities  is  un- 
der the  direction  of  the  same  distinguish- 
ed scholar.  The  teachers  of  the  five 
faculties,  of  which  the  univei-sity  con- 
sists, are  more  than  fifty.  Particular  ad- 
vantages are  afforded  for  the  education 
of  young  men  intended  for  instructei*s. 
Many  men  distinguished  ui  various 
branches  of  science  are  connected  with 
the  university.  The  historian  Niebuhr 
has  lately  repaired  thither  to  deliver 
lectures.  The  exertions  of  the  govern- 
ment to  collect  in  B.  all  the  means  of 
instruction,  united  with  the  charms  of  the 
place  and  the  beauties  of  the  scenerj-, 
have  made  the  univei-sity  hi  a  short  time 
very  much  frequented.  In  1826,  it  con- 
tained 931  students,  among  whom  were 
110  foreigners. 

Bonn,  Andrew,  an  anatomist,  bom  at 
Amsterdam,  hi  1738,  studied  and  received 
his  degree  at  Leyden.  His  dissertation 
was  the  excellent  treatise  De  Continuita- 
tibus  Membranarum,  of  which  two  famous 
physicians,  Bichat  and  Wrisberg,  have 
made  use  in  their  works.  He  finished 
his  studies  at  Paris.  In  1771,  he  returned 
to  Amsteixlam,  where  he  delivered  lec- 
tures. He  had  the  tliree  first  numbei-s  of 
the  Thtsavrus  Hovianus  Ossium  Morbo^ 


186 


BONN— BONNET. 


somm  engraved  at  his  own  expense.  He 
died  ill  1818.  His  long  life  was  devoted 
to  the  relief  of  the  suffering,  and  to  the 
education  of  skilful  physicians  and  sur- 
geons. As  president  of  the  Monnikhof 
institution  for  the  investigation  of  the  best 
remedies  against  the  different  kinds  of 
hernia,  he  has  likewise  accomphshed  a 
great  deal. 

Bonner,  Edmund,  an  English  prelate 
of  infamous  notoriety,  was  the  son  of  a 
peasant  at  Hanley  in  Worcestershire.  He 
was  educated  at  Pembroke  college,  Ox- 
ford, where  he  was  made  doctor  of  com- 
mon law,  in  1525.  For  his  skill  in  busi- 
ness, he  was  patronised  by  cai-dinal 
Wolsey,  from  whom  he  received  se\eral 
clerical  .preferments.  On  the  death  of 
Wolsey,  he  acquired  the  favor  of  Henry 
VIII,  who  made  him  one  of  his  chaplains, 
and  sent  him  to  Rome  to  advocate  his 
divorce  from  queen  Catharine.  Here  he 
conducted  with  so  much  intemperance, 
that  the  pope  is  said  to  have  tlireaten- 
ed  to  throw  him  into  a  caldron  of  boil- 
ing lead,  on  which  he  thouglit  proper 
to  return.  In  1538,  he  was  nominated 
bishop  of  Hereford,  being  then  ambas- 
sador at  Paris;  but,  before  his  conse- 
cration, he  Avas  translated  to  tlie  see  of 
London.  At  the  time  of  the  death  of 
Henry,  he  was  ambassador  to  the  emjieror 
Charles  V,  but  returned  the  same  year, 
when,  refusing  to  take  the  oath  of  suprem- 
acy, he  was  deprived  of  his  bishopric, 
to  which,  however,  he  was  restored,  on 
making  submission.  Still  continuing  to 
act  with  contumacy,  he  was,  after  a  long 
trial,  once  more  deprived  of  his  see,  and 
committed  to  the  Marshalsea;  from  which 
prison,  on  the  accession  of  Mary,  he  was 
released,  and  once  more  restored  by  com- 
mission. During  this  reign,  B.  distin- 
guished himself  by  a  most  sanguinary 
persecution  of  the  Protestants,  200  of 
whom  he  was  instrumental  in  bringing  to 
tlie  stake,  whipping  and  torturmg  several 
of  them  with  his  own  hands.  When 
Elizabeth  succeeded,  he  went,  witli  the 
rest  of  the  bishops,  to  meet  her  at  High- 
gate,  but,  at  the  sight  of  him,  she  averted 
her  countenance  with  an  expression  of 
horror.  He  remained,  however,  unmo- 
lested, until  his  refusal  to  take  the  oath 
of  supremacy;  on  which  be  was  once 
more  committed  to  the  Marshalsea,  where 
he  remained  a  prisoner  for  nearly  10  years, 
until  his  death,  in  1569.  He  was  buried 
at  midnight,  to  avoid  any  disturbance  on 
the  part  of  the  populace,  to  whom  he  was 
extremely  obnoxious.  B.  was  well  versed 
in  the  canon  law,  and  was  an  able  diplo- 


matist. He  cannot,  says  a  Catholic  wri- 
ter, be  defended  from  the  charge  of  ex- 
treme rigor  and  cruelty  ;  yet  he  deserves 
credit  for  his  firmness  of  principle,  for  his 
courage  Avhen  in  disgrace,  and  for  the 
calmness  and  resignation  with  which  he 
supported  a  long  imprisonment. 

Bonnet,  in  fortification;  an  elevation 
of  the  parapet  in  the  salient  angles  of  a 
field  retrenchment,  or  of  a  fortification, 
designed  to  prevent  the  enfilading  of  the 
front  of  the  work,  at  the  end  of  which  it 
is  situated.  The  bonnet  accomplishes, 
however,  only  part  of  this  object,  and  is 
subject,  at  least  in  field  retrenchments,  to 
the  disadvantage,  that  the  men  destined 
for  its  defence  are  too  much  exposed  to 
be  taken  in  flank  by  the  fire  of  the  ene- 
my, on  account  of  the  necessary  elevation 
of  the  banquette  {q.  v.) — a  fault  which 
cannot  occur  in  the  works  of  a  fortress 
which  are  well  laid  out 

Bonnet,  Charles,  a  natural  philosopher 
and  metaphysician,  born  at  Geneva,  in 
1720,  exchanged  the  study  of  the  laws  for 
that  of  natural  history.  His  essay  On 
Aphides,  in  which  he  i)roved  that  they 
propagateil  without  coition,  procured  him, 
in  his  20th  year,  the  place  of  a  corre- 
sponding member  of  the  academy  of 
sciences  at  Paris.  Soon  aftenvards,  he 
partook  in  the  discoveries  of  Trembley  re- 
specting the  polypus,  and  made  interesting 
observations  on  the  respiration  of  eater- 
pi  llai-s  and  butterflies,  and  on  the  structure 
of  the  tape-worm.  An  active  correspond- 
ence with  many  learned  men  in  his  own 
country  and  abroad,  and  too  continued 
perseverance  in  labor,  brought  on  an  in- 
flammation in  his  eyes,  which  prevented 
him  fi-om  writing  for  more  than  two  yeai-s. 
His  active  spirit  employed  this  intenal  in 
meditating  on  the  source  of  our  ideas,  on 
tlie  nature  of  the  soul,  and  on  other  myste- 
ries of  metaphysics.  From  1752  till  1768, 
he  was  a  member  of  the  great  council  of 
his  native  city.  He  afterwards  retired  to 
his  countiy-seat  ((Jenthod),  on  the  banks 
of  the  lake  of  Geneva,  where  l;ie  led  a 
retired  Ufe,  devoting  his  time  to  the  inves- 
tigation of  nature,  to  the  convei-sation  of 
learned  men,  and  to  an  extensive  corre- 
spondence, till  his  death,  in  1793.  B.  was 
a  close  and  exact  observer.  He  carried 
religious  contemplations  into  the  study  of 
nature.  In  his  views  of  the  human  soul, 
many  traces  of  materialism  are  to  be 
found ;  for  instance,  the  derivation  of  all 
ideas  from  the  movements  of  tlie  nervous 
fibres.  Of  his  works  on  natural  history 
and  metaphysics,  there  are  two  collec- 
tions ;  one  in  9  vols.,  4to.,  the  other  in  18 


BONNET— BONNYCASTLE. 


187 


vols.,  8vo.,  Neufchatel,  1779.  The  most 
celebrated  are,  Traite  (T Insedologie ;  Re- 
fherches  sur  V Usage  des  Feiiilles  dans  les 
Planles ;  Considerations  sur  les  Corps  or- 
ganises ;  Contemplation  de  la  JVature ;  Es- 
■sai  analytique  sur  les  Facultes  de  VAme ; 
Palinginesie  Philosophiqut,  and  Essai  de 
Psi/chologie. 

Bonnet ;  advocate,  andbdtonnier  (presi- 
dent) of  the  advocates  in  Paris.  During 
the  revolution,  he  was  zealous  m  defend- 
ing many  unfortunate  pei-sons  wlio  were 
dragged  before  the  revolutionary  tribunal. 
He  displayed  his  brilliant  eloquence  in 
the  defence  of  general  Morcau.  In  later 
times,  he  has  been  blamed  for  having 
yielded  too  much  to  the  vindictive  spirit 
of  the  French  state  attorneys :  since  1815, 
particularly,  he  has  been  considered  too 
compliant  towards  the  procureur-ghiiral 
BellarL  We  have  reason  to  suppose  that 
much  of  the  reproach  which  has  been 
cast  upon  him  is  unfounded,  as  he  is 
known  to  have  exposed  his  life  and  lib- 
erty, in  former  times,  to  save  the  accused. 
B.  belongs  to  the  extreme  right  side  in 
the  chamber  of  deputies,  and  has  thus 
lost  his  popularity. 

BoNNEVAL,  Claude  Alexander,  count 
of,  or  AcHMET  Pacha,  bom  1672,  at 
Coussac,  in  Limousin,  of  an  illustrious 
French  family,  entered,  in  his  16th  year, 
the  body-guard  of  the  king,  but  showetl 
an  extravagant  propensity  for  jjleasure. 
In  war,  he  was  an  able  and  successful 
partisan,  beloved  by  those  mider  his  com- 
mand. He  enjoyed  the  esteem  of  the 
marslial  of  Luxembourg.  In  the  war  of 
the  Spanish  succession,  he  obtained  a 
regiment,  with  which  he  marched  to  Italy, 
and  distinguished  himself  by  his  valor  as 
well  as  by  liis  excesses.  On  his  retin-n, 
he  was  obliged  to  fly,  in  consequence  of 
some  violent  expressions  against  the  min- 
ister and  madame  de  Mahitenon.  He 
was,  in  1706,  appointed  major-general  by 
prince  Eugene,  and  fought  against  his 
native  country.  At  the  peace  of  Kastadt, 
in  1714,  by  tlie  interference  of  prince 
Eugene,  the  process  against  him  for  high 
treason  was  withdrawn,  and  he  was  al- 
lowed to  return  to  his  estates.  In  1716, 
he  was  lieutenant  field-marshal  of  the 
Austrian  infantry,  and  distinguished  him- 
self by  his  valor  against  the  Turks  at 
Peterwardein  (1716).  In  1718,  B.  was 
made  a  member  of  the  imperial  council 
of  war,  but  his  Ucentiousness  and  indis- 
cretion induced  prince  Eugene  to  get  rid 
of  him,  by  appohiting  him,  in  1723,  mas- 
ter-general of  the  ordnance  in  the  Neth- 
erlands.   To  revenge  himself  on  Eugene, 


he  sent  complaints  to  Vienna  against  the 
governor,  the  marquis  of  Prie ;  but  the 
latter,  who,  on  liis  side,  had  not  been  in- 
active, received  an  order  to  arrest  B.,  and 
to  imprison  him  in  the  citadel  of  Ant- 
werp. B.,  being  afterwards  ordered  to 
appear  at  Vienna,  and  give  an  explanation 
of  his  conduct,  spent  a  month  at  the 
Hague  before  he  chose  to  comply  with 
the  summons.  He  was  therefore  confined 
in  the  castle  of  Spielberg,  near  Briinn, 
ajid  condemned  to  death  by  the  imperial 
council  of  war;  but  the  sentence  was 
changed,  by  the  emperor,  uito  one  year's 
imprisonment  and  exile.  B.  now  went 
to  Constantinople,  where  the  fame  of  his 
deeds,  and  his  humanity  towards  the 
Turkish  prisoners  of  war,  procured  him  a 
kind  reception.  He  consented  to  change 
his  rehgion,  received  instruction  in  Mo- 
hanunedanism  from  the  mufti,  submitted 
to  circumcision,  and  received  the  name 
Achmel  Pacha,  with  a  large  salary.  He 
was  made  a  pacha  of  three  tails,  com- 
manded a  large  army,  defeated  the  Aus- 
triaus  on  the  Danube,  and  quelled  an 
insurrection  in  Arabia  Peti-sea.  His  ex- 
ertions, as  commander  of  the  bombardiers, 
to  improve  the  Turkish  artillery,  were 
opjjosed  by  the  jealousy  of  powerful  pa- 
chas, the  irresolution  of  Mohanmied  V, 
and  the  dislike  of  the  Turkish  troops  to 
all  European  institutions.  He  enjoyed, 
however,  the  pleasures  of  his  situation. 
He  died  in  1747.  His  Mtmoires  were 
published  by  Desherbiers  (Paris,  1806, 
2  vols.)  In  the  second  volume  of  the 
Memoirs  of  Casanova  are  to  be  found 
some  notices  of  B. 

BoNNVCASTiE,  Jolui,  profcssor  of  math- 
ematics at  the  royal  militaiy  academy  at 
Woolwich,  was  born  m  Buckingham- 
shire. Tlioug'h  his  education  was  not 
neglected,  yet  he  was  chiefly  indebted  to 
his  own  exertions  for  the  various  and 
extensive  knowledge  which  he  acquired. 
While  young,  he  became  private  tutor  to 
t!ie  two  sons  of  the  earl  of  Pomfret. 
Alter  two  yeai-s,  he  quitted  that  situation 
on  being  appointed  one  of  the  mathe- 
matical mastere  at  Woolwich.  Here,  for 
more  than  40  years,  he  devoted  his  time 
to  the  duties  of  his  profession,  and  to  the 
composition  of  elementaiy  mathematical 
works.  His  first  production  was  the 
Scholar's  Guide  to  Arithmetic,  which  has 
passed  through  many  editions.  His 
guides  to  algebra  and  mensuration  are 
useful  school-books.  He  likewise  wrote 
a  Treatise  upon  Astronomy,  8vo.  ;  the 
Elements  of  Geometry,  8vo. ;  a  Treatise 
on  Plane  and  Spherical  Trigonometry, 


188 


BONNYCASTLE— BONZES. 


8vo. ;  a  Treatise  on  Algebra,  2  vols.  8vo. ; 
and  various  articles  in  the  early  part  of 
the  last  edition  of  doctor  Rees's  Cyclope- 
dia.   He  died  at  Woolwich,  May  15, 1821. 

BoNPiiAND,  Aim6,  educated  at  the 
medical  school  and  the  botanical  garden 
in  Paris,  accompanied  Alexander  von 
Humboldt  to  America  in  1799,  and  dis- 
covered above  6000  new  species  of  plants. 
After  his  return,  he  was  made,  in  1804,  su- 
perintendent of  the  garden  at  Malmaison, 
which  he  has  described  (Paris,  1813 — 
1817,  11  numbers,  folio,  with  copper- 
plates). He  was  also  co-editor  of  the 
Travels  and  Voyages  in  the  Equinoctial 
Regions  of  the  New  Continent,  from 
1799  to  1804,-  by  Alex.  Humboldt  and  A. 
Bonpland  ;  published  in  French  in  Paris, 
and  in  German,  by  Cotta,  m  Tubingen 
(1818).  In  1818,  he  went,  as  professor  of 
natural  history,  to  Buenos  Ayres.  There, 
Oct.  1,  1820,  he  undertook  a  journey 
along  the  Parana,  to  explore  the  interior 
of  Paraguay.  At  Santa  Ana,  however, 
on  the  eastern  bank  of  the  Parana,  where 
he  had  laid  out  plantations  of  tea,  and 
had  founded  a  colony  of  Indians,  he  was 
surprised,  on  the  territory  of  Buenos 
Ayres,  by  800  soldiers  of  doctor  Francia, 
dictator  of  Paraguay,  who  destroyed  his 
plantations,  and  carried  him  oft'  prisoner, 
together  with  most  of  the  Indians.  Fran- 
cia sent  him,  as  physician,  to  the  garrison 
of  a  fort,  and  employed  him  in  laying  out 
a  commercial  road.  B.  lived  till  within  a 
few  yeai-s  in  Santa  Maria.  There  is  no 
other  reason  for  his  captivity,  than  his  suc- 
cess in  planting  the  Paraguay  tea.  Alex. 
Humboldt  wrote  to  doctor  Francia  to 
persuade  him  to  liberate  his  friend,  and 
he  was  supported  in  his  request  by  the 
English  minister  Canning,  and  the  British 
consul  in  Buenos  Ayres,  Mr.  Parish,  but 
without  success.  A  late  French  mission 
to  South  America  has  in  view  his  libera- 
tion. From  the  manuscripts  of  B.,  Kunth 
arranged  the  large  work,  JVova  Genera  et 
Species  Plantarum,  which  B.  and  Alex. 
Humboldt  had  collected  and  described 
on  tlieir  travels  in  the  tropical  countries 
of  tlie  new  world.  (Paris,  1815—1825,  7 
vols.,  fol.,  with  copperplates,  in  35  num- 
bers, 1240  francs.) 

Bo:*STETTEN,  Charlcs  von  ;  bom  at 
Berne,  1745,  of  an  ancient  and  noble 
family,  in  the  canton  of  Zurich.  His 
father,  Charles  Emanuel,  was  treasurer 
of  Benie.  He  was  educated,  till  his  19th 
year,  at  Yverdun,  then  in  Geneva,  where 
he  improved  himself  in  the  society  of 
Bonnet,  Stanhope,  Voltaire,  Saussure  and 
other  learned  men.    He  studied  at  Ley- 


den,  afterwards  with  Gray  at  Cambridge, 
then  at  Paris,  and  travelled  in  Italy.  In 
1775,  he  became  a  member  of  the  supreme 
council  at  Berne,  and,  in  1787,  landvoigt 
in  Nyon.  Here  Matthisson,  Sahs  and 
Frederica  Brun  lived  with  him  ;  here 
Jolin  Miiller  wrote  on  the  history  of  his 
native  countiy.  By  his  endeavors  to  im- 
prove education,  and  other  useful  efforts, 
he  promoted  the  welfare  of  his  native 
country.  During  the  revolutionary  times, 
he  lived  with  his  friend  Frederica  Brun, 
in  Copenhagen.  On  his  return,  in  1802, 
he  chose  Geneva  for  his  residence.  The 
results  of  a  journey  to  Italy,  in  which  he 
had  made  interesting  investigations  on 
the  depopulation  of  the  campagna  at 
Rome  by  the  maV  ana,  appeared  under 
the  title  Voyage  sur  la  Scene  du  dernier 
lAvre  de  VEnhde,  suivi  de  quelques  Obser- 
vations sur  le  Latium  Modeme  (Geneva, 
1813).  In  1807,  apj^eared  his  Recherches 
sur  la  JVature  et  les  Lois  de  V Imaginalion, 
2  vols.  He  afterwards  publislied  Pensies 
Diverses  sur  divers  Objets  du  Bien  Public 
(Geneva,  1815) ;  Etudes  ou  Recherche-s  sur 
les  Fctcultes  de  Sentir  et  de  Penser  (1821, 
2  vols.) ;  and  U Homme  du  Midi  et  du  JVord 
(Geneva,  1824).  These  woi-ks  indicate  a 
philosoj)hical  spirit  of  obsenation. 

Bo^'ZANIGA,  Giuseppe ;  royal  sculptor 
at  Turin.  By  a  persevering  application 
of  40  years,  he  raised  the  art  of  caning  in 
wood  and  ivory  to  a  high  degree  of  ])er- 
fection,  and  founded  an  establishment, 
from  which  numerous  Avorks  of  art  have 
been  produced,  tliat  are  much  sought  for 
in  all  Italy,  and  valued  by  connoisseurs. 
He  died  Dec.  18, 1820. 

Bonzes  ;  the  name  given  by  Europe- 
ans to  the  priests  of  the  rehgion  of  Fo,  in 
Eastern  Asia,  particularly  in  China,  Bir- 
mah,  Tonquin,  Cochin-China  and  Japan. 
As  these  priests  live  together  in  monas- 
teries, unmarried,  they  have  much  resem- 
bjafice  to  the  monks  of  the  Christian 
church :  the  system  of  their  hierarchy 
and  of  their  worsliip  also  agrees,  in  many 
respects,  with  that  of  the  Catholics.  They 
do  penance,  and  pray  for  the  sins  of  the 
laity,  who  secure  them  from  want  by  en- 
dowments and  alms.  The  female  bonzes 
may  be  compared  to  the  Christian  nuns ; 
as  the  religion  of  Fo  suffers  no  priest- 
esses, but  admits  the  social  union  of  pious 
virgins  and  widows,  under  monastic  vows, 
for  the  perfonnance  of  religious  exer- 
cises. The  bonzes  are  commonly  ac- 
quainted only  with  the  external  forms  of 
worship  and  the  idols,  without  under- 
standing the  meaning  of  their  religious 
symbols.    They  endeavor  to  keep  up  the 


BONZES— BOOK-TRADE. 


189 


superstition  by  which  they  are  support- 
ed. 

Book-keeping  is  a  mercantile  term, 
used  to  denote  the  method  of  keeping 
commercial  accounts,  of  all  kinds,  in  such 
a  manner,  tliat  a  man  may  thereby  know, 
at  any  time,  the  true  state  of  his  aftairs, 
with  clearness  and  expedition.  Book- 
keeping rests,  like  commerce  in  general, 
on  the  notions  of  debtor  and  creditor,  or 
on  the  notions  of  that  which  we  possess 
or  are  to  receive,  and  that  which  we  are 
to  i)ay,  and  is  divided  into  single,  and 
double  or  Italian  book-keeping.  In  the 
first,  the  posts  of  debtor  and  creditor  are 
separated  from  each  other,  and  entered 
in  such  a  way,  tliat  each  one  appears 
singly  ;  while,  in  the  latter,  creditor  and 
debtor  are  in  continual  mutual  connex- 
ion, to  which  end  all  the  posts  are  entered 
doubly,  once  on  the  debtor  and  once  on 
the  creditor  side,  by  which  every  en-or 
or  mistake  is  prevented.  This  mode  of 
double  book-keeping  spnmg  up  in  Italy, 
in  the  15th  centurj^ ;  yet  it  had  been  jjrac- 
tised  already  in  Spain  in  the  14th  century, 
according  to  a  legal  ordinance.  The 
principle  of  this  system  is,  that  all  money 
and  articles  received  become  debtors  to 
him  from  whom  they  are  received,  and, 
on  the  other  hand,  all  those  who  receive 
money  or  goods  from  us  become  debtors 
to  cash  or  to  the  goods.  The  books 
which  the  merchant  wants  are  principally 
a  waste-book,  in  which  all  his  dealings 
are  recorded  without  particular  order ;  a 
journal,  in  which  the  contents  of  the 
waste-book  are  separated  eveiy  month, 
and  entered  on  the  debtor  and  creditor 
sides ;  and  a  leger,  in  wliich  the  posts 
entered  in  the  journal  are  placed  under 
particular  accounts,  and  from  wliich,  every 
year,  the  balance  is  drawn. 

Book-Traj)e,  Booksellers.  Before 
the  invention  of  typography,  those  who 
copied  books  carried  on  the  trade  in 
them.  In  Greece,  in  Alexandria,  and  in 
Rome,  there  were  booksellers  who  kept 
a  number  of  transcribers.  In  the  middle 
ages,  there  were  booksellers,  called  sta- 
tionarii,  at  the  universities  of  Bologna  and 
Paris,  who  loaned  single  manuscripts  at 
high  prices.  In  Paris,  after  1342,  no  one 
could  deal  in  books  without  the  permis- 
sion of  the  univei-sity,  who  had  i)articulai- 
officers  to  examine  the  manuscripts  and 
fix  the  price.  After  the  invention  of 
printmg,  the  prmtei-s  were  also  the  book' 
sellers.  Faustus,  the  first  bookseller,  cai-- 
ried  his  j)rinted  Bibles  for  sale  to  France. 
Those  who  had  formerly  been  emi)loyed 
iu  copying  now  acted  as  agents  of  the 


printers,  and  carried  the  printed  copies 
into  the  monasteries  for  sale.  Towards 
the  end  of  the  15th  century,  there  were 
such  book  traders  in  Ulm,  Nordlingcn  and 
Augsburg.  The  fii-st  bookseller  who  pur- 
chased manuscripts  from  the  authors,  and 
hfid  them  prmted  by  othere,  without  pos- 
sessuig  a  press  of  his  own,  was  John 
Otto,  in  Nuremburg  (1516).  In  Leipsic, 
there  were,  for  the  fii-st  time,  in  1545,  two 
booksellei-s  of  this  kind — Steiger  and  Bos- 
kopf.  The  books  were  earned  to  Frank- 
fort on  the  Maine  to  the  fail".  The  book- 
fair  at  Leipsic  did  not  become  important 
until  a  later  period :  m  1667,  it  was  at- 
tended by  19  foreign  booksellers.  The 
Leipsic  catalogue  of  books  appeai'ed  as 
early  as  1600.  The  booksellers  of  the 
present  day  may  be  divided  into  printers 
who  sell  their  own  pubUcations  (they 
have  become  rare),  booksellers  who  sell 
the  books  which  have  been  printed  at 
their  expense  by  others,  and  those  who 
keep  for  sale  the  pubhcations  of  others. 
The  last  have,  usually,  at  the  same  time, 
publications  of  their  own,  which  they  sell 
or  exchange  with  others.  This  trade  is 
promoted,  in  Germany,  chieHy  by  the 
book- fairs  at  Leipsic,  of  which  the  Easter 
fair  is  frequented  by  all  the  booksellers 
of  Germany,  and  by  those  of  some  of 
the  neighboring  countries,  as  of  France, 
Switzerland,  Denmark,  Livonia,  in  order 
to  settle  their  mutual  accounts,  and  to 
form  new  connexions.  The  German 
publisher  sends  his  publications  to  the 
keejjer  of  assortments,  a  condition,  tliat  is, 
on  commission  for  a  certain  time,  after 
wliich  the  latter  pays  for  what  have  been 
sold,  and  can  return  what  have  not  been 
sold.  This  is  not  so  favorable  for  the 
publisher  as  the  custom  in  the  French 
book-trade,  where  the  keeper  of  assort- 
ments takes  the  quantity  he  wants  at  a 
fixed  rate.  In  the  German  book-trade,  it 
is  the  practice  for  almost  every  house, 
either  in  the  country  or  abroad,  which 
publishes  or  sells  German  books,  to  have 
its  agent  at  Leipsic,  who  receives  and 
distributes  its  publications.  A.,  in  Riga, 
who  publishes  a  book  calculated  for  the 
German  trade,  has  liis  agent,  B.,  in  Leip- 
sic, to  whom  he  sends,  free  of  expense,  a 
number  of  copies  of  his  publication,  that 
he  may  distribute  the  new  work  to  all  the 
booksellers  with  whom  he  is  connected, 
fi-om  Vienna  to  Hamburg,  and  from 
Strasburg  to  Konigsberg,  each  of  whom 
has  his  agent  in  Leipsic.  Instructions  are 
also  given  as  to  the  number  of  copies  to 
be  sent  to  each.  B.  dehvers  tiiose  copies 
in  Leipsic  to  the  agents,  who  send  tiiem 


190 


BOOK-TRADE— CATALOGUES  OF  BOOKS. 


every  week,  or  more  or  less  frequently, 
by  the  post,  or  by  carriers,  at  the  expense 
of  tlie  receiver.  C,  in  Strasburg,  who 
finds  that  he  has  not  received  copies 
enough,  writes  for  an  additional  number 
of  copies  to  his  agent,  D.,  in  Leipsic.  D. 
gives  this  order  to  B.,  Avho  dehvers  the 
number  wanted  to  D.,  to  be  transmitted 
to  C.  This  arrangement  is  advantageous 
to  the  German  book-trade  as  well  as  to 
Leipsic.  The  dealer  receives  every  thing 
free  to  Leipsic,  and,  as  a  great  number  of 
packets,  with  books  from  all  parts  of  Ger- 
many, arrive  there  for  him  every  week, 
he  can  have  them  packed  together  and 
sent  at  once.  The  freight  is  thus  much 
less  than  if  the  packets  were  sent  to  him 
separately  from  the  different  places,  and 
the  whole  business  is  simplified.  The 
booksellers  are  also  enabled  to  agree  with 
greater  ease  on  a  certain  discount  per 
cent.  In  other  European  countries,  for 
instance,  in  England  and  France,  no  such 
connexion  of  the  booksellers  has  yet  been 
formed.  Paris  is  the  central  place  of  the 
French  book-trade.  In  Great  Britain, 
Edinburgh  rivals  London.  In  the  Neth- 
erlands, the  most  important  repositories 
of  books  are  at  Amsterdam,  Utrecht,  Ley- 
den  and  Haerlem.  In  Brussels  and  Liege, 
many  French  works  are  reprinted.  In  Ger- 
many, several  houses  rarely  unite  for  the 
publication  of  great  works,  as  is  done  in 
France  and  England.  In  1802,  the  book- 
sellers of  the  U.  States  estabUshed  a  fair 
at  New  York,  and  rules  for  its  regulation. 
In  Spain  and  Portugal,  the  price  of  eveiy 
book  is  regulated  by  the  government. 

Books,  Catalogues  of.  Catalogues  of 
books  are  interesting  if  the  libraries  they 
describe  contain  a  great  number  of  works 
(Bibliotheca  Thottiana,  Copenhagen,  1789 
— ^95, 7  parts,  in  12  vols. ;  Bibliotheca  Fir- 
miarut,  Milan,  1783, 6  vols. ;  Catalogue  du 
Due  de  la  Vallib-e,  Paris,  1783—88,  9 
vols.),  or  are  distinguished  by  well-select- 
ed, by  rare  and  costly  works  (Cat.  Bibl. 
HarleiaruB,  by  Michael  Maittaire,  London, 
1743 — 45,  5  vols.),  or  by  scarce  books 
merely  (Catalogue  of  Sam.  Engel,  Bern, 
1743,  and  Dan.  Saltlien,  Konigsberg, 
1751),  by  old  editions  (J.  F.  Dibdin, 
Bibhoth.  Spenceriana,  London,  1814,  4 
vols. ;  Ferd.  Fossil,  Cat.  Codd.  Sec.  15  Im- 
pressor.  Bibl.  Magliabccekiaiwc,  Florence, 
1793,  3  vols,  fol.),  by  beautiful  copies, 
particularly  on  parchment  {Cat.  de  la 
Bibl.  de  McCarthy,  Pai-is,  1815,  2  vols.), 
or  by  being  very  rich  in  some  particular 
department.  For  natural  history,  the  most 
important  catalogues  are  those  of  sir  Jos. 
Banks  (London,  1796,  5  vols.),  and  of 


Cobres  (Augsburg,  1782,  2  vols.) ;  for 
Hungarian  history,  that  of  count  Szecheny 
[Sopronii,  1799  et  seq.) ;  for  classical  Ut- 
erature,  those  of  count  Rewiczky  (Berlin, 
1794),  and  of  Askew  (London,  1775),  with 
some  others ;  for  Fi-ench  literature,  the 
second  part  of  the  catalogue  of  VaUi^re  ; 
for  Italian  literature,  the  catalogues  of 
Capponi  (Rome,  1747,  4  vols.),  Floncel 
(Paris,  1774, 2  vols.),  and  Ginguen6  (Paris, 
1817) ;  for  the  German  language,  that 
of  Adelung  (Dresden,  1807).  Catalogues 
acquire  their  true  value  and  utility  by 
judicious  arrangement  and  accuracy  of 
detail.  For  this  purpose,  besides  perfect 
exactness  in  the  material  statements 
which  must  prevail  throughout,  and  es- 
pecially with  regard  to  uncommon  works, 
a  notice  of  the  printer,  number  of  pages, 
signatures,  catchwords,  fcc^  and,  in  en- 
gravings, an  account  of  the  number  anci 
quality  of  the  impressions,  and  the  artist's 
name,  are  necessarj'.  Above  all,  a  clear 
arrangement  of  the  books  is  requisite,  that 
they  may  be  easily  consulted.  In  this 
department,  the  French  took  the  lead. 
Gabriel  Naud6  opened  the  way  by  the 
Catalogus  Bibliothecce  Cordesiance  {Paris, 
1643,  4  vols.) :  he  was  followed  by  Ish- 
mael  Bulhaldus  and  Jos.  Quesnel,  in  the 
Cat.  Bib.  Thuanm  (Paris,  1679).  Ga- 
briel Martin,  a  bookseller  at  Paris,  dis- 
tinguished himself,  in  the  18th  century,  by 
a  fiirther  attention  to  the  method  of  ar- 
rangement, and,  at  the  same  time,  by 
bibliographical  accuracy,  (Catalogues  of 
Buheau,  1711,  du  Fay,  1725,  Brochard, 
1729,  count  Hoym,  1738).  On  the  foun- 
dation laid  by  Martin,  Debure  built,  in  the 
catalogue  of  Gaignat,  1769 ;  and,  in  the 
preparation  of  the  first  part  of  Valliere's 
catalogue,  as  well  as  in  the  arrangement 
of  the  second  part,  the  bookseller  Nyon 
followed  him  with  success.  About  this 
time,  Jac.  Morelli,  in  Venice,  published  a 
catalogue  of  the  excellent  library  of  IVfcf- 
feo  Pinelli  (Venice,  1787,  6  vols.),  distin- 
guished by  similar  merits.  All  these  cat- 
alogues, however,  were  prepared  only  to 
fecilitate  the  sale  of  the  books  enumerated, 
and  aspired  to  nothing  higher.  The  ear- 
lier catalogues  of  tlie  Bodleian  (Oxford, 
1738,  2  vols,  fol.)  and  Parisian  libraries 
(1739,  6  vols,  fol.)  are  very  defective. 
John  Michael  Francke,  in  his  catalogue  of 
the  library  of  Bunau  (Leipsic,  1750, 7  vols. 
4to.),  and  Audiffk-edi,  in  the  alphabetical 
catalogue  of  the  hbrary  of  Casanati  (Rome, 
1761,  4  vols,  fol.),  have  distinguished 
themselves  as  scientific  bibliothecarians. 
Both  works,  though  incomplete,  are  ex- 
cellent models.     Catalogue  Biblioth,  Aca^ 


CATALOGUES  OF  BOOKS— CENSORSHIP  OF  BOOKS. 


191 


demia  Thtresianx,  by  Joseph  de  Sartori 
(Vieuna,  1801,  13  vols.  4to.),  is  full  of  er- 
rors and  defects,  and  is  by  no  means  to 
be  compared  to  the  former  of  the  above- 
mentioned  works.    There  are,  lastly,  crit- 
ical   catalogues    [cat.    raisonnes)    which 
contahi    more    minute   infonnation   and 
opinions,  descriptions  of  uncommon  and 
remarkable    books,  and    sometimes   ac- 
counts of  their  prices.    Besides  the  few 
generally  interesting  works  of  this  nature 
by  John  Fabricius  ( Wolfenb.,  1717, 6  vols. 
4to.),    Jac.   Fred.  Reimmann   (Hildesh., 
1731,  2  vols.),  Gotheb  Stolle  (Jena,  173-3, 
18  vols.  4to.),  and  others,  the  catalogues 
of  Crevenna  (Amsterdam,  1778,  6  vols. 
4to.),  Serna  Santander  (Brussels,  1803,  5 
vols.),  and  lord  Spencer  (see  above),  and 
Denis's  jVIemorabiha  of  the  Library  of  Ga- 
relli  (Vienna,  1780, 4to.)  are  very  valuable. 
Books,  Censorship   of.    {Jnless  we 
consider  tlie  burning  of  condemned  books 
under  the  Roman  emperors  as  a  censor- 
ship, the  establishment  of  this  institution 
must  be  attributed  to  the  popes ;  but  it 
caimot  be  denied,  that  It  would  have 
sprung  up  in  a  thousand   other  places, 
even  if  it  had  not  existed  in  their  domin- 
ions.    Soon  after  the  invention  of  print- 
ing, the  popes  perceived  the  influence 
which  this  art  exerted  over  the  diffiision 
of  knowledge.     It  was,  besides,  doubly 
dangerous  at  a  time  when  the  authority  of 
tlie  church  had  been  assailed,  and  was 
shaking  under  the   load  of  its  abuses. 
They  endeavored,  therefore,  to  prohibit 
first  the  reading,  and  secondly  the  piint- 
ing,  of  certain  literaiy  works.     They  en- 
forced the  ancient  decrees  of  the  church 
against  the   reading  of  heretical  books, 
aiid  introduced  an  ecclesiastical  superin- 
tendency  of  the  press  in  1479  and  1496, 
which  was  more  completely  established 
by  a  bull  of  Leo  X,  in  1515.    In  this,  the 
bishops  and  inquisitors  were  required  to 
examine  all  works  before  they  were  print- 
ed, and  thus  to  prevent  the  publication  of 
heretical  opinions.    They  went  still  fur- 
ther: as  this  papal  decree  could  not  be 
carried  into  execution  in  all  countries,  on 
account  of  the  reformation,  they  j)repared 
an  uidex  of  books  which  nobody  was  al- 
lowed to  read  under  penalty  of  the  cen- 
sure  of  the   church.      This   index   was 
commenced  by  the  council  of  Trent,  in 
the  fourth  session  of  which  (154G),  the 
decree  of  the  censorship  was  renewed ; 
but  it  was  not  executed,  and  was  finally 
left  to  the  popes  ('25th  session  of  1563),  by 
whom  several  such  Indices  lAbrorum  pro- 
kibitorum  have  been  published.     Even  in 
recent  times,  in  1758,  such  an  augmented 


index  was  issued.    Works  of  an  estab- 
hshed  character,  which  could  not  well  be 
prohibited,  it  was  determined  to  expur- 
gate.    The  duke  of  Alva  caused  such  an 
Index  expurgatorius  to  be  prepared  in  the 
Netherlands ;  another  was  drawn  up  at 
Rome,  in  1607,  which,  however,  with  the 
exception   of  some    fragments,  has  re- 
mained secret.    This  censorship  was  soon 
afterwards  adopted  by  the  secular  author- 
ity, and,  in  some  respects,  extended  still 
further.     In  Germany,  the  politico-theo- 
logical controversies  gave  the  first  occa- 
sion for  the  introduction  of  this  institution, 
as  they  were  carried  on  with  the  greatest 
violence  on  both  sides.    The  decree  of 
the    Gennan  diet,  in    1524,    prohibited 
them.     By  the  diet  of  1530,  a  more  severe 
superintendence  of  the  press  was  estab- 
lished ;  and  this  was  confirmed  by  later 
laws  of  the  empire,  in  1541,  1548,  1567, 
and  1577,  &c.     It  Avas  also  provided,  at 
the  peace  of  Westphalia,  1648  ( Osnabr, 
Instr.,  chapter  v,  §  50),  that  the  states 
should  not  suffer  attacks  on  religious  par^ 
ties :    From  that  time,  the  emperors  have 
promised,  in  their  elective  capitulations, 
to  watch  strictly  over  the  fulfilment  of 
tliis  article.     In  the  capitulations  of  the 
emperor  Leopold  II,  1790,  and  of  the 
emperor  Francis  II,  it  was  further  added 
(art.  vi,  §  8),  "  that  no  work  should  be 
piinted,  which  could  not  be  reconciled 
with  the  symbolical  books  of  both  Cath- 
olics and  Protestants,  and  with  good  mor- 
als, or  which  might  produce  the  ruin  of 
the  existing  constitution,  or  tlie  disturb- 
ance of  public  peace.    It  was,  however, 
not  difficult,  in  most  Protestant  countries, 
for  individual  authoi-s  or  literarj"  journals 
to  obtain  an  exemption  from  the  censor- 
ship ;  and   many  institutions,  academies, 
universities,  &c.,  were  privileged  in  this 
way,  as  far  as  concerned   their  regular 
professors.    The  governments  sometimes 
protected  their  subjects  with  great  ener- 
gy ;  as,  for  instance,  that  of  Hanover,  in 
the  case  of  Putter  and  Schloezer.     In 
France,  the  censorship  belonged  to  the 
department  of  the  chancellor,  and  was 
administered  by  royal  censors.     It  was 
first    abolished    in    England.      It    was 
formerly  exercised    by   the  well-known 
star-chamber,  and,  after  the  alxilition  of 
this  court,  in  1641,  by  the  parliament.     In 
1662,   it  was   regulated   by  a  particular 
statute,  but  only  for  a  certain  number  of 
years.     This  statute  was  renewed  in  1679, 
and  again,  in  1692,  for  two  ycai-s  more. 
In  1694,  the  right  of  the  crown  to  render 
the  printing  of  writings,  journals,  &c.  de- 
pendent on  its  permission,  that  is,  the 


192 


CENSORSHIP  OF  BOOKS. 


censorship,  ceased  entirely.  In  Holland, 
Jind  even  in  the  Austrian  Netherlands,  a 
great  liberty,  if  not  an  entire  freedom  of 
the  press,  prevailed.  All  that  was  not 
permitted  to  be  printed  in  France  ap- 
peared in  the  Netherlands  or  in  Switzer- 
land, at  Lausanne  and  Geneva,  to  the 
great  advantage  of  the  Dutch  and  Swiss 
book-trade.  In  Sweden,  by  an  edict  of 
17(36,  and  accordingly  under  the  aristo- 
cratical  constitution,  the  abolition  of  the 
censoi-ship  was  ordered;  yet  Gustavus 
III,  personally  a  friend  to  the  liberty  of 
the  press,  was  obliged  to  retain  the  cen- 
sorehip,  and  even  to  execute  it  with  se- 
verity, during  the  aristocratical  machina- 
tions which  disturbed  liis  reign,  and  which 
were  but  imperfectly  counteracted  in  the 
revolution  of  1771.  Gustavus  IV  issued 
an  edict  soon  after  he  ascended  the 
throne,  by  which  the  censorship  was  re- 
tained only  in  matters  of  religion,  and 
was  administered  by  the  consistories. 
This,  however,  was  not  permanent :  at 
first,  penalties  were  enacted,  and,  in  1802, 
the  censorship  was  enth-ely  reestablished, 
committed  to  the  chancellor  of  the  court, 
and  executed  with  seveiity.  French  and 
German  books  were  prohibited.  King 
Charles  XIII,  immediately  after  his  as- 
cension to  the  throne,  abolished  it  entirely 
*by  a  provisional  order  of  April  12,  1809, 
which  was  confirmed,  as  an  article  of  the 
constitution  (§  86),  June  6, 1809.  In  Den- 
mai-k,  by  a  royal  rescript  of  Sept.  14, 
1770  (under  die  minister  Struensee),  the 
censorship  was  wholly  aboUshed  ;  neither 
has  it  been  restored,  though  the  laws  by 
which  the  Uberty  of  the  press  has  been 
regulated  have  been  changing,  and  have 
sometimes  been  very  oppressive.  In 
France,  the  censorship,  like  so  many 
other  institutions,  was  annihilated  by  the 
revolution.  All  the  constitutions,  from 
1791  to  the  Charte  Constitutionelle  of  1814, 
declare  the  liberty  of  the  press  one  of  the 
fiindamental  laws.  During  the  republic, 
there  was  no  censorsliip,  but  the  revolu- 
tjonarj'  tribunals  took  its  place.  Najx)- 
leon  restored  it,  in  another  form,  by  the 
decree  of  Feb.  5,  1810  (Direction  de  Vlm- 
primerie).  Since  the  restoration,  it  has 
also  undergone  various  changes.  Books 
of  more  than  20  sheets  have  always  re- 
mained free,  but  the  censorship  has  been 
exercised  over  pamphlets  and  journals  at 
diflTerent  periods ;  for  the  last  time,  Aug. 
15,  1824,  just  before  the  death  of  Louis 
XVIII :  it  was,  however,  alx)lished  again 
by  the  present  king,  Sept.  29  of  the  same 
year.  For  the  establishment  of  new  po- 
litical journals,  the  permission  of  the  gov- 


ernment must  be  obtained,  and  bonds 
must  be  given  by  the  editors.  What 
changes  will  yet  be  made  in  France  re- 
mains to  be  seen.  The  introduction  of 
the  censorship  is  demanded  by  one  side, 
even  in  respect  to  books  already  j)ub- 
lislied.  In  the  kingdom  of  the  Nether- 
lands, the  censorship  is  abolished  by  a 
fiindameutal  statute  of  Aug.  24,  1815,  art. 
226.  Even  in  the  kingdom  of  Poland, 
this  was  formerly  the  case  (constitution 
of  Nov.  27,  1815,  art.  16),  but  it  has  been 
restored  by  a  decree  of  June  16,  1819. 
In  the  German  states,  the  libertj^  of  the 
press  was  much  restrained  till  1806,  the 
state-attorney  having  till  then  had  control 
over  it.  After  1814,  several  states  abol- 
ished the  censorship — Nassau  (decree  of 
May  4,  1814),  Weimar  (in  the  constitu- 
tion. May  5,  1816),  Wiirteniberg  (decree 
of  Jan.  30, 1817),  Bavaria  (May  26, 1818), 
grand-duchy  of  Hesse  (constitution  of 
Dec.  17,  1820,  §35),  though  with  very 
different  provisions  as  to  the  responsibili- 
ty of  authors,  printers  and  booksellers. 
(See  Press,  Lairs  of  the.)  In  accordance 
>vith  the  infamous  decrees  of  Carlsbad, 
1819,  and  the  resolutions  of  the  German 
diet  of  Sept.  20,  1819,  the  censorship  in 
all  the  states  of  the  German  confederation 
has  become  one  of  the  conditions  of 
union,  but  only  with  regard  to  books  of 
less  than  20  sheets,  and  journals.  These 
measures  were,  at  first,  adopted  only  for 
five  years,  but  are,  at  present,  continued 
indefinitely.  In  Russia  and  Austria,  there 
is  naturally  a  despotic  censorship.  In  the 
U.  States,  a  censorship  has  never  existed. 
Besides  the  different  degrees  of  severity 
with  which  the  censoi"ship  is  exercised  in 
dilferent  countries,  it  may  be  divided  into 
different  kinds,  according  to  the  field 
which  it  embraces.  1.  A  general  censor- 
ship of  the  book-trade  and  of  the  jiress, 
under  Avhich  even  foreign  books  cannot 
be  sold  without  the  consent  of  the  c%n- 
soi-s,  exists  in  Russia,  Austria,  Spain,  &c. 
(Austria  has,  in  the  censorship  of  foreign 
books,  four  formulas :  a.  admittitur,  en- 
tirely free ;  b.  transeat,  free,  but  without 
public  advertisements  for  sale  ;  c.  erga 
schedam,  to  be  sold  only  to  pubUc  officei-s 
and  literary  men,  on  the  delivery  of  a 
receipt ;  d.  damnatur,  entirely  forbidden.) 
2.  A  general  censorship  of  the  press,  ex- 
tending only  to  books  printed  in  the 
country,  exists  in  Prussia  (edict  of  Sept. 
19,  1788  ;  order  of  the  cabinet  of  Dec.  28, 
1824),  where,  however,  a  case  once  took 
place,  in  which  the  publications  of  a  for- 
eign bookseller,  Brockhaus  of  Leipsic, 
were  prohibited.    3.  A  limited  censor- 


CENSORSHIP  OF  BOOKS— BOONE. 


193 


sliip,  only  over  \vx)rks  of  less  than  20 
sheets,  and  journals,  is  at  present  the  law 
in  the  states  oi'tlie  German  confederation. 
(See  Press^  Liberty  of  the.) 

Boo.NE,  Daniel,  one  of  the  fii-st  adven- 
tiirers  who  penetrated  into  tlie  wilds  of 
Kentucicy,  was  born  iu  Virtpnia.  He 
was,  ahnost  from  his  infancy,  addicted  to 
hunting  m  the  woods,  "He  emigrated 
early  to  North  Carolina,  th^i  recently 
settled.  Having  determined  to  cross  the 
wilderness  bordering  on  the  Cumberland 
mountains,  in  quest  of  the  region  of  Ken- 
tucky, then  little  known,  he  set  out  on 
his  expedition,  with  five  companions,  3Iay 
1,  17tH'.  June  7,  they  arrived  at  Red 
river,  north  of  the  Kentucky.  A  short 
time  afterwards,  B.  ajid  one  of  his  com- 
panions, John  Stewart,  were  ca])tured  by 
a  party  of  savagee.  They  soon  escaped, 
but  could  discover  no  traces  of  their 
friends,  who  had  returned  home.  B.  and 
StewiuT  woukl  have  been  constrained  to 
tbllow  them,  had  not  Squire  B.,  the 
brother  of  Daniel,  pursued  their  tnick 
Irom  North  Carolina,  and  relieved  them 
with  a  few  necessaries.  Shortly  atter- 
wards,  Stewart  was  killed  by  the  Indians, 
and  the  two  Boones  were  left  the  only 
Avhite  men  in  the  wilderness.  They 
jiassed  the  winter  in  a  cabin.  In  May, 
1770,  B.'s  brother  returned  home.  In 
July  of  the  same  year,  however,  he  came 
back,  according  to  agreement.  They  then 
traversed  the  country  to  the  Cimiberland 
river,  and,  the  following  year,  returned  to 
their  families,  with  a  determination  of  re- 
moving with  them  to  Kentucky.  In 
September,  1773,  B.  commenced  his  re- 
moval to  Kentucky,  with  his  own,  and 
five  other  families,  and  was  joined  by  40 
men,  \Vho  placed  themselves  under  his 
guidance.  Being  attacked  by  the  Indians, 
(J  of  his  men  were  slain,  and  the  cattle 
belonging  to  the  party  dispersed.  The 
survivors  returned,  in  consequence,  to 
the  settlements  on  Chnch  river,  about  40 
miles  from  the  scene  of  action.  A  com- 
j)any  of  North  Carolina,  having  formed  a 
plan  of  purchasing  the  lands  on  the  south 
side  of  the  Kentucky  river  from  the 
southern  Indians,  employed  B.  to  buy  a 
tract  of  countrj',  the  limits  of  which  were 
described  to  him.  He  pcrtormed  the  ser- 
vice, and,  soon  after,  made  a  road  from 
the  settlements  on  the  Holston  to  the 
Kentucky  river,  notwithstanding  the  in- 
cessant attacks  of  the  Indians,  in  which  4 
of  his  men  were  killed  and  5  wounded. 
In  Apr.,  1775,  he  built  a  fort  at  a  salt-spring, 
on  the  southern  bank  of  the  Kentucky, 
Avhere  Boonesborough  is  now  situated. 

VOL.  II.  17 


It  consisted  of  a  block-house  and  several 
cabins,  enclosed  with  paUsades.  In  1777, 
he  sustained  two  sieges  in  Boonesborough 
from  the  Indians,  but  repulsed  them.  In 
the  following  year,  however,  Feb.  7,  B. 
\vas  taken  i>risoner  by  the  savages,  while 
hunting,  with  a  number  of  his  men.  In 
iVIay,  they  were  conducted  to  Detroit, 
where  they  experienced  gi-eat  kindness 
from  governor  Hamilton,  the  British  com- 
mander of  that  post.  He  even  oftered  the 
Indians  £100  for  their  prisoner,  in  order 
that  he  might  liberate  him  on  parole,  but 
they  would  not  ])art  with  him,  having  con- 
ceived for  him  sentiments  of  great  affec- 
tion and  res])ect.  On  his  return,  he  was 
adopted  by  one  of  the  priucij)al  chiefs  at 
Chilicothe,  and  might  have  been  hapj)y 
in  this  situation,  had  not  the  thoughts  of 
his  wife  and  children  continually  kept 
alive  the  desire  of  escape.  This  he  ef- 
fected one  morning,  having  risen  at  the 
usual  hunting  hour,  and  departed,  appa- 
rently for  the  woods,  but  in  reahty  tor 
Booneslwrough.  He  arrived  tliere  on  the 
20th  of  June,  after  a  journey  of  IGO  miles, 
which  he  performed  in  4  days,  having 
eaten,  it  is  said,  but  one  meal  during  that 
time.  On  the  8th  of  August,  a  body  of 
savages,  to  the  number  of  450,  commanil- 
ed  by  Canadian  Frenchmen  and  some  of 
their  own  chiefs,  invested  the  fort,  with 
British  coloi-s  flying.  B.  was  summoned 
to  surrender,  but  announced  his  deter- 
mination, and  that  of  the  garrison,  who 
amounted  to  but  50  men,  "  to  defend  the 
fort  as  long  as  a  man  of  them  was  alive." 
The  enemy  then  resolved  to  obtain  it  by 
stratagem,  and  requested  that  nine  of  the 
prmcipal  pei-sons  of  the  garrison  would 
come  out  and  treat  with  them,  promising 
terms  so  favorable,  that  the  invitation  was 
accepted.  After  the  articles  of  the  treaty 
had  been  signed,  B.  and  his  companions 
were  told  that  it  was  customan,  upon 
such  occasions,  among  the  Indians,  for 
two  of  them  to  shake  each  white  man  by 
the  hand,  in  order  to  evince  the  sincerity 
of  their  friendship.  This  was  also  agreed 
to ;  and,  accordingly,  two  Indians  ap- 
proached each  of  the  nine,  and,  taking  his 
hand,  grappled  him,  with  the  intent  of 
making  him  prisoner.  Their  object  being 
then  immediately  perceived,  B.  and  his 
jjarty  extricated  themselves,  and  retreated 
into  the  fort,  amid'  a  heavy  fire  from  the 
savages.  An  attack  was  then  quickly 
commenced,  and  continued  until  the  20th 
of  August,  when  the  enemy  abandoned 
the  siege.  This  was  the  last  attempt  of 
the  Indians  to  possess  themselves  of 
Boonesborough.    In  October,  as  B.  was 


194 


BOONE— BOOTAN. 


returning  from  the  Blue  Licks,  with  his 
brother,  tlie  latter  was  slain,  aiid  B.  pur- 
sued by  a  party  of  Indians  for  three  miles, 
by  the  aid  of  a  dog;  but,  having  killed  the 
animal,  he  escaped.  lu  1782,  the  depre- 
dations of  tlie  savages  increasing  to  an 
intolerable  extent,  B.,  with  other  mihtia 
officers,  collected  176  men,  and  went  in 
pursuit  of  a  large  body,  who  had  march- 
ed beyond  the  Blue  Licks  to  a  bend  of 
the  main  fork  of  the  Licking  river,  40 
miles  from  Lexington.  They  overtook 
them  August  19,  but,  being  much  inferi- 
or in  numbers,  were  obliged  to  retreat. 
General  Clark,  then  at  the  falls  of  the 
Ohio,  immediately  assembled  a  consider- 
able number  of  men,  and  commenced  the 
I)ursuit  of  the  savages,  accompanied  by 
B.  From  that  time  until  1798,  B.  resided 
alternately  in  Kentucky  and  iu  Virginia. 
In  that  year,  he  removed  to  Upper  Louis- 
iana, where  he  received  a  grant  from  tlie 
Spanish  authorities  of  2000  acres  of  land. 
His  cliildren,  friends  and  followers  wei-e 
also  presented,  with  800  acres  each.  He 
settled  with  them  on  the  Missouri  river, 
at  Charette,  some  distance  beyond  the 
inhabited  paits  of  tlie  couutrj',  where  he 
followed  his  usual  course  of  life — hunting, 
and  trapping  for  bears — until  Sept.,  1822, 
when  he  died,  at  tlie  residence  of  his  son, 
major  A.  Boone,  in  IMontgomery  county, 
in  the  85th  year  of  his  age.  He  had  been 
gradually  declining  for  some  years  previ- 
ous to  his  decease.  It  is  related,  that, 
some  tune  before  that  event,  he  had  two 
coffins  made  out  of  a  favorite  cheny-tree, 
llie  first  of  which,  not  fitting,  he  gave  to  a 
son-in-law ;  in  the  second  he  was  buried, 
havuig  bestowed  on  it  a  fine  polish  by  a 
coui-se  of  rubbing  for  several  yeai-s.  His 
sons  and  daughters  still  reside  in  Mis- 
souri. 

Boors.  The  peasants  of  Russia  are 
divided  into  two  classes— /ree  boors  and 
vassal  boors.  The  former  cajiuot  be  alien- 
ated or  sold.  The  latter  are  mere  slaves, 
not  being  capable  of  possessing  property, 
but,  with  their  families,  being  at  the  dis- 
])0sal  of  their  lords.  They  are  of  three 
sorts — ^the  crown  boors,  the  tnine  boors  and 
the  private  boors.  The  crown  boors  are, 
some  of  them,  considered  as  absolute  prop- 
erty ;  others  are  attached  to  the  mines  or 
soil,  while  many  are  only  obliged  to  per- 
form a  certain  quantity  of  labor,  or  to  pay 
a  certain  proportion  of  the  produce  of  it. 
Their  condition  is  superior  to  that  of  tlie 
other  two  classes,  as  they  usually  pay  an 
annual  abrock,  or  rent,  of  about  five  rubles 
each,  and  enjoy  the  rest  of  their  earnings 
undisturbed.    They  are  allowed  also  to 


purchase  from  noblemen  lands  or  villages, 
with  the  vassals  belonguig  to  them.  The 
mine  boors  are  unalienably  attached  to 
particular  mines,  and  may  be  transferred 
with  them  to  different  masters.  The  third 
sort,  or  private  boors,  are  those  belonging 
to  the  nobles.  Their  condition  depends 
on  the  character  of  their  masters :  it  is 
sometimes  veiy  comfortable,  but  often 
most  wretched.  In  the  richest  provinces, 
according  to  the  testimony  of  doctor 
Clarke,  you  may  find  them  dying  of  hun- 
ger, or  pining  from  bad  food.  Pastures, 
covered  with  cattle,  yield  no  milk  for 
them.  The  harv^est  supphes  no  bread  for 
llieir  children.  The  lord  claims  all  the 
produce.  Some  attempts  were  made  by 
Alexander  (q.  v.)  to  alleviate  their  condi- 
tion, but  private  interests  interfered  with 
thQ  benevolent  intentions  of  the  govern- 
ment. 

BooTAN ;  an  extensive  region  of  North- 
ern Hindostan,  lying  between  Bengal 
and  Thiljet.  It  is  about  250  miles  from 
east  to  west,  and  90  from  north  to  south  ; 
but  its  eastern  boundaries  are  imperfectly 
known.  It  fonns  a  portion  of  the  decliv- 
ity of  that  stupendous  Alpuie  chain,  of 
which  Thibet  occupies  the  table  land. 
Notwithstanding  it  is  mountainous,  and, 
in  many  parts,  extremely  cold,  tlie  coun- 
try is  productive,  and  highly  cultivated, 
the  slope  of  the  mountams  being  cut 
into  terraces  for  this  purpose.  As  it 
is  situated  without  the  tropics,  it  is  free 
fi;om  periodical  rains ;  and  the  climate  is, 
in  general,  moderate,  calculated  to  bring 
forth  both  European  and  Asiatic  fi-uits 
and  vegetables.  Thus  we  find  the  trees 
and  shrubs  of  Northern  Europe,  in  sight 
of  the  large  forests,  and  a  rank  vegetation 
of  plants  strictly  tropical.  The  Deb  Rajah, 
who  resides  at  Tassisudon,  is  the  prince 
of  tlie  countiy,  but  is  tributary  to  the 
grand  lama  of  Thibet.  The  inhabitants 
are  robust,  active  and  ferocious.  They 
have  the  Tartar  features.  They  are  of 
the  Boodh  rehgion,  and  leave  most  of  the 
labor  to  the  women.  Their  houses  are, 
m  general,  of  only  one  storj",  but  the  pal- 
ace of  the  rajah  is  a  lofty  pile.  From  the 
precipitous  nature  of  the  countrj',  they 
are  obliged  to  use  numerous  bridges, 
many  of  which  are  constructed  with  ropes 
and  iron  chains.  B.  produces  a  hardy 
breed  of  horses,  about  13  hands  high, 
called  tangans.  A  caravan  is  sent  annu- 
ally by  the  jirince  Deb  Rajah,  who  is  the 
only  merchant  in  the  dominions,  to  Rung- 
pore,  in  Bengal.  The  goods  which  are 
carried  by  the  tangahs  are  coarse  woollen 
cloths,  cow-tails  from  Thibet,  bees-wax, 


BOOTAN— BORA. 


195 


ivory,  musk,  gold  dust,  silver  ingots,  with 
silks,  tea,  paper  and  kuives  from  China, 
with  which  B.  has  a  close  intercourse. 
The  current  coin  is  the  Narainy  rupee  of 
Couch  Behar,  worth  about  20  cents.  The 
customs  of  tlie  inhabitants  resemble  those 
of  tlie  Bii-mans  or  inhabitants  of  Ava, 
more  than  they  do  those  of  their  nearer 
neighbors  of  Thibet  or  Assam. 

Bootes  ;  a  northern  constellation,  called, 
also,  by  the  Greeks,  Ardophylax,  and,  by 
the  Englisli,  Charles's  Wain.  Arcturus  was 
placed,  by  the  ancients,  on  his  breast ;  by 
the  moderns,  on  the  skirt  of  his  coat. 
Fable  relates  that  Philomelus,  son  of 
Ceres  and  Jasion,  having  been  robbed  by 
his  brotlier  Plutus,  invented  the  plough, 
}  oked  two  bulls  to  it,  and  thus  supported 
himself  by  cultivating  the  gi-ound.  Ceres, 
to  reward  his  ingenuity,  transferred  him, 
w  ith  his  cattle,  under  the  name  of  Bootes, 
to  the  heavens. 

Booth,  Barton,  an  actor  of  great  celeb- 
rity in  the  reigns  of  queen  Aune  and 
George  I,  was  born  in  1681,  and  placed, 
imder  doctor  Busby,  at  Westminster 
school.  An  early  attachment  for  the  di-a- 
ma  was  fostered  by  the  applause  he  met 
with  while  performing  a  part  in  one  of 
Terence's  plays,  at  the  annual  'exhibition 
in  that  seminary.  He  eloped  from  school 
at  the  age  of  17,  and  joined  Ashbury's 
company  of  strolling  players,  with  Avhom 
lie  went  to  Dublin.  After  performing 
three  years  in  the  Iiish  capital  with  gi'eat 
applause,  he  returned,  in  1701,  to  Lon- 
don, and,  engaging  with  Betterton,  met 
with  similar  success.  On  tlie  death  of 
that  manager,  he  joined  the  Druiy  lane 
company,  and,  on  the  production  of  Cato, 
in  ]  712,  raised  his  reputation  as  a  trage- 
dian to  the  highest  pitch,  by  his  perform- 
ance of  the  pinncipal  character.  It  was 
on  this  occasion  that  lord  Bolingbroke 
presented  him  from  the  stage-box  with  50 
guineas — an  example  which  was  imme- 
diately followed  by  that  nobleman's  polit- 
ical opponents.  Declamation,  rather  than 
passion,  appeai-s  to  have  been  his  forte, 
though  Cibber  speaks  of  his  Othello  as 
his  finest  character.  He  became  a  pat- 
entee and  manager  of  the  theatre  in  1713, 
in  conjunction  with  Wilks,  Cibber  and 
Doggett,  and  died  May,  1733.  He  was 
buried  in  Westminster  abbey,  Avhere  there 
is  a  monument  to  liis  memor}\  He  was 
the  author  of  Dido  and  iEneas,  a  mask, 
various  so))gs,  &c.,  and  the  translator  of 
several  odes  of  Horace. 

Bopp,  Francis,  bom  in  1791,  at  Mentz, 
went  to  Paris,  in  the  autumn  of  1812,  in 
prder  to  become  accjuainted  with  the  Ori- 


ental, and,  in  particular,  with  the  Indian 
language  and  literature.  While  study- 
ing these,  he  did  not  neglect  Arabian  and 
Pei-sian,  and  found  in  Elmina  von  Chezy 
and  Sylvestre  de  Sacy,  as  well  as  in  Au- 
gustus William  von  Schlegel,  friends  who 
willingly  assisted  him  in  his  investiga- 
tions. With  a  small  pension  from  the 
king  of  Bavaria,  he  lived  five  years  in 
Paris,  afterwards  hi  London,  then  in  Got- 
tingen,  devoted  to  his  favorite  studies  with 
tlie  gi'eatest  perseverance.  He  was  now 
made  professor  of  the  Oriental  languages 
in  Berlin.  He  wrote  on  the  system  of 
conjugation  in  the  Sanscrit  language, 
compared  with  that  of  the  Greek,  Latin, 
Pereian  and  German  tongues,  and  accom- 
panied his  remarks  with  translations  of 
extracts  from  Indian  poems  (Frankfort 
on  the  Maine,  1816).  He  also  published 
works  with  the  following  titles:  Srima- 
hahharate  J^alopakhajanam,  J^alas,  carmen 
Sanscritum,  e  Mahabharato,  edidit,  Latine 
vertit  et  adnot.  illust.,  Fr.  Bopp,  London, 
Paris  and  Berlin ;  Complete  System  of  the 
Sanscrit  Language ;  IndralokagamaTian, 
Voyage  of  Ardscliura  to  the  Sky  of  In- 
dra;  together  with  other  Episodes  of 
Masabsarah,  published  for  the  fii-st  Time 
in  the  original  Language,  and  translated  in 
Metre,  with  a  Commentary. 

Bora,  Catharine  von,  wife  of  Luther, 
was  born  in  1499.  Her  birth-place  is  not 
known,  and  of  her  parents  we  only  know 
that  her  mother,  Anna,  was  descended 
from  one  of  the  most  ancient  families  of 
Germany,  that  of  Hugewitz  (Haugewitz). 
The  daughter  took  the  veil,  very  early,  in 
the  nunnery  of  Nimptschen,  near  Grim- 
ma,  Notwithstanding  her  devout  dispo- 
sition, she  soon  felt  very  unhappy  in  her 
situation,  and,  as  her  relations  would  not 
listen  to  her,  applied,  with  eight  other 
nuns,  to  Luther,  whose  fame  had  reached 
them.  Luther  gained  over  a  citizen  of 
Torgau,  by  the  name  of  Leonard  Koppe, 
who,  in  union  with  some  other  citizens, 
undertook  to  deliver  the  nine  nuns  from 
their  convent.  This  was  done  the  night 
after  Good  Friday,  April-  4,  1523.  He 
brought  them  to  Torgau,  and  from  thence 
to  Wittenberg,  where  Luther  provided 
them  a  decent  abode.  At  the  same  time, 
to  anticipate  the  charges  of  his  enemies, 
he  published  a  letter  to  Koppe,  in  which 
he  frankly  confessed  that  he  was  the  au-. 
thorof  this  enterprise,  and  had  pei-suaded 
Koppe  to  its  execution ;  that  he  had  done 
so  in  the  confident  hope  that  Jesus  Christ, 
who  had  restored  his  gospel,  and  destroy- 
ed the  kingdom  of  Antichrist,  would  be 
their  protector,  though  it  might  cost  them 


196 


BORA— BORACIC  ACID. 


even  life.  He  also  exliorted  the  parents 
anil  relations  of  the  nine  virgins  to  admit 
then)  again  into  their  houses.  Some  of 
them  were  received  by  citizens  of  Wit- 
tenberg; others,  who  were  not  yet  too 
old,  Luther  advised  to  marry.  Among 
tlie  latter  was  Catharine,  whom  Phiiij) 
Reichenbach,  at  that  time  mayor  of  the 
city,  had  taken  into  his  house.  Luther 
pro])osed  to  her  (by  his  friend  Nicholas 
von  Amsdorf,  minister  in  Wittenberg) 
doctor  Kaspar  Glaz  and  others  in  m&r- 
riage.  She  declined  tliese  proposals,  but 
declared  her  wilhngness  to  bestow  her 
liand  on  Nicholas  von  Amsdorf,  or  on 
Luther  himself.  Luther,  who,  in  1524, 
bad  laid  aside  the  cowl,  was  not  avei-se  to 
matrimony,  yet  appears  to  have  been  led 
to  the  resolution  of  marr}'ing  by  reason 
rather  than  by  passion.  Besides,  he  was 
not  then  favorably  inclined  towards  Catha- 
rine, because  he  suspected  her  of  worldly 
vanity.  He  says,  however,  that  he  found 
in  her  a  pious  and  faithful  wife.  There 
could  be  no  want  of  disadvantageous  ru- 
inoi"s  on.  this  occasion,  some  of  them  as 
shameful  as  they  were  unfounded.  The 
domestic  peace  of  the  pair  was  also  drawn 
into  question,  and.  Catharine,  in  particular, 
was  accused  of  being  peevish  and  domi- 
neering, so  that  lier  husband  was  often 
obliged  to  correct  her.  Although  this 
last  story  is  without  foundation,  yet  Lu- 
ther seems  not  to  have  been  fully  satisfied 
with  her ;  for  he  speaks  with  great  sincer- 
ity of  the  sufferings,  as  well  as  of  the  hap- 
piness, of  his  marriage.  When,  after  Lu- 
ther's death,  in  1547,  Chai-les  V  entered 
Wittenberg  in  triumph,  Cathamie  saw 
herself  obliged  to  leave  this  place,  and  to 
remove  to  Leipsic,  where  she  was  com- 
pelled to  take  boarders  lor  her  support. 
She  afterwards  returned  to  Wittenberg, 
and  lived  there  till  1552  in  Avant.  When 
the  plague  broke  out  in  this  place,  and 
the  university  was  removed  to  Torgau, 
slie  went  thither  also,  arrived  there  sick, 
and  died  soon  after  (Dec.  27,  1552).  In 
the  church  of  Torgau  her  tomb-stone  is 
still  to  be  seen,  on  which  is  her  image,  of 
the  natural  size. 

BoRAcic  Acid,  uncombined,  exists  in 
several  small  lakes  in  Tuscany,  at  Volca- 
no, one  of  the  Lipari  islanrls,  and  in  the 
hot  springs  near  Sasso,  in  the  Florentine 
territory,  from  whose  watei-s  it  is  deposit- 
ed by  natural  evaporation.  It  is  easily 
obtained  also  from  borax,  a  native  salt, 
composed  of  this  acid  and  soda,  by  dis- 
solving it  in  boiling  water,  and  gradually 
adding  sulphuric  acid  to  engage  the  soda: 
the  boracic  acid  is  ia  this  maimer  set  at 


liberty,  and  is  deposited  in  crystals  on  the 
cooling  of  the  liquid  :  these,  when  wash- 
ed witli  cold  water  and  dried,  are  per- 
fectly pure.  In  tliis  state,  it  presents 
the  form  of  brilliant,  white,  hexagonal 
scales,  soft  and  greasy  to  the  touch,  and 
having  a  specific  gravity  of  1.479.  Its 
taste,  when  first  taken  into  the  mouth,  is 
sourish  ;  afterwards  it  becomes  bitter,  and 
finally  leaves  a  sweetish  impression  upon 
the  tongue.  It  is  slightly  soluble  in  wa- 
ter, and  much  more  so  in  alcohol,  to 
which,  when  burning,  it  communicates  a 
green  color.  It  contains  43  per  cent,  of 
water,  which  it  parts  with,  on  being  heat- 
ed to  redness,  when  it  melts  into  a  trans- 
parent glass,  and  is  called  calcined  boracic 
acid. — Boracic  acid  was  discovered  by  sir 
H.  Davy  to  be  a  compound  of  a  peculiar 
base,  which  he  called  boron,  and  oxygen, 
in  the  proportion  of  8  parts  of  the  former 
to  IG  of  the  latter.  Its  principles  are  sep- 
arated both  by  means  of  galvanism  and 
by  the  action  of  potassium.  Boron  is  a 
tasteless  and  inodorous  substance,  in  the 
form  of  a  greenish-browai  powder.  It  is 
insoluble  in  water,  ether,  alcohol  and  oils; 
nor  does  it  fuse  when  subjected  to  the 
strongest  heats.  By  exposure  to  common 
air,  it  gradually  becomes  oxygenated, 
and,  when  heated  in  oxygen  gas,  bums 
vividly,  and  is  converted  into  boracic  acid. 
— Boracic  acid  is  sometimes  employed  in 
the  analysis  of  minerals,  and  for  soldering 
metals  in  the  arts ;  and,  since  its  discovery 
in  such  abundance  in  tlie  Italian  springs 
and  lakes,  it  has  also  been  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  borax,  being  united  with 
soda. — The  most  important  combination 
formed  by  boracic  acid  is  tliat  with  soda, 
commonly  called  borax.  It  is  brought 
into  Europe,  in  an  impure  state,  from  the 
East  Indies,  under  the  name  of  tincal,  and 
is  understood  to  occur  principally  in  cer- 
tain lakes,  from  whence  it  is  obtained  by 
evaporation.  It  is  also  reported  to  be  dug 
from  the  earth  in  Thibet,  and  to  exist  in 
the  mines  of  Riquintipa  and  Escapa,  in 
South  America.  A  knowledge  of  its 
manufacture  was,  for  a  long  time,  confin- 
ed to  the  Venetians  and  HoTlanders.  This 
is  noAv  known  to  consist  in  boiling  car- 
bonate of  soda  with  the  calcined  tincal,  in 
order  to  saturate  its  excess  of  acid :  12 
})Ounds  of  carbonate  of  soda  are  requisite 
for  every  100  pounds  of  washed  tincal,  in 
the  water:  the  lie  is  left  to  cool  gradually 
and  crystaHize.  The  French  nation  man- 
ufacture their  borax  (of  which  they  con- 
sume about  25  tons  annually)  from  the 
boracic  acid  found  in  the  Italian  lakes ;  in 
consequence  of  which  the  price  of  tliis 


BORACIC  ACID— BORDELAIS  WINES. 


197 


article  hiis  fallen  in  France  from  five  shil- 
lings and  ten  pence  the  pound,  to  two 
sliilljngs  and  two  pence.  The  process 
which  they  adojJt  is  to  dissolve  1200 
pounds  of  carhonate  of  soda  in  1000 
pounds  of  water,  to  which  is  added,  by  20 
pounds  at  a  time,  GOO  pounds  of  Tuscan 
boracic  acid.  This  is  done  in  a  leaden 
boiler,  of  double  the  capacity  requisite  to 
contain  Uie  materials,  in  order  to  pro\"ide 
for  the  effervescence  which  takes  place. 
The  heat  is  kept  up  for  30  hours,  when 
the  clean  hquid  is  drawn  off  into  leaden 
coolers,  a  foot  in  deplli,  where  the  first 
crop  of  crystals  deposits  itself  in  three  days. 
100  pounds  of  the  best  Tuscan  boracic 
acid  produce  about  150  of  borax. — Borax 
a))pears  in  crystalline  masses  of  a  mode- 
i-ate  size,  or  in  distinct  hexagonal  prisms, 
terminated  by  three  or  six-sided  pyra- 
mids ;  is  of  a  white  color,  and  transparent. 
It  requires  20  parts  of  cold  and  6  of  boil- 
ing water  for  its  solution.  Exposed  to 
heat,  it  swells  up,  boils,  loses  its  water  of 
crystallization,  and  becomes  converted  in- 
to a  porous,  wliite,  opaque  mass,  common- 
ly called  calcined  borax.  A  stronger  heat 
brings  it  to  the  form  of  a  vitreous  trans- 
parent sidjstance,  in  which  state  it  is 
known  under  the  name  of  glass  ofbora-x. 
Borax  forms  one  of  the  best  fluxes  known. 
It  is  used  in  the  analy.sis  of  minerals  by 
the  blow-pipe,  in  melting  the  precious 
metals,  in  forming  artificial  gems,  and  in 
soldering. — Another  native  combination 
of  boracic  acid  is  that  with  magnesia, 
known,  in  mineralogy,  under  the  name  of 
boracite.  It  is  found  in  small  ciystals, 
imbedded  in  gj'psum,  near  Lunenburg, 
in  Lower  Saxony,  and  at  Segeborg,  in 
Holstein.  Their  form  is  that  of  a  cul)e, 
with  the  edges  and  four  of  the  solid  an- 
gles truncated.  They  are  remarkable  for 
tlieir  electric  properties,  becoming,  when 
heated,  negatively  electrified  at  their  per- 
fect angles,  and  positively  so  at  their  trun- 
cated angles. 

BoRAK  Al.    (See  Alhorak.) 

BoRDA,  Jean  Charles;  born  at  Dax,  in 
the  department  of  Landes,  in  1733;  an 
engineer,  and  afterwards  a  captain  in  the 
French  marine,  famous  for  his  mathemat- 
ical talents.  In  175G,  he  was  chosen  a 
member  of  the  academy  of  sciences,  and 
occupied  himself  in  making  experiments 
on  the  resistance  of  fluids,  the  velocity  of 
motion,  and  other  topics  relating  to  dy- 
namical science.  In  17G7,  he  pubUshed 
a  dissertation  on  hydraulic  wheels,  and 
afterwards  one  on  the  construction  of 
hydraulic  machinery.  In  1771,  with  Ver- 
dune  and  Pmgr6,  he  made  a  voyage  to 
17* 


America,  to  determine  the  longitude  and 
latitude  of  several  coasts,  isles  and  shoals, 
and  to  try  the  utihty  of  several  astronom^ 
ical  instruments.  In  1774,  he  visited  the 
Azores,  the  cape  Verde  islands,  and  the 
coast  of  Africa,  for  the  same  purpose.  In 
the  American  war,  he  was  very  useful  to 
the  count  d'Estaing,  by  his  knowledge  of 
navigation.  In  later  times,  he  visited 
a  second  time  the  Azores,  the  cape  Verde 
islands,  and  the  coast  of  Africa ;  but  the 
observations  which  he  made  in  this  voy- 
age have  not  been  published.  B.  was  the 
founder  of  the  schools  of  naval  architect- 
ure in  France.  He  invented  an  instru- 
ment, of  a  very  small  diameter,  which 
measures  angles  with  the  greatest  accu- 
racy, and  which  has  been  used  in  meas- 
uring the  meridian ;  the  reflecting  circle, 
which  has  made  his  name  innnortal ; 
besides  an  instrument  for  measuruig  the 
incliiiation  of  the  compass  needle,  and 
many  others.  On  the  establishment  of  the 
national  institute,  he  became  one  of  its 
members,  and  was  occupied,  with  other 
men  of  science,  in  framing  the  new  sys- 
tem of  weights  and  measures  adopted  in 
France  under  the  republican  government. 
Among  the  latest  of  his  labors  was  a  series 
of  exjjeriments  to  discover  the  length  of 
a  pendulum  which  should  vibrate  seconds, 
in  the  latitude  of  Paris.  Among  his  wri- 
tings are  Recherches  sur  la  Resistance  des 
Fluides ;  JVouvelle  Methode  pour  observer 
la  Longueur  du  Pendule ;  JVouveau  Sys- 
Ume  de  Poids  et  Mesures,  adopU  par  les 
I'Aais  Generaux,  &c.  The  principal  are 
his  Voyage,  published  in  2  vols,  in  1778, 
and  his  Tables  Trigonometriques  Deci- 
males,  which  have  been  edited  by  Dcr 
lambre.  B.  died  at  Paris,  in  1799, 
Bordeaux.  (See  Bourdeaux.) 
BoRDELAis  WixEs.  The  finer  red 
wines  of  the  Bordelais  (countiy  round 
Bourdeaux)  are  the  best  ^vhich  France 
produces.  They  contain  but  httle  alcohol, 
keej)  well,  and  even  improve  by  removal. 
As  the  original  fermentation  is  complete, 
they  are,  if  judiciously  managed,  less 
subject  to  disorder  and  acidity  than 
the  Burgundy  wines.  None  of  the  very 
best  quality,  however,  is  exported  pure :  a 
bottle  of  the  best  Chdteaux-Margaux,  or 
Haut-Brion,  is  a  rarity  hardly  to  be  pro- 
cured in  Bourdeaux  itself,  at  the  rate  of 
six  or  seven  fi-ancs  a  bottle.  For  export, 
the  secondary  growths  of  Medoc  are  min- 
gled with  the  rough  Palus.  The  red 
wines  of  the  Bordelais  are  known  in  Eng- 
land and  North  America  under  the  name 
of  claret.  They  have  less  aroma  and 
spirit,  but  more  astringeucy,  than  the  Bur- 


198 


BORDELAIS  WINES— BOREAS. 


gundy  wines.  The  Bordelais  are  the  safest 
wines  for  daily  use,  as  they  are  among 
the  most  perfect  of  the  hght  wines,  and 
do  not  easily  excite  intoxication.     They 
have  been  accused  of  i)roducing  tlie  gout, 
but  without  reason.    Pei-sons  who  drencli 
tliemselves  with  JMadeira,  Port,  &c.,  and 
indulge  in  an  occasional  debauch  of  claret, 
may,  indeed,  be  visited  in  that  way ;  be- 
cause a  transition  from  the  strong  bran- 
died  wines  to  the  lighter  is  always  fol- 
lowed by  a  dci-angement  of  the  digestive 
organs.  The  principal  vineyards  are  tliose 
of  Medoc,   Graves,   Palus    and    Vignes 
Blanches;  after  these,  those  of  Eutre- 
deux-Mei-s,  St.  Emilion  and  the  Bourgeais 
are  the  most  important.    The  first  growth 
of  M6doc  are  tlie  famous  wines  of  Cha- 
teaux-Margaux,  Lafittc  and  Latour.    The 
Lqfitte  is  characterized  by  its  silky  soil- 
ness on  the  palate,  and  a  perfume  partak- 
ing of  violet  and  raspberry.    The  Laiour 
is  fuller,  has  more  aroma,  but  less  softness. 
The  Chateaiix-Mar^aiLx  is  lighter  than 
the  Latour;  and  delicate,  like  the  Lafitte, 
but  has  not  so  high  a  flavor.     Of  the  sec- 
ond growth,  we  may  mention  the  Rauran 
and  the  Leoville.     The  average  produce 
of  the  first  gi-owth  is  100  ionneau  (of  217 
gallons  each).     The  soil  of  Medoc  is  a 
sandy  and  calcarious  loam.    The  gravelly 
lands  [les  Graves),  to  the  south  and  west 
of  Bourdeaux,  produce  the  Graves.    The 
first  growth  of  the  red  Graves  is  the  Ilaut- 
Brion,  which  rivals  the  first  growth  of 
Medoc ;  it  has  more  color  and  body,  but 
is  inferior  in  aroma    and    taste.      The 
principal  white  Graves  are  St.  Bris  and 
Carbonieux.  The  best  Medoc  ought  to  be 
kept  three  or  four  yeai's  before  removal ; 
the  Graves  five  or  six.     The  wines  of 
Palus,  which  is  a  bed  of  rich  alluvial  de- 
posits, are  inferior  to  tlie  preceding ;  they 
are  stronger  and  more  deeply  colored  than 
those  of  Medoc.    Being  hard  and  rough, 
they  are   improved    by  a  voyage,   and 
are  principally  sent  to  the  East  Indies 
and  America  as  vins  de  cargaison,  or  are 
mixed  with  Medoc,  which  is  intended  for 
exportation.   By  the  voyage,  they  become 
more  light  and  delicate,  but  are  not  to  be 
compared  with  the  growths  of  Medoc  and 
the  Graves.    The  best  are  Queyries  and 
Mt.  Ferrand.      The  former  are  deeply 
colored,  and  have  much  body.    Age  gives 
them  an  agreeable  aroma,  resembling  that 
of  a  raspberry.    Among  the  white  Borde- 
lais wines,  besides  those  already  mention- 
ed, the    finest    growths  are    Sauternes, 
Preignac,  Barsac  and  Bommes.   Martillac 
and  St.  Medard  are  of  a  good  quahty,  and 
have  lightness  and  body.     Dariste,  for- 


merly Dulamon,  is  equ.nl  to  St.  Bris  and 
Carbonieux.  Among  other  red  wines  are 
the  Bourgeais,  which  are  of  a  fine  color, 
and  acquire  by  age  lightness  and  an 
agreeable  almond  aroma:  of  all  the  Bor- 
delais Avines,  they  most  resemble  the  Bur- 
gundy wines.  The  first  growths  are 
Debosquet,  Chateau-Rousset,  Tajac  and 
Falfax.  The  Bourgeais  wnes  were  for- 
merly preferred  to  M6doc.  The  wines 
of  St.  Emilion  have  been  much  esteemed. 
The  Frousac  and  Canon  are  the  best. 
Those  of  Entre-deux-Mers  become  agree- 
able with  age.  The  vins  de  Cotes  are  good 
vins  ordinaircs :  they  are  generally /erwic* 
and  hard,  and  improve  by  age.  The  best 
are  those  of  Bassens  and  Cenon.  Tliose 
of  St.  Gervais,  Cadillac  and  St.  Romain 
are  sofi;  and  agreeable.  (For  further  ui- 
formation,  see  Le  Guide  ou  Conducteur 
de  VEtranger  a  Bordeaux ;  9d  ed.,  Bour- 
deaux, 18*27,  which  contains  a  minute 
account  of  the  wines  raised  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  Bourdeaux.  See,  also,  A. 
Henderson's  History  of  the  indent  and 
Modem  Vr'ines,  4to.,  London,  1824.)  The 
light  wuies  of  Bourdeaux  might  be  very 
advantageously  substituted,  in  the  U. 
States,  for  the  strong  Uquore  too  generally 
drank  in  this  countiy. 

BoRDENTOWN,  in  New  Jersey  ;  on  the 
east  side  of  the  Delaware,  26  miles  N.  E. 
of  Philadelphia.  It  is  a  small,  pleasant 
town,  and  now  the  residence  of  Joseph 
Bonaparte. 

BoRDO.vE,  Paris,  a  celebrated  painter 
of  the  Venetian  school,  bom  at  Treviso, 
in  1500,  died  in  1570.  Under  Titian,  lie 
made  rapid  progress  in  painting.  The 
execution  of  many  works  for  his  native 
city  and  fpr  Venice  spread  his  fame  as 
far  as  France,  whither  he  was  invited  by 
the  king.  The  galleries  of  Dresden  and 
Vienna  possess  several  of  liis  pieces. 
His  most  famous  picture  is  the  Old  Gon- 
dolier presenting  a  Ring  to  the  Doge;  it  is 
painted  in  oil,  and  now  to  be  seen  at 
Venice. 
Boreal  ;  nortliem. 

Boreas  ;  the  north  wind,  worshipped 
by  the  Greeks  as  a  deity,  residing  in 
Thrace,  and  represented  with  wings, 
wliich,  as  well  as  his  hair  and  beard, 
were  full  of  flakes  of  snow ;  instead  of 
feet,  he  had  the  tails  of  serpents,  and,  with 
the  train  of  his  garment,  he  stirred  up 
clouds  of  dust.  Boreas  was  the  son  of 
Astreus  and  of  Aurora.  When  Apollo 
and  his  favorite  Hyacinthus  were  once 
playing  at  quoits,  he  blew  the  quoit  of  the 
former,  of  whom  he  was  jealous,  upon 
the  head  of  the  youth,  who  was  killed  by 


BOREAS— BORGHESE. 


199 


the  blow.  By  Orithya,  daughter  of  Erec- 
theus  of  Athena,  he  was  father  of  Cleopa- 
trd,  Chione,  Calais  and  Zeles.  The  last 
two  partook  m  the  Argonautic  expedi- 
tion. 

BoRGHESE ;  a  Roman  family,  which 
derives  its  origin  from  Sienna.  They 
have  held  the  highest  offices  m  tliis  re- 
public, from  the  middle  of  the  15th  cen- 
tury. Pope  Paul  V,  who  belonged  to 
this  family,  and  ascended  the  paj)al  chair 
in  1G05,  loaded  his  relations  witli  honors 
and  riches.  In  1G07,  he  appointed  his 
brother,  Francesco  B.,  leader  of  the  trooj)s 
sent  against  Venice  to  maintain  the  papal 
claims;  bestowed  the  principality  of  Sul- 
nione  on  Marco  Antonio  B.,  the  son  of 
his  brother  Giovanni  Battista ;  granted  liim 
a  revenue  of  150,000  dollars,  and  obtained 
for  him  the  title  of  a  grandee  of  Spain. 
Another  of  his  nephews,  Scipione  CafiJi- 
relli,  he  created  cardinal,  and  made  him 
adopt  the  name  of  B.  From  3Iarco  An- 
tonio B.,  prince  of  Sulmone,  is  descended 
the  rich  family  of  B.,  which  is  continued 
in  the  prince  Cumillo  B.  and  his  brother 
Francesco,  piince  B.  Aldobrandini.  (See 
Cenci.) 

BoRGHESE,  Camillo  PhiUp  Louis, 
prince ;  formerly  duke  of  Guastalla, 
])rince  of  France,  &c. ;  born  1775,  at 
Rome ;  son  of  Marco  Antonio  B.  When 
the  French  invaded  Italy,  he  entered 
tiieir  service,  showed  great  attachment  to 
the  cause  of  France,  in  particular  to  gen- 
eral Bonaparte ;  went,  in  1803,  to  Paris, 
and  married  the  second  sister  of  Napole- 
on, Pauline,  widow  of  general  Leclerc. 
In  1804,  he  became  a  French  prince,  and 
grand  cross  of  the  legion  of  honor,  and, 
at  tlie  breaking  out  of  the  war  against 
Austria,  in  1805,  commander  of  a  squad- 
ron of  the  imperial  guard.  After  its  ter- 
mination, his  wife  received  the  duchy  of 
Guastalla,  and  lie  was  created  duke  of 
Guastalla.  After  having  served,  in  1800, 
in  the  campaign  against  the  Prussians 
and  Russians,  and  after  having  been  sent 
to  Warsaw,  to  pre])are  the  Poles  for  a  re- 
volt, the  emperor  appointed  him  governor- 
general  of  the  provinces  beyond  the  Alps. 
He  fixed  his  court  at  Turin,  and  became 
very  popular  among  the  Piedmontese. 
After  the  abdication  of  Napoleon,  he 
broke  up  all  connexion  with  the  Bona- 
jiarte  family,  and  separated  from  his  wife. 
The  prince  sold  to  the  French  govern- 
ment, for  the  simi  of  8,000,000  francs, 
322  works  of  ait,  which  ornamented  the 
palace  of  his  ancestors,  known  under  the 
name  of  tlie  villa  Borghese.  (See  Rome.) 
Among  them  were  several  masterpieces ; 


e.  g.,  the  Borghese  Gladiator,  the  Her- 
maphrodite, the  Silenus,  the  Dying  Sene- 
ca, Amor  and  Psyche.  Bonaparte  pro- 
vided for  the  payment  out  of  the  national 
domains  in  Piedmont,  which  the  king  of 
Sardinia  confiscated  in  1815  ;  at  the  same 
time,  in  consequence  of  the  second  inva- 
sion of  France,  the  prince  received  back 
part  of  these  treasures  of  art.  He  now 
lives  in  Florence.  In  1818,  he  sold  Lu« 
cedio,  in  Savoy,  for  3,000,000  li\Tes.  In 
the  kingdom  of  Najjles,  he  possesses  the 
principalities  Sulmone  and  Rosano.  He 
is  one  of  the  richest  Italian  princes.  Dur- 
ing his  residence  in  Rome,  in  1826,  Leo 
XII  treated  him  with  great  distinction, 
and  the  establishment  of  some  pious  in- 
stitutions was  expected  from  bun. 

Borghese,  Marie  Pauline,  princess, 
originally  Bonaparte,  sister  of  Napoleon, 
born  at  Ajaccio,  Oct.  20,  1780,  went, 
when  the  Englisli  occuj)ied  Corsica,  in 
1793,  to  Mai*seilles,  where  she  was  on  the 
])oint  of  marrying  Fr6rou,  a  member  of 
the  convention,  and  son  of  that  critic 
whom  Voltaire  made  famous,  when  an- 
other lady  laid  claim  to  his  hand.  The 
beautifld  Pauline  was  then  intended  for 
general  Duphot,  who  was  afterwards 
murdered  at  Rome,  in  December,  1797 ; 
but  she  bestowed  her  hand,  from  choice, 
on  general  Leclerc,  then  at  Milan,  wlio 
had  been,  in  1795,  chief  of  the  general 
staff  of  a  division  at  Marseilles,  and  had 
there  fallen  in  love  with  her.  When  Le- 
clerc was  sent  to  St.  Domingo,  with  the 
rank  of  captain-general.  Napoleon  ordered 
her  to  accompany  her  husband  with  her 
son.  She  embarked,  m  December,  1801, 
at  Brest,  and  was  called,  by  the  poets  of 
the  fleet,  the  Galatea  of  the  Greeks,  the 
Venus  marina.  Her  statue,  in  mai-ble,  has 
since  been  made  by  Canova,  at  Rome — a 
successful  image  of  the  goddess  of  beauty. 
She  was  no  less  courageous  than  beautiful, 
for  when  the  Negroes,  under  Christophe, 
stormed  Cape  Francois,  where  she  re- 
sided, and  Leclerc,  who  could  no  longer 
resist  the  assailants,  ordered  his  lady  and 
child  to  be  carried  on  shipboard,  she 
yielded  only  to  force.  After  tlie  death  of 
her  husband,  Nov.  23,  1802,  she  married, 
at  Morfbntaine,  Nov.  6,  1803,  the  prince 
Camillo  Borghese.  (q.  v.)  Her  son  died 
at  Rome,  soon  after.  With  Napoleon, 
who  loved  her  tenderh',  she  had  many 
disputes,  and  as  many  reconciliations  ;  for 
she  would  not  always  follow  the  caprices 
of  his  policy.  Yet  even  the  proud  style 
in  which  she  demanded  what  her  brothers 
begged,  made  her  the  more  attractive  to 
her  brother.     Once,  however,  when  she 


900 


BORGHESE— BORGIA. 


forgot  herself  towards  the  empress,  whom 
she  never  hked,  she  was  obliged  to  leave 
the  court.  She  was  yet  in  disgrace,  at 
Nice,  when  Napoleon  resigned  his  crowii 
in  1814  ;  upon  which  occasion  she  imme- 
diately acted  as  a  tender  sister.  Instead 
of  remaining  at  her  palace  in  Rome,  she 
set  out  for  Elba,  to  join  her  brother,  and 
acted  the  part  of  mediatrix  between  him 
and  the  otiier  members  of  his  family. 
When  Napoleon  landed  in  France,  she 
Avent  to  Naples,  to  see  her  sister  Caroline, 
and  afterwards  returned  to  Rome.  Be- 
fore the  battle  of  Waterloo,  she  placed  all 
her  diamonds,  wliich  were  of  great  value, 
at  tlie  disposal  of  her  brother.  They  were 
in  his  cai-riage,  which  was  taken  in  that 
battle,  and  was  shown  publicly  at  Lon- 
don. He  intended  to  have  returned  them 
to  her.  She  lived,  afterwards,  separated 
Irom  her  husband,  at  Rome,  where  she 
occupied  part  of  the  palace  Borghese,  and 
where  she  possessed,  from  1816,  the  villa 
SciaiTa.  Her  house,  in  which  taste  and 
love  of  the  fine  arts  prevailed,  was  the 
centre  of  the  most  splendid  society  at 
Rome.  She  often  saw  her  mother,  her 
brothers  Lucieu  and  Louis,  and  her  uncle 
Fesch.  When  she  heard  of  the  sickness 
of  her  brother  Napoleon,  she  repeatedly 
requested  permission  to  go  to  him  at  St. 
Helena.  She  finally  obtained  her  request, 
but  the  news  of  his  death  arrived  imme- 
diately after.  She  died,  June  9,  1825, 
at  Florence.  She  left  many  legacies,  and 
a  donation,  by  the  uiterest  of  which  two 
young  men  of  Ajaccio  will  be  enabled  to 
study  medicine  and  surgery.  The  rest 
of  her  property  she  left  to  her  brothers, 
the  count  of  St.  Leu  and  the  prince  of 
Montfort.  Her  whole  property  amounted 
to  2,000,000  francs. 

Borgia,  Caesar ;  the  natural  son  of  an 
ecclesiastic,  who  afterwards  became  pope 
Alexander  VI,  and  of  a  Roman  lady, 
named  Vanozza.  At  a  time  when  the  court 
of  Rome  was  a  school  of  falsehood  and 
licentiousness,  and  compacts  and  oaths 
afforded  no  security,  he  reduced  crime  to 
a  system.  Other  princes  have  shed  more 
blood,  have  exercised  more  atrocious  cru- 
elty; but  his  name  is  stigmatized  with 
the  greatest  infamy ;  for  with  B.  all  was 
calculated  with  cool  reflection.  He  pro- 
faned whatever  was  most  holy  for  the  at- 
tainment of  his  puq)Oses.  His  father, 
who  had  become  pope  in  1492,  invested 
liim  with  the  purple.  When  Charles 
VIII  of  France  made  his  entry  into  Rome, 
Alexander  was  obliged  to  treat  with  him, 
and  dehvered  Caesar  B.  into  his  hands  as 
a  hostage,  who  escaped,  however,  after  a 


few  days,  from  the  camp  of  the  king.  I» 
1497,  Alexander  bestowed  the  duchy  of 
Benevento,  together  with  the  coimties  of 
Terracuia  and  Ponte-corvo,  on  his  eldest 
son,  who  had  already  received  fi-om  the 
king  of  Spain  the  duchy  of  Gandia. 
Caesar  became  jealous  of  his  elevation, 
and,  when  tlie  duke  of  Gandia  was  mur- 
dered, a  week  after  his  investiture,  public 
opinion  accused  his  brother  Caesar  of  the 
deed.  His  father  permitted  him  to  lay 
aside  the  puq)le,  and  devote  himself  to 
the  profession  of  arms,  and  sent  him  to 
France,  to  carry  to  Louis  XII  the  bull 
for  divorce  and  dispensation  for  marriage 
which  he  had  long  desired  to  obtain. 
Louis  rewarded  B.,  for  the  compliance  of 
his  father,  with  the  duchy  of  Valentinois, 
a  body-guard  of  100  men,  and  20,000  li-. 
\Tes  a  year,  and  promised  to  aid  him  in 
his  projects  of  conquest.  In  1499,  Caesar 
married  a  daughter  of  king  John  of  Na- 
varre, and  accompanied  Louis  XII  to  It- 
aly. He  fii-st  undertook  the  conquest  of 
Romagna,  expelled  the  lawful  possessors 
of  the  land,  caused  them  to  be  treacher- 
ously murdered,  and  himself  to  be  ap- 
jwinted,  by  his  father,  duke  of  Romagna, 
in  1501.  In  the  same  year,  he  wrested 
the  principality  of  Piombino  fi'om  Jacopo 
d'Apiano.  He  also  endeavored,  though 
in  vain,  to  make  himself  duke  of  Bologna 
and  Florence.  In  1502,  he  announced 
that  he  was  about  to  attack  Camerino, 
and  demanded,  for  that  purpose,  soldiers 
j.nd  artillery  from  Guidobaldo  of  Monte- 
feltro,  duke  of  Urbino.  Camerino  was 
taken  by  storm,  and  Julius  of  Barona,  the 
lord  of  the  city,  with  both  his  sons,  was 
strangled  at  the  command  of  B.  This 
fate  he  prepared  for  aU  whom  he  had 
robbed.  Those  who  did  not  fall  into  his 
liands,  he  pursued  with  poison  or  the 
dagger.  Meanwliile,  all  the  pettj'  princes 
had  united,  and  collected  the  soldiery  for 
their  defence  ;  but  Caesar  B.  terrified  some 
by  means  of  3000  Swiss,  whom  he  called 
to  Italy,  and  gauied  over  others  by  advan- 
tageous offers.  Thus  he  dissolved  their 
alliance,  seized  their  lands,  and  saw  no 
furtlier  obstacle  to  his  being  made,  by  his 
father,  king  of  Romagna,  of  the  jMarcb, 
and  of  Umbria,  when  Alexander  VI  died, 
Aug.  17, 1503.  At  the  same  time,  Caesar 
B,  was  attacked  by  a  severe  disease,  at  a 
moment  when  his  whole  activity  and 
presence  of  mind  were  needed.  He 
found  means,  indeed,  to  get  the  treasures 
of  his  father  into  his  possession,  assem- 
bled his  troops  in  Rome,  and  formed  a 
closer  alliance  with  France  ;  but  enemies 
rose  against  him  on  all  sides,  one  of  the 


BORGIA— BORNEO. 


201 


most  bitter  of  whom  was  the  new  pope, 
Julius  II.  B.  was  an-ested  and  carried  to 
Spain,  where  he  remained  for  two  yeare 
in  prison.  He  at  length  made  his  escape 
•  to  his  brother-in-law  the  lung  of  Navarre, 
went  with  liim  to  the  war  against  Castile, 
and  was  killed  by  a  shot  before  the  castle 
of  Biano,  3Iarch  12, 1507. — Caesar  B.  was 
temperate  and  sober,  loved  and  protected 
the  sciences,  wrote  verees  himself,  and 
j)ossessed  so  much  eloquence,  that  he  se- 
duced even  those  who  were  most  on  their 
guard  against  his  treacherous  designs. 

Borgia,  Stefano,  cai'dinal,  superintend- 
ent of  the  Propaganda,  one  of  the  noblest 
protectors  of  science  in  the  18th  century, 
was  born  at  Velletri,  ih  1731,  and  died 
November  23,  1804,  in  Lyons.  His  life 
was  aftected,  in  various  ways,  by  the  po- 
htical  revolutions  of  Europe.  The  dicta- 
toi-ship  of  Rome  was  intrusted  to  him, 
together  with  two  other  cardinals,  by 
Pius  VI,  when  the  French  attacked  the 
city.  His  Memorie  isloriche  delta  Citth  di 
Benevento  del  Secolo  VIII  al  XVIII  (3 
vols.,  176^3, 4to.),  show  his  ability  as  a  his- 
tonau  and  antiquary. 

BoRGNE  ;  a  bay  or  gulf  (improperly 
called  lake)  in  Louisiana,  east  of  lake 
Pontchartrain.  It  commimicates  with 
the  gulf  of  Mexico  and  lake  Pontchar- 
train, and  is  40  miles  long  and  about  15 
broad. 

Boring  is  a  species  of  circular  cutting, 
in  which  a  cylindrical  portion  of  a  sub- 
stance is  gradually  removed.  When 
tubes  of  metal  are  to  be  formed,  a  cast  is, 
in  some  cases,  made  in  solid  metal,  and 
the  whole  of  the  bore  is  produced  by  the 
boring  machine :  in  othere,  the  cast  is 
made  hollow  at  fii-st,  and  the  borer  is  on- 
ly used  to  give  uniformity  and  finish  to 
the  inside  of  the  tube.  In  boring  cannon, 
the  tool  is  at  rest  wliile  the  caimon  re- 
volves. Bj'  this  airangement  the  bore  is 
formed  with  more  accuracy  than  by  the 
old  method  of  putting  the  borer  in  mo- 
tjoi).  The  tool  is  kept  pressed  against 
the  cannon  by.  a  regular  force.  Cylinders 
of  steam-engines  ai-e  cast  hollow,  and  af- 
terwards bored  ;  but,  in  tliis  case,  the  borer 
revolves,  and  the  cylinder  remains  at  rest. 
In  either  case,  the  axis  of  the  borer  and 
that  of  the  cylindrical  material  should  co- 
incide ;  for  otherwise,  if  the  borer  revolve, 
it  will  perforate  obliquely  ;  if  the  material 
revolve,  tlie  perforation  will  be  conical. 
The  instruments  used  are  gimlets,  augers, 
centrebits,  drills,  &.c.  Drills  are  made  to 
turn  rajjitlly,  either  in  one  direction  by 
means  of  a  lathe-wheel  and  pulley,  or  al- 
ternately in  opposite  directions  by  a  spi- 


ral cord,  which  coils  and  imcoils  itself 
successively  upon  the  drill,  and  is  aided 
by  a  weight  or  fly. — Boring  for  water  has 
been,  of  late,  successfully  employed  in 
obtaining  a  supply  without  sinking  a 
well.  In  the  progress  of  the  boring,  fre- 
quent veins  of  water  are  passed  through, 
but  the  operation  should  be  continued  un- 
til a  main  spring  is  struck,  which,  if  from 
a  sufficiently  elevated  source,  will  flow 
up  to  the  surface  ;  otherwise  a  well  must 
be  sunk  to  the  level  of  the  source,  and  the 
water  must  be  raised  by  a  pump.  To  ex- 
clude mineral  waters,  land-spiings,  &c., 
the  hole  is  generally  cased  wth  a  metal- 
lic pipe. 

Borneo,  next  to  New  Holland,  the 
largest  island  in  the  world,  is  about  800 
miles  long  and  700  broad,  with  a  popu- 
lation estimated  at  from  3,000,000  to 
5,000,000.  Lon.  109°  to  119°  E. ;  lat.  7° 
N.  to  4°  2(y  S.  Its  central  parts  have 
never  been  explored  by  Europeans,  and 
the  insalubrity  of  its  climate  has  prevent- 
ed them  from  frequenting  its  shores.  On 
tliis  account,  the  gcogi'ajihy  of  Borneo  is 
very  imperfect.  The  principal  chahi  of 
mountains  is  called  the  Crystal  vwurdain, 
from  the  numerous  crjstals  they  contain. 
The  island  is  often  devastated  by  volca- 
noes and  earthquakes.  The  coast,  for  10 
or  20  miles  inland,  is  marehy,  and  a 
considerable  portion  is  fi  moving  bog. 
Though  situated  under  the  equator,  the 
heat  is  not  excessive,  being  moderated  by 
the  sea  and  mountam  breezes,  and  by  tlie 
rains,  wliich  ai'e  incessant  from  Novem- 
ber till  IMay.  Some  of  the  rivers  ai'e 
large.  The  princij>al  are  the  Borneo,  tlie 
Banjarmassing  and  Passmir.  Gold  is 
found  in  large  quantities.  Diamonds, 
which  are  found  no  where  else  but  in 
Hindostan  and  Brazil,  are  confined  to  tlie 
south  and  west  coasts.  The  best  are  ob- 
tained from  Landak.  The  miners  are  the 
aboriginal  savages.  The  petty  prince  of 
Maltau  is  in  possession  of  one  of  the 
largest  diamonds  in  the  woi-ld.  It  is  val- 
ue<l  at  1,200,000  dollars,  wliieh  is  150,000 
dollars  less  than  the  Russian,  and  500,000 
more  than  the  Pitt  diamond.  The  other 
minerals  are  iron,  copper  and  tin.  Pearl 
and  mother  of  j)earl  are  found  on  the 
north  coast.  Rice,  yams  and  betel,  with 
all  the  fruit-trees  of  India,  excellent  ship- 
timber,  groves  of  nutmeg  and  clove-trees, 
pepper,  ginger  and  cotton,  are  produced 
on  the  island.  The  camphor  thffers  from 
that  of  Japan,  and  is  found  only  in  Su- 
matra and  Borneo.  Benzoin,  a  species 
of  resin,  is  produced  in  great  abundance. 
B.  produces  the  pongo,  the  largest  of  the 


BORNEO— BORNOU. 


monkey  tribe,  which  grows  to  the  size  of 
a  man  ;  the  oran-outang,  which  bears  the 
strongest  resemblance  to  the  human  spe- 
cies in  look,  manners,  and  gait ;  two  spe- 
cies of  wild  buffalo,  wild  boars,  elephants 
and  tigers.  The  species  of  birds  are  in- 
numerable, and  most  of  them  different 
from  those  of  Europe.  The  salangane  or 
swallow,  which  constructs  edible  nests,  is 
numerous.  Wild  bees  supply  wax,  which 
is  exported  in  great  quantity.  The  coasts 
are  inhabited  by  IMalays,  Javanese,  Bugis 
or  natives  of  Celebes,  and  some  descend- 
ants of  Arabs,  who  are  all  subject  to  des- 
j)otic  princes  called  sultans.  Moham- 
medanism is  tlie  prevailing  religion.  The 
princes  and  nobles  live  in  a  style  of  bar- 
barous pomp.  The  interior  is  peopled 
by  a  race  of  Malay  colonists,  who  have 
been  longer  established  on  the  island  tlian 
those  of  the  coasts.  They  are  called  Bi- 
ajoos  or  Viajas.  The  natives  are  called 
Dejakkese  or  Idaan.  They  are  fairer  than 
the  Malays,  tall,  robust  and  ferocious. 
They  extract  some  of  the  front  teeth,  and 
insert  pieces  of  gold  in  their  stead.  Their 
bodies  are  painted,  and  their  only  cloth- 
mg  is  a  girdle  x'ound  the  middle.  The 
Biajoos  hang  up  the  skulls  of  their  ene- 
mies at  the  doors  of  their  huts.  The 
Harafooras,  a  race  of  the  interior,  differ 
from  the  Idaans  in  having  darker  com- 
plexions and  longer  ears.  Their  dancing 
girls  are  much  admired  by  Europeans  for 
their  activity  and  grace.  The  forests  of 
the  central  i-egion  are  occupied  by  Papu- 
ans. Several  European  nations  have  at- 
tempted to  form  settlements  on  the  island. 
The  Dutch  alone  have  succeeded  m  form- 
ing permanent  establishments.  Their 
chief  profits  are  derived  from  pepper  and 
diamonds.  On  the  north-west  part  of 
the  island,  10  miles  from  the  sea,  on  a 
fine  river,  is  situated  the  tovra  of  Borneo. 
It  contains  3000  houses,  and  is  the  seat 
of  a  sultan  who  formerly  reigned  over  the 
whole  island.  The  houses  are  often  built 
on  rafts,  moored  to  the  shore,  so  as  to  rise 
and  fall  with  the  tide:  tiie  chief  commu- 
nication is  by  means  of  boats.  The  in- 
habitants carry  on  considerable  trade  with 
China:  they  are  said  to  be  inteUigent,  and 
faithful  to  their  contracts,  but,  in  other 
cases,  prone  to  treachery,  and  the  crews 
of  vessels  trading  here  cannot  be  too 
much  on  their  guard  against  them. 

Bornholm;  an  island  belonging  to  Den- 
mark, in  the  Baltic  sea,  nearly  surrounded 
with  rocks;  Ion.  15'  E.;  lat.  55°  W  N.; 
pop.,  18,902.  It  is  about  28  miles  long, 
and  18  broad.  Square  miles,  218.  The 
«)il  is  stony,  but  fertile,  wkli  excellent 


pastures.  Oats,  butter  and  fish  constitute 
the  principal  riches  of  the  inhabitants. 
There  are  mines  of  coal  and  quarries  of 
marble  in  the  island. 

BoRNOu,  a  kingdom  of  Central  Africa, 
lying  between  15°  and  10°  N.  lat.,  and  12° 
and  18°  E.  Ion.,  is  bounded  N.  by  Kanem 
and  the  Desert,  E.  by  lake  Tchad,  S.  by 
Mandara,  and  W.  by  Soudan.  The  first 
Europeans  by  whom  it  was  visited,  major 
Denham  and  captain  Clapperton,  furnish 
us  with  the  most  authentic  infbi-matiou 
concerning  this  country  ( Travels  in  jYorth- 
em  and  Central  Africa,  in  1822,  23  and 
24;  London,  1826).  From  March  to  July, 
the  heat  is  extreme,  the  thermometer  rising 
to  107°,  and  rarely  falling  below  86°  Fahr. : 
during  this  time,  scorching  winds  from  the 
south  prevail.  As  in  other  tropical  coun- 
tries, the  seasons  are  divided  into  the  diy 
and  rainy :  the  latter  continues  fi-om  March 
to  October,  when  the  air  becomes  milder 
and  fresher.  The  country  is  populous, 
containing  13  principal  towns.  These  aro 
generally  large  and  well  built,  with  walls 
40  feet  high  and  about  20  feet  thick.  The 
houses  consist  of  several  court-yards, 
with  apartments  for  slaves,  habitations  for 
the  different  wives,  and  several  tuiTets 
connected  by  terraces,  forming  tlie  apart- 
ments of  the  owner.  The  Shouaas  are 
Arabians :  they  are  deceitful,  arrogant  and 
cunning.  The  Bomou  people,  or  Kanow- 
ly,  have  Negro  featui-es :  they  are  peace- 
able and  quiet,  but  cowardly,  and  addict- 
ed to  pilfeiing.  The  government,  until 
lately,  has  been  an  elective  absolute  mon- 
archy, under  a  sultan.  The  sultanshij)  is 
now  but  a  name,  the  real  power  being  in 
the  hands  of  El  Kanemy,  sheikh  of  the 
Coran,  an  able,  wariike  and  popular  chief 
His  force  is  chiefly  cavahy,  and  is  esti- 
mated at  about  30,000  men,  armed  whh 
spears,  shields  and  daggers.  The  chiefs 
wear  jackets  of  chain  armor,  cuirasses,  or 
coats  of  mail.  Indian  corn,  cotton  and  in- 
digo are  the  most  valuable  productions  of 
the  soil.  Very  few  fruits  or  vegetables  are 
raised,  and  agriculture  is  in  a  wretched 
state.  The  domestic  animals  are  asses, 
camels,  horses,  dogs,  sheep,  goats,  cows, 
and  mnumerable  herds  of  oxen.  Lions, 
panthers,  leopai"ds,  hyenas,  jackals,  ele- 
phants (in  herds  of  from  50  to  400)  and 
buffaloes  crowd  the  forests.  The  croco- 
dile and  hippopotamus  ai-e  considered  a 
luxury.  A  Shouaa  belle,  arrayed  for  con- 
quests, her  hair  streaming  with  fat,  a 
black  rim  of  kohol  round  her  eyes,  sits 
jambe  dega  jambe  dela  on  her  favorite 
bullock,  who  is  guided  by  a  thong  passed 
through  the  cartilage  of  liis  nose.    The 


BORNOU— BORROMEO. 


203 


ostrich,  pelican,  crane  and  Guinea  fowl 
abound.  The  air  is  filled  with  locusts, 
which  are  devoured  by  the  natives,  both 
roasted  and  boiled,  and  formed  into  balls 
of  a  sort  of  paste.  The  mineral  produc- 
tions are  unimportant.  The  principal 
retmn  which  the  Moorish  merchants  ob- 
tain for  their  goods  is  slaves.  The  cur- 
rency of  the  country  consists  of  strips  of 
cotton,  about  three  inches  wide  and  a 
yard  long,  called  gvbhuk,  four  or  five  of 
which  make  a  rottcda. 

Borodino.  (See  Moscow,  Battle  of.) 
Borough  ;  originally,  a  fortified  town. 
In  England,  the  term  was  early  restricted 
to  those  towns  which  sent  burgesses  to 
parliament  This  burden,  as  it  was  once 
considered,  was  probably  imposed  on  the 
largest  and  wealthiest  towns,  or  on  those 
which  had  placed  themselves  under  the 
protection  of  some  baron.  The  number 
of  boroughs  in  Great  Britain,  represented 
in  parliament,  is  222,  sending  396  bur- 
gesses: of  these,  171  are  in  England,  and 
are  represented  by  339  burgesses.  Sev- 
eral centuries  have  elapsed  since  the  dis- 
tribution of  representatives  among  the 
towns  was  fixed.  Many  places,  formerly 
populous,  and  entitled  to  be  represented, 
now  contain  not  more  than  two  or  three 
houses,  and  yet  retain  their  original  priv- 
ilege. Tliese  are  called  rotten  boroughs, 
(See  Parliament.) 

BoRROMEi  Islands  (Isole  dei  Conigli, 
on  account  of  the  many  rabbits  there) ; 
four  small  islands  in  the  Lago  Maggiore, 
in  Upper  Italy,  which  is  30  miles  in  length 
and  7  or  8  in  breadth.  The  greater  part 
belongs  to  Piedmont,  the  rest  to  the  king- 
dom of  Lombardy.  Its  banks  are  fonned 
of  a  beautiful  Alpine  country,  with  many 
villages,  villas,  vineyards,  gardens  and 
chestnut  groves.  The  islands  have  their 
name  fi-oin  the  family  of  Borromeo,  which, 
for  centuries,  was  in  possession  of  the 
richest  estates  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Lago 
Maggiore.  Vitelliano  Bon'omeo,  in  1671, 
caused  garden-soil  to  be  spread  over  three 
naked  rocks  in  this  lake,  and  terraces  to 
be  walled  up.  Thus  arose  the  Isola  Bella, 
Isola  Madre,  L'IsoIino  and  Isola  dei  Pes- 
catori,  the  two  first  famous  for  their  beau- 
tiful garden-grounds.  The  Isola  Madre, 
abounding  in  pheasants,  lies  in  the  middle 
of  the  lake.  It  consists  of  seven  terraces, 
with  a  kitchen-garden,  cypresses,  laurels, 
chestnuts  and  myrtles.  The  Isola  Bella 
is  loaded  with  artificial  ornament.  It 
contains  a  handsome  palace  of  four  sto- 
ries, which  lies  near  the  shore,  and  is 
occupied,  for  some  months  in  the  year,  by 
the  count  Borromeo.    By  means  of  the 


Grotte  Terrene,  it  communicates  with  the 
gardens,  which  are  laid  out  in  the  French 
taste,  upon  10  terraces,  risuig  above  each 
other,  and  narrowing  in  proportion  to 
their  elevation.  The  whole  has  the  ap- 
pearance of  a  truncated  pyramid,  on  the 
top  of  which  stands  a  colossal  unicorn, 
the  armorial  ensign  of  the  Bon-omei. 
Orange,  citron  and  lemon-trees,  united  by 
fine  hedges,  or  forming  arbors,  breathe 
their  fi:agrance ;  lofty  laiu'els  form  a  little 
grove;  myrtles  and  cypresses  are  to  be 
seen,  together  with  pomegranate-trees,  the 
fruit  of  which  ripens  here ;  for  the  moim- 
tains  which  crown  the  lake  serve  as  a  shel- 
ter against  the  cold  winds.  The  climate 
of  the  Isola  Madre,  however,  is  milder 
than  that  of  the  Isola  Bella.  In  the  latter, 
the  orange  and  citron-trees,  &c.  must  be 
secured,  in  winter,  by  boards  laid  over 
them,  and,  in  extreme  cold,  by  applying 
cliarcoal-pans  underneath.  The  inhabit- 
ants of  the  Isola  dei  Pescatori  carry  on  a 
trade  in  fish  to  3Iilan  and  Piedmont,  and 
are  engaged  in  smuggling. 

BoRROJiEO,  Carlo,  count,  of  an  ancient 
Milanese  family,  born,  Oct.  2,  1538,  at 
Arona,  on  Lago  Maggiore,  the  family-seat 
of  his  virtuous  and  pious  parents,  was,  at 
the  age  of  12,  a  commendatory  abbot; 
studied  the  law  at  Pavia :  was,  in  1559, 
made  doctor,  and,  in  1560,  was  succes- 
sively appointed,  by  his  uncle,  Pius  IV, 
apostolical  prothonotaiy,  referendary,  car- 
dinal, and  archbishop  of  Milan.  From  his 
earliest  youth,  gi'ave,  pious  and  severe 
towards  himself,  the  young  ecclesiastic, 
at  the  age  of  22,  devoted  himself  to  the 
duties  of  government  with  a  conscientious 
zeal.  As  legate  over  Romagna,  the  march 
of  Ancona  and  Bologna,  he  had  a  great 
share  in  the  civil  government :  as  protect- 
or of  Portugal,  of  the  Netherlands,  of 
Switzerland,  of  the  Franciscans,  Carmel- 
ites, and  of  the  knights  of  Malta,  he  ad- 
ministered several  important  branches  of 
the  spiritual  government  of  the  pope,  who 
created  him  his  grand  penitentiary,  and 
did  nothing  of  importance  without  his 
advice.  The  re-opening  and  the  results 
of  the  council  of  Trent,  so  advantageous 
to  the  papal  authority,  were  chiefly  effect- 
ed by  the  great  influence  of  B.,  which 
was  felt  during  the  whole  sitting  of  the 
council.  He  did  much  for  the  embellish- 
ment of  the  papal  buildings,  employing 
even  his  own  fortune  for  that  purpose, 
and  established  many  good  institutions, 
as  archbishop  of  Milan ;  improved  the  dis- 
cipline of  the  clergy,  founded  schools,  sem- 
inaries, a  regular  order  of  secular  divines, 
libraries,  hospitals,  and  was  indefatigable 


204 


BORROMEO— BOS. 


in  doing  good.  All  his  virtues,  however, 
could  not  save  him  from  persecution  and 
calumny ;  he  was  even  severely  attack- 
ed by  the  government,  but  no  charge 
could  be  proved  against  him.  He  died, 
Nov.  3,  1584,  at  the  age  of  46,  exhausted 
by  mental  sufferings,  the  accusations  of 
his  enemies,  and  his  monastical  penances. 
Miracles  were  immediately  wrought  at  his 
tomb,  and  his  canonization  took  place  in 
1616.  Posterity  will  venerate  the  purity 
of  his  life,  the  energy  and  grsmdeur  of  his 
character,  his  exemplary  administration, 
and  the  noble  works  which  he  accom- 
plished ;  and,  in  spite  of  the  bigotry  which 
is  to  be  attributed  to  the  spirit  of  his  age, 
and  to  his  clerical  relations,  must  acknowl- 
edge his  truly  Christian  and  apostolic 
character. 

BoRSTELL,  Louis  George  Leopold  von ; 
lieutenant-general  in  the  Prussian  service, 
bom  in  1773.  In  the  campaign  against 
the  French,  in  1813,  he  conmianded  two 
brigades,  and  decided  the  battles  of  Gross- 
beeren  and  of  Dennewitz ;  the  latter,  by 
hastening  from  Kropstiidt  to  the  fiekl  of 
battle,  and,  in  opposition  to  the  orders  of 
tlie  crown-prince  of  Sweden,  joining  the 
left  wing  of  Biilow,  in  order  to  take  Gehls- 
dorf,  the  key  of  the  enemy's  position. 
General  B.  was  very  active  through  tlie 
whole  war,  and,  in  1815,  had  the  com- 
mand of  the  2d  Prussian  coi-ps.  While 
he  was  occupied  with  its  organization  in 
Namur,  some  battalions  of  Saxon  guards 
and  grenadiers  in  Liege,  excited  by  the 
news  of  the  partition  of  their  country,  and 
by  some  incautious  expressions,  as  well 
as  by  the  measures  which  had  been  taken 
to  gain  over  the  Saxon  officers  and  sol- 
diers, broke  the  windows  in  the  lodgings 
of  prince  Bliicher,  and  committed  other 
excesses.  It  was  necessary  that  they 
should  be  punished  in  the  most  severe 
noianner,  as  many  thousand  soldiers,  for- 
merly m  the  French  and  Westphaliau 
service,  but  now  united  under  Prussian, 
English,  Belgian  and  other  colore  (many 
of  them  yet  attached  to  Napoleon),  were 
on  the  French  borders,  almost  in  sight  of 
the  enemy,  and  there  was  danger  of  a 
repetition  of  these  scenes,  if  tliey  were 
treated  with  clemency.  Bliicher  therefore 
sent  the  guilty  battalions  to  Namur,  with 
orders  to  B.  to  disarm  them,  to  burn  their 
colors,  and  to  shoot  tlie  ring-leaders.  B. 
considered  the  order  too  severe:  accus- 
tomed to  expose  his  pereon  and  Ufe  for 
his  own  colore,  he  felt  that  such  a  dis- 
grace must  be  worse  than  death ;  and  he 
adopted  the  determination  of  not  obeying 
the  command,  although  pronounced  in 


the  most  decided  manner,  and  confirmed 
by  a  refusal  to  listen  to  his  remonstrances. 
Bliicher  felt  obliged  to  suspend  him  from 
his  command,  and  to  report  his  behavior 
to  the  king.  Borsteil  returned  into  iiis 
country,  and  a  court-martial  condemned 
him  to  several  yeare'  confinement  in  a 
fortress.  In  the  year  1815,  he  was  jiar- 
doned  and  reinstated  in  his  command  by 
the  king. 

Bory-de-Sai>"t-Vi>-cext,  J.  B.  G.  M., 
bom  at  Agen,  1772,  displayed,  from  his 
earliest  youth,  an  excessive  ardor  both  on 
literary  and  pohtical  subjects.  As  a  youth, 
he  was  full  of  zeal  for  natural  histoiy,  and, 
as  a  man,  his  political  views,  though  often 
erroneous,  were  always  marked  with 
genius.  This  is  the  character  of  the  es- 
says which  he  wrote  in  the  J\'ain  Jaune^ 
and  Aristarque,  and  of  the  defence  of  his 
princij)les,  published  in  Aix-la-Chapelle. 
His  Essai  sur  les  Isles  Fortunes  de 
VAntiqiie  Atlanlide  ou  Precis  de  VHistoire 
genirale  de  VArchipel  des  Canaries,  and 
his  treatise  on  the  cryptogamic  plants,  are 
full  of  original  views.  He  accompanied 
captain  Baudin,  m  1798,  in  his  voyage 
round  the  coasts  of  New  Holland,  exanim- 
ed  closely  the  volcanoes  of  the  island  of 
Bourbon,  and  was  led  to  form  many  geo- 
logical hypotheses.  When  military  in- 
tendant  of  the  general  staff  of  mai-slial 
Soult,  he  showed  much  severity  towards 
the  commissaries.  In  1815,  he  sensed  as 
colonel  in  the  campaign  under  Napoleon. 
After  the  battle  of  Waterloo,  he  jiroposed, 
July  1,  to  liis  colleagues  of  the  chamber 
of  representatives,  not  to  submit  volunta- 
rily to  the  Bourbons.  In  consequence  of 
the  royal  decree  of  Jan.  17, 1816,  he  eirji- 
gi-ated,  and  lived  in  Aix-la-Chapelle  and 
Halberetadt,  and,  afterwards,  in  Bmsseis, 
where,  with  van  Mous,  he  edited  a  jour- 
nal dedicated  to  natural  science,  which  is 
at  present  continued  in  Paris.  He  w  rote, 
also,  an  excellent  work  on  llie  subterranean 
(luarries  in  the  lime  mountains  near  3Iae5- 
tricht.  After  his  return,  in  1820,  he  was 
engaged  in  many  of  the  journals  of  the 
liberal  party.  He  reported  the  sittings  of 
the  deputies  in  the  Courier  Franpais,  and 
assisted  in  Courtin's  Encyclopidie. 

Bos,  Lambert,  a  profound  philologist, 
was  bom  at  Worcum,  in  Friesland,  1670,, 
and  ched  in  1717.  He  studied  in  the  uni- 
vereity  at  Franeker,  where  his  rapid  and 
brilliant  progress  obtained  for  him  the 
Greek  professorship  in  1704.  His  Ellipses 
Grasca  is  a  standard  work,  and  has  been 
often  printed.  The  edition  of  Schaffer 
(Leipsic,  1808)  is  the  best.  The  Antiquit. 
GrcEC.  Descriptio  has  also  passed  through 


BOS— BOSCOVICH. 


205 


numerous  editions.  His  Vet.  Test,  ex 
Versions.  LXX  is  highly  esteemed.  He 
was  also  the  author  of  several  otlier  valu- 
able philological  works. 

Bosc,  Louis  Antoine  Guillaume;  super- 
intendent of  the  French  establishments 
for  breeding  sheep ;  member  of  several 
learned  societies  ui  France,  &c. ;  born  at 
Paris,  in  1759,  where  his  father  was  phy- 
sician to  the  king ;  made  himself  knoA\ii, 
from  1784  to  1788,  as  editor  of  the  Jour- 
nal de  Physique.  Proscribed  in  the  reign 
of  terror,  in  1793,  he  took  refuge  in  the 
forest  of  31ontmorency;  and,  though  daily 
exposed  to  tlie  danger  of  being  taken  and 
executed,  he  occupied  himself  with  labors 
in  natural  history.  In  1796,  the  directoiy 
sent  him  to  the  U.  States,  as  consul  at 
Wilmington,  and  afterwards  at  New  York ; 
but  the  American  government  doubted 
whether  the  French  directoiy  was  entitled 
to  be  represented  by  a  consul.  Thus 
exempt  from  official  duties,  he  travelled 
through  the  U.  States,  collectuig  botan- 
ical and  zoological  specimens,  and  con- 
tributing to  the  advancement  of  his  favor- 
ite studies.  In  1799,  B.  was  made  admin- 
istrateur  des  hospices.  From  that  time,  he 
has  been  actively  engaged  in  researches 
in  natural  history.  His  brother,  Etienne 
Bosc,  an  orator  and  author,  combines  a 
profound  knowledge  of  natural  history 
with  an  extensive  acquaintance  with  po- 
Utical  economy. 

BoscAN,  Almogaver,  Juan,  a  Spanish 
poet,  born  towards  the  close  of  the  15th 
century,  at  Barcelona,  died  about  1540. 
His  parents,  who  belonged  to  the  most 
ancient  nobility,  gave  him  a  careful  edu- 
cation. He  followed  the  court  of  Charles 
V,  and,  in  1526,  was  attached  to  it  for  some 
time  in  Grenada.  His  noble  mannei-s 
and  character  gained  him  the  favor  of  the 
emperor.  The  education  of  the  duke  of 
Alva  was  committed  to  him,  and  his  in- 
structions developed  the  great  qualities 
which  the  duke  afterwards  displayed. 
After  his  marriage,  B.  lived  at  Barcelona, 
occupied  in  publishing  his  works,  togeth- 
er with  those  of  his  deceased  friend  Gar- 
cilaso,  in  which  he  was  employed  at  the 
time  of  his  deatli.  B.  was  persuaded  to 
attempt  Italian  measures  in  Spanish,  by 
Antonio  Navagero,  an  Italian  scholar  and 
ambassador  of  the  republic  of  Venice  at 
the  court  of  the  emperor.  Thus  he  be- 
came the  creator  of  the  Spanish  sonnet, 
and,  with  Garcilaso,  first  used  the  ter- 
zine  in  his  poetical  epistles  and  elegies. 
In  general,  he  distinguished  himself  by 
introducing  Italian  forms  into  Spanish 
poetry,  which  met  with  great. opposition, 

VOL.  II.  18 


and  not  less  applause.  The  poems  of  B. 
are  still  esteemed.  His  other  literary 
works,  mostly  translations,  are  forgotten. 

BoscAWEx,  Hon.  Edward,  a  British 
admiral  of  the  last  century,  was  born  in 
1711,  and  distinguished  himself  at  Porto 
Bcllo  and  at  Carthagena,  where  he  storm- 
ed a  battery  at  the  head  of  a  part  of  his 
crew.  In  1744,  he  was  promoted  to  the 
Dreadnought,  a  sixty  gun  ship,  in  which 
he  took  the  3Iedia.  Three  years  after- 
wards, he  signalized  himself  under  Anson, 
at  the  battle  of  capeFinisterre.  Towards 
the  close  of  this  year,  he  was  raised  ^o  the 
rank  of  rear-admiral,  and  despatched  with 
a  squadron  to  the  East  Indies.  Though 
he  failed  in  an  attempt  on  Pondicherrj', 
he  succeeded  in  making  himself  master 
of  IMadras,  and  returned  to  England, 
where  he  obtained  a  seat  at  the  admiralty 
board.  In  1755,  he  again  sailed  for  North 
America,  and,  in  an  action  with  a  French 
squadron,  two  ships  of  the  Une  fell  into 
his  hands.  In  1758,  in  conjunction  with 
lord  Andierst,  who  commanded  the  land 
forces,  he  succeeded  in  reducing  Louis- 
bourg  and  cape  Breton,  and,  the  year  fol- 
lowing, having  then  the  command  m  the 
Mediterranean,  })ursued  the  Toulon  fleet, 
under  De  la  Clue,  through  the  straits  of 
Gibraltar,  and,  coming  up  with  it  in  Lagos 
bay,  completely  defeated  it,  burning  two 
ships  and  taking  three.  For  these  ser- 
vices, he  received  the  thanks  of  parhament 
and  £.3000  a  year,  with  the  rank  of  gen- 
eral of  marines,  in  1760.  He  died  in  the 
following  year.  He  sat  in  the  parUameut 
of  1743,  as  member  for  Truro,  in  his  na- 
tive county. 

BoscovicH,  Roger  Joseph,  an  astron- 
omer and  geometrician  of  distinguished 
eminence  in  the  18th  century,  was  a  na- 
tive of  Ragusa,  in  Dalmatia.  He  was  ed- 
ucated among  the  Jesuits,  and,  entering 
into  their  order,  was  appointed  professor 
of  mathematics  in  the  Roman  college, 
before  he  had  entirely  completed  the 
course  of  his  studies.  He  was  employed 
by  pope  Benedict  XIV  in  various  under- 
takings, and,  in  1750,  began  the  measure- 
ment of  a  degree  of  the  meridian  in  the 
Ecclesiastical  States,  which  operation  oc- 
cupied him  for  two  years.  He  after- 
wards visited  the  Pontine  marsh,  to  give 
advice  respecting  the  draining  of  it.  He 
was  then  intrusted,  by  the  republic  of 
Lucca,  with  the  defence  of  its  interests,  in 
a  dispute  about  boundaries  with  the  gov- 
ernment of  Tuscany.  This  affair  obliged 
him  to  go  to  Viemia,  and,  having  termi- 
nated it  with  success,  he  visited  Paris  and 
London.    He  was  elected  a  fellow  of  the 


Hoe 


BOSCOVICH— BOSPHORUS. 


royal  society,  and  dedicated  to  this  body 
a  Latin  poem  on  eclipses.  Returning  to 
Italy,  he  was  appointed  mathematical  pro- 
fessor in  the  university  of  Pavia;  whence, 
in  1770,  he  removed  to  Milan,  and  there 
erected  the  celebrated  observatory  at  the 
college  of  Brera.  On  the  suppression  of 
the  order  of  Jesuits,  he  accepted  an  invi- 
tation to  France  from  Louis  XV,  who 
gave  him  a  pension  of  8000  livres,  with 
the  otfice  of  director  of  optics  for  the 
navy.  This  appointment  induced  him  to 
pay  particular  attention  to  that  part  of  op- 
tical science  which  treats  of  tlie  tlieoiy  of 
achromatic  telescopes,  on  which  subject 
lie  wrote  a  treatise  of  considerable  extent. 
He  was  obliged  to  leave  Paris,  in  1783, 
on  account  of  ill  health,  when  he  retired 
to  Milan,  where  he  died  Feb.  12,  1787. 
An  edition  of  the  works  of  father  B.  was 
published  by  himself,  in  5  vols.,  4to.,  1785. 
His  Theoria  Philosophic  jYaturalis  reduda 
ad  unicam  Legem  Virium  in  JKIatura  ex- 
istentium,  first  published  in  1758,  is  a  cu- 
rious production,  containing  speculations 
of  which  doctor  Priestley  availed  himself 
in  his  writings  in  favor  of  materiahsm. 

BOSHMEN,     BOSJESMEN,    Or     BuSHMEN. 

(See  Hottentots.) 

BosHUANAS.  (See  Bushwanas.) 
Bosio,  N. ;  the  most  celebrated  of  liv- 
ing French  sculptoi-s.  His  Hercides,  ex- 
hibited in  1814,  has  been  particularly 
admired.  In  the  following  year,  he  pro- 
duced another  excellent  statue,  his  Her- 
maphrodite. The  artist  received  from 
Napoleon  the  cross  of  the  legion  of  honor 
in  1815.  The  royal  government  has  since 
honored  him  with  important  commissions, 
and  confirmed  the  choice  of  the  academy 
of  the  fine  arts,  which  elected  him  a 
member.  Since  1823,  his  statue  of  Hen- 
ry IV,  as  a  child,  met  with  i)ul)lic  admira- 
tion. His  statue  of  Louis  XIV  was  des- 
tined for  the  place  des  vidoires  at  Paris. 
The  execution  is  excellent ;  but  the  trans- 
fer of  the  support  of  the  horse  to  its  tail 
might  be  objected  to  as  contraiy  to  mod- 
ern taste. 

BosjESMEN.  (See  Hottentots.) 
Bosnia  ;  a  Turkish  province,  with  the 
title  of  a  kingdom,  which  comprehends, 
besides  the  ancient  B.,  part  of  Croatia 
(Sanjiak  Bielogrod),  between  the  rivers 
Unna  and  Verbas,  a  tract  of  Dalmatia  and 
Herzogovina,  and  is  bounded  N.  by  Scla- 
vonia,  W.  by  Croatia,  S.  by  Dalmatia  and 
the  Adriatic  sea,  and  E.  by  Servia.  B. 
contains  22,500  square  miles,  with  850,000 
inhabitants,  mostly  of  Sclavoniau  origin, 
Bosniacs  and  Morlacs,  among  whom  are 
50,000  Turkish  militia.    The  inhabitants 


are  two  thirds  Christians,  mostly  of  the 
Greek  church,  and  one  third  Turks,  who 
possess  nearly  all  the  tenitorial  property 
as  allodiums  or  feuds,  besides  Jews  and 
Gipsies.  The  country  is  level  towards 
the  north ;  in  the  south,  mountainous  and 
woody.  Its  chief  rivers  are  the  Save,  the 
Verbas,  the  Bosna,  Rama  and  Drina.  B. 
contains  fertile  fields,  orchards  and  vine- 
yards :  Uie  breed  of  cattle  is  excellent,  and 
the  mountains  furnish  good  iron,  of  which 
a  great  part  is  manufactured  in  the  coun- 
tiy  into  guns  and  blades.  The  other  arti- 
cles manufactured  are  leather,  morocco, 
and  coai-se  woollen  cloths.  In  the  12th 
and  13th  centuries,  B.  belonged  to  Hun- 
gjarv-.  In  1339,  it  fell  into  the  hands  of 
Stephen,  king  of  Servia.  After  his  death, 
it  remained  independent,  and  the  Ban 
Twartko  took  the  title  of  king  in  1370. 
In  1401,  it  became  tributary  to  the  Turks, 
and,  since  1463,  has  been  a  Turkish  prov- 
ince. It  is  divided  into  the  southern  and 
northern  parts,  or  Upper  and  Lower  B. 
The  former  is  called  sometimes  Herzogo- 
vina^ or  the  duchy  of  SabOf  because  tbe 
emperor  Frederic  III  bestowed  the  title 
of  duke  on  the  ruler  of  this  district  in 
1440.  Travnik  is  the  residence  of  the 
pacha  of  B.  The  cai)ital  of  the  country 
is  Bosna-Serai,  or  Saraievo  (in  Italian, 
Seraglio),  at  the  confluence  of  the  Migli- 
azza  witli  the  Bosna,  with  15,000  mostly 
miserable  houses,  and  60,000  inhabitants, 
including  the  garrison  of  10,000  janiza- 
ries. The  citadel  lies  at  some  distance 
from  the  town.  The  taxes  of  Saraievo 
are  an  appanage  of  the  mother  of  the  sul- 
tan. Zwornick,  Banjaluka  and  Turkish 
Gradiska  are  also  important  in  historical 
and  statistical  j)oints  of  view.  The  fear 
of  losing  their  property  is  the  chief  cause 
of  the  adherence  of  the  Bosniacs  to  the 
Turkish  govenmient,  since,  in  case  of  the 
conquest  of  B.  by  tlie  Christians,  they 
expect  the  same  treatment  which  the 
Christians  fonnerly  experienced,  when  it 
was  conquered  by  the  Turks. 

BosPHORUs.  The  strait  which  leads 
from  the  Black  sea  into  the  Propontis,  or 
sea  of  Marmora,  was  formerly  so  called, 
either  because  lo,  after  being  metamor- 
phosed mto  a  cow,  passed  over  at  this 
place,  or  because  the  strait  is  so  narrow- 
that  an  ox  can  swim  across.  When  other 
straits  were  afterwards  called  by  the  same 
name,  tliis  was  called  B.  Thracicus.  Over 
this  channel  (5  stadia,  about  3300  feet 
wide)  Darius  constructed  a  bridge  of  boats, 
on  his  expedition  agauist  the  Scythians. 
Bosphorus  Cimmericus  was  the  name  giv- 
en by  the  ancients  to  the  strait  that  leads 


BOSPHORUS— BOSSUET. 


207 


from  the  Black  sea  into  the  sea  of  Azof. 
The  Italians,  who  formerly  traded  in  these 
regions,  called  it  bocca  di  S.  Giovanni, 
or  estrttto  di  Caffa.  There  was  also  an- 
ciently a  kingdom  of  the  name  of  B.,  so 
called  from  the  straits,  on  both  sides  of 
which  it  Was  situated.  In  Panticapoeum 
(at  present,  Ktrtsch,  q.  v.)  a  Milesian  col- 
ony in  the  Tauric  Chersonese,  the  Archae- 
cinaktides  established  this  kingdom,  B.  C. 
479,  and  reigned  till  B.  C.  437.  Spartacus 
was  the  first  king.  Under  his  successor, 
Satyrus,  the  kingdom  was  extended  to  the 
coast  of  Asia,  and  his  son  Leucon  acquired 
Theodosia,  B.  C.  300.  He  improved  the 
commerce  of  the  country  (in  particular  by 
the  exportation  of  com  to  Athens,  also  of 
fishes,  fur,  skins,  bees-wax  and  slaves). 
From  him  his  descendants  were  called 
Leucanides.  Leucanor  became  tributary 
to  the  Scythians  290  B.  C,  and  the  trib- 
ute was  finally  so  oppressive,  that  Pari- 
sades,  the  last  of  the  Leuconides,  prefer- 
red to  submit  to  Mithridates,  the  king  of 
Pontus,  who  vanquished  the  Scythians 
under  Scilurus,  116  B.  C,  and  made  his 
son  king  of  B.  The  latter  killed  himself. 
At  the  death  of  Mithridates,  the  Romans 
gave  the  country,  B.  C.  64,  to  his  second 
son,  Pharnaces,  who  was  afterwards  mur- 
dered. The  Romans  placed  different 
princes  successively  upon  the  throne,  who 
all  pretended  to  be  descendants  of  Mith- 
ridates. When  this  family  became  ex- 
tinct, A.  D.  259,  the  Sarmatians  took  pos- 
session of  the  kingdom,  from  whom  it 
was  taken  by  the  Chei-sonides,  in  344. 
The  Tauric  Chersonese  then  belonged  to 
the  Eastern  emi)ire,  till  it  was  seized  by 
the  Chazars,  and  afterwards  by  the  Tar- 
tars, under  the  Mongol  princes.  (See 
Tauria.) 

Bossi,  Charles  Aurele,  baron  de,  born 
at  Turin,  1758,  son  of  count  Bossi  de 
Sainte-Agathe,  is  a  lyric  poet  of  reputa- 
tion. In  his  18th  year,  he  published  two 
tragedies — the  Circassians  and  Rhea  Syl- 
via. His  great  poem  on  the  French  rev- 
olution, entitled  UOroniasia,  and  a  com- 
plete collection  of  his  poems,  appeared  in 
London,  1814.  Only  a  few  copies  were 
struck  off.  His  present  life,  in  Paris,  is 
that  of  a  scholar  and  a  private  man.  His 
former  political  life  placed  him  in  difticult 
situations,  and  has  exposed  his  conduct 
to  reproach. 

BossuET,  Jacques  Benigne,  bishop  of 
Meaux,  bom  at  Dijon,  1627,  was  six  years 
old  when  his  father  became  member  of 
the  parUament  at  Metz.  The  son  re- 
mained at  Dijon,  in  the  college  of  the 
Jesuits.    By  chance,  the  boy  got  posses- 


sion of  a  Latin  Bible,  which  made  an 
indelible  impression  upon  him.  At  the 
age  of  15,  he  was  sent  to  Paris,  where  he 
entered  the  college  of  Navarre,  the  presi- 
dent of  which,  Nicholas  Comet,  took 
pleasure  in  forming  his  mind.  B.,  under 
the  direction  of  this  worthy  teacher, 
studied  Greek  and  the  Holy  Scriptures, 
read  the  ancient  classics,  and  investigated 
the  Cai'tesian  philosophy.  He  was  made 
doctor  of  the  Sorbonne  and  canon  in 
Metz.  Here  he  edified  his  hearers  by  his 
preaching  and  example ;  was  commis- 
sioned by  his  bishop  to  refute  the  cate- 
chism of  the  Protestant  minister  Paul 
Ferr}',  and  did  it  in  such  a  way,  that  even 
his  antagonists  were  obliged  to  respect 
him.  The  queen  motlier  (Anne  of  Aus- 
tria) was  induced,  by  this  work,  to  em- 
ploy B.  in  tlie  conversion  of  the  Protest- 
ants in  the  diocese  of  Metz.  This  business 
often  called  him  to  Paris,  where  his  ser- 
mons met  with  great  approbation.  The 
serraozi  which  he  delivered  in  1668,  on 
the  occasion  of  marshal  Turenne's  joining 
the  Cathohc  church,  procured  him  the 
bishopric  of  Condom.  In  1670,  the  king 
charged  him  with  the  education  of  the 
dauphin.  In  consequence  of  this  ap- 
pointment, he  resigned  his  bishopric  in 
1671,  because  he  thought  it  inconsistent 
with  his  duty  to  retain  it  during  a  contin^ 
ual  absence  from  his  diocese.  At  this 
time,  he  delivered  his  sermon  at  the  fu- 
neral of  madame,  the  duchess  of  Orleans, 
a  princess,  wlio,  in  the  midst  of  a  brilliant 
court,  of  which  she  was  the  ornament, 
died  suddenly  in  the  bloom  of  youth. 
His  last  sermon  of  this  kind  (that  at  the 
tomb  of  the  great  Conde)  is  considered  as 
a  masterpiece.  The  manly  vigor  which 
characterized  his  orations  is  seen  also  in 
the  Discours  sur  VHistoire  Universelle,  de- 
signed for  the  instruction  of  his  royal 
pupil.  The  care  which  he  look  of  thei 
education  of  this  prince  was  rewarded,  in 
1680,  by  the  oflicc  of  the  first  almoner  of 
the  dauphin  ;  in  1681,  by  the  bishopric  of 
Meaux ;  in  1697,  lie  obtained  the  dignity 
of  a  coimsellor  of  slate,  and,  a  year  after^ 
wards,  that  of  the  first  almoner  of  the 
duchess  of  Burgundy.  His  practice  and 
his  doctrine  were  equally  severe.  AH  his 
time  was  divided  between  his  studies  and 
the  execution  of  his  ofiicial  duties ;  he 
seldom  allowed  himself  any  recreation. 
The  last  years  of  his  life  he  passed  among 
his  flock,  in  the  midst  of  whom  he  died, 
in  1704.  The  learned  Benedictines  of 
the  brotherhood  of  St.  Maur  have  lately 
published  a  complete  edition  of  all  the 
works  of  B.    The  style  of  B.  is  full  of 


208 


BOSSLET— BOSTON. 


energy,  but  not  without  defects :  his  Latin 
style  is  hard.  The  Freueli  academy  con- 
sider him  among  their  most  renowned 
members.  B.  has  described  his  own  life 
at  length.  (For  his  dispute  with  the  ai-ch- 
bishop  of  Cambray,  Fenelon,  see  Fenelon 
and  Qidetism.) 

BosTAyGi  {gardeners) ;  thef  gueird  of  the 
sultans  in  the  seraglio,  whose  overseer  is 
called  bostangi  baschi,  and  has  the  super- 
intendence over  the  gardens  of  the  se- 
raglio, over  the  channel  of  the  Black  sea, 
and  the  imperial  summer  residences. 
The  bostangi  baschi  accompanies  the 
sultan  in  all  his  rides,  and  has  the  privi- 
lege of  wearing  a  beard.  The  bostangi 
are  also  tlie  boatmen  and  executioners  of 
the  sultan. 

BosTo?j  (anciently  BotolpKs  Toivn) ;  a 
town  of  England,  in  Lincoln ;  34  miles 
S.  S.  E.  Lincohi,  115  N.  London  ;  Ion.  0° 
2'  W. ;  lat.  52°  48'  N.  Population  in  1801 , 
5926;  in  1811,  8113.  It  is  nearly  sur- 
rounded by  fens,  on  the  Witham,  Avhich 
is  navigable,  and  forms  a  poit,  well  fre- 
quented, and  much  assisted  by  navigable 
canals.  It  has  four  annual  fairs,  and 
markets  on  Wednesday  and  Saturday. 
It  has  a  flourishing  trade  with  the  Baltic 
for  hemp,  tar,  timber,  &c.  In  former 
periods,  it  stood  high  as  a  commercial 
town.  The  church  is  a  handsome  struct- 
ure, and  serves  as  a  mai-k  to  seamen. 

Boston,  the  capital  of  Massachusetts 
and  the  largest  citv  in  New  England,  lies 
14  miles  S.  W.  Salom,  40  N.  N.  E.  Prov- 
idence, 56  S.  W.  Portsmouth,  100  E.  N. 
E.  Hartford,  210  N.  E.  New  York,  300 
S.  S.  E.  Montreal,  300  N.  E.  Philadelphia, 
436  N.  Washington  ;  Ion.  71°  4'  W. ;  lat. 
42°  22'  N.  Pop.  in  1765, 15,520 ;  in  1790, 
18,038 ;  in  1800,  24,937 ;  in  1810,  33,250 ; 
in  1820, 43,298 ;  in  1825, 48,281.  Its  popu- 
lation, in  1829,  amounted  to  about  60,000. 
It  is  situated  at  the  bottom  of  Massachu- 
setts bay,  at  the  mouth  of  Charles  river. 
It  stands  principally  on  a  small  peninsula 
of  elevated  ground,  two  miles  and  three 
quarters  in  length  and  one  in  breadth,  and 
is  connected  with  the  continent  by  a  nar- 
row neck  of  land,  and  by  seven  bridges. 
Including  South  Boston,  which  is  without 
the  peninsula,  its  whole  extent  is  nearly 
three  square  miles.  It  has  a  capacious 
harbor,  of  sufficient  depth  of  water  for 
the  largest  ships  of  war  to  enter  safely 
and  lie  at  anchor,  protected  from  storms 
by  a  great  number  of  islands,  on  several 
'  of  w^hich  are  fortifications.  The  bridges, 
with  one  exception,  are  of  wood.  That 
which  leads  from  B.  to  Cambridge  is 
3483  feet  in  length,  and  is  supported  by 


180  piers.  The  western  avenue,  so  called, 
leading  across  the  bay,  from  the  western 
part  of  the  city  to  Roxbury,  is  8000  feet 
in  length,  and  is  formed  of  solid  earth, 
suj)ported  on  each  side  by  walls  of  stone. 
It  serves  the  double  purpose  of  a  bridge 
and  a  dam,  by  means  of  which  and  a 
cross  dam,  two  large  basins  ai-e  formed, 
one  of  which  is  filled  at  every  flood-tide, 
and  the  otlier  is  emptied  at  every  ebb, 
whereby  a  perpetual  water-power  is  cre- 
ated for  carrying  mills  and  machinery. 
This  dam  was  built  at  a  cost  exceeding 
$600,000.  One  of  the  bridges  is  free ;  all 
the  others  are  toll  bridges.  The  streets 
are  mostly  narrow  and  irregular,  and 
some  of  them  are  crooked.  The  wharves 
are,  in  general,  spacious,  and  afford  ample 
accommodation  to  shipping,  and  store- 
houses for  merchandise.  Long  wharf  is 
1650  feet  in  length ;  Central  wharf,  1240 
feet  long  and  150  wide.  The  whan'es 
and  many  of  the  stieets  have  been  made 
by  raising  the  ground  "formerly  covered 
by  the  tide.  The  number  of  dwelling- 
houses  is  about  10,000,  besides  a  great 
number  of  store-houses  and  shops.  A 
great  part  of  the  buildings  are  of  brick, 
four  stories  in  height.  Many  of  them  are 
of  hammered  granite  and  sienite.  These 
are  excellent  building  materials,  of  a 
beautiful  gray  color,  hard  and  durable, 
splitting  easily,  and  readily  wrought  into 
the  required  form.  Many  of  the  dwelling 
houses  are  large  and  well  built.     The 

Erincijial  public  buildings  are  the  state- 
ouse,  which  is  of  brick,  is  situated  on 
the  highest  part  of  the  city,  and  com- 
mands a  view  of  the  country  and  bay  for 
many  miles  round ;  the  county  court- 
house, which  is  of  stone  ;  Faneuil  hall,  in 
which  town-meetings  and  public  assem- 
blies for  political  discussions  are  held ; 
the  Massachusetts  general  hospital,  and 
the  Faneuil  hall  market,  two  handsome 
buildings  of  granite,  the  latter  two  stories 
in  height,  540  feet  in  length  and  50  feet 
in  width  ;  about  40  churches  ;  10  public 
school-houses ;  a  house  of  industry ;  a 
house  of  correction ;  a  county  jail ;  and 
two  theatiTS.  Among  the  best  specimens 
of  architecture  are  the  market-house. 
Trinity  church,  the  general  hospital,  sev- 
eral of  the  bank  buildings,  and  the  Tre- 
mont  house,  the  front  of  which  is  built  of 
gray  sienite,  and  is  ornamented  with  a 
handsome  portico  of  the  Doric  order, 
with  fluted  pillars.  This  last-named 
building  is  finely  situated,  and  is  the  most 
elegant  and  commodious  hotel  in  the  U. 
States.  The  city  is  divided  into  12  wards. 
The  municipal  government  is  vested  in  a 


BOSTON. 


209 


mayor,  8  alderineu,  and  a  common  coun- 
cil of  48  members.  The  executive  pow- 
ers are  exercised  by  the  mayor  and  alder- 
men, and  measures  of  a  legislative  char- 
acter are  adopted  by  a  concurrent  act  of 
that  board  and  of  the  common  council. 
These  officers  are  chosen  aimually  by  the 
citizens,  votuig  in  the  wards  in  which 
they  reside.  Ward  officers  are  also  chosen 
annually  to  superintend  the  elections. 
The  city,  with  the  small  town  of  Chelsea, 
forms  the  county  of  Suftblk.  The  coun- 
ty is  represented  in  the  senate  of  the  state 
by  six  senators.  Until  the  year  1621,  tlie 
municipal  affiiirs  of  the  town  were  super- 
intended by  a  board  of  seven  select-men, 
annually  chosen;  and  all  measures  for 
raising  and  granting  money,  establishing 
schools,  and  making  municipal  regula- 
tions, were  adopted  in  town-meeting,  or 
assembly  of  the  qualified  voters,  held  in 
Faneuil  hall.  All  pubhc  officers  were 
chosen  in  town-meeting.  There  is  a  j)0- 
lice  court  of  three  justices,  for  examining 
all  criminal  charges  and  the  trial  of  minor 
offences  ;  and  a  municipal  court,  lield  by 
a  single  judge,  which  has  jurisdiction  of 
all  criminal  causes  not  capital,  wliich  are 
tried  by  jury.  The  annual  expenditures 
of  the  city  amount  to  about  $300,000;  of 
which  sum  $53,000  are  expended  for  the 
support  of  schools ;  $50,000  for  paving, 
repairing  and  widenuig  streets  ;  $30,000 
for  the  support  and  relief  of  the  poor,  &c. 
The  public  schools  are,  a  Latin  grammar 
school,  open  to  all  boys  between  the  ages 
of  9  and  15 ;  a  high  school,  in  which  are 
taught  the  various  branches  of  mathe- 
matics and  other  branches  of  Enghsh  edu- 
cation ;  8  grammar  and  writing  schools, 
7  of  which  have  2  masters  each — a 
grammar  and  a  writing  master,  who  teach, 
alternately,  boys  and  girls,  at  different 
hours ;  one  African  school ;  and  57  pri- 
mary schools,  which  are  kept  by  wo- 
men, and  in  which  children  from  four  to 
sev-en  yeara  of  age  are  taught  to  read, 
spell  and  write.  The  schools  are  under 
the  direction  of  a  school  committee,  con- 
sisting of  the  mayor  and  aldermen  and  12 
members,  annually  elected.  The  princi- 
pal literaiy  institution  in  the  vicinity, 
Hai-vard  univei-sity,  is  situated  at  Cam- 
bridge, three  mile's  from  the  city.  The 
medical  branch  of  this  institution  is  es- 
tablished in  Boston,  where  the  professors 
reside.  The  Boston  athenaeum  has  two 
large  buildings  ;  one  containing  a  hbrary, 
and  the  other  a  picture  gallery,  a  hall  for 
public  lectures,  and  other  rooms  for  sci- 
entific ]iuri)oses.  The  librar}'  consists  of 
about  24,000  volumes.  There  aie  many 
18* 


literary,  scientific  and  charitable  societies 
in  B.  Among  the  former  are  the  Amer- 
icmi  academy  of  arts  and  sciences,  which 
has  published  four  volumes  of  memoirs  ; 
the  historical  society,  which  has  pubhshed 
22  volumes ;  the  Massachusetts  medical 
society ;  the  mechanic  institution,  under 
whose  patronage  courses  of  lectures  for 
mechanics  are  delivered  annually.  Among 
the  latter  are  the  humane  society ;  the 
Boston  dispensarj',  by  which  the  poor  are 
furnished  witli  medical  attendance  and 
medicuie  fi-ee  of  expense  ;  the  female 
asylum,  for  the  maintenance  of  female 
orphans ;  the  boys'  asylum,  and  several 
othei-s.  The  pursuits  of  the  inhabitants 
are  in  a  great  measure  mercantile.  They 
carry  on  an  extensive  foreign  trade,  and 
own  many  ships,  which  are  employed  not 
only  in  the  importing,  exporting  and 
coasting  trade,  but  in  trade  between  for- 
eign markets.  B.  is  the  second  commer- 
cial town  in  the  U.  States.  The  value  of 
the  annual  imports  is  about  $13,000,000, 
and  that  of  the  exports  $9,000,000.  The 
amount  of  shipping  owned  in  B.,  at  the 
commencement  of  1828,  was  161,583  tons. 
Many  kinds  of  manufactures  are  carried 
on  here.  The  capitalists  of  B.  are  also 
the  principal  proprietors  in  the  joint  stock 
manufacturing  companies  established  in 
Lowell,  Waltham,  and  otlier  towns  in 
Massachusetts  and  some  of  the  neighbor- 
ing states.  Great  improvements  have 
been  made,  within  a  few  years,  in  the 
appearance  of  the  city  by  the  widening 
and  repa\ing  of  streets,  the  erection  of 
new  and  elegant  buildings,  and  the  em- 
bellishment of  the  pubhc  grounds.  The 
principal  public  square  is  the  common, 
which,  with  the  mall,  a  gravelled  walk 
which  surrounds  it,  covers  a  surface  of 
about  50  acres.  It  is  a  liandsome  piece 
of  ground,  has  a  sloping  and  undulating 
surface,  is  partly  shaded  with  elms,  and  is 
surrounded  by  some  of  the  most  elegant 
builduigs  in  the  city.  There  are  six 
newspapei-s  published  daily,  three  semi- 
weekly,  several  weekly,  and  a  number  of 
other  periodical  journals,  some  of  which 
are  conducted  with  great  ability,  and  are 
extensively  circulated.  Among  these  are 
the  North  American  Review  and  the 
Christian  Examiner.  B.  was  founded  in 
August,  16S0.  It  received  the  name  of  B. 
from  a  borough  of  the  same  name  in  Lin- 
colnshire, England  (from  which  a  part  of 
the  inhabitants  emigrated),  by  a  vote  of 
the  court  of  assistants,  September  7,  and, 
on  the  19th  of  October  of  the  same  year, 
the  general  court  of  the  colony  was  held 
there.    This  general  court  was  not  com- 


210 


BOSTON— BOSWELL. 


posed  of  representatives,  but  of  the  pro- 
prietors under  the  charter,  acting  in  their 
own  right.  The  first  church  was  built  in 
1632.  The  Middlesex  canal,  leading  from 
Boston  harbor  to  the  Merrimack  river, 
forms  with  tliis  river  a  navigable  channel 
to  Concord  in  New  Hampshire.  There 
are  no  other  means  of  transportation  to 
and  from  the  interior,  except  such  as  are 
afforded  by  the  common  roads.  In  this 
respect,  B.  is  behind  the  other  principal 
cities  of  the  U.  States,  and  its  inland  trade 
is  much  less  than  it  would  otherwise  have 
been.  Projects  are  now  before  the  public 
for  remedying  this  inconvenience  by  the 
construction  of  rail-roads.  The  poj)ula- 
tion  has  doubled  from  the  year  1763 
once  m  about  23  years.  Previously  to 
that  date,  the  population  of  the  town  had 
been,  for  100  yeare,  nearly  stationary,  and 
for  50  years  entirely  so  ;  its  trade,  and  that 
of  the  colony,  having  been  subjected  to 
severe  restraints  and  heavy  burdens  In 
the  reign  of  Charles  II,  the  inhabitants  of 
the  colony  fell  under  the  royal  displeas- 
ure, and,  in  1683,  a  Avrit  of  quo  warranto 
was  issued  against  the  cliarter  of  the  col- 
ony. A  legal  town-meeting  of  the  fi'ce- 
men  of  B.  was  held,  and  the  question  Avas 
put  to  vote,  whether  it  was  their  wish  that 
the  general  court  should  resign  the  charter 
and  the  privileges  therein  granted,  and  it 
was  resolved  in  the  negative  unanimously. 
The  charter,  however,  was  declared  for- 
feited by  a  deci-ee  of  the  court  of  chan- 
cerj',  and,  soon  after,  sir  Edmimd  Andros 
was  appointed  the  first  roj'al  governor. 
His  administration,  which  endured  for 
two  or  three  years,  was  arbitrary  and  o])- 
pressive.  In  April,  1689,  the  people  of 
B.  took  forcible  possession  of  the  fort  in 
B.,  and  the  castle  in  the  harbor,  turned  the 
guns  upon  the  frigate  Rose,  and  compelled 
Iier  to  surrender,  seized  the  governor,  and 
held  him  a  close  prisoner  under  guard  in 
the  castle.  A  little  more  than  a  month 
afterwards,  news  was  received  of  the 
revolution  in  England,  and  the  event  ^vas 
celebrated  with  great  rejoicings.  In  1765, 
after  the  passage  of  the  stamp  act,  the 
person  appointed  distributor  of  stamps 
was  compelled,  by  threats  of  violence,  to 
decline  the  acceptance  of  the  office,  and 
the  house  of  the  Ueutenant-governor  was 
destroyed  by  a  mob.  A  large  military 
and  naval  force  was  stationed  at  B.  for 
the  purpose  of  overawing  the  people. 
On  the  evening  of  March  5,  1770,  a  ser- 
geant's guard  fired  upon  a  crowd  of  peo- 
ple, who  were  surrounding  them,  and 
pelting  them  with  snow-balls,  and  killed 
five  men.    Dec.  16, 1773,  on  the  arrival 


of  three  ships  loaded  with  tea,  after  various 
unsuccessful  attempts  had  been  made  by 
public  meetings  of  the  citizens,  to  prevent 
its  beuig  landed  and  sold,  in  violation  of 
the  non-importation  resolves  of  the  peo- 
ple, a  number  of  men,  disguised  as  In- 
dians, went  on  board  the  ships,  and  threw 
all  the  tea  overboard.  In  the  following 
spring,  the  port  of  B.  was  closed  by  an 
act  of  parliament  (Boston  Port-bill),  and 
the  landing  and  shij)ping  of  goods  within 
the  harbor  was  ordered  to  be  discontin- 
ued. The  session  of  the  general  court 
was  renjoved  to  Salem,  and  additional 
bodies  of  troops  and  a  military  governor 
were  ordered  to  B.  In  1775,  the  war 
commenced  \\\x\\  the  battles  of  Lexington 
and  Bunker  hill,  and  the  town  of  B.,  in 
which  the  British  troops  were  encamped 
to  the  number  of  10,000  men,  was  be- 
sieged by  the  American  army.  The 
siege  continued  imtil  the  March  follow- 
ing, when  the  British  troops  evacuated 
the  town  and  castle,  embaiked  on  board 
their  own  ships,  and  withdrew  to  anotlier 
part  of  the  country.  The  inhabitants 
were  among  the  earliest  and  most  ardent 
assertors  of  the  rights  of  the  people,  and 
among  the  earliest  advocates  and  active 
supporters  of  independence.  During  the 
revolutionary  struggle,  popular  meetuigs 
were  frequent.  These  meetings  were 
usually  held  in  Faneuil  hall.  Benjamin 
Franklin  was  bom  in  B.,  .Ian.  17,  1706. 

BoswELL,  James,  the  fi-iend  and  biog- 
rapher of  Johnson,  l)orn  at  Edinburgh,  in 
1740,  studied  in  his  native  city,  in  Glas- 
gow, and  in  the  Dutch  university  of 
Utrecht.  He  afterwards  resided  several 
times  in  London,  and  cultivated  the  ac- 
quaintance of  the  most  disthiguished  men 
of  his  time.  Here  he  became  acquaint- 
ed with  Johnson — a  circumstance  which 
he  himself  calls  the  most  imptortant  event 
of  his  life.  He  afterwards  visited  Voltaire 
at  Ferney,  Rousseau  at  Neufchatel,  and 
Paoli  in  Corsica,  Avith  whom  he  became 
intimate.  He  then  returned  by  the  way 
of  Paris  to  Scotland,  and  devoted  himself 
to  the  bar.  In  1768,  when  Corsica  at- 
tracted so  much  attention,  he  pubhshed 
liis  valuable  Account  of  Corsica,  with 
Memoirs  of  Paoli.  At  a  later  period,  he 
settled  at  London,  where  he  lived  in  the 
closest  intimacy  with  Johnson.  In  1773, 
he  accompanied  him  on  a  tour  to  the 
Scottish  Highlands  and  Hebrides,  and 
pubhshed  an  account  of  the  excursion 
after  their  return.  After  the  death  of 
Johnson,  he  became  his  biographer.  The 
minuteness  and  accuracy  of  his  account, 
and  the  store  of  literary  anecdote  which 


BOSWELL— BOTANY. 


211 


it  contains,  render  this  work  very  valua- 
ble. It  was  published  in  2  vols,  4to.,  in 
1790,  and  has  been  repeatedly  rejM-iuted. 
B.  died  in  1795. 

Bos  WORTH ;  a  small  town  in  the  county 
of  Leicester,  England,  about  three  miles 
from  which  is  Boswortli  field,  where  was 
fought,  in  1458,  the  memorable  battle  be- 
tween Richard  III  and  the  earl  of  Rich- 
mond, afterwards  Henry  VII.  This  battle, 
in  which  Richard  lost  his  life,  put  a  period 
to  the  long  and  bloody  wars  of  the  roses, 
between  the  houses  of  York  and  Lancas- 
ter. 

Botanical  Gardens  ;  establishments 
in  which  plants  from  all  climates,  and  all 
pails  of  the  world,  are  cultivated  in  the 
open  air,  in  green-houses  and  hot-houses. 
The  object  of  such  an  estabhshment  is 
partly  information  and  the  improvement 
of  science,  partly  pleasure  and  luxury. 
Theophrastus  seems  to  have  instituted  the 
first  botanical  garden.  He  bequeathed  it 
to  his  scholai-s.  Attalus  Philometor,  king 
of  Pergamus,  and  Mithridates  Eupator  of 
Pontus,  vied  with  each  other  in  the  estab- 
lishment of  gardens,  where  they  cultivated 
poisons  and  antidotes.  Pliny  mentions  a 
botanical  garden  which  was  laid  out  in  Ita- 
ly by  Anlonius  Castor,  son-hi-law  of  king 
Dejotai-us.  In  the  middle  ages,  Charle- 
magne exerted  a  favorable  influence,  by 
establishing  gardens  near  the  imperial 
palaces  and  castles,  specifying  even  the 
single  shrubs,  which  were  to  be  planted. 
In  the  beginning  of  the  14th  century, 
Matthfeus  Sylvaticus,  at  Salerno,  found- 
ed the  fii-st  botanical  garden,  properly  so 
called.  The  re])ublic  of  Venice,  soon 
afterwards,  in  1333,  instituted  a  public 
medical  garden,  and  had  the  plants  ])aint- 
ed  by  Ainadei.  The  paintings  are  still 
presented.  After  the  time  of  the  revival 
of  learning,  the  first  botanical  gardens, 
which  contained,  however,  for  the  greater 
part,  merely  medicinal  plants,  were  laid 
out  in  Italy.  Duke  Alfonso  of  Este  was 
the  founder  of  an  excellent  institution  of 
this  kind  in  Ferrara ;  then  followed  tlie 
gardens  hi  Padua,  Pisa  and  Pavia.  Mont- 
pelher,  in  France,  first  imitated  his  exam- 
ple. The  academical  garden  in  Leyden 
was  instituted  in  1577 ;  that  of  Paris,  in 
1633 ;  and  about  the  same  time  the  fii-st 
botanical  gardens  in  Germany  and  Eng- 
land were  founded.  At  present,  the 
largest  and  most  renowned  in  Germany 
are  the  imperial  Austrian,  at  Schonbrunn, 
under  the  insjjection  of  Jacquin ;  the  royal 
Prussian,  near  Berlin,  under  Link  and 
Otto ;  that  of  Weimar,  in  Belvedere ; 
that  of  the  grand  duke  of  Baden,  at 


Schwetzingen ;  and  the  royal  Hanove- 
rian, in  Herrnhausen.  In  Great  Britain, 
the  royal  garden  at  Kew ;  thq  Chelsea 
garden,  founded  for  the  London  apothe- 
caries ;  and  that  at  Livei-pool,  under  the 
superintendence  of  Shepherd,  are  the 
most  celebrated  scientific  institutions,  to 
say  nothing  of  the  extensive  gardens 
where  plants  are  raised  for  sale.  In 
France,  the  royal  garden  in  Paris,  under 
the  inspection  of  Desfontaines  and  Thouin, 
is  the  principal.  Formerly,  that  of  Mal- 
maison,  founded  by  the  empress  Jose- 
phuie,  was  the  most  famous  (see  Bon- 
pland).  In  Italy,  the  garden  of  the 
university  at  Turin,  superintended  by 
Capelli,  is,  perhaps,  the  best ;  in  Spain,  the 
royal  garden  at  Madrid,  under  Mariano 
Lagasca ;  in  Denmark,  the  garden  of  the 
university  at  Copenhagen,  under  the  si;-, 
perintendence  of  Honieraann.  In  Russia, 
the  excellent  institution  of  the  count 
Alexis  Rasumowsky,  at  Corinka,  near 
IMuscow,  deserves  to  be  placed  by  the 
side  of  the  most  celebrated  estabhshments. 
The  principal  botanical  gardens  in  the 
U.  States  are  in  New  York,  in  Philadel- 
phia and  Cambridge.  In  Asia,  the  gar- 
den of  the  East  India  company  at  Cal- 
cutta is  the  most  important. — At  present, 
almost  all  univei-sities  and  learned  acade- 
mies, as  well  as  many  rich  private  pro- 
prietors, have  botanical  gardens. 

Botany,  the  science  of  plants,  may  be 
divided  into  two  jiarts,  one  of  which  de- 
scribes their  external  ajipearance,  and  is 
sometimes  called  phytography ;  the  other 
treats  of  their  internal  structure  and  or- 
ganic action,  and  may  be  termed  philo- 
sophical botany  or  phytonomy.  The  former 
requires  a  perfect  knowledge  of  terminol- 
ogy, the  latter  a  thorough  knowledge  of 
the  plants  themselves,  with  a  view  to  a 
systematic  classification  of  them,  accord- 
ing to  fixed  principles.  The  necessitj'  of 
such  a  classification  must  have  been  felt 
as  soon  as  the  number  of  known  plants 
became  great,  and  their  relations  and 
analogies  ob\ious.  At  the  time  of  the 
revival  of  letters,  hardly  1500  plants  were 
known  from  the  descriptions  of  the  an- 
cients. At  present,  at  a  moderate  estima- 
tion, more  than  50,000  have  been  describ- 
ed. It  is  obviously  impossible  to  introduce 
order  into  this  infinite  chaos,  or  to  acquire 
any  distinct  knowledge,  without  the  aid 
of  general  principles.  Even  in  the  16th 
and  17th  centuries,  the  founders  of  botan- 
ical science  perceived  that  in  plants,  as 
well  as  in  all  other  natural  bodies,  the  es- 
sential and  necessary  parts  must  be  dis- 
tinguished from  the  accidental,  and  that  a 


212 


BOTANY. 


scientific  classification  must  be  fijunded 
on  the  fiarnier  alone.    Now  it  was  obvious 
that  the  production  of  fruit  and  seed  is  the 
ultimate  object  of  vegetation,  and,  accord- 
ingly, in  the  first  attempts  at  classification, 
the  relations  and  component  parts  of  the 
seed  and  of  the  fruit  were  made  the  found- 
ation of  the  an-angement.    This  arrange- 
ment was  confirmed  by  an  observation  of 
the  uniformity  of  nature  in  the  formation  of 
those   parts   in  plants   of  similar  kinds. 
But  it  was  found,  also,  that  uniformity  in 
these  formations  prevailed  in  too  great  a 
number  of  plants  to  allow  them  alone  to 
be  made  the  distinguishing  characteristics. 
It  became,  therefore,  necessary  to  have 
recourse  to  other  parts.     The  flower  was 
first  chosen,  as  it  presents  a  great  variety 
of  forms,  and,  at  the  same  time,  a  uniform- 
ity of  structure.     But  the  limits  to  this 
uniformity,  and  the  absence  of  flowers  in 
innumerable  plants,  with  the  consideration 
that  they  are  not  essential,  suggested  to 
the  immortal  founder  of  modern  scientific 
botany  the  idea  that  the  sexual  parts  are 
most  intimately  related  to  the  growth  of 
the  fruit,  and  that  they  are,  therefore,  of 
the  greatest  importance,  and  furnish  bet- 
ter grounds   of  classification    than    the 
flower.    A  general  principle  was    thus 
established,  fertile  in  consequences,  excel- 
lentiy  adapted  to  faciUtate  the  diflfusion 
and  extend  the  sphere  of  the  science. 
The  Linueean  system  was  founded  exclu- 
sively on  the  relations  of  the  sexual  parts. 
Linnaeus  divided  all  known  plants  into 
two  general  divisions,  one  of  which  has 
visible     sexual    parts    [phanerogamoiis), 
while  in  the  other  they  are  invisible  or 
wanting  [cryptogamous).    The  first  divis- 
ion comprehends  the  23  first  classes  of  his 
system,  which  are  distinguished  according 
to  the  situation  of  the  sexual  parts  in  the 
same  or  m  separate  flowers,  their  number, 
their  length,  &c.    If  any  system  has  in- 
troduced order  in  the  midst  of  variety, 
and  shed  light  on  the  immense  diversities 
of  nature,  it  is  that  of  Linnaeus.    Hence, 
even  those  who  have  departed  from  it  in 
their  writings  have  considered  it  neces- 
sary for  elementary  instruction.    Many 
objections,  however,  are  brought  against 
it.     It  has  been  made  a  question  whether 
it  is  fitted  for  the  investigation  and  classi- 
fication of  unknown  plants.     It  is  said 
that  the  sexual  parts  may  be  very  diflfer- 
ent  in  similar  plants ;  that  he  never  will 
have  a  complete  idea  of  nature,  who  pro- 
ceeds only  on  one  principle.    It  has,  there- 
fore, been  thought  necessary  to  find  a  more 
natural  arrangement.    (See  Plants.)    In 
order  to  follow  nature,  we  must  look  at 


every  part;  at  the  internal  structure,  as 
well  as  the  external  relations,  analogies 
and  differences.  This  can  be  done  only 
by  a  profound  and  toilsome  investigation, 
of  which  the  mere  follower  of  a  system 
has  liardly  a  notion.  Seed  is  considered 
as  the  ultimate  object  of  vegetation.  Its 
parts,  their  formation,  situation,  and  other 
relations,  must  be  critically  examined. 
The  most  perfect  natural  system,  in  mod- 
ern times,  is  that  of  Jussieu,  particularly 
as  enlarged  by  Decandolle.  (See  Decan- 
dolle's  Regni  vegetabilis  Systema  naturale, 
his  Thtone  elementaire  de  la  Botanique, 
and  his  Prodromus  Systematis  naturalis 
Regni  vegetabilis ;  also  the  J^ouveaux  El- 
emens  de  la  Botanique,  by  Richard.) 

The  second  general  division  of  this  sci- 
ence begins  with  the  investigation  of  the 
internal    structure,   or  the    anatomy  of 
plants.    This  study  has  been  recently  cul- 
tivated, by  the  Germans,  to   an   extent, 
which,  30  years  ago,  could  hardly  have 
been  conceived.     It  is  closely  connected 
with  the  fii-st  division,  if  the  plants  are 
studied  in  their  natural  order.     Without 
good  microscopes,  and  the  aid  of  the  best 
v,'orks  in  this  branch,  a  distinct  knowledge 
of  the  structure  of  plants  cannot  easily  be 
obtained.     Chemical  botany  must  be  con- 
nected with  the  anatomy  of  plants.    Their 
constituent  parts,  their  various  changes, 
and  the  different  combinations  of  their 
hquid  and  solid  parts,  are  to  be  examined. 
From  those,  at  last,  we  ascend  to  the  laws 
of  vegetable  life,  which  are,  in  general,  the 
same  as  those  of  animal  life.    Animal 
physiology  must,  therefore,  be  intimately 
united   with   the    physiology   of  plants. 
Connected    with     the    latter    are    tvvo 
branches  of  knowledge,  which  the  bota- 
nist cannot  well  dispense  with,  since  they 
offer  the  most  important  conclusions  on 
the  economy  of  nature,  on  the  history 
of  the  earth,  and  on  the  application  of 
science  to  the  arts.     These  are,  first,  the 
science  of  tl)e  deformities  and  diseases  of 
plants,  which  can  be  made  certain  oqly 
by  correct  physiological  views,  and  which 
is  of  great  value  in  gardening,  agriculture, 
and  the  cultivation  of  woods ;  and,  second^ 
a  knowledge  of  the  mode  in  which  plants 
have  been  spread  over  the  earth.    If  we 
study  the  forms  of  vegetation  which  have 
come  to  us  from  distant  ages,  in  the  Jlotz 
formations,  this   observation  affords  the 
most  interesting  discoveries  in  relation  to 
the  histoiy  of  our  earth.     If  we  trace  the 
laws  by  which  vegetation  seems  to  have 
been  distributed,  we  extend  our  knowl- 
edge of  the  general  action  of  nature,  and 
arrive  at  conclusions  which  may  be  of 


BOTANY. 


213 


gi'eat  practical  utility.  The  work  of 
Sprengel  on  the  structure  and  nature  of 
plants,  is,  perhaps,  the  most  complete. 
Separate  pai-ts  of  the  anatomy  of  plants 
have  been  treated  of  by  Link,  Treviranus 
and  Moldeuhawer;  vegetable  chemistry 
by  Senebier,  Saussure  and  Schrader. 

'  History  of  the  Science.  Of  the  two  gen- 
eral divisions  of  botany,  the  physiological 
or  jjlnlosophical  is  the  elder.  Before  the 
Greek  philosophers  attempted  to  distin- 
guish classes  and  species  of  plants,  they 
examined  the  laws  of  vegetable  life,  the 
difference  of  plants  from  animals,  and,  as 
far  as  it  could  be  done  with  the  naked 
eye,  their  structure.  Theophrastus  of 
Eresus  is  the  creator  of  philosophical 
botany,  which  he  treated  on  a  great  and 
original  plan.  From  the  writings  of  the 
Alexandrians,  and  from  original  observa- 
tions, Dioscorides  of  Anazarba,  in  the  first 
century  of  the  Christian  era,  compiled  a 
work,  which  contains  imperfect  descrip- 
tions of  about  1200  plants,  the  medical 
qualities  of  which  were  more  attended  to 
by  the  author  than  the  description  of  their 
characteristics  or  their  philosophical  clas- 
sification. This  work  continued,  for  15 
centuries,  the  only  source  of  botanical 
knowledge.  The  Persian  and  Arabian 
physicians  added  about  200  plants,  which 
were  unknown  to  the  Greeks,  and,  conse- 
quently, the  number  of  known  plants,  at 
the  time  of  the  revival  of  lettei-s,  was 
about  1400.  Germany  has  the  merit  of 
having  founded  historical  botany.  The 
obvious  imperfections  of  Dioscorides, 
when  the  plants  of  Germany  came  to  be 
investigated,  and  the  extravagances  into 
which  those  persons  fell,  who  attempted 
to  apply  his  descriptions  to  German 
plants,  impelled  Hieronymus  of  Bruns- 
wick, Otho  Braunfelsius,  Leon.  Fuchsius, 
Hieron.  Tragus  and  Conrad  Gesner,  to 
examine  the  vegetable  productions  of 
their  country,  independently  of  Dioscori- 
des, and  to  represent  them  in  wood-cuts. 
Gesner  first  started  the  idea  that  the  partsof 
fructification  were  the  most  essential,  and 
that  plants  must  be  classified  with  refer- 
ence to  them.  They  were  followed,  in 
the  16th  century,  by  the  Italians,  Peter 
Matthiolus,  Andr.  Caesalpinus,  Prosp.  Al- 
pinus  and  Fab.  Columna;  the  Belgians, 
Dodonseus,  Clusius  and  LobeUus.  Among 
the  botanists  of  this  period,  who  extended 
the  science  by  their  labore  in  collecting 
specimens,  are  the  French  Da'echamp, 
the  English  Gerard,  the  German  Joach. 
Camerarius,  Tabemaemontanus  and  John 
Bauhin,  whose  brother  Gaspard  not  only 
increased  the  number  of  known  plants  by 


numerous  discoveries,  but  endeavored  to 
reform  the  nomenclature,  which  had  be- 
come much  confused  by  the  multiplica- 
tion of  names  of  the  same  plant.  These 
are  the  fathers  of  botany,  whose  standard 
works  still  reward  examination.  By  the 
exertions  of  these  men,  the  number  of 
known  plants,  at  the  beginning  of  the  17tli 
century,  amounted  to  5500.  The  neces- 
sity of  classification  increased  with  the 
quantity  of  materials.  Lobeliusand  John 
Bauhin  adopted  the  natural  division  of 
trees,  grasses,  &c.,  witliout  reference  to 
any  general  principle.  Andreas  Caesalpi- 
nus, by  the  ad\ice  of  Conrad  Gesner,  fix- 
ed upon  the  fruit  and  the  seed  as  the 
foundation  of  a  classification,  which  is  still 
retained  by  many  of  his  followers,  who 
are  caWedfrudists.  In  the  17th  century, 
new  methods  were  introduced  by  Robert 
Morison  and  John  Ray;  the  latter  of 
whom  attended  to  the  structure  of  the 
corolla  and  its  parts,  while  Rivinus  con- 
sidered only  the  regularity  or  irregularity 
of  its  shape,  and  Toumefort  its  resem- 
blance to  other  objects.  The  number  of 
know7i  plants  was  increased  by  Morison, 
Plukenet,  BarreUer,  Boccone,  van  Rheede, 
Petiver  and  Plumier.  In  the  17th  centu- 
ry, the  foundation  of  botanical  anatomu 
was  laid  ^y  Grew  and  Malpighi ;  botani- 
cal chemistry  was  founded  by  Homberg, 
Dodart  and  3Iariotte ;  and  the  difference 
of  sex  was  discovered  by  Grew,  Morland 
and  Rud.  Jak.  Camerarius.  This  discov- 
ery Micheli  attempted  to  extend  even  to 
the  lower  degrees  of  organization,  moss, 
lichens  and  sponges.  To  such  predeces- 
sors, and  to  the  great  collectors  of  her- 
bariums, Rumphius,  Parkinson,  Sloane, 
Flacourt,  Sommelyn,  Buxbaum,  Ammann 
and  Feuillee,  the  immortal  Linnaeus  was 
indebted,  in  part,  for  the  idea  on  which 
his  system  was  founded,  and  for  his  great 
stores  of  botanical  knowledge.  When 
the  first  edition  of  his  Species  Plantarum 
was  published,  he  was  acquainted  with 
7300  species ;  in  the  second  edition,  with 
8800.  If  we  consider  that  a  moderate 
herbarium  now  contains  from  11,000  to 
12,000  species,  we  must  be  astonished  at 
the  increase  in  the  number  of  known 
plants  in  60  years.  The  two  sexes  of 
Linnaeus  were  aflerwards  extended,  by 
Dillenius,  Schmidel  and  Hedwig,  to  the 
imperfect  vegetables.  This  system  was 
opposed  by  Adanson,  Alston  and  Haller ; 
it  was  extended  still  farther  by  Schreber, 
Scopoli,  Crantz  and  Jacquin.  In  the  18th 
century,  numerous  discoveries  in  the  ve- 
getable world  were  made  by  John  Bur- 
mann,  J.  G.  Gmelin,  Pallas,  Forskal,  For- 


214 


BOTANY— BOTOCUDES. 


ster,  Hasselquist,  Browne,  Jacquin,  Aublet, 
Somnierson,  Stahl,  Swartz,  Aiton.  Ve- 
getable physiology  was  enlarged  and  en- 
riched with  new  discoveries  by  Bonnet, 
Du  Haniel,  Hill,  Koelreuter  and  Senne- 
bier,  and  thus  botany  approached  its  pres- 
ent degree  of  improvement.  (SeeSpren- 
gel's  History  of  Botany,  2  vols.,  Leipsic, 
1818.)  An  outline  of  the  Linnsean  sys- 
tem is  to  be  found  in  the  article  Plants. 

Botany  Bay.    (See  JVew  Sovih  Wcdes.) 

Both,  John  and  Andrew;  born  at 
Utrecht,  in  1610,  the  sons  of  a  glass  painter, 
who  instructed  them  in  the  rudiments  of 
drawing.  They  afterwards  made  further 
progress  in  the  school  of  Abraham  Bloe- 
maert,  and  went,  at  an  early  age,  together 
to  Italy.  John,  attracted  by  the  works  of 
Claude  Lorraine,  chose  him  for  his  model ; 
Andrew  preferfed  the  painting  of  the  hu- 
man figure,  and  imitated  the  style  of 
Bamboccio.  But,  although  their  inclina- 
tions led  them  in  different  directions,  their 
mutual  friendship  often  united  their  talents 
in  the  same  works.  Thus  Andrew  paint- 
ed the  figures  in  the  landscapes  of  his 
brother ;  and  their  labors  harmonized  so 
well,  that  their  pictures  could  not  be  sus- 
pected of  coming  from  difierent  hands. 
The  ease  and  fine  coloring,  in  the  beauti- 
ful figures  of  John,  cannot  be  overlooked, 
in  spite  of  the  excess  of  yellow,  sometimes 
found  in  them.  His  fame  has  been  con- 
firmed by  time,  and  his  merit,  as  well  as 
his  residence  in  Italy,  has  procured  him 
the  name  of  Both  of  Italy.  Andrew  was 
drowned  at  Venice,  in  1650.  John,  in- 
consolable for  his  loss,  abandoned  Italy, 
and  returned  to  Utrecht,  where  he  died 
shortly  after.  The  plates  which  John 
Both  has  himself  etched  from  his  princi- 
pal works  are  much  valued. 

Bothnia,  East,  a  province  formerly 
belonging  to  Sweden,  but  ceded  to  Russia 
in  1809,  situated  on  the  E.  side  of  the  gulf 
of  Bothnia,  bounded  N.  by  Lapland,  E.  by 
the  Russian  government  of  Archangel 
and  Olonet?,  S.  by  Finland,  and  W. 
by  the  gulf  of  Bothnia,  is  about  300 
miles  in  length,  and  from  60  to  210 
in  breadth.  Towards  the  south,  and  on 
the  sea-coast,  the  land  is  low  and  marshy. 
The  summers  are  often  so  cold  as  to  de- 
stroy a  great  part  of  the  crops.  Popula- 
tion, about  70,000.  The  cattle  are  small, 
and  bears  are  numerous.  The  salmon 
fishery  is  abundant,  and  that  of  pearls 
often  successful.  The  principal  exports 
are  limber,  butter,  whale-oil,  pitch,  tar, 
&c.  The  principal  towns  are  Cajana,  or 
Cajaneborg,  Ulea,  Christinestadt,  &c. 

Bothnia,  West;  aprovince  of  Sweden, 


situated  on  the  W.  side  of  the  gulf  of 
Bothnia,  bounded  N.  and  W.  by  Lapland, 
S.  by  Angermania,  and  E.  by  the  gidf  of 
Bothnia.  The  country  is  tolerably  fertile, 
but  sudden  frosts,  in  the  month  of  July, 
often  destroy  the  laborer's  hopes.  There 
are  mines  of  copper  and  iron.  The  prin- 
cipal towns  are  Umea,  Pithea  and  Lulea. 
Population,  about  56,000. 

Bothnia,  Gulf  of  ;  the  northern  part 
of  the  Baltic  sea,  vvhich  separates  Sweden 
from  Finland.  It  commences  at  the  island 
of  Aland,  61°  N.  lat.,  and  extends  to  66° : 
its  length  is  about  360  miles,  its  breadth 
from  90  to  130,  and  its  depth  fiom  20  to 
50  fathoms.  It  freezes  over  in  the  winter, 
so  as  to  be  passed  by  sledges  and  carriages. 
Its  water  contains  only  one  third  of  tlie 
proportion  of  salt  found  in  other  sea- 
water.  It  abounds  in  salmon  and  in 
seals,  which  furnish  great  quantities  of 
train-oil. — This  gulf  is  gradually  decreas- 
ing in  extent. 

BoTHWELL ;  a  village  of  Scotland,  on 
the  Clyde,  nine  miles  from  Glasgow.  At 
Bothwell  bridge,  a  decisive  battle  was 
fought,  in  1679,  between  the  Scottish 
covenantere,  commanded  principally  by 
their  clergy,  and  the  royal  forces,  com- 
manded by  the  duke  of  Monmouth,  in 
which  the  former  were  totally  routed, 

Bothwell,  James  Hepburn,  earl,  is 
kno^vn  in  Scotch  history  by  his  marriage 
with  queen  Mary.  It  is  supposed,  by 
some  historians,  that  he  was  deeply  con- 
cerned in  the  murder  of  the  unfortunate 
Daniley,  Mary's  husband,  and  that  he 
was  even  supported  by  the  deluded 
queen.  He  was  charged  with  the  crime, 
and  tried,  but  acquitted.  After  the  death 
of  Damley,  he  seized  the  queen  at  Edin- 
burgh, and,  carrying  her  a  prisoner  to 
Dunbar  castle,  prevailed  upon  her  to  mar- 
r^  him,  after  he  had  divorced  his  o^vn 
wife.  Though  seemingly  secure  in  the 
possession  of  power,  and  though  created 
earl  of  Orkney  by  the  unfortunate  queen, 
he  soon  found  that  his  conduct  had  rous- 
ed the  indignation  of  the  kingdom.  Ma- 
ry found  not  in  him  the  fond  husband  she 
expected  :  he  became  unkind  and  brutal. 
A  confederacy  was  formed  against  him 
by  the  barons,  the  queen  was  liberated 
from  his  power,  and  he  escaped  to  the 
Orkneys,  and  afterwards  to  Denmark, 
where  he  died,  1577.  In  his  last  mo- 
ments, it  is  said,  that,  with  an  agonizing 
conscieme,  he  confessed  his  own  guilt, 
and  the  queen's  innocence,  of  the  murder 
of  Damley. 

Botocudes,  savages  of  Brazil,  received 
their  name  from  the  large  wooden  pegs, 


BOTOCUDES— BOTTOMRY. 


215 


with  which  they  ornament  their  ears  and 
lips.  A  small  part  of  these  savages  is 
now  somewhat  civilized.  Most  of  the 
tribes  are  still  in  a  completely  barbarous 
Btate,  continually  at  war  among  them- 
selves, and  accustomed  to  eat  the  flesh 
of  their  enemies.  A  more  particular, 
though  incomplete,  account  of  them  is 
to  be  found  in  the  Travels  of  the  Prince 
of  Neuwied  and  others  in  Brazil.  With 
the  view  of  promoting  their  civilization, 
three  Indian  villages  were  laid  out,  in 
1824,  by  order  of  the  emperor. 

BoTTA,  Carlo  Giuseppe  Guglielmo, 
member  of  the  academy  of  sciences  at 
Turin,  a  poet  and  historian,  bom,  1766,  at 
S.  Giorgio,  in  Piedmont,  studied  medicine 
and  botany  at  Turin.  In  1794,  he  was 
a  physician  in  the  French  army  which 
passed  the  Alps.  This  service  carried 
him  to  Corfu.  In  1799,  he  was  a  member 
of  the  provisory  government  of  Piedmont, 
and  was  one  of  those  who  favored  the  in- 
cor})oration  of  Piedmont  with  France. 
After  the  battle  of  Marengo,  he  was  a 
member  of  the  Piedmontese  considta.  In 
tlie  corps  legislatif,  he  displeased  Napo- 
leon, because  he  openly  censured  the  des- 
potism of  his  administration.  In  1814,  he 
was  one  of  the  members  of  the  corps  le- 
gislatif,  which  pronounced  that  Napoleon 
had  forfeited  his  throne.  After  the  resto- 
ration, he  was  struck  out  of  the  list  of 
members  of  the  legislative  body,  because 
he  was  a  foreigner,  and  not  naturalized. 
In  1815,  Napoleon  appointed  him  direct- 
or of  the  academy  at  Nancy.  At  the  res- 
toration, he  resigned  this  post,  and  lives 
now  as  a  private  individual.  His  most 
important  works  are  his  Description  of 
the  Island  of  Corfu  (2  vols.) ;  his  transla- 
tion of  Bora's  (Joannts  physiophili)  Speci- 
men moiiachologicB ;  Memoir  on  the  The- 
ory of  Brown;  Recollections  of  a  Journey 
in  Dalmatia ;  On  Tones  and  Sound ; 
Short  History  of  the  Royal  House  of  Sa- 
voy and  Piedmont ;  Histoiy  of  the  North 
American  Revolutionary  War ;  II  Camillo 
0  Veja  conquistatcL,  a  much-esteemed  epic 
poem,  in  12  cantos,  published  in  1816; 
Storia  (T Italia  dal  1789  al  1814  (4  vols. 
4to.),  in  1824,  somewhat  rhetorical,  but  a 
good  picture  of  the  state  of  this  unhappy 
country;  Histoirt  des  Peuples  dUtalie 
(Paris,  1825,  3  vols.),  in  which  he  denies 
to  the  Christian  rehgion  and  to  philoso- 
phy the  merit  of  having  civilized  Europe, 
and  attributes  this  effect  to  the  revival  of 
learning. 

Bottles,  by  the  ancients,  were  made 
of  skins  and  leather:  they  are  now  chief- 
ly made  of  thick  glass,  of  the  cheapest 


kind,  and  formed  of  the  most  orduiary 
materials.  It  is  composed  of  sand,  with 
lime,  and  sometimes  clay,  and  alkaline 
ashes  of  any  kind,  such  as  kelp,  barilla, 
or  even  wood  ashes.  The  green  color 
is  owing  partly  to  the  impurities  in  the 
ashes,  but  chiefly  to  oxyde  of  iron.  This 
glass  is  strong,  hard  and  well  vitrified. 
It  is  less  subject  to  corrosion  by  acids 
than  flint-glass,  and  is  superior  to  any 
cheap  material  for  the  purposes  to  which 
it  is  applied. 

Bottomry  is  the  hypothecation  or 
pledge  of  a  vessel  for  the  payment  of  a 
debt.  The  creditor  has  no  right  to  take 
possession  of  the  ship,  until  the  expiration 
of  the  time  for  which  the  loan  is  made, 
and  then  (under  a  bottomry  contract  ui 
the  usual  form)  only  by  the  intervention 
of  an  admiralty  court.  If  the  loan  is  not 
repaid  at  the  stipulated  time,  the  lender 
applies  to  an  admiralty  court,  which  (the 
truth  of  the  claim  being  established)  de- 
crees a  sale  of  the  ship  to  satisfy  the  debt. 
The  conditions  of  such  a  contract  usually 
are,  that,  if  the  ship  is  not  lost  or  destroy- 
ed by  those  risks  which  the  lender  agrees 
to  run,  the  debt  is  to  become  absolute. 
The  risks  assumed  by  the  lender  are  usu- 
ally the  same  as  are  enumerated  in  a 
common  poUcy  of  insurance.  If  the  ship 
is  wholly  lost  in  consequence  of  these 
risks,  the  lender  loses  his  loan.  In  case 
of  a  partial  damage,  the  bottomrj'  bond 
usually  provides  that  this  damage  shall 
be  borne  by  the  lender  in  the  i)ropoition 
of  the  amount  loaned  to  the  value  of  the 
ship.  If  tliis  amount  is  equal  to  one  half 
of  the  value  of  the  ship,  the  lender  is  to 
bear  one  half  of  the  amount  of  such  loss, 
&c.  As  the  lender  thus  assumes  a  cer- 
tain risk,  he  is  justly  entitled  to  a  greater 
interest  than  if  he  did  not  thus  take  the 
hazard  of  the  loss  of  the  whole  loan ;  and 
this  is  called  marine  interest.  He  is  enti- 
tled to  the  usual  rate  of  interest  on  his 
loan,  in  addition  to  the  usual  premium  of 
insurance  for  the  same  voyage  or  period. 
The  stipulation  for  such  a  rate  of  marine 
interest  is  not  a  violation  of  the  laAvs 
against  usury,  for  it  is  not  merely  a  com- 
pensation for  the  use  of  the  money  loan- 
ed, but  also  for  the  risk  assumed.  Tlie 
ship-owner  may  boiTovv  money  on  bot- 
tomry, whether  his  vessel  be  in  port  or  at 
sea.  But  the  captain  of  the  ship,  as  such, 
cannot  so  borrow  when  in  the  port  where 
the  owner  resides,  or  near  enough  to  con- 
sult him  on  any  emergency.  In  any 
other  port,  he  may  pledge  the  ship  on 
bottomry  for  the  purpose  of  raising  money 
necessary   for  repairing,  supplying  and 


216 


BOTTOMRY— BOUCHER. 


navigating  her,  if  he  can  obtain  it  in  no 
other  way.  If  he  borrow  thus  without 
necessity,  the  bond  is  void,  and  the  lender 
can  look  only  to  the  personal  responsi- 
biUty  of  the  captain. 

BoTS.    (See  (Estrus.) 

BoTZEN,  or  Bolzano  ;  a  lovra  in  Ty- 
rol, at  the  confluence  of  the  Eisack  and 
the  Adige,  containing  8100  inhabitants, 
and  1000  houses.  It  has  four  annual 
fairs.  The  rivers  of  the  town,  the  former 
privileges  of  the  bishop  of  Trent,  and  the 
intersection  of  the  main  roads  lea(hng  to 
Germany,  Italy  and  Switzerland,  at  this 
place,  on  account  of  the  chains  of  n)oun- 
tains  and  the  courses  of  the  streams,  af- 
forded it  great  advantages  for  commerce, 
which  yet  continue,  in  some  degree.  Its 
commerce,  however,  is  much  injured  by 
tlie  smuggling  over  lake  Como,  and  also 
from  Switzerland,  into  Lombardy.  B. 
Hes  in  a  valley,  enclosed  by  high  moun- 
tains ;  it  is,  therefore,  excessively  hot  in 
summer,  and  sometimes  even  visited  by 
the  skocco.  The  finest  fruits  of  UppeV 
Italy  [agrumi)  are  produced  here,  if  pro- 
tected by  a  covering  in  winter  on  the  east 
side  of  the  mountain.  Autumn  is  here 
the  most  beautiful  season  in  the  j'ear. 
The  winter  is  generally  short.  On  the 
declivities  of  the  mountains  is  produced  a 
peculiar  kind  of  red  wine.  In  tlie  valleys, 
mulbeny-trees  flourish.  B.  is,  therefore, 
the  best  place  for  silk-worms  in  the  Aus- 
trian dominions. 

BotcHARDON,  Edmund,  bom,  in  1698, 
at  Chaumont-en-Basigni,  son  of  a  sculptor 
and  architect,  applied  himself  early  to. 
drawing  and  paintuig.  He  made  rnany 
copies,  without,  however,  giving  up  the 
study  of  nature.  In  order  to  devote  him- 
self to  statuary,  he  went  to  Paris,  and  en- 
tered the  school  of  the  younger  Coustou. 
He  soon  gained  the  highest  prize,  and 
was  made  royal  pensioner  at  Rome.  He 
studied  his  art  partly  in  the  works  of  anti- 
quity, and  partly  in  those  of  Raphael  and 
Domenichino.  He  executed  several  busts, 
and  was  to  have  erected  the  tomb  of 
Clement  XI,  but  the  orders  of  the  king 
recalled  him  to  Paris  in  1732.  Here, 
among  other  works,  he  made  a  large 
group  in  stone,  representing  an  athlete 
overcoming  a  bear.  This  stood  for  a  long 
time  in  the  garden  of  Grosbois.  After- 
wards, he  assisted  in  repairing  the  foun- 
tain of  Neptune  at  Versailles.  He  exe- 
cuted ten  statues,  which  adorn  the  church 
of  St.  Sulpice.  A  monument  to  the  duch- 
ess of  Lauraguais,  made  by  him,  is  also 
in  that  church.  The  fountain  in  the  rue 
de  GreneUe,  which  the  city  of  Paris  order- 


ed to  be  constructed  in  1739,  was  made 
by  him,  and  is  considered  his  master- 
piece. A  Cupid  which  he  made  for  the 
king  was  unsuccessful.  For  the  TVaite 
des  Pierres  gravees,  B.  furnished  designs, 
from  which  the  plates  were  copied.  The 
execution  of  the  greatest  monument  of 
that  period,  the  equestrian  statue  of  Louis 
XV,  which  was  erected  by  order  of  the 
city  of  Paris,  was  committed  to  him.  He 
labored  12  years  on  this,  with  inconceiva- 
ble pei-severance,  and  has  left,  in  the 
hoi-se,  a  model  which  may  be  ranked 
with  any  work  of  antiquity.  He  died  in 
1762.  His  designs  are  great  and  accurate. 
His  pieces  bear  the  character  of  simple 
grandeur.  He  put  more  spirit  and  ex- 
pression into  his  sketches  than  into  the 
marble.  In  general,  more  fire  is  to  be 
desired  in  his  sculpture.  The  jmintings 
which  he  executed  at  Rome  are  bold 
and  powerful.  Afterwards  he  adopted  a 
more  polished,  delicate  manner,  to  suit  the 
taste  of  the  age.  Among  his  scholars, 
Louis-Claude  Vass6,  who  died  in  1772, 
is  distinguished.  Caylus  lists  written  his 
life. 

Boucher,  Alexander,  or,  as  he  was  ac- 
customed to  call  himself,  from  the  title 
given  him  in  a  French  journal,  UMexan- 
dre  du  violmt,  one  of  the  most  remarkable 
but  eccentric  violinists,  was  bom  at  Paris 
in  1770.  At  the  age  of  six,  he  ])layed  be- 
fore tlie  dauphin,  and  at  eight  he  played 
in  pabUc.  He  was  in  unfortunate  circum- 
stances in  early  hfe,  until  he  obtained  a 
place  in  Spain,  under  Charles  IV,  who  was 
liimself  a  very  good  violinist.  In  1814,  he 
went  to  England.  At  Dover,  the  custom- 
house officers  were  about  to  seize  his  in- 
strument, but  B.  suddenly  struck  up  "  God 
save  the  King,"  with  variations,  and  was 
suffered  to  pass  unmolested.  He  is  as 
remarkable  for  eccentricity  as  for  his  mu- 
sical powers.  He  is  now  established  at 
Berlin.  B.  has  attracted  much  attention  by 
his  resemblance  to  Napoleon,  whose  gait, 
demeanor  and  look  he  can  perfectly  imi- 
tate. Every  one  fancies  he  sees  the  ex- 
emperor  when  B.  folds  his  arms.  He 
declares  this  resemblance  to  have  been 
disadvantageous  to  him  at  the  time  of  the 
restoration  of  the  Bourbons. 

Boucher,  Francis ;  painter  to  the  king, 
and  director  of  the  academy  of  painters : 
bom  at  Paris,  1704,  died  1770.  WhUe  a 
pupil  of  the  celebrated  Lemoine,  he  gain- 
ed, at  the  age  of  19,  the  first  prize  of  the 
academy.  After  studying  at  Rome  for  a 
short  time,  he  retumed  to  Paris,  and  was 
styled  the  painter  of  the  graces — a  title 
which  he  did  not  merit    He  would,  per- 


BOUCHER— BOUFFLERS. 


217 


haps,  have  risen  to  excellence,  had  he 
not  yielded  to  the  corrupt  taste  of  his  age, 
and  had  devoted  himself  more  completely 
to  his  studies.  The  ease  with  which  he 
executed  made  him  careless.  His  draw- 
ing is  faulty  ;  his  coloring  does  not  har- 
monize, especially  in  his  naked  pieces, 
which  are  so  gleiring,  tliat  tliey  appear  as 
if  the  light  was  reflected  on  them  from  a 
red  curtain.  In  a  word,  he  is  looked 
upon  as  the  corrupter  of  the  French 
school.  He  was  neither  envious  nor  av- 
aricious, but  encouraged  younger  artists 
as  much  as  was  in  his  power.  The  great 
number  of  his  paintings  and  sketches 
show  with  what  rapidity  he  produced 
tliem.  The  latter  alone  amounted  to 
more  than  10,000.  He  has  also  etched 
some  plates,  and  many  of  his  paintings 
have  been  engraved. 

Bocches-dc-Rh6ne  {movihs  of  the 
Rhone);  a  department  in  the  south  of 
France,  in  the  ancient  government  of 
Provence.  Chief  town,  Mai'seilles.  Pop. 
in  1827,  326,-302.    (See  Departments.) 

BouDiNOT,  Elias,  was  born  in  Phila- 
delphia, May  2, 1740.  He  was  descended 
from  one  of  the  Huguenots,  who  sought 
refuge  in  America  from  religious  perse- 
cution in  France.  He  studied  the  law, 
and  became  eminent  in  that  profession. 
At  an  early  period  of  the  revolutionaiy 
war,  he  was  appointed,  by  congress,  com- 
missai-y-general  of  prisoners.  In  the  year 
1777,  he  was  chosen  a  member  of  con- 
gress, and,  in  1782,  \vas  made  president 
of  that  body.  After  the  adoption  of  the 
constitution,  he  entered  the  house  of  rep- 
resentatives, where  he  continued  six 
yeai-s.  He  then  succeeded  Ritten  house 
as  director  of  the  mint  of  the  U.  States, 
an  office  which  he  resigned  in  the  course 
of  a  few  years,  and  lived,  from  that  time, 
at  Burlington,  New  Jersey.  He  devoted 
himself  earnestly  to  Biblical  hterature, 
and,  being  possessed  of  an  ample  fortune, 
made  munificent  donations  to  various 
charitable  and  theological  institutions. 
The  American  Bible  society,  of  which  he 
became  president,  was  particularly  an 
object  of  his  bounty.  He  died  at  the  age 
of82,  in  October,  1821. 

Boudoir;  a  small  room,  simply  and 
gracefully  fitted  up,  destined  for  retire- 
ment (from  bouder,  to  pout,  to  be  sulky). 
It  may  be  indebted  for  its  name  to  an 
angry  husband,  whose  wife,  when  inclined 
to  pout,  shut  herself  up  in  her  chamber. 
The  boudoir  is  the  pecuhar  propertj'  of 
the  lady — her  sanctum  sanctorum.  To 
this  she  flies  for  peace  and  solitude  from 
the  bustle  of  society. 

VOL.  II.  19 


BouFFLERS,  marshal  de,  bom  1644, 
died  1711,  may  be  considered  one  of  the 
most  celebrated  generals  of  his  age.  He 
was  an  eleve  of  the  great  Conde,  of  Tu- 
renne,  Crequi,  Luxembourg  and  Catinat. 
His  defence  of  Namur,  in  1695,  and  of 
Lille,  in  1708,  are  famous.  The  siege  of 
the  former  place  was  conducted  by  king 
William  in  person,  and  cost  the  allies  more 
than  20,000  men.  The  latter  was  con- 
ducted by  prince  Eugene.  An  order  was 
sent  from  Louis  XIV,  signed  by  his  own 
hand,  commanding  B.  to  surrender ;  but 
he  kept  it  secret,  until  all  means  of  de- 
fence were  exhausted.  The  retreat  of 
the  French  after  the  defeat  at  Malplaquet, 
under  the  direction  of  B.,  was  more  like 
a  triumph  than  a  defeat. 

BouFFLERS,  Stanislaus,  chevalier  de, 
member  of  the  French  academy,  son  of 
the  marchioness  of  B.,  mistress  of  Stanis- 
laus, king  of  Poland,  born  at  Luneville, 
1737,  was  considered  one  of  the  most 
ingenious  men  of  his  time,  and  was  dis- 
tinguished for  the  elegance  of  his  man- 
ners and  conversation.  He  was  destined 
for  the  church,  but  declared  that  his  love 
of  pleasure  would  interfere  with  the  du- 
ties of  this  profession.  He  entered  the 
militaiy  career,  was  soon  appointed  gov- 
ernor of  Senegal,  and,  while  in  this  office, 
made  many  useful  regulations.  After  his 
return,  he  devoted  himself  to  that  light 
kind  of  literature  which  distinguished  the 
age  of  Louis  XV.  He  was  much  admired 
by  the  ladies,  and  in  the  higher  circles  of 
the  capital,  as  well  as  in  the  foreign  courts 
which  he  visited.  His  reputation  gave 
him  a  seat  in  the  states-general,  where  he 
was  esteemed  for  his  moderation  and  his 
good  intentions.  After  Aug.  10,  1792,  he 
left  France,  and  met  with  a  friendly  re- 
ception from  prince  Henry  of  Prussia,  at 
Reinsberg,  and  Frederic  VVilliam  II.  A 
large  grant  was  made  to  him  in  Poland 
for  establishing  a  colony  of  French  emi- 
grants. In  1800,  he  returned  to  Paris, 
where  he  devoted  himself  to  literary 
pursuits,  which,  in  1804,  procured  him  a 
seat  ill  the  French  institute.  He  died 
Jan.  18,  1815.  He  lies  buried  near  the 
abb6  Dehlle,  and  on  his  tomb  is  this  in- 
scription, written  by  himself,  and  charac- 
teristic of  his  hvely  disposition :  Mes 
amis,  croyez  queje  dors.  His  works  were 
published  in  8  vols.  12mo.  1815.  His 
mother  was  long  the  ornament  of  the 
court  of  Stanislaus,  during  its  residence 
at  Luneville,  by  the  graces  of  her  mind 
and  beauty  of  her  person.  Voltaire  ad- 
dressed to  her  a  madrigal  which  finishes 
thus: — 


318 


BOUFFLERS— BOUILLON. 


Si'  vous  eussiez  vecu  du  temps  de  Gabrielle 
Je  nc  sais  pas  ce  qu'on  eiit  clit  de  vous, 
Mais  on  n'aurait  point  parle  d'elie. 

She  died  1787. 

Bougainville,  Louis  Antoine  de,  count 
of  tiie  empire,  senator,  and  member  of  the 
institute  in  1796,  born,  1729,  at  Paris, 
died  at  tlie  same  place,  1811.  At  first  a 
lawyer,  afterwards  a  distinguished  sol- 
dier, diplomatist  and  scholar,  he  was  al- 
ways remarkable  for  his  energy  of  char- 
acter. He  fought  bravely  in  Canada, 
under  the  marquis  of  i^Iontcalm,  and  it 
was  principally  owing  to  his  exertions,  in 
1758,  that  a  body  of  5000  French  with- 
stood successfidly  an  English  army  of 
16,000  men.  Towards  the  conclusion  of 
the  battle,  he  received  a  shot  in  the  head. 
The  governor  of  Canada,  finding  himself 
imable  to  defend  the  colony,  sent  B.  to 
France  for  reenforcements.  H6  set  oflf 
in  Nov.,  1758,  and  returned  Jan.,  1759, 
after  the  king  had  made  him  colonel  and 
knight  of  St.  Louis.  After  the  battle  of 
Sept.  13,  1759,  in  which  Montcalm  was 
killed,  and  the  fate  of  the  colony  decided, 
B.  returned  to  France,  and  seryed  with 
distinction  mider  Choiseul  Stainville,  in 
the  campaign  of  1761,  in  Germany.  Af- 
ter the  peace,  he  entered  the  navy,  and 
became  one  of  the  greatest  naval  officers 
in  France.  He  pei-suaded  the  uihabit- 
ants  of  St.  Malo  to  fit  out  an  expedition 
for  the  purjjose  of  establishing  a  colony 
in  the  Falkland  islands,  and  midertook 
the  command  of  the  expedition  himself. 
The  king  appointed  him  captain,  and  B. 
set  sail,  with  his  little  fleet,  in  1763.  But, 
as  the  Spaniards  had  a  prior  claim  to  the 
islands,  France  was  obUged  to  surrender 
them,  and  B.,  having  returned  to  France, 
was  commissioned  to  carry  the  surrender 
into  execution,  on  receiving  from  Spain  a 
remuneration  for  his  expenses.  For  this 
purpose,  he  set  sail,  with  one  frigate  and  a 
merchant  ship,  from  St.  Malo,  Dec.  15, 
1766.  After  the  immediate  object  of  his 
voyage  was  accomphshed,  he  circumnav- 
igated the  world,  and  returned  to  St.  Ma- 
lo, March  16,  1769.  He  enriched  the 
science  of  geography  by  a  number  of  new 
discoveries.  In  the  American  war,  he 
commanded  several  ships  of  the  line,  with 
great  honor ;  wa.s,  in  1779,  chef  d^escadre, 
and,  in  the  following  yeai',  field-marshal 
in  the  land  forces.  After  1790,  he 
devoted  himself  to  science.  He  was  a 
man  of  the  most  engaging  manners, 
obUging,  liberal,  and,  in  every  respect, 
worthy  of  the  greatest  esteem.  He  re- 
tained the  natural  Uveliness  of  his  dispo- 
sition to  a  very  advanced  age. 


BouiLLE,  Francis  Claude  Amour,  mar- 
quis de,  one  of  tlie  most  celebrated  of 
tlie  generals  of  Louis  XVI,  born  17.39,  at 
Auvergne,  early  entered  on  a  military 
life,  lie  distinguished  himself  hi  the 
seven  years'  war,  and  was  appointed  gov- 
ernor of  Guadaloupe  in  1768,  and  con- 
quered Dominica,  St.  Eustatia,  Tobago, 
St.  Christopher,  Nevis  and  Montserrat. 
After  the  peace  of  1783,  he  returned  to 
Paris,  and  was  appointed  lieutenant-gen- 
eral. He  afterwards  travelled  in  England, 
through  Holland  and  a  great  part  of  Ger- 
many, until  he  was  made  chief  of  the 
jjrovince  Trois-Eveches.  In  the  assem- 
bly of  notables  (1787 — 88),  he  declared 
for  the  proposed  reforms  of  Calonne, 
which,  however^  were  defeated  by  cardi- 
nal Brienne.  He  was  opposed  to  the  plan 
of  Necker  for  the  union  of  the  provinces. 
At  the  breaking  out  of  the  revolution,  he 
supported  the  existing  government,  both 
in  his  fonner  province  and  in  Lorraine, 
Alsace  and  Franche-Comte.  It  was  only 
at  the  urgent  desire  of  the  king,  that  he 
swore  allegiance  to  the  constitution  of 
1791.  He  repressed,  in  1790,  the  re- 
bellion of  the  garrisons  of  Metz  and 
Nancy ;  and,  although  the  national  assem- 
bly decreed  him  a  vote  of  thanks  for  the 
bravery  and  ability  he  had  displayed  on 
this  occasion,  still  the  revolutionists  dis- 
trusted him.  Shortly  afterwards,  he  made 
preparations  to  assist  Louis  XVI  in  his 
escape.  B.  had  made  his  arrangements 
well,  and,  had  not  the  king  forbidden  any 
bloodshed,  he  would  certainly  have  res- 
cued him.  Being  thus  compelled  to 
leave  the  king  at  Vareimes  to  his  fate,  he 
fled  from  the  dangers  to  which  he  him- 
self was  exposed  by  the  attacks  of  the 
revolutionists.  From  Luxembourg,  he 
wrote  a  tlireatening  letter  to  the  national 
assembly,  and  then  exerted  himself  to 
excite  the  foreign  powers  against  the 
repubUc. .  He  succeeded  well  at  Vienna, 
gained  over  Gustavus  III,  and  obtained 
tbe  promise  of  30,000  men  from  the  em- 
j)ress  Catliarine  II,  to  be  put  under  the 
command  of  the  king  of  Sweden  and  the 
French  general.  But  Gustavus  was  mur- 
dered, the  empress  forgot  her  promises, 
and  B.  went  over  to  England  in  1796. 
Here  he  wrote  his  Memoirs  of  the  Revo- 
lution, which  appeared  in  an  English 
translation  (London,  1797),  and,  after  his 
death,  m  the  original.  B.  died  at  Lon- 
don in  1800. 

Bouillon  ;  a  large  district  in  Ardennes, 
9  miles  wide  and  18  long,  on  the  borders 
of  Luxembourg  and  Liege.  This  woody 
and  mountainotis  tract  consists  of  the 


BOUILLON— BOULOGNE. 


219 


town  of  B.  with  1980  inhabitants,  and  21 
villages  with  16,000  inhaljitants.  The 
town,  which  is  the  capital  of  a  canton, 
within  the  arrondissement  of  Sedan,  de- 
partment of  Ardennes,  lies  in  the  midst 
of  hills,  on  the  left  bank  of  tlie  Seniois, 
Which  abounds  with  fish,  40  miles  from 
Liege  and  18  from  Ivoix.  It  has  a  strong 
castle  upon  a  rock,  which,  however,  is 
commanded  by  the  neighboring  moun- 
tains. Godfrey  of  B.  once  possessed  the 
dukedom  of  this  name.  He  was  duke  of 
Lower  Lorraine,  and  B.  was  bestowed 
upon  him  as  belonging  properly  to  the 
county  of  Ardenne.  In  order  to  supply 
himself  with  funds  for  his  expedition  to 
the  Holy  Land,  Godfrey  mortgaged  his 
duchy  of  B.,  in  1095,  to  the  bishop  Albert 
of  Liege.  After  the  estate  had  been  held 
for  many  years  by  the  bishopric,  the 
houses  of  La  Marc  and  La  Tour  d'Au- 
vergne  laid  clauns  to  B.,  but,  in  1641, 
relinquished  tlieir  pretensions  to  the 
bisliop  of  Liege  for  150,000  Brabant 
guildei-s.  In  tlie  war  of  1672,  France 
conquered  B.,  and  Louis  XIV  gave  it, 
in  1678,  to  the  chevalier  La  Tour  d'Au- 
vergne,  his  chamberlain.  After  tliis  time, 
it  belonged  to  the  house  of  La  Tour  until 
the  revolution,  when  it  was  taken  from 
them,  in  1792.  The  last  possessor,  God- 
frey Charles  Henry  de  la  Tour  d'Au- 
vergne,  died  Dec,  1812.  By  the  peace 
of  Paris,  in  1814,  the  dukedom  Was  in- 
cluded in  that  of  Luxembourg,  which  had 
fallen  to  the  king  of  the  Netherlands. 
The  title  of  prince  of  B.  was  assumed,  in 
1792,  by  PhiUp  d'Auvergne,  captain  in 
the  British  navy,  and  he  continued  to 
bear  it  till  his  death,  in  1816.  The  con- 
gress which  met  at  Vienna  in  1815  ap- 
pointed commissioners  to  investigate  the 
comparative  claims  of  this  nobleman  and 
prince  Charles  of  Rohan.  They  decided 
in  favor  of  the  latter. 

BoDiLLY,  J.  N.,  a  popular  French 
writer,  born  of  a  respectable  family  at 
Tours,  applied  himself,  at  first,  to  the 
law;  but  this  study  did  not  prevent  him 
from  devoting  himself  to  literature.  In 
the  revolution,  in  which  his  whole  heart 
was  engaged,  he  united  biniself  with 
Mirabeau  and  Barnave.  About  this  time, 
he  wrote  his  opera  Peter  the  Great, 
w^hich  Gr6try  set  to  music.  At  Tours, 
where  he  was  president  of  the  depart- 
ment, judge  of  the  civil  tribunal,  and  pub- 
lic prosecutor,  his  sense  of  justice  pre- 
vented him  from  misusing  his  power  to 
the  detriment  of  the  opposite  ])arty.  Nei- 
ther the  excesses  of  the  Vendeans  nor  the 
fury  of  the  revolutionary  tribunal  were 


experienced  in  his  government.  With 
La  Chabeaussiere,  he  contributed  much 
to  the  introduction  of  primary  schools. 
When  the  direction  of  public  instruction 
passed  from  the  hands  of  the  committee 
of  organization  into  those  of  the  police, 
he  left  his  office,  and  devoted  himself  to 
the  drama.  On  account  of  the  prolix- 
ity of  his  style,  the  critic  d'Amaud  says, 
he  suffers  liom  embonpoint  du  sentiment. 
His  UMbede  VEpie  met  with  much  suc- 
cess; He  also  wrote  Madame  de  Sevigne, 
a  comedj' ;  for  the  royal  academy  of 
music  he  -WTOte  Les  Jeux  Floreaux,  and 
some  other  pieces  ;  for  the  Vaudeville 
theatres,  Haine  aux  Femmes  ;  for  the 
opera  comique,  Fanchon,  and  Une  Folie. 
liis  works  on  education  are  very  popular, 
and  have  been  often  published.  These 
are  Les  Conies  a  ma  FUle,  Les  Conseils  a 
ma  Fille,  and  some  others. 

Boulevards.     (See  Paris.) 

Boulogne  ;  an  old  seaport  town  on 
the  coast  of  Picardy,  now  chief  town  of 
an  arrondissement  of  388  square  miles, 
with  74,676  inhabitants,  in  the  department 
Pas  de  Calais,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Liane  ; 
lat.  50°  43'  33"  N. ;  Ion.  1°  36'  59"  E.  It 
consists  of  the  upper  and  lower  town  ;  the 
latter  of  which  is  called  Boulogne  surMer, 
and  is  far  superior  to  the  former  in  the 
beauty  of  its  houses  and  streets.  Both 
j)arts  contain  together  over  16,000  inhab- 
itants, and  about  1600  houses,  and  a  har- 
bor, which  is  too  shallow  for  large  vessels 
of  war,  but  the  largest  merchant  vessels 
can  go  in  and  out,  at  high  tide,  wthout 
danger.  With  a  favorable  wind,  vessels 
can  reach  the  coasts  of  England  in  two  or 
three  hours  from  this  place.  Bonaparte, 
therefore,  ordered  the  harbor  to  be  made 
deeper,  and  a  number  of  vessels  to  be 
built,  in  order  to  transport  the  army  in- 
tended for  the  invasion  of  England,  and 
some  small  forts  and  batteries  to  be  erect- 
ed, in  order  to  strengthen  the  harbor  and 
the  town.  A  large  arniy  remained  here 
for  many  months  in  a  camp,  which  al- 
most resembled  a  town,  waiting  to  em- 
bark; when,  upon  the  breaking  out  of 
hostilities  with  Austria,  1805,  they  were 
called  to  other  places.  B,  is  a  bishopric, 
contains  6  churches,  an  hospital,  an  ex- 
cliange,  a  maritime  court,  a  society  for  the 
promotion  of  agriculture,  commerce  and 
the  arts,  a  school  for  instruction  in  na\i- 
gation,  sea  baths,  manufactories  of  soap, 
earthen-ware,  linen  and  woollen  cloths. 
Herring  and  mackerel,  large  quantities  of 
which  are  caught  off"  the  coast.  Cham- 
pagne and  Burgundy  wines,  coal,  com, 
butter,  linen  and  woollen  stuffs,  are  the 


220 


BOULOGNE— BOUNTY. 


articles  of  export.  Four  steam-boats  run 
from  this  place  to  England. 

Boulogne,  Wood  of  ;  a  pleasant  grove 
near  the  gates  of  Paris,  mentioned  in  all 
tlie  French  romances.  The  greatest  part 
of  the  old  trees  were  destroyed  during 
the  revolution.  When  Napoleon  chose 
St.  Cloud  for  a  summer  residence,  he  or- 
dered young  tree^  to  be  planted,  had  the 
place  enclosed  with  a  wall,  ±nd  the  wood 
stocked  with  game,  so  that  it  became 
more  a  place  of  resort  than  before.  From 
July,  1815,  to  September,  the  English 
troops  under  lord  Wellington  were  sta- 
tioned in  it,  and  cut  down  the  most  beau- 
tiful trees,  old  and  young,  for  barracks. 
For  a  long  time,  it  has  been  tlie  duel- 
ground  of  the  Parisians.  Here  was  ma- 
ny a  jmrtie  fine  ;  and  gay  equipages  and 
horsemen  often  enlivened  the  place. 
Through  the  principal  walk  the  pious 
world  made  ])ilgrimages  to  Longchamjjs. 
Here  Montgolfters  (balloons)  were  fii-st 
raised. — Cuvier  discovered,  by  geological 
investigations,  that  the  soil  of  the  wood  is 
alluvial.  Petrified  trunks  of  trees  are 
found  in  it  at  a  great  depth,  as  are  also 
the  bones  of  elephants,  oxien,  elks,  and 
other  mammalia.  The  wild  plants  of  the 
place  are  only  tliose  which  prefer  a  rich 
alluvial  soil.  The  little  castles  of  Madrid 
and  Bagatelle  he  near  the  wood,  which 
Jio  traveller  should  omit  seeing.  ; 

BouLTON,  Matthew,  a  celebrated  engi- 
neer, was  born  at  Birmingham  in  1528. 
After  being  educated  at  a  grammar-school, 
he  was  instructed  in  drawing  by  Wor- 
lidge,  and  he  also  studied  mathematics. 
He  engaged  in  business  as  a  maniifacturer 
of  hardware,  and,  as  early  as  1745,  he  is 
said  to  have  invented,  and  brought  to  great 
perfection,  inlaid  steel  buckles,  buttons, 
watch-chains,  &c.,  of  which  large  quan- 
tities were  exported  to  France,  whence 
they  were  repurchased  with  avidity  by 
tlie  English,  as  "  the  offspring  of  French 
ingenuity."  In  1762,  B.,  linding  his  man- 
ufactory at  Birmingham  too  confined  for 
his  pui-poses,  purchased  a  lease  of  the 
Soho,  about  two  miles  distant,  in  the 
county  of  Stafford.  This  spot,  then  a 
barren  heath,  was  gradually  converted 
into  an  extensive  manufactory  and  school 
of  the  mechanical  arts,  where  ingenious 
men  found  ample  employment  for  their 
talents  from  the  liberdl  patronage  of  the 
patriotic  proprietor.  The  introduction  of 
that  important  machine  the  steam-engine, 
at  Soho,  led  to  a  connexion  between  B. 
and  James  Walt,  of  Glasgow,  who  became 
partners  in  trade  in  17G9.  Among  the 
many  great  undertakings  in  which  these 


gentlemen  were  engaged,  one  of  the  most 
useful  and  important  was  the  improve- 
ment of  the  coinage.  In  beauty  and  ac- 
curacy of  execution,  the  coins  struck  at 
the  Soho  manufactory  have  rarely  been 
surpassed ;  and  the  reform  thus  eflfected 
in  the  state  of  the  English  national  cur- 
rency confers  the  highest  honor  on  those 
with  whom  it  originated.  About  the  year 
1773,  was  invented,  at  the  estabhshment 
of  Boulton  and  Watt,  a  method  of  copy- 
ing, by  a  mechanical  process,  paintings  in 
oil,  so  as  to  produce  fac-similes  of  the 
originals,  sufficiently  accurate  to  deceive 
a  practised  connoisseur.  The  various 
mechanical  inventions  and  improvements 
which  originated,  more  or  less  directly, 
from  the  genius  and  application  of  B., 
are  too  numerous  to  admit  of  specifica- 
tion. His  long  life  was  almost  uninter- 
ruptedly devoted  to  the  advancement  of 
the  useful  arts,  and  the  promotion  of 
the  commercial  interests  of  his  country. 
He  died  at  Soho,  Aug.  17,  1809,  and  was 
interred  in  the  parish-church  of  Ihinds- 
worthi  600  of  his  workmen  attended  his 
funeral,  each  of  whom  had  a  silver  medal 
presented  to  him,  which  had  been  struck 
for  the  occasion.  He  was  a  fellow  of  the 
royal  societies  of  London  and  Edinburgh, 
and  an  associate  of  several  scientific  in- 
stitutions abroad.  His  manners  and  con- 
versation are  said  to  have  been  highly 
fascinating,  and  his  private  character  was 
extremely  respectable.  He  left  an  only 
son,  who  succeeded  him  in  his  establish- 
ment at  Soho. — (See  his  Memoirs,  pub- 
lished at  Birmingham,  8vo.) 

Bounty,  in  political  economy,  is  a  re- 
ward or  premium  granted  to  particular 
species  of  trade  or  pi-oduction.  The  gen- 
eral subject  of  encouragement  of  domes- 
tic, in  competition  with  foreign,  industry 
or  trade  (which  is  one  species  of  indus- 
try), will  be  treated  of  under  other  heads, 
and  only  those  circumstances  mentioned, 
in  this  place,  which  distinguish  bounties 
from  other  species  of  encouragement. 
And  it  is  to  be  observed,  in  the  first  place, 
that  the  general  principle  is  the  same, 
whether  the  encouragement  is  given  to  a 
particular  species  of  education,  as  that  in 
the  clerical  profession,  which  has  been 
the  subject  of  encouragement,  direct  or 
indirect,  time  immemorial ;  or  education 
in  general ;  or  a  particular  kind  of  literary 
productions,  as  the  best  poetical  composi- 
tion ;  or  a  treatise  on  some  scientific  sub- 
ject, as  one  on  light  and  heat  (for  which 
count  Rumford  has  provided  a  premium, 
in  the  funds  left  by  him  to  the  American 
academy  of  arts  and  pcieuces) ;  or  to  some 


BOUNTY. 


agricultural  or  manufactured  product,  as 
in  the  case  of  the  premiums  fonnerly 
granted  by  England  on  the  exportation  of 
wheat,  and  tJiose  given  by  agricultural 
societies  in  the  U.  States,  for  the  greatest 
production  of  any  kind  of  grain  on  a 
given  extent  of  land,  or  the  best  threshing 
or  winnowing  machine,  &c.  In  all  these 
instances,  the  general  doctrine  is  assumed 
and  presupposed,  that  the  successful  di- 
rection of  talent  or  industry  to  the  species 
of  art  or  mode  of  production  indicated 
Avill  be  beneficial  to  the  public.  The 
utility  of  the  bounty  will  depend  upon 
the  correctness  of  this  assumption.  All 
bounties  or  premiums  are  not  offered  for 
the  encouragement  of  domestic  talent  and 
industry  to  the  exclusion  of  foreign  com- 
petition. Many  of  those  offered  by  the 
British  and  French  governments,  and  by 
private  associations,  are  held  out  to  all 
competitors  indiscriminately  ;  and,  where 
the  object  is  universal  imj)rovement,  this 
is  one  of  the  appropriate  modes  of  encour- 
agement, though  others  concur  with  it, 
such  as  the  monopolies  of  copyrights  and 
patents,  and  the  honoi-s  and  distinctions 
conferred  on  those  who  make  any  im- 
portant improvement.  But  if  the  object 
be  to  favor  the  domestic  production  of 
any  article  which  is  consumed  in  great 
quantities,  and  the  supply  of  which  will 
employ  many  hands,  bounties  are  only 
the  firet  steps  in  promoting  it ;  for,  when 
the  species  of  production  is  once  introdu- 
ced  to  an  extent  sufiicient  for  the  supply  of 
the  consumption,  or  so  far  introduced  that 
it  can  readily  be  pushed  to  the  limits  of  the 
national  demand,  the  production  is  more 
usually,  and  may  be  more  economically, 
sustained  by  a  tax  or  prohibition  of  the 
foreign  substitute.  It  was,  for  instance, 
.1  very  expensive  mode  of  encouraging 
the  domestic  jiroduction  of  graiil  in  Great 
Britain,  to  offer  a  bounty  upon  the  export- 
ation, for  it  was  buying  a  place  in  the 
foreign  market ;  and  though  the  bounty 
went  to  the  subjects  of  the  kingdom, 
namely,  the  British  landholders,  yet  expe- 
rience abundantly  shows  that  a  govern- 
ment may  oppress,  derange,  and,  possibly, 
paralyze,  its  industrj',  by  pensions,  re- 
wards and  gratuities  to  its  own  subjects. 
The  object  of  the  bounty  was  to  encour- 
age the  home  production,  by  guarantying 
that  the  domestic  sliould  be  generally 
higher  than  the  foreign  market  price,  by 
the  excess  of  the  amount  of  the  bounty 
over  that  of  the  freight  paid  on  the  ex- 
portation. If  the  government  had,  at  the 
same  time,  imposed  an  additional  land- 
tax,  proportional  to  the  enhancement  of 
19* 


rents  occasioned  by  the  corn-bounty,  it 
would  thus  have  derived  a  great  revenue. 
If  the  land-tax  could,  in  this  case,  have 
been  exactly  proportioned,  on  each  estate, 
to  the  enhancement  of  the  rents  in  conse- 
quence of  the  bounty,  the  bounty  and 
land-tax  would  have  constituted  a  tax 
on  the  consumption  of  wheat,  without  af- 
fecting the  value  or  rent  of  land.  But  no 
tax  on  land  seems  to  have  been  levied  as 
a  counterpart  to  the  bounty ;  one  object 
of  which  seems  to  have  been  to  promote 
the  culture  of  grain,  in  order  to  provide 
adequate  supplies  of  so  necessary  an  arti^ 
cle,  for  which,  in  time  of  war,  it  would 
be  dangerous  to  depend  upon  foreign 
sources.  Tlie  other  object  was,  probably, 
to  raise  or  sustain  rents ;  at  least,  as  that 
was  its  tendency,  the  agricultural  interest 
would  favor  the  measure  on  this  ground. 
But  tlie  result  was  the  payment  of  a  tax, 
by  the  nation,  for  the  advantage  of  the 
export  trade  in  corn ;  and  the  question 
then  arose,  whether  the  advantages,  di- 
rect and  incidental,  of  that  trade,  were 
sufficient  to  compensate  for  the  tax;  and, 
after  a  long  experiment,  the  nation  finally 
became  convinced  that  they  were  not  so, 
and  the  bounty  was  abolished.  But  they 
secured  its  objects,  in  some  degree,  by  a 
prohibition  of  the  importation  of  grain, 
except  at  times  when  the  prices  in  the 
home  market  rose  to  an  unusual  height, 
which  was  specified  in  these  acts,  which 
have  since  been  so  modified,  that,  at  a  cer- 
tain price  in  the  home  market,  the  im- 
portation becomes  allowable  at  a  certain 
duty,  and,  at  a  higher  rate  of  prices,  the 
duty  is  less.  The  supply  of  the  home 
market  is  thus  secured  to  the  agricultur- 
ists, within  certain  limits  of  price,  and 
they  are  previously  certain  of  no  other 
than  domestic  competition  below  those 
prices :  in  short,  they  have  the  monopoly 
of  the  home  market  as  long  as  they  throw 
into  it  a  quantity  sufficient  to  sup[)ljr  the 
consumption,  and  foreign  grahi  is  mtro- 
duced  only  in  case  of  a  rise  of  price  ap- 
parently indicating  an  inadequate  stock 
in  the  countiy.  The  only  way  of  making 
up  the  deficiency  of  scant  crops  is  by  im- 
I)ortation.  If  an  ordinary  crop  supplies  a 
large  export  trade,  a  blight  would  leave  a 
smaller,  or  perhaps  no  deficiency  of  the 
home  production  for  the  home  consump- 
tion. But  no  regulation,  except  the  pub- 
lic granary  system,  would  provide  against 
an  occasional  resort  to  foreign  supplies, 
If  the  present  regulations  secure  a  pro- 
duction commensurate  with  the  consump- 
tion, in  ordinary  years,  it  will  be  attended 
with  nearly  aU  the  advantages  of  the 


222 


BOUNTY— BOURBON. 


bounty  sj'stem,  witliout  being  liable  to  its 
objections,  which  arise  from  the  direct 
purchase  of  a  foreign  ex[)ort  trade,  with- 
out any  means  of  making  that  particular 
trade  reimburse  the  ex|)cnditure.  This 
shows  us  one  of  the  objections  to  the 
bounty  system,  which  is  a  more  cuml)rous 
and  burthensome  one  tlian  even  that  of 
inonopoHes,   when   applied  directly  and 

Eermanently  to  the  supply  of  foreign  mar- 
ets.  It  can  be  advantageously  apphed 
only  at  the  opening  of  such  a  trade,  to 
meet  a  part  of  the  expense  of  tlie  experi- 
ment ;  and  this  is  one  of  the  proper  ob- 
jects of  this  species  of  encouragement. 
One  other  class  of  cases  may,  yjroperly 
enough,  be  made  the  subjects  of  bounties 
or  premiums;  namelj',  the  productions 
of  extraordinary  effoits  of  ingenuity  and 
skill.  A  competition  is  in  this  way  ex- 
cited, by  which  none  suffers,  and  all  the 
effects  of  which  are  beneficial  to  a  com- 
munity. There  is  one  other  class  of  cases 
in  which  nations  have  offered  bounties ; 
namely,  to  species  of  industry  in  the  pros- 
ecution of  which  the  national  security  is 
supposed  to  be,  in  some  measure,  involv- 
ed. The  support  of  the  British  navy,  for 
instance,  is  supposed  to  depend,  in  some 
degree,  upon  the  fisheries,  since  these  are 
considered  to  be  one  of  the  great  schools 
of  seamen.  The  British  govenmient, 
therefore,  encourages  this  species  of  in- 
dustry by  bounties.  This  kind  of  boun- 
ties have  the  effect  of  reducing  the  price 
of  fish  in  the  British  market.  If  the  re- 
duction of  the  cost  of  this  article  increases 
the  consumption,  and  creates  a  large  ex- 
port, then  the  bounty  has  the  effect  of 
training  more  seamen  in  this  bt-anch  of 
business  than  would  otherwise  resort  to 
iL  The  advantages,  however,  obtained 
by  the  bounty,  over  what  would  result 
from  the  prohibition  of  foreign  fish,  are, 
probably,  inconsiderable,  and  are  pur- 
chased at  a  high  price.  Bounties  are  a 
more  exjjensive  mode  of  encouragement 
than  duties  and  prohibitions,  as  the  money 
must  be  first  collected  by  a  tax,  and  then 
distributed  in  bounties — a  process  in  which 
a  loss  of  fi-om  2  to  20  per  cent,  is  sustain- 
ed— that  is,  a  bounty  of  100  dollars  costs 
the  nation  fi-om  102  to  120  dollars,  ac- 
cording as  the  collection  and  distribution' 
of  the  revenue  is  more  or  less  expensive. 
Bourbon.  The  founder  of  this  family, 
which  has  governed  France,  Spain,  the 
Two  Sicilies,  Lucca  and  Parma  (q.  v.),  is 
Robert  the  Strong,  who,  in  861,  became 
duke  of  Neustria,  and,  in  866,  lost  his  life 
in  a  battle  against  the  Normans.  Some 
trace  his  descent  from  Pepin  of  Heristel, 


others  from  a  natural  son  of  Charlemagne, 
and  others  from  the  kings  of  Lombardy. 
It  is  certain  that  tfie  two  sons  of  this 
Robert  were  kings  of  France.  The  elder, 
named  Eudes,  ascended  the  throne  in  888, 
and  died  in  8!}8 ;  the  younger,  Robert,  in 
922,  and  died  923.  The  eldest  son  of 
this  Robert  ^vas  Hugh  the  Great,  duke  of 
the  Isle  of  France,  and  count  of  Paris  and 
Orleans.  Hugh  Capet,  son  of  Hugh  the 
Great  (gi-eat  grandson  of  Robert  the 
Strong),  founded  the  third  French  dynas- 
ty, in  987.  (See  Capet)  One  of  his  de- 
scendants, named  Robert,  was  the  root  of 
the  elder  line  of  the  dukes  of  Burgundy, 
which  became  extinct  in  1361.  A  de- 
scendant of  this  Robert,  Henry  of  Bur- 
gundy, was  first  regent  of  Portugal  in 
1095,  where  his  legitimate  descendants 
became  extinct  in  1383.  Pierre  de  Cour- 
tenay,  a  descendant  of  Hugh  Capet  in  the 
fifth  generation,  was  fatlier  and  ancestor 
of  many  emperors  of  Constantinople. 
The  house  of  Anjou,  which  was  descend- 
ed fi-om  Hugh  Capet  in  the  eighth  genera- 
tion, possessed  the  throne  of  Naples  for 
two  centuries,  and,  for  some  time,  that  of 
Hungarj'.  Another  descendant  of  Hugh 
Capet,  in  the  tenth  degree,  founded  the 
house  of  Navarre,  which  continued  from 
1328-  to  1425.  A  second  family  of  Anjou, 
descended  from'  Hugh  Capet  in  the  13th 
degree,  gave  some  distinguished  princes 
to  Provence.  In  the  same  degree,  the 
younger  fine  of  the  powerful  dukes  of 
Burgimdy  derived  its  origin  fi-om  him. 
This  line  became  extinct  with  the  death 
of  Charles  the  Bold,  in  1477,  whose  suc- 
cessor, Maria,  married  Maximilian,  arch- 
duke of  Austria,  and  became  grandmother 
of  Charles  V.  All  these  lines,  with  the 
exception  of  that  of  Burgundy,  are  de- 
scended from  Ainia  Jaroslawna,  a  Russian 
princess,  wife  of  Henry  I,  in  1051.  Rob- 
ert, earl  of  Clermont,  second  son  of  St. 
Louis,  maiTied  Beatrice,  duchess  of  B. 
In  this  way,  the  city  of  B.  I'Archambaud, 
or  B.  les  Bains,  in  the  department  of 
Alli^r  (formerly  Bourhonnais),  became  the 
birthplace  of  the  house  of  B.,  and  Louis 
I,  duke  of  B.,  son  of  Robert  and  Beatrice, 
its  founder.  Two  branches  took  their  or- 
igin from  the  two  sons  of  this  Louis  duke 
of  B.,  who  died  in  1341.  The  elder  line 
was  that  of  the  dukes  of  B.,  which  be- 
came extinct  at  the  death  of  the  constable 
of  B.,  in  1527,  in  the  assault  of  the  city 
of  Rome.  The  younger  was  that  of  the 
counts  of  La  Marche,  afterwards  counts 
and  dukes  of  Vendome.  Of  these, 
Charles  duke  of  Vendome,  who  died  in 
1537,  bad  two  sons,  who  became  the 


BOURBON. 


323 


founders  of  the  following  lines.  Anthony 
of  Navarre,  father  of  Henry  IV,  is  the 
origin  of  the  royal  liouse  of  B. ;  the  el- 
der Ime  of  wliich  governs  France,  and 
branches  of  the  same  rule  in  Spain  (since 
1701),  in  the  Two  Sicilies  (where  a 
branch  of  the  Spanish  Bourbons  was 
established  m  1735),  and  in  Lucca  (Par- 
ma was  ceded  to  the  last  branch  in  1748) ; 
the  younger  hne  is  the  ducal  house  of 
Orleans.  From  the  other  son,  Louis,  is 
derived  the  ducal  family  of  Cond6,  which 
is  divided  into  the  houses  of  Conde  and  of 
Conti.  The  French  revolution  overtlirew 
the  house  of  Capet  from  1792  to  1814  in 
France ;  fix)m  1808  to  1814  in  Spain ; 
from  1806  to  1815  in  Naples ;  from  1801 
to  1817  in  Parma ;  and  also  in  Etruria, 
where  a  Bourbon  ruled,  by  means  of  Na- 
poleon, from  1801  to  1807.  Tlie  throne 
of  Ferdinand  IV  alone  was  upheld  by  tlie 
English  at  Palermo.  After  the  fall  of  Na- 
poleon, in  1814, the  Bourbons  succeeded 
again  to  the  throne  of  France.  The 
history  of  the  Bourbon  race  is  connected 
with  a  great  part  of  the  histoiy  of  Europe. 
We  shall  here  grve  a  general  view  of 
the  family  of  B.  After  the  death  of 
Charles  IV  the  Fair,  the  last  of  the  old 
branch  of  the  Capets,  in  1328,  the  house 
of  Valois  came  to  the  throne  in  the  perr 
son  of  Philip  IV.  This  house  became 
extinct,  in  1589,  bv  the  murder  of  Henry 
III.  Henrj^  IV  of  B.  (king  of  Navarre), 
a  descendant  of  Louis  I,  duke  of  B.,  in 
the  eighth  degree,  succeeded  to  the 
throne  by  right  of  inheritance,  and  main- 
tained his  power  by  his  own  pereonal 
greatness.  His  father,  Anthony,  had  ob- 
tained the  kingdom  of  Navarre  through 
liis  wife,  who  inherited  it,  and  Henry 
now  added  it  to  the  French  dominions. 
Anthony's  younger  brother,  Louis,  prince 
of  Cond6,  was  the  founder  of  the  line  of 
Cond6.  There  were,  therefore,  two  chief 
branches  of  the  Bourbons — the  royal,  and 
that  of  Cond6.  The  royal  branch  was 
divided  by  the  two  sons  of  Louis  XIII, 
the  elder  of  whom,  Louis  XIV,  continued 
tlie  chief  branch,  which,  under  his  de- 
scendants Louis  (the  dauj)hin)  and  Philip 
V,  was  separated  into  the  elder  or  royal 
French  branch,  and  the  younger  or  royal 
Spanish  branch ;  whilst  the  younger, 
Philip  I,  founded  the  house  of  Orleans, 
when  he  received  the  duchy  of  Orleans 
from  Louis  XIV.  The  kings  of  the  elder 
or  French  line  of  the  house  of  B.  run  in 
this  way :— Henry  IV,  Louis  XIII,  XIV, 
XV,  XVI,  XVII,  XVIII,  and  Charles  X. 
(For  the  kings  of  the  younger  royal 
branch,   see  Spain.) — The  house   of  B. 


consisted,  in  1826,  of  the  following 
branches  and  members: — A.  The  royal 
French  hne.  1.  Charles  X  (q.  v.) ;  2.  his 
son,  Louis  Anthony,  dauphin,  duke  of 
Angouleme  (q.  v.) ;  3.  the  dauphiness, 
daughter  of  Louis  XVI,  Maria  Theresa 
Charlotte,  bom  Dec.  19,  1778  ;  4.  Caro- 
line Ferdinande  Louise,  bom  1793,  wid- 
ow of  the  duke  of  Berri,  second  son  of 
the  present  king  Charles  X,  murdered  in 
1820,  has  a  daughter,  Louise,  mademoi- 
selle de  France,  horn  Sept.  2],  1819,  and 
a  son,  Henry,  duke  of  Bourdeaux,  bom 
Sept.  29,  1820,  petit-fds  de  France,  heir 
apparent,  by  whose  birth  the  house  of 
Orleans  have  lost  their  chance  of  suc- 
ceeding to  the  throne  of  France.  In 
182(5,  Charles  X  appointed  the  duke  of 
Kiviere  his  govemor,  the  bishop  of  Stras- 
burg,  Tharin,  a  friend  of  the  Jesuits,  his 
instructer,  and  the  counts  Maujias  and 
BarbanQois  assistant  instructers. — B.  The 
house  of  Bourbon  in  Spain,  and  its  branch 
in  Italy,  founded  by  Philip  V,  second 
grandson  of  Louis  XIV.  (This  line,  by 
compact,  stands,  in  the  order  of  succes- 
sion to  the  throne  of  France,  next  after 
that  of  Orleans.)  I.  The  children  of 
Charles  IV,  king  of  Spain  ^died  at  Naples, 
Jan.  19,  1819),  and  his  wile,  Maria  Louisa 
of  Parma  (died  at  Rome,  Jan.  2,  1819). 
These  are  as  follows :  1.  Charlotte,  bom 
1775,  queen-dowager  of  Portugal,  whose 
son,  Peter  of  Alcantara,  now  emperor  of 
Brazil,  married  Leopoldine, second  daugh- 
ter of  Frajicis  I,  emperor  of  Austria',  2. 
the  son  of  his  daughter  Maria  Louisa, 
queen-dowager  of  Etruria  (died  March 
13,  1824),  Charles  Louis,  born  at  Madrid, 
1799,  duke  of  Lucca  (afterwards  of  Par- 
ma), who  maiTied  the  second  daughter 
of  Victor  Emanuel,  former  king  of  Sar- 
dinia, and  by  her  had  a  son,  Ferdinand, 
Jan.  14,  1823  ;  3.  Ferdinand  VII  (q.  v.), 
king  of  Spain ;  4.  Chai'les,  infant  of 
Spain,  born  1788,  lives  at  Madrid,  mar- 
ried Maria  Francisca,  third  daughter  of 
the  late  king  of  Portugal,  who  has  borne 
him  two  sons — Charles,  born  Jan.  31, 
1818,  and  Ferdinand,  Oct.  19,  1824 ;  5. 
Isabella,  bom  1789,  second  wife  of  Fran- 
cis I,  king  of  the  Sicilies,  had  five  sons 
and  six  daughters  ;  6.  Francis  of  Paula, 
infant  of  Spahi,  bom  at  Madrid,  1794, 
iiianied,  in  1819,  his  niece,  Louisa,  sec- 
ond daughter  of  Francis  I,  king  of  the 
Two  Sicilies,  by  his  second  wife,  Isabella ; 
he  has  had  two  sons-— Francis,  duke  of 
Cadiz,  born  at  Madrid,  May  18, 1822,  and 
Charles,  duke  of  Seville,  born  June  12, 
1824.  II.  Brothers  of  Charles  IV.  1. 
Ferdinand  I,  king  of  the  Two  Sicilies 


SSM 


BOURBON. 


(q.  v.),  died  Jan.  4,  1825.  His  children 
by  his  first  wife,  Caroline  of  Austria,  are, 
a.  the  present  king,  Francis  I,  whose 
daughter,  by  his  first  marriage  with  Clem- 
entina of  Austria,  is  Caroline,  wdow  of 
the  duke  of  Berri  and  mother  of  the 
duke  of  Bourdeaux ;  h.  Christuia,  wife  of 
Charles  Felix,  who  became  king  of  Sar- 
dinia in  1821 ;  c.  Amalie,  wife  of  the  duke 
of  Orleans,  Louis  Phihp,  mother  of  nine 
living  children;  d.  Leopold,  prince  of 
Salemo,  married  Maria  Clementina,  third 
daughter  of  the  emperor  Francis  L  2. 
Gabriel  Anthony  Francis  Xaver,  infant  of 
Spain,  died  in  1788  ;  his  son  Peter  mar- 
ried Theresa,  eldest  daughter  of  the  king 
of  Portugal,  died  in  1812,  at  Rio  Janeiro, 
leaving  a  son,  Sebastian  Maria,  infant  of 
Spain,  born  in  1811.  From  the  marriage 
of  the  brother  of  Charles  III,  Louis  Antho- 
ny Jacob,  with  Theresa  of  Ballabriga  and 
Drummond,  duchess  of  Chinchon,  daugh- 
ter of  an  Arragonian  captain  of  infantry, 
have  sprung,  don  Louis  Maria  of  Bour- 
bon, archbishop  of  Toledo ;  Caroline  Jo- 
sephine Antoine,  wife  of  don  Manuel 
Godoy,  prince  of  peace ;  and  Maria  Lou- 
isa of  Bourbon,  who  married,  in  1817,  the 
duke  of  San  Fernando,  grandee  of  Spain. 
— C.  The  collateral  branch  of  the  royal 
French  Une  of  Bourbon-Orleans,  which, 
by  the  revolution,  lost  the  peerage  of  that 
name,  and  which  derives  its  origin  from 
Philip  I,  brother  of  Louis  XIV,  is  the  fol- 
lowing :  1.  Louis  Phihp,  duke  of  Bour- 
bon-Orleans, bon)  1773  (see  Orleans) ;  2. 
Eugenie  Adelaide  Louise,  mademoiselle 
(T Orleans,  sister  of  the  duke  of  Orleans, 
born  1777. — D.  Of  the  hne  of  Conde, 
second  branch  of  the  house  of  B.,  the 
following  individuals,  of  the  branch  of 
Bourbon-Conde,  were  living  in  1826: — 
Louis  Heniy  Joseph,  duke  of  B.,  son  of 
Louis  Joseph,  duke  of  B.,  prince  of  Con- 
de (see  Conde),  who  died  in  1818.  (His 
sister  Louise  Adelaide,  princess  of  Cond6, 
born  in  1757,  lived  in  England,  in  a  con- 
vent at  NorfoUc ;  in  1768,  was  abbess  at 
Remiremont ;  entered  a  convent  at  Turin 
in  1795 ;  became,  in  December,  1816,  di- 
rectress of  a  convent  at  Paris,  and  died 
March  10,  1824.)  Charles  Charolois, 
prince  of  Conde,  had  two  natiu^l  daugh- 
ters, afterwards  legitimated,  one  of  whom, 
Charlotte  Margaret  Elisabetli,  mademoi- 
selle de  Bourbon,  married  the  count  of 
Lowendahl,  now  Danish  major-general. 
The  second  branch,  Bourbon-Conti,  be- 
came extinct  by  the  death  of  Louis  Fran- 
cis Joseph  of  B.,  prince  of  Conti,  March 
13,  1814.  In  1815,  Louis  XVIII  granted 
his  two  natural  sons,  the  lords  of  Hatton- 


ville  and  Removille,  permission  to  as- 
sume the  name  and  arms  of  Bourbon- 
Conti.  The  countess  of  Mont-Cair-Zaim, 
Gabrielle  Louisa,  is  considered  as  the  nat- 
ural daughter  of  prince  Louis  of  Bour- 
bon-Conti. She  was  a  knight  of  the  order 
of  the  Holy  Ghost,  belonged  to  the  le- 
gion of  honor,  and  died  at  Paris,  70  years 
of  age,  March  29, 1825.  She  served  hi  a 
regunent  of  dragoons  with  honor  for 
some  time.  Gothe  has  taken  the  materi- 
als for  his  Eugenia,  the  Natural  Daughter, 
from  the  biography  of  this  lady,  published 
in  1798.  (See  Histoire  du  Bourbonnais  et 
des  Bourbons,  by  Coiffier  Demoret,  mem- 
ber of  the  chamber  of  deputies,  Paris, 
1818,  2  vols.;  and  Achaintre's  Histoire 
chronolo^que  et  genialogique  de  la  Maison 
royale  de  Bourbon,  Paris,  1824,  2  vols.) 
The  Memoires  relatifs  a  la  Famille  royale 
de  France  pendant  la  Revoluiion,  puolies 
d^aprds  le  Journal,  Sfc.  de  la  Princesse  de 
Laniballe  (Paris,  1826,  2  vols.),  is,  through- 
out, a  miserable  work. 

BocRBON,  Charles,  duke  of,  or  consta- 
ble of  Bourbon,  son  of  Gilbert,  count  of 
Montpensier,  and  Clara  of  Gonzaga,  was 
bom  in  1489 ;  received  from  Francis  I,  in 
the  26th  year  of  his  age,  the  swonl  of 
constable.  By  the  coolness  with  which 
he  faced  death  in  posts  of  the  greatest 
hazard,  he  excited  the  admiration  of  his 
fellow-soldiers.  When  viceroy  of  Milan, 
he  won  all  hearts  by  his  frankness  and 
affability.  His  fame  was  not  yet  tarnish- 
ed, when  the  injustice  of  his  king  depriv- 
ed him  of  his  offices,  banished  him  from 
France,  and  brought  the  family  of  Bour- 
bon into  disgrace,  in  which  state  it  con- 
tinued until  tlie  conclusion  of  the  reign 
of  Heniy  III.  Some  historians  declare, 
that  the  duchess  of  Angouleme,  mother 
of  Francis  I,  had  fallen  in  love  with  the 
young  constable,  and  could  not  endure 
the  contempt  with  which  he  treated  her 
passion :  others  relate,  that,  influenced  by 
avaricious  motives,  she  laid  claim  to  the 
estates  of  Charles  of  B.,  and  obtained 
]iossession  of  them  by  a  judicial  process. 
Whatever  may  be  the  true  cause  of  her 
conduct,  it  is  certain  that  she  strove  to 
invahdate  a  formal  donation  of  Louis  XII. 
The  constable,  enraged  at  seeing  himself 
deprived  of  his  estates  by  the  mother  of 
the  king  whom  he  had  served  with  so 
much  fidehty  and  zeal,  hstened  to  the 
proposals  made  him  by  Charles  V  and 
the  king  of  England.  He  experienced 
the  usual  fate  of  deserters :  he  was  well 
received  while  his  services  were  needed, 
but  narrowly  watched  to  secure  his  fidel- 
ity.   Exposed  as  be  was  to  the  contempt 


BOURBON— BOURDALOUE. 


225 


of  the  Spanish  nobility,  and  the  jealousy 
of  the  generals  of  Charles  V,  nothing  re- 
mained to  him  but  his  courage  and  re- 
pentance. His  abihty,  however,  induced 
the  emperor  to  bestow  upon  him  the 
command  of  an  army,  and  to  treat  hitn 
with  honor.  He  was  already  beyond  the 
confines  of  France,  when  Francis  I  sent  to 
demand  the  sword  which  he  bore  as  con- 
stable, and  the  badge  of  his  order.  His 
answer  displays  the  anguish  of  his  heart — 
"  The  king  took  from  me  my  sword  at 
Valenciennes,  when  he  gave  to  d'Aleugon 
the  command  of  the  vanguard,  which  be- 
longed to  me :  the  badge  of  my  order  I 
left  under  my  pillow  at  Chantelles."  His 
flight  was  a  misfortune  to  France ;  the 
expedition  of  Francis  into  Italy  was  ar- 
rested. Having  been  appointed  to  the 
command  of  the  imperial  troops,  he  made 
an  unsuccessful  attack  upon  Marseilles,  but 
contributed  greatly  to  the  victorj'  of  Pavia. 
When  Francis  was  canned  a  prisoner  to 
Madrid,  he  went  there  in  pei-son,  that  he 
might  not  be  forgotten  in  the  treaties  be- 
tween the  two  monarchs  ;  but  Charles  V 
delayed  concluding  them,  and  B.  discov- 
ered that  he  could  not  trust  the  emperor, 
who  had  even  promised  him  his  sister  ui 
marriage.  Compelled  to  smother  his  re- 
sentment, he  returned  to  Milan,  maintain- 
ed possession  of  Italy  by  the  terror  of  his 
arms,  and  obtained  so  much  authority  as 
to  become  an  object  of  suspicion  to  the 
emperor,  who,  in  order  to  weaken  him, 
refused  to  grant  him  the  necessar}'^  sup- 
plies. In  order  to  prevent  the  dispersion 
of  his  army,  he  led  the  soldiers  to  the 
siege  of  Rome,  the  plunder  of  which  city 
he  promised  them.  He  was  the  firet  to 
mount  the  breach,  and  was  lulled.  May  6, 
1527,  by  a  ball,  shot,  it  is  said,  by  Benve- 
nuto  Celhni.  He  died  excommunicated, 
without  issue,  in  the  38th  year  of  his  age. 
His  body  being  conveyed  to  Gaeta,  his 
soldiers  erected  over  it  a  splendid  monu- 
ment, which  was  afterwards  destroyed. 

Bourbon,  Louis,  cai'dinal  and  arch- 
bishop of  Toledo  ;  born  1777  ;  son  of  the 
infant  Louis,  brotlier  of  king  Charles  III 
of  Spain,  and  the  duchess  of  Chinchon. 
The  niamage  was  concluded  with  the 
royal  assent :  nevertheless,  it  Avas  doubt- 
ed, after  the  death  of  Charles  III,  wheth- 
er the  prince  would  be  lawful  heir  to  the 
throne,  if  a  male  descendant  of  the  old 
line  should  be  wanting.  He  therefore 
entered  the  church,  and  a  cardinal's  hat 
was  given  to  him  in  1800.  After  the  im- 
prisonment of  Ferdinand  VII  at  ValenQay^ 
he  joined  the  party  of  tlie  cortes,  and  be- 
came  v8iy  influential.    He   offered,    hi 


1814,  the  constitution  of  the  cortes  to 
Ferdinand  VII  for  his  signature ;  and,  the 
king  having  altered  his  determh)ation,  B. 
lost  his  favor,  and  was  deprived  of  the 
archbishopric  of  Seville.  After  the  events 
which  took  place  on  the  insurrection  of 
the  army  at  the  island  of  Leon,  he  engag- 
ed in  the  revolution,  and  was  president 
of  the  provisional  junta  before  which  the 
king  swore,  at  Madrid,  i\Iarch  9,  1820,  to 
abide  bv  the  constitution  of  the  cortes  of 
1812.    He  died  March  19,  1823. 

Bourbon,  Isle  of;  situated  in  the  In- 
dian ocean,  about  400  miles  east  of  Mad- 
agascar ;  lat.  20°  51'  S. ;  Ion.  55°  20'  E. 
It  is  48  miles  long  and  30  broad.  It  was 
discovered  by  Mascarenhas,  a  Portuguese, 
in  1545,  who  called  it  by  his  own  name. 
The  French  took  possession  of  it  in  1649, 
and  gave  it  the  name  of  B.  At  diflTerent 
periods  of  the  revolution,  it  was  called 
Reunion  and  Bonaparte.  It  was  captur- 
ed by  the  English  in  1810,  and  restored 
to  France  in  1815.  The  population  con- 
sists of  17,000  whites,  6,000  free  Negroes, 
and  60,000  slaves.  Its  commerce  is  im- 
peded by  the  want  of  good  harbors.  The 
principal  articles  of  export  are  coffee, 
sugar,  rice,  tobacco,  spices,  mdigo,  pepper, 
maize,  &c.  The  coflfee  was  brought 
from  Mocha,  and  is  of  an  excellent  quali- 
ty. The  capital  is  St.  Denis,  a  pretty 
town,  with  about  8000  inhabitants.  The 
heat  is  excessive  fi-om  November  to  April ; 
the  evenings,  however,  are  refi-eshed  by 
the  sea-breezes,  and  the  mornings  by  the 
land-breezes.  The  island  is  of  volcanic 
origin,  and  seems  to  be  composed  of  two 
enormous  volcanic  mountains,  in  one  of 
which  the  fire  is  extinct :  the  other  is  still 
in  activity.  The  loftiest  summit,  le  Piton 
de  jYetge,  or  the  Snowy  Spike,  is  about 
10,000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea. 

BouRBO-NNAis  ;  a  province  and  govern- 
ment of  Old  France,  with  the  title,  first 
of  a  county,  and  afterwards  of  a  duchy, 
lying  between  the  Niveniais,  Berry  and 
Burgundy.  It  now  forms  the  department 
of  the  Allien  It  derived  its  name  from 
the  small  town  of  Bourbon  I'Archambaud, 
fi-ora  which  the  reigning  family  of  France 
and  the  dukes  of  Bourbon  also  received 
their  title.     {See  Bourbon.) 

BouRDALouE,  Louis,  the  reformer  of 
the  pulpit,  and  founder  of  genuine  pulpit 
eloquence,  in  France,  was  bom  at  Bour- 
ges,  in  1632,  and  was  16  years  old  when 
he  entered  the  society  of  Jesuits.  His  in- 
structers  successively  intrusted  to  him  the 
chairs  of  polite  letters,  rhetoric,  philoso- 
phy and  moral  theology.  In  1669,  he 
entered  the  pulpit,  and  extended  his  rep- 


226 


BOURDALOUE— BOURDEAUX. 


utation  by  attacking,  with  a  powerful  and 
religious  eloquence,  free  from  the  bad 
taste  of  the  age,  the  passions,  vices  and 
errors  of  mankind.  The  dignity  of  his 
delivery  and  the  fire  of  his  language  made 
him  distinguished  amidst  the  victories  of 
Turenne  and  the  feasts  of  Versailles, 
among  the  master-spirits  of  the  arts  and 
of  literature,  in  the  time  of  Corneille  and 
Racine.  Louis  XIV  invited  him,  at  the 
time  of  Advent,  in  1670,  to  preach  before 
the  court,  and  B.  acquitted  himself  with 
so  much  success,  that  he  afterwards  re- 
ceived invitations  at  10  different  times. 
After  the  repeal  of  the  edict  of  Nantes, 
he  was  sent  to  Languedoc,  in  order  to  ex- 
plain to  the  Protestants  the  doctrines  of 
the  Catholic  faith,  and  he  succeeded  in 
this  difficult  business  in  reconciling  the 
dignity  of  his  office  with  the  rights  of 
mankind.  In  his  latter  days,  he  re- 
nounced the  pulpit,  and  devoted  himself 
to  the  care  of  hospitals,  prisons  and  re- 
ligious institutions.  He  well  knew  how 
to  accommodate  his  manner  to  the  ca- 
pacity of  those  to  whom  he  gave  instnic- 
tion,  advice  or  consolation.  With  the 
simple,  he  was  simple  ;  with  the  learned, 
he  was  a  scholar;  with  free-thinkers,  he 
was  a  logician  ;  and  came  off"  successful 
in  all  those  contests  in  which  the  love  of 
his  neighbor,  religious  zeal,  and  the  duties 
of  his  office,  involved  him.  Beloved  alike 
by  all,  he  exercised  authority  over  the 
minds  of  all ;  and  no  consideration  could 
make  him  give  up  liis  openness  and  in- 
tegrity of  character.  He  died  in  1704. 
His  sermons  have  been  translated  into 
several  languages. 

BouRDEAUx  (Ion.  0°  34'  W.;  lat.  44° 
50'  14"  N.),  in  the  Bordelais  district  of  the 
ancient  Guyenne  or  Aquitania,  the  me- 
tropolis of  trade  and  chief  city  in  the  de- 
partment of  the  Gironde,  and  the  head  of 
an  arrondissement  containing  13  cantons, 
1632  square  miles,  and  223,863  inhabit- 
ants, lies  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Garonne, 
and  is  connected  with  the  opposite  side 
by  the  new  bridge  erected  by  Louis 
XVIII,  700  feet  long,  and  supported  by 
17  arches,  16  leagues  from  the  mouth  of 
the  river.  It  numbers  7800  houses  and 
100,000  inhabitants.  It  is  an  antique  and 
gloomy  city,  having  19  gates,  12  of  which 
lead  to  the  river,  and  7  to  th&  adjacent 
country;  also  2  suburbs  (Les  Chartrons 
and  St.  Severin),  splendid  pubhc  places, 
delightful  promenades,  46  Catholic 
churches  and  1  Protestant.  Among  the 
buildings  deserving  of  mention  are  the 
cathedrals,  the  council-house  of  Lam- 
bri^re  (in  which  the  ancient  dukes  of 


Guyenne  resided,  and  the  parliament  af- 
terwards held  its  sessions),  the  exchange, 
the  hotel  desfermes,  the  theatre,  the  Vaux- 
hall,  the  palace  built  by  Bonaparte  in 
1810,  and  a  newly  invented  mill,  with  24 
sets  of  stones,  put  in  motion  wholly  by 
tlie  ebb  and  flow  of  the  tide.  B.  is  en- 
circled by  walls  and  strong  towers.  The 
small  fortifications  of  Haa  and  St.  Louis, 
or  St.  Croix,  and  the  stronger  works  of 
the  chateau  Trompette,  protect  the  harbor, 
which  is  entered  without  difficulty  by  the 
largest  merchant-vessels  during  the  flow 
of  the  tide,  which  sometimes  rises  to  the 
height  of  12  feet ;  but  it  has  been  unfortu- 
nately injured  by  the  accumulation  of 
sand.  B.  has  more  than  900  merchant- 
ships.  It  exports,  on  an  average,  100,000 
hogsheads  of  wine,  and  20,000  of  French 
brandy.  Other  articles  of  export  are  vine- 
gar, dried  fruits,  ham,  firewood,  turpen- 
tine, glass  bottles,  cork,  honey,  &c. 
Among  the  articles  of  import  are  colonial 
wares,  British  tin,  lead,  copper  and  coal, 
dye-stufl!s,  timber,  pitch,  hemp,  leather, 
herrings,  salted  meat,  cheese,  &c.  B.  has 
the  greatest  share  of  any  city  in  France, 
except  Nantes,  in  the  French  and  Ameri- 
can trade.  It  contains  a  bank,  an  insur- 
ance company,  &c.  Its  fairs,  in  March 
and  October,  are  of  the  utmost  import- 
ance to  all  the  west  of  France.  Its 
merchants  carry  on  the  whale  and  cod 
fisheries  through  the  harbors  of  Bayonne, 
St.  Jean  de  Luce,  and  St.  Malo.  B.  is 
the  seat  of  an  archbishop,  a  Protestant 
consistory,  a  prefect,  and  of  the  com- 
mander-in-chief of  the  11th  division  of 
the  militia.  It  has  a  royal  court  of  jus- 
tice, a  chamber  of  commerce,  a  commer- 
cial court,  a  imiversity  (established  in 
1441),  an  academy  of  sciences  (instituted 
in  1712,  which  has  a  library  of  more 
than  55,000  volumes),  an  academy  of  fine 
arts  (founded  in  1670,  and  renewed  in 
1768),  a  museum,  a  lyceum,  a  Linneean 
society,  an  institution  for  the  education 
of  the  deaf  and  dumb,  a  school  of  trade 
and  naiigation,  &c.  The  most  important 
manufactories  are  14  sugar-houses,  several 
glass-houses,  potteries,  manufactories  of 
woollen  and  lace.  B.  is  the  Burdigala  of 
the  Romans.  In  the  5th  century,  it  was 
in  the  possession  of  the  Goths,  and  at 
length  pillaged  and  burnt  by  the  Nor- 
mans. By  the  marriage  of  Eleonora, 
daughter  of  William  X,  the  last  duke  of 
Guyenne,  to  Louis  VII,  it  fell  into  the 
hands  of  France.  But,  in  1152,  the  prin- 
cess was  repudiated  by  her  husband,  and 
afterwards  united  in  marriage  with  th© 
duke  of  Normandy,  who  ascended  the     ^- 


BOURDEAUX— BOURSAULT. 


227 


throne  of  England,  and  transferred  B.  to 
that  crown.  After  the  battle  of  Poictiers, 
Edward,  the  black  prince,  carried  John, 
king  of  France,  prisoner  to  B.,  where  he 
resided  11  years.  Under  Charles  VII,  in 
1451,  it  was  restored  again  to  France. 
In  1548,  the  citizens  rebelled  on  account 
of  a  tax  on  salt,  and  the  governor  De  Mo- 
reins  was  put  to  death,  for  which  tlie 
constable  of  Montmorency  inflicted  se- 
vere punishment  on  the  city.  During 
the  revolution,  it  was  devastated  as  the 
rendezvous  of  the  Girondists,  liy  the  ter- 
rorists, almost  as  completely  as  Lyons  and 
Marseilles.  The  oppressiveness  of  the 
continental  system  to  the  trade  of  B.  made 
the  inhabitants  disaffected  to  the  govern- 
ment of  Napoleon,  so  that  they  were  the 
first  to  declare  for  the  house  of  Bourbon, 
IMarch  12th,  1814.  The  Roman  poet 
Ausonius  was  a  native  of  B.  3Iontaigne 
and  Montesquieu  were  bom  in  the  neig^I- 
boring  coimtry,  and  the  latter  lies  buried 
tliere  in  the  church  of  St.  Bernard.  (For 
the  wines  of  Bourdeaux,  see  Borddais.) 

Bourdon,  Sebastian ;  a  celebrated 
French  painter,  born  at  Montpellier,  in 
161G.  Being  poor  and  without  occupa- 
tion, he  enlisted  as  a  soldier.  After  re- 
ceiving his  dismission,  he  visited  Italy, 
and  studied  under  Sacchi  and  Claude 
Lorraine.  In  1G52,  lie  was  driven  from 
the  French  kingdom  by  the  rehgious 
troubles.  He  afterwards  became  distin- 
guished in  his-  own  countiy  by  many 
great  works,  among  which  are  the  fol- 
lowing:— the  Dead  Christ,  the  Adulter- 
ess, the  Old  Kings  of  Burgundy  in  the 
Senate-house  at  Aix.  He  liad  no  pecu- 
liar manner,  but  he  imitated  others.  He 
was  a  good  engraver  on  copper.  He  died 
in  1671,  while  engaged  in  painting  the 
ceiling  of  the  Tuileries. 

BouRGEs ;  a  city  of  France,  formerly 
the  capital  of  the  province  of  Berri,  now 
of  the  department  of  the  Cher,  with  a 
])opu!ation  of  16,350  inhabitants.  The 
cathedral  is  one  of  the  finest  Gothic 
structures  in  France.  The  pragmatic 
sanction  (q.  v.)  was  published  at  B.  by 
Charles  VII.  Louis  XI  Avas  bom  there, 
and  founded  its  university  in  1465.  It 
now  contains  one  of  the  26  academies  of 
the  university  of  France.  There  are  some 
manufactures  of  silk,  woollen  stuffs,  cot- 
tons and  stockings  in  the  city  and  its 
neighborhood,  which  are  disposed  of  at 
its  annual  fairs.  The  inhabitants  are 
principally  supported  by  the  nobility  and 
students  who  reside  in  the  town.  It  was 
anciently  called  Avaricum,  and  afterwards 
Bituriga,  and  was  one  of  the  most  an- 


cient and  best  fortified  cities  of  Gaul.  It 
lies  155  miles  S.  of  Paris  ;  lat.  47^  5'  N. ; 
Ion.  2°  23'  E. 

BouRGOGNE.  (See  Burgundy.) 
BouRiGNo.N,  Antoinette ;  a  celebrated 
religious  fanatic,  born  in  1616,  at  Lille, 
daughter  of  a  merchant.  At  her  birth, 
she  was  so  defonned,  that  a  consultation 
was  held  whether  it  would  not  lie  proper 
to  destroy  her  as  a  monster.  She  made 
hei-self  famous  by  her  restless  manner  of 
life,  her  wanderings  through  France,  Ger- 
many and  Denmark,  and  by  her  fanati- 
cism. A  collection  of  her  authentic 
works,  in  which  she  displays  an  animated 
eloquence,  was  published  at  Amsterdam, 
in  1686,  in  21  volumes. 

BouRSAULT,  Edme,  was  bom  in  1638, 
at  jMuci-l'Eveque,  in  the  province  of  Bur- 
gundy, grew  up  without  education,  and 
went,  in  1651,  to  Paris,  without  under- 
standing any  thing  but  his  own  provin- 
cial patois.  Here  he  learned  to  speak 
and  write  French,  and  improved  so  fast, 
that  the  composition  of  a  book  for  the  in- 
struction of  the  dauphin  was  committed 
to  him.  This  work.  La  Veritable  Etude 
des  Souverains,  pleased  the  king  so  much, 
that  he  appointed  B.  assistant  instructer 
of  his  son.  B.  decUned  the  office,  and 
also  refused  to  offer  himself  as  a  candi- 
date for  admission  into  the  academy,  on 
account  of  his  ignoraqce  of  Latin.  In  his 
youth,  he  undertook  a  poetical  gazette, 
with  which  the  king  and  court  were  so 
much  pleased,  that  an  annuity  of  2000 
hvres  was  granted  him.  But,  happening 
to  satirize,  in  this  work,  a  ludicrous  adven- 
ture, which  had  befallen  a  Capuchui,  the 
confessor  of  the  queen  caused  the  joumal 
to  be  suppressed,  and  B.  himself  escaped 
the  Bastile  only  by  the  influence  of  the 
prince  of  Cond6.  Another  journal  of  his 
was  suppressed  soon  after,  on  account  of 
a  satirical  couplet  on  king  William,  with 
whom  the  French  court  then  wished  to 
negotiate.  He  was  more  fortunate  in  his 
writings  for  the  stage,  and  many  of  his 
pieces  met  with  pennanent  success; 
among  others,  Esope  a  la  Ville,  and 
Esope  a  la  Cour,  which  still  continue  on 
the  stage.  His  two  tragedies  Marie  Stu- 
art and  Germaniciis  are  forgotten.  B.  had 
the  misfortune  to  quairel  with  Moli^re 
and  Boileau.  He  wrote  a  severe  criti- 
cism on  the  Ecole  des  Femmes,  under  the 
title  of  Le  Portrait  du  Peintre.  Moliere 
chastised  him  in  his  Impromptu  de  Ver- 
saiUes.  To  revenge  himself  on  Boileau, 
wlio  had  ridiculed  him  in  his  satires,  he 
wrote  a  comedy  called  Satyre  des  Satyres ; 
but  Boileau  prevented  its  performance. 


228 


BOURSAULT— BOW. 


B.  afterwards  took  a  noble  revenge.  He 
heard  that  Boileau  was  at  tlie  baths  of 
Bourbonne  entirely  destitute :  he  hasten- 
ed to  him,  ajid  compelled  him  to  accept  a 
loan  of  200  louis  d'ors.  Touched  by  this 
generous  conduct,  Boileau  struck  his 
name  from  his  satires.  B.  died  at  Mout- 
]u(;on,  in  1701. 

BousTROPHEDON ;  a  kind  of  writing 
wliich  is  found  on  Greek  coins  and  in  in- 
scriptions of  the  remotest  antiquity.  The 
lines  do  not  rim  in  a  uniform  direction 
from  the  left  to  the  right,  or  fi'om  the 
right  to  the  left ;  but  the  fii"st  begins  at 
the  left,  and  terminates  at  the  right ;  the 
second  runs  in  an  opposite  direction, 
from  the  right  to  the  left ;  the  third, 
again,  from  the  left,  and  so  on  alternately. 
It  is  called  boustrophedon  (that  is,  turning 
back  like  oxen)  because  the  lines  written 
in  this  way  succeed  each  other  like  fur- 
rows in  a  ploughed  field.  The  laws  of 
Solon  were  cut  in  tables  in  this  manner. 

BocTEUWEK,  Frederic,  professor  of 
moral  philosophy  at  GcJttingen,  a  man  of 
much  merit  as  an  academical  instiiicter 
and  a  writer  on  literature,  was  born  April 
15,  176G,  atOker,  a  village  not  far  from 
Groslar,  in  North  Germany.  After  apply- 
ing liimself  to  many  departments  af  learn- 
ing, jurisprudence,  poetry,  &c.,  he  at  last 
became  entirely  devoted  to  philosophy 
and  literaiy  historj'.  He  was  at  first  a 
follower  of  Kant,  but  finally  attached 
himself  to  Jacobi.  His  Idee  einer  Apo- 
diktik  was  the  immediate  fruit  of  his  inti- 
mate acquaintance  with  tlie  philosophical 
views  of  Fr.  IL  Jacobi.  This  work  was 
published  in  two  volumes,  1799.  It  was 
afterwards  completed  by  the  Manual  of 
Philosophical  Knowledge  (two  volumes, 
1813;  2d  edition,  1820),  and  by  the  Re- 
ligion of  Reason  (Gottingen,  1824).  In 
this  work,  as  well  as  in  his  jisthetik,  two 
vols.,  1806  and  1824,  he  had  to  contend 
with  many  powerful  antagonists.  B.  has 
gained  a  permanent  reputation  by  his 
History  of  Modem  Poetry  and  Elo- 
quence, published  1801 — 1821,  a  work 
which,  though  unequal  in  some  respects, 
and  in  parts,  especially  in  the  first  volume, 
paitial  and  superficial,  is  an  excellent  col- 
lection of  notices  and  original,  observa- 
tions, and  may  be  considered  one  of  the 
best  works  of  the  kind  in  German  litera- 
ture. Among  his  mmor  productions,  a 
selection  of  which  he  published  in  1818, 
are  many  essays,  which  are  superior  to 
the  best  of  his  larger  speculative  works; 
for  instance,  the  introduction  to  the  His- 
tory, in  which  he  gives  an  accoimt  of  his 
literary   labors,  until   that   period,  with 


great  candor,  and  with  almost  excessive 
severity  against  himself.  B.  died  in  1828. 
His  history  of  Spanish  literature  has 
been  translated  into  Spanish,  French  and 
English. 

Bouts  Rimes  {French) ;  words  or  sji- 
lables  which  rhyme,  arranged  in  a  partic- 
ular order,  and  given  to  a  poet  with  a 
subject,  on  which  he  must  write  verses 
ending  in  the  same  rhymes,  disposed  in 
the  same  order.  Menage  gives  the  fol- 
lowing account  of  the  origin  of  this  ridic- 
ulous conceit,  which  may  be  classed  with 
the  eggs  and  axes,  tlie  echoes,  acrostics, 
and  other  equally  ingenious  devices  of 
learned  triflers.  "  Dulot  (a  poet  of  the 
17th  centurj')  was  one  day  complaining, 
in  a  large  company,  that  300  sonnets  had 
been  stolen  from  him.  One  of  the  com- 
pany expressing  his  astonishment  at  the 
number, '  Oh,'  said  lie,  'they  are  blank  son- 
nets, or  rhymes  [holds  rimes)  of  all  the 
sonnets  I  may  have  occasion  to  write.' 
This  ludicrous  statement  produced  such 
an  effect,  that  it  became  a  fashionable 
amusement  to  compose  blank  sonnets, 
and,  in  1648,  a  4to.  volume  oiboids  rimes 
was  pubhshed."  Sarrazin's  Dulot  Vain- 
cu,  ou  la  Defaite  des  Bouts  Rimes,  is  an 
amusing  performance. 

Bow  ;  the  name  of  one  of  tlie  most 
ancient  and  universal  weapons  of  offence. 
It  is  made  of  steel,  wood,  horn  or  other 
clastic  substance,  which,  after  being  bent 
by  means  of  a  string  fastened  to  its  two 
ends,  in  returning  to  its  natural  state, 
thro\vs  out  an  an'ow  with  preat  force. 
The  figure  of  the  bow  is  neany  the  same 
in  all  countries,  having  generally  two  in- 
flexions, between  Avhich,  in  the  place 
where  the  arrow  is  fixed,  is  a  right  hne. 
The  Grecian  bow  was  nearly  in  the  form 
of  the  letter  2 :  in  drawing  it,  the  haiid 
was  brought  back  to  the  right  breast,  and 
not  to  the  ear.  The  Scythian  bow  was 
distinguished  for  its  remarkable  cui-va- 
ture,  which  was  nearly  semicircular; 
that  of  the  modern  Tartars  is  similar  to 
it.  The  materials  of  bows  have  been  dif- 
ferent in  different  coimtries.  The  Per- 
sians and  Indians  made  them  of  reeds. 
The  Lycian  bows  were  made  of  the 
cornel-tree  ;  those  of  the  Ethiopians,  of 
the  palm-tree.  That  of  Pandarus  (II.  iv, 
104)  was  made  from  the  horn  of  a  moun- 
tain goat,  ,16  palms  in  length :  the  string 
was  an  ox-hide  thong.  The  honi  of  tlie 
antelope  is  still  used  for  the  same  purpose 
in  the  East.  The  long-bow  was  the  favor- 
ite national  weapon  in  England.  The 
battles  of  Cressy  (1346),  Poictiers  (1356) 
and  Agincourt  (1415)  were  won  by  this 


BOW— BOWDICH. 


229 


weapon.  It  was  made  of  yew,  ash,  Sec, 
of  the  height  of  the  archer.  The  arrow 
behig  usually  half  the  length  of  the  bow, 
the  cloth-yard  w<is  only  employed  by  a 
man  six  feet  high.  The  arbalist,  or 
cross-bow,  was  a  popular  weapon  with 
the  Italians,  and  wtus  introduced  into 
England  in  the  13th  century.  The  ar- 
rows shot  from  it  were  called  quarrels. 
The  holt  was  used  with  both  kinds  of 
bows.  Of  the  power  of  the  bow,  and  the 
distance  to  which  it  will  cany,  some  re- 
markable anecdotes  are  related..  Xeno- 
])hon  mentions  an  Ai'cadian  whose  head 
was  shot  through  byaCarduchian  arclier. 
Stuart  (,/ltk.  Ant.  i.)  mentions  a  random 
shot  of  a  Turk,  which  he  found  to  be  584 
yards;  and  IMr.  Strutt/saw  the  Ti""kisli 
ambassador  shoot  480  yards  in  the  arch- 
ery ground  near  Bedford  square.  Lord 
Bacon  speaks  of  a  Turkish  bow  which 
lias  been  known  to  pierce  a  steel  target, 
or  a  piece  of  brass,  two  inches  thick.  In 
the  journal  of  king  Edward  VI,  it  is  men- 
tioned, that  100  archers  of  the  king's 
guard  shot  at  an  inch  board,  and  that 
some  of  the  arrows  passed  through  this 
and  into  another  board  behind  it,  although 
the  wood  was  extremely  solid  and  firm. 
It  has  been  the  custom  of  many  savage 
nations  to  poison  their  arrows.  This 
practice  is  mentioned  by  Homer  and  the 
ancient  historians ;  and  we  have  many 
similar  accounts  of  modern  travellei-s  and 
navigators  from  almost  eveiy  part  of  the 
world.  Some  of  these  stories  are  of 
doubtful  authority,  but  others  are  well 
authenticated.  Some  poison,  obtained  by 
Condamine  from  South  American  sav- 
ages, produced  instantaneous  death  in  an- 
imals inoculated  with  it.  The  poisoned 
arrows  used  in  Guiana  are  not  shot  from  a 
bowj  but  blown  tiu'ough  a  tube.  They 
are  made  of  the  hard  substance  of  the 
cokarito-tree,  and  are  about  a  foot  long, 
and  of  the  size  of  a  knitting-needle.  One 
end  is  sharply  pointed,  and  dipped  in  the 
poison  of  wooraia:  the  other  is  adjusted 
to  the  cavity  of  the  reed,  from  which  it  is 
to  be  blown,  by  a  roll  of  cotton.  The 
reed  is  several  feet  in  length.  A  single 
breath  carries  the  arrow  30  or  40  yards. 
(See  Bancroft's  History  of  Guiana.) 

Bow,  in  music,  is  the  name  of  that  well 
known  implement  by  the  means  of  which 
the  tone  is  produced  from  viols,  violins 
and  other  instruments  of  that  kind.  It  is 
made  of  a  thin  stafFof  elastic  wood,  taper- 
ing shghtly  till  it  reaches  the  lower  end, 
to  which  the  hairs  (about  80  or  100  hoi-se- 
hajrs)  are  fastened,  and  with  which  the 
bow  is  strung.    At  tlie  upper  end  is  an 

VOL.  II.  20 


ornamented  piece  of  wood  or  ivory,  call- 
ed the  nut,  and  fastened  with  a  screw, 
which  serves  to  regulate  the  tension  of 
the  hairs.  It  is  evident  that  the  size  and 
construction  of  the  bow  must  correspond 
with  the  size  of  the  species  of  viol-instni- 
ments  from  which  the  tone  is  to  be  pro- 
duced. 

Bow  I.NSTRUMENTS  are  all  the  instru- 
ments strung  with  catling  or  goat-gut, 
from  which  the  tones  are  produced  by 
means  of  the  bow.  The  most  usual  are 
the  double  bass  [violono  or  co7it'raba.sso) ; 
the  small  bass,  or  violoncello ;  the  tenor 
[viola  di  braccio) ;  and  the  violin  proper 
[violino,  from  violon).  In  reference  to 
their  construction,  the  several  parts  are 
alike  :  the  difference  is  in  the  size.  (See 
Violin  and  Q^uartett.) 

BowDicH,  Thomas  Edward ;  an  m- 
genious  and  enterprising  man  ;  one  of  the 
victims  of  the  attempts  to  explore  the  in- 
terior of  the  African  continent.  He  was 
bom  at  Bristol,  in  June,  1703,  and  was 
sent  to  Oxford,  but  was  never  regularly 
matriculated.  At  an  early  age,  he  marri- 
ed, and  engaged  in  trade  at  Bristol.  Find- 
ing the  details  of  business  irksome,  he 
obtained  the  appointment  of  writer  in  the 
service  of  the  African  company.  In  1816, 
he  arrived  at  Cape  Coast  Castle.  It  being 
thought  desirable  to  send  an  embassy  to 
tiie  Negro  king  of  Ashantee,  B.  was  cho- 
sen to  conduct  it ;  and  he  executed  with 
success  the  duties  of  his  situation.  After 
remaining  two  j'eare  in  Africa,  he  return- 
ed home,  and  soon  after  published  his 
Mission  to  Ashantee,  with  a  Statistical 
Account  of  that  Kiiigdom,andGeogi-aph- 
ical  Notices  of  other  Paits  of  the  Interior 
of  Africa  (1819,  4to.)  Having  offended 
the  company  in  whose  senice  he  had 
been  engaged,  and  having  therefore  no 
prospect  of  further  employment,  yet 
wishing  ardently  to  return  to  Africa  for 
the  purpose  of  visiting  its  liitherto  unex- 
plored regions,  B.  resolved  to  make  the 
attempt  with  such  assistance  as  he  could 
obtain  from  private  individuals.  He, 
however,  previously  went  to  Paris,  to 
improve  his  acquaintance  with  physical 
and  mathematical  science.  His  reception 
from  the  French  literati  was  extremely 
flattering.  A  public  eulogium  was  pro- 
nounced on  him  at  a  meeting  of  the  in- 
stittUe,  and  an  advantageous  appointment 
was  offered  him  by  the  French  govern- 
ment. To  obtain  funds  for  the  prosecu- 
tion of  his  favorite  project,  B.  also  pub- 
lished a  translation  of  Mollier's  Travels  to 
the  Sources  of  the  Senegal  and  Gambia, 
and  other  works ;  by  the  sale  of  whicli 


230 


BOWDICH— BOYDELL. 


he  was  enabled,  ■with  a  little  assistance 
from  other  persons,  to  make  preparations 
for  his  second  African  expedition.  He 
sailed  from  Havre  in  August,  1822,  and 
arrived  in  safety  in  the  river  Gambia,  A 
disease,  occasioned  by  fatigue  and  anxie- 
ty of  mind,  here  put  an  end  to  his  life, 
Jan.  10,  1824.  B.  is  said  to  have  been  a 
profound  classic  and  linguist,  an  excellent 
mathematician,  well  versed  in  most  of  the 
physical  sciences,  in  ancient  and  modern 
history,  and  in  polite  literature.  He  was 
a  member  of  several  literaiy  societies  in 
England  and  abroad. 

BowDoiN,  James,a  governor  of  Massa- 
chusetts, born,  in  the  year  1727,  at  Boston, 
was  the  son  of  an  eminent  merchant.    He 
was  graduated,  in    1745,  at  Cambridge 
(N.  E.).     In  1753,  he  was  elected  a  repre- 
sentative to  the  general  court,  and,  in 
1756,  became  a  member  of  the  council. 
In  this  situation  he  continued  until  1769, 
when  he  was  negatived  by  governor  Ber- 
nard, on  account  of  his  decided  whig 
principles,  but    afterwards  accepted  by 
Hutchinson,  because  he  thought  his  in- 
fluence more  prejudicial  "  in  the  hous^  of . 
representatives  than  at  the  council  board." 
In  consequence  of  his  being  a  member  of 
the  committee  who  prepared  the  answer 
to  the  governor's  speeches,  which  assert- 
ed the  right  of  Great  Britain  to  tax  the 
colonies,  he  was  negatived  by  governor 
Gage,  in  the  year  1774.    In  the  same 
year,  he  was  elected  a  delegate  to  the  fii-st 
congress,  which  was  to  meet  at  Philadel- 
phia, but  was  prevented  from  attending 
by  the  state  of  his  health.    His  place  was 
afterwards  filled  by  Mr.  Hancock.      In 
1775,  he  was  moderator  of  the  meeting 
in  which  the  inhabitants  consented  to 
deliver  up  their  arms  to  general  Gage,  on 
condition  of  receiving  permission  to  de- 
part from    the  city  unmolested,   which 
agreement,  however,  was  violated  by  the 
British  commanders.    Shortly  after,  he 
was  appointed  chief  of  the  Massachusetts 
council,  and,  in  1778,  was  chosen  presi- 
dent of  the  convention  which  formed  the 
constitution  of  that  state.    In   1785,  he 
was  appointed  governor  of  Massachu- 
setts, and  had  the  good  fortune  to  crush, 
without  a  single  execution,  an  insurrec- 
tionary movement  against    the  govern- 
ment   Governor  B.  was  a  member  of 
the  convention  of  Massachusetts  assem- 
bled to  deliberate  on  the  adoption  of  the 
constitution  of  the  U.  States,  and  exerted 
himself  in  its  favor.    He  was  ever  an  ar- 
dent lover  of  learning  and  science,  and  a 
benefactor  to  others  of  the  same  character. 
The  university  of  Edinburgh  honored 


him  with  the  degree  of  doctor  of  laws^ 
and  the  royal  societies  of  Dublin  and 
London,  with  several  other  foreign  socie- 
ties, admitted  him  among  their  members. 
He  was  tiie  first  president  of  the  academy 
of  arts  and  sciences,  which  was  establish- 
ed, in  1780,  at  Boston,  in  a  great  measure 
through  his  influence  and  exertions,  and 
to  which  he  contributed  several  papers, 
printed  in  the  first  volume  of  their  Trans- 
actions. His  letters  to  doctor  Frankhn 
have  likewise  been  pubUshed.  He  died 
at  Boston,  in  17iX). 

Bower.    (See  Anchor.) 

Box-tree.  The  box-tree  {hixus-sem- 
pervireiis)  is  a  shrubby  evergreen-tree,  12 
or  15  feet  high,  which  has  small,  oval  and 
opposite  leaves,  and  grows  wild  in  several 
parts  of  Britain.  It  has  been  remarked, 
that  this  tree  was  formerly  so  common  in 
some  parts  of  England,  as  to  have  given 
name  to  several  places,  particularly  to 
Box-hill  in  Surry,  and  Boxley  in  Kent ; 
and,  in  1815,  there  were  cut  down,  at 
Box-hill,  as  many  trees  of  this  sort  as 
produced  upwards  of  £10,000.  This 
tree  was  much  admired  by  the  ancient 
Romans,  and  has  been  much  cultivated, 
in  later  times,  on  account  of  its  being 
easily  clipped  into  the  form  of  animals 
and  other  fantastic  shapes.  The  wood  is 
of  a  yellowish  color,  close-grained,  very 
hard  and  heavy,  and  admits  of  a  beautiful 
polish.  On  these  accounts,  it  is  much 
used  by  turners,  by  engravers  on  wood, 
carvers,  and  mathematical  instrument 
makers.  Flutes  and  other  wind-instru- 
ments are  formed  of  it;  and  furniture, 
made  of  box-wood,  would  be  valuable 
were  it  not  too  heavy,  as  it  would  not 
only  be  very  beautiful,  but  its  bitter  quali- 
ty would  secure  it  from  the  attacks  of  in- 
sects. In  France,  it  is  much  in  demand 
for  combs,  knife-handles  and  button- 
moulds  ;  and  it  has  been  stated  that  the 
quantity  annually  sent  from  Spain  to 
Paris  is  alone  estimated  at  more  than 
10,000  Uvres.  An  oil  distilled  from  the 
shavings  of  box-wood  has  been  found  to 
relieve  the  tooth-ache,  and  to  be  useful 
in  other  complaints ;  and  the  powdered 
leaves  destroy  worms. 

Boxing,    (See  Gymnastics.) 

BoTDEiL,  John,  born  at  Dorington, 
1719,  deserves  a  place  in  the  history  of 
the  arts  in  England,  on  account  of  the  in- 
fluence which  his  enterprises  had  upon 
the  atlvancement  of  the  arts  in  that  coun- 
try. He  was  an  engraver  on  copper ;  af- 
terwards, a  collector  and  seller  of  engrav- 
ings. His  greatest  undertaking  is  his 
Shakspeare  Gallery,  for  which  he  em- 


BOYDELL— BOYER. 


231 


ployed  most  of  the  great  painters  and 
engravers  of  his  time.  He  made  some 
other  collections  of  prints,  among  which 
the  Houghton  Gallery  is  (conspicuous, 
which  was  bought  by  the  empress  Cath- 
arine. To  him  we  owe  a  work  of  high 
interest,  lAber  Veritatis,  a  copy  of  that 
precious  volume  in  which  Claude  Lor- 
raine sketched  the  designs  of  all  his 
paintings.  The  original  is  owned  by  the 
duke  of  Devonslnre.  Of  his  Collection 
of  Prints  engraved  after  the  best  Paint- 
ings in  England  (19  parts),  the  two  first 
volumes  are  excellent.  B.  enjoyed  much 
respect.  He  was  an  alderman  and  lord 
mayor  of  London.     He  died  in  1804. 

BoYELDiEU,  Adrian ;  one  of  the  most 
celebrated  opera  composers  of  France. 
He  was  born  at  Rouen,  in  1775,  and,  at 
seven  yeara  of  age,  studied  music  with 
Broche,  the  organist  of  the  cathedral  of 
that  place.  About  179.5,  he  went  to 
Paris,  and  soon  made  himself  known 
and  esteemed  by  the  composition  and 
execution  of  his  ballads.  He  was  soon 
appointed  professor  of  the  piano-forte  at 
tlie  conservatory.  At  this  time,  he  wrote 
several  operas,  among  which  Ma  tante 
Aurore  and  tlie  Calife  de  Bagdad  are  the 
most  celebrated.  In  1803,  he  went  to  St. 
Petersburg.  His  reputation  obtained  him 
a  favorable  reception,  and  the  emperor 
Alexander  apj)ointed  him  his  chapel- 
tnaster.  For  the  theatre  of  the  hermit- 
age at  St.  Petei-sburg,  he  >vi-ote  his  Aline, 
Queen  of  Golconda,  and  the  opera  Tele- 
machus,  which  is  considered  by  some  as 
his  masterpiece.  In  1811,  he  returned  to 
Paris,  and,  political  events  retaining  him 
in  France,  he  devoted  his  talents  entirely 
to  the  theatre  Feydeau.  The  most  esteem- 
ed operas  which  lie  has  since  composed 
are.  La  dot  de  Susette,  Jean  de  Paris 
(1812),  which  has  had  the  greatest  suc- 
cess of  all  his  pieces ;  Le  nouveau  Sdg- 
neur  de  Village  ( 1813) ;  and  La  Fete  du 
Village  Voisin  (1816).  A  later  o{>era,  Le 
Chaperon  Rouge,  has  lively  music,  but  is 
not  equal  to  John  of  Paris  in  originality. 
His  latest  opera,  La  Dame  Blanche  (1825), 
has  met  with  groat  ap[)lause.  A  sweet 
and  natural  melody,  simple  but  agreeable 
accompaniments,  an  expressive  gayety 
and  great  variety,  are  the  characteristic 
excellences  of  B. 

BoYER,  Alexis;  baron  ;  one  of  the  first 
surgeons  in  Europe,  cUnical  professor  in 
Paris,  and  chinirgien  en  chef  adjoint  at  the 
hospital  of  charity.  Surgery  is  indebted 
to  him  for  many  instruments  which  he 
has  either  invented  or  improved.  He  was 
Iwm  i»  1760,  at  D'Uzerche,  iij  die  Limo- 


sin,  became  a  pupil  of  the  celebrated 
Desault,  and,  as  early  as  1787,  delivered 
lectures.  He  accompanied  Napoleon  on 
his  campaigns  as  chief  surgeon.  His 
Traiie  complet  d'Anatomie  (four  vols^  has 
gone  through  four  editions.  His  Th-aiti 
des  Maladies  chirurgicales  et  des  Opera- 
tions qui  Icur  conviennent  is  not  yet  fin- 
ished. He  explains  diseases  and  their 
remedies  vei-y  circumstantially.  Without 
relating  what  others  have  done,  he  de- 
scribes his  own  mode  of  treatment,  and 
the  advantages  of  it.  He  was  for  a  long 
time  fellow-laborer  with  Roux  and  Cor- 
visart  in  the  Journal  de  Medicine  Chirurgie 
et  Pharmacie.  He  also  wrote  many  sur- 
gical articles  for  the  Dictionnaire  des  Sci- 
ences medicales.  When  the  king  wished 
for  an  official  statement  of  the  circum- 
stances of  the  medical  and  surgical  col- 
leges in  the  kingdom,  in  1815,  drawn  up 
by  the  most  learned  physicians  and  sur- 
geons, B.  was  a  member  of  the  committee 
of  inquiry. 

BoTER,  Jean  Pien-e,  president  of  the 
island  of  Hayti,  was  born  at  Port  au 
Prince,  in  that  island,  about  the  year 
1780.  He  is  a  nmlatto,  although  some- 
what darker  than  most  persons  of  that 
cast.  His  father  was  a  shop-keeper  and 
tailor  of  good  repute  and  some  property 
in  the  city  of  Port  au  Prince,  and  his 
mother  a  Negi'ess  from  Congo  in  Africa, 
who  had  been  a  slave  in  the  neighbor- 
hood. He  joined  the  cause  of  the  French 
commissioners  Santhonax  and  Polverel, 
in  whose  company,  after  the  arrival  of 
the  English,  he  withdrew  to  Jacquemel. 
Here  he  attached  himself  to  Rigaud,  set 
out  with  him  for  France,  and  was  caj)- 
tured  on  his  passage  by  the  Americans, 
during  the  war  between  France  and  the 
U.  States.  After  the  conclusion  of  the 
war,  being  released,  he  resumed  his  voy- 
age to  France,  \^'here  he  remained  until 
Le  Clerc's  expedition  agauist  St.  Domin- 
go was  organized.  Like  many  other  per- 
sons of  color,  he  took  part  in  that  expedi- 
tion ;  but,  on  the  death  of  Le  Clerc,  he 
joined  Petion's  j)arty,  and  continued  at- 
tached to  that  chieftain  until  his  death. 
He  rose,  in  the  service  of  Petion,  from 
the  rank  of  his  aid  and  private  secretary 
to  be  general  of  the  arrondissement  of 
Port  au  Prince,  and  was  finally  named 
by  Petion  to  be  his  successor  in  the  pres- 
idency. Petion  died  March  29th,  1818, 
and  B.  was  immediately  installed  in  his 
office,  and  assumed  the  functions  of  gov- 
ernment. When  the  revolution  broke 
out  in  the  northern  part  of  the  island,  in 
1820,  he  was  invited  by  the  insurgents  to 


232 


BOYER— BOYLE. 


place  himself  at  their  head ;  and,  upon 
Christophe's  death,  the  north  and  south 
parts  of  the  island  were  united,  under  his 
administration,  into  one  government,  hy 
the  name  of  the  republic  of  Hayti.  In  the 
course  of  the  succeeding  year,  a  similar 
revolution  took  j)Iace  in  the  eastern  or 
Spanish  part,  the  inhabitants  of  which  vol- 
untarily placed  themselves  under  the  gov:- 
emment  of  B.,  who  thus  became,  in  the 
course  of  a  few  years,  by  mere  good  for- 
tune, and  without  any  merit  on  his  part,  un- 
disputed master  of  the  whole  island.  Had 
his  wisdom  corresponded  to  his  fortune,  he 
might,  by  fostering  the  agricultural  inter- 
ests of  the  island,  and  strengthening  its 
friendly  relations  with  the  U.  States  and 
Great  Britain,  have  accomphshed  much 
towards  establishing  the  prosperity  of  the 
republic  on  a  stable  foundation.  But  he 
is  represented  as  a  vain  and  weak  man  ; 
and,  although  more  amiable  in  his  temper 
than  Christoplie,  is  destitute  of  the  energy 
of  character  and  comprehensive  views, 
by  which  that  despot's  policy  was  direct- 
ed. The  consequence  has  been  the  grad- 
ual decline  of  the  agriculture,  commerce 
and  wealth  of  Hayti,  and,  finally,  its  total 
prostration,  by  the  absurd  arrangement 
concluded  by  B.  with  France  in  1825. 
He  foolishly  agreed  to  pay  to  France  an 
indemnity  of  150,000,000  of  francs  in  five 
equal  annual  instalments,  in  consideration 
of  which,  France  merely  recognised  the 
actual  government  of  Hayti ;  and  the  ab- 
solute inability  of  B.  to  make  good  his 
engagements  places  him  at  the  mercy 
of  France* — Franklin's  Present  State  of 
Hayti.    (See  Hayti.) 

Boyle,  Robert ;  a  celebrated  natural 
philosopher ;  bom,  at  Lismore,  in  Ireland, 
1627,  7th  son  of  Richard,  the  great  earl 
of  Cork.  In  1658,  he  went  to  Geneva, 
under  the  care  of  a  learned  French  gen- 
tleman, where  he  contimied  to  pursue  his 
studies  for  several  years.  In  1641,  he 
made  a  journey  to  Italy.  In  1642,  he  was 
left  at  Marseilles  destitute  of  money,  on 
account  of  the  breaking  out  of  the  Irish 
i-ebelhon.  This  circumstance  did  not  al- 
low him  to  return  to  England  until  1644. 
During  this  period  his  father  had  died, 
leaving  him  considerable  property.  He 
now  went  to  his  estate  at  Stallbridge, 
where  he  devoted  himself  to  the  study  of 
physics  and  chemistry.  He  was  one  of 
the  first  members  of  a  learned  society, 
founded  in  1645,  which  at  first  went  un- 
der the  name  of  the  philosophical  col- 
lege. On  account  of  the  political  dis- 
turbances, this  society  retired  to  Oxford, 
but  was  revived  after  the  restoration,  un- 


der the  name  of  the  royal  society.  B. 
occupied  himself,  at  Oxford,  in  making 
improvements  in  the  air-pump.  Like 
Bacon,  he  esteemed  observation  the  only 
road  to  truth.  He  attributed  to  matter 
merely  mechanical  properties.  Every 
year  of  liis  life  was  marked  by  new  ex- 
periments. We  are  indebted  to  him  for 
the  first  certain  knowledge  of  the  absorp- 
tion of  air  in  calcination  and  combustion, 
and  of  the  increase  of  weight  which  met- 
als gain  by  oxydation.  He  first  studied 
the  chemical  phenomena  of  the  atmos- 
])here,  and  was  thus  the  predecessor  of 
Mayow,  Hales,  Cavendish  and  Priestley. 
In  all  his  philosophical  inquiries,  he  dis- 
played an  accurate  and  methodical  mind, 
relying  Avholly  upon  experinients.  At 
the  same  time,  liis  imagination  was  warm 
and  lively,  and  inclined  to  romantic  no- 
tions, which  were  first  produced,  in  his 
childhood,  by  the  perusal  of  Amadis  of 
Gaul,  and  always  exercised  a  visible  in- 
fluence on  his  character.  He  was  natu- 
rally inclined  to  melancholy,  and  this 
temper  of  mind  was  inci'eased  by  circum- 
stances. The  sight  of  the  great  Carthu- 
sian monastery  at  Grenoble,  the  wildness 
of  the  countrj',  as  well  as  the  severe  asce- 
tic hfe  of  the  monks,  made  a  deep  im- 
pression upon  him.  The  devil,  as  he 
said,  taking  advantage  of  his  melancholy 
disposition,  filled  his  soul  wth  teiTor, 
and  with  doubts  concerning  the  funda- 
mental doctrines  of  religion.  This  situa- 
tion was  so  insufferable,  that  he  was 
tempted  to  free  himself  fi-om  it  by  com- 
mitting suicide,  and  was  only  prevented 
by  the  fear  of  hell.  While  endeavoring 
to  settle  his  faith,  he  found  those  defences 
of  the  Christian  religion,  which  had  been 
published  before  his  time,  unsatisfactory. 
In  order,  therefore,  to  read  the  original 
works,  which  are  considered  the  founda- 
tion of  Christianity,  he  studied  the  Oriental 
languages,  and  formed  connexions  with 
Pococke,  Thomas  Hyde,  Samuel  Clarke, 
Thomas  Barlow,  &c.  The  result  of  his 
studies  was  a  conviction  of  its  truth,  which 
was  manifested  not  only  by  his  theological 
writings,  but  by  his  benevolence  and 
generous  disinterestedness.  He  institut- 
ed pubUc  lectures  for  the  defence  of 
Christianity  ;  and  to  this  endowment  we 
owe  the  convincing  arguments  of  Samuel 
Clarke,  on  the  existence  of  a  God.  B. 
did  much  for  the  support  of  the  mission 
in  India,  and  caused  Irish  and  Gsehc 
translations  of  the  Bible  to  be  made  and 
printed  at  his  own  expense.  To  his  re- 
ligious principles  were  united  the  purest 
morals,  a  rare  modesty,  and  an  active  be- 


BOYLE— BRABANT. 


fm 


ne\'olence.  He  died  at  London,  in  1691, 
and  was  interred  at  Westminster  abbey. 
Birch  published  an  edition  of  liis  works 
5  vols,  folio,  London,  1744. 

BoYLSTON,  Zabdiel,  was  born  at  Brook- 
Jme,  Massachusetts,  in  1684.    He  studied 
medicine    at    Boston,  where,  in  a  few 
years,  he  rose  into  extensive  practice,  and 
accumulated  a  considerable  fortune.    In 
1721,  when  the  small-pox  broke  out  in 
Boston,  and  filled  the  whole  country  with 
alarm,  doctor  Cotton  Mather  pointed  out 
to  the  physicians  of  the  town  an  account 
of  the  practice  of  inoculation  in  the  East, 
contained  in  a  volume  of  the  Transactions 
of  the  royal  society.    This  communication 
was  received  with  great  contemjn  by  the 
whole    faculty,  wth    the    excejnion  of 
B.    Although  this  practice  was    unex- 
ampled in  America,  and  not  known  to 
liave  been  introduced  into  Europe,  he 
immediately  inoculated  liis  own  son,  a 
child  of  six  years  of  age,  and  two  servants. 
Encouraged  by  his  success,  he  began  to 
extend  his  practice.    This  innovation  was 
received  with  general  opposition.    The 
physicians  of  the  town  gave  their  unani- 
mous opinion  against  it,  and  the  select- 
men of  Boston  passed  an  ordinance  to 
prohibit  it.     But,  supported  by  the  con- 
viction of  the  utility  of  this  invention,  and 
tlie    countenance    of  several    intelligent 
clergymen,  he  persevered ;  and,  in  1721 
and  1722,    hioculated  247  ])ei"sons ;   39 
more  wei"e  inoculated  by  others,  and  of 
the  whole  number  (286),  only  six  died. 
During  the  same   period,  of  5759,  who 
liad  the  sraall-pox  the  natural  way,  844, 
nearly  one  seventh,  died.     Still,  however, 
liis  opponents  maintained  that  his  prac- 
tice  was  wilfully  spreading  contagion ; 
that,  as  the  disease  was  a  judgment  from 
God  on  the  sins  of  the  people,  all  attempts 
to  avert  it  would  but  provoke  him  the 
more ;  and  that,  as  there  was  a  time  ap- 
jjointed  to  every  man  for  death,  it  was  im- 
pious to  attempt  to  stay  or  to  avert  the 
stroke.     Religious    bigotry,    being    thus 
called  into  action,  so  exasperated  many  of 
the  ignorant  against  B.,  that  attempts  were 
threatened  against  his  life,  and  it  became 
imsafe  for  him  to  leave  his  house  after 
dusk.     Time  and  exj)orience  at  length 
came  in  to  the  aid  of  truth,  opposition 
died  away,  and  B.  had  the  satisfaction  of 
seehig  inoculation  in  general  use,  in  New 
England,  for  some  time  before  it  became 
common  in  Great  Britain.    In  1725,  he 
visited  England,  whei-e  he  received  much 
attention,  and  was  elected  a  fellow  of  the 
royal  society.    Upon  his  return,  he  con- 
tinued at  the  head  of  his  profession  for 
20* 


many  years,  but  yet  found  time  for  lite- 
rary and  philosophical  pursuits,  and  con- 
tributed several  valuable  papers  to  the 
Transactions  of  the  royal  society.    He 
died  March  1,  1766.    His  only  publica- 
tions, besides  his  communications  to  the 
royal  society,  are.  Some  Account  of  what 
is  said  of  Inoculating,  or  Transplanting 
the  Small-pox,  by  the    learned    doctor 
Emanuel  Timonius,  and  Jac.  Pylarinus, 
(a  pamphlet,  Boston,  1721),  and  An  His- 
torical Account  of  the  Small-pox  inocu- 
lated in  New  England,  &c.  (London  1726). 
BoYNE ;  a  river  of  Ireland,  running  into 
the  Irish  channel,  near  which  was  fought 
a  celebrated  battle  between  the  adherents 
of  James  II  and  William  III,  in  1690; 
the  latter  was  victorious,  and  James  was 
obliged  to  flee  to  the  continent. 
BozzARis.    (See  Oreece.) 
Brabam",  duchy  of;  in  the  kingdom 
of  the  Netherlands,  having  Holland  on 
the  north,  Liege  and  Limburg  on  the 
east,  Flaijders  on  the  west,  and  Hainault 
and  Namur  on  the  south.    North  B.  con- 
tains 252,000  inhabitants,  and  South  B. 
366,000.    B.  wjis  erected  into  a  duchy  in 
the  7th  century.    For  some  ages,  it  be- 
longed to  the  Prankish  monarchy,  and  sub- 
sequently became  a  German  fief.    At  all 
periods  in  the  history  of  the  Belgic  prov- 
inces, it  appears  to  have  been  preemi- 
nent among  the  states,  in  the  general 
assembhes  of  which  its  deputies  held  the 
fii-st  place,  and  gave  their  votes  before  the 
others.     The  last  duke,  a  descendant  of 
Charlemagne,  dying  in  1005,  the  duchy 
devolved  on  Lambert  I,  count  of  Louvain, 
his  brother-in-law.    Through  his  posteri- 
ty, it  descended  to  PhiUp  II,  duke  of 
Burgundy,  and  afl;ervvards  came,  in  the 
line  of  descent,  to  tlie  emperor  Charles  V. 
In  the  17th  centuiy,  the  republic  of  Hol- 
land took  possession  of  the  northern  part, 
which  was  thence  called  Duich  B.    The 
other  part  belonged  to  Austria,  and  was 
occupied  by  the  French  in  1746,  but  re- 
stored at  the  peace  of  Aix-la-Chapelle, 
It  was  again  occupied  by  them  ui  1797^ 
and   their  possession  confirmed   by   the 
treaties  of   Campo  Formio  (1797)  and 
liUneville  (1801).    Dutch  B.  Avas  united 
to  the  French  empire  in  1810.    Austrian 
B.,  while  under  the  dominion  of  Austria, 
bad  its  own  states,  consisting  of  2  bishops 
and  11  abbots,  with  the   barons,  and  7 
deputies,  chosen  by  the  cities  of  Bnlssels, 
Louvain  and  Antwerp.    Since  the  fonna- 
tion  of  the  kingdom  of  the  Netherlands 
in  1815,  North  B.  sends  7,  and  South  B. 
8  members  to  the  representative  assem- 
bly.   The  province  of  Antwerp,  which 


234 


BRABANT— BRADFORD. 


formerly  belonged  to  the  duchy,  sends  5. 
Much  of  the  soil,  especially  in  the  south- 
ern part,  is  fertile,  produces  large  quanti- 
ties of  grain,  and  aftbrds  excellent  jjas- 
turage.  In  the  north,  considerable  tracts 
ai-e  covered  with  nioss;,  heath  and  woods ; 
but  others  yield  large  croj)s  of  wheat, 
hops  and  flax.  There  are  manufactures 
of  cloth,  lace,  linen,  <fcc.  The  chief  riv- 
ers are  the  Donnnel,  the  Demer,  the  Dyle 
and  the  Nethe,  which,  with  the  canals, 
tacilitate  the  internal  commerce  of  the 
duchy.  In  the  northern  j)art,  the  in- 
liabitants  are  Protestants  ;  in  tlie  southern, 
chiefly  Catholic. 

BRACHMAiss.  (See  Gymnosophists.) 
Bracteates  ;  thin  coins  of  gold  or 
silver,  with  irregular  figures  on  them, 
stamped  upon  one  surface  only,  so  that 
tlie  impression  appears  raised  on  one 
side,  while  the  other  appears  hollow.  It 
seems  most  probable,  that  these  coins, 
being  circulated  m  great  quantities  under 
Otho  I,  emperor  of  Geniiany,  when  the 
working  of  the  silver  mines  of  the  Hartz 
afforded  the  most  convenient  medium  of 
exchEUige,  were  first  coined  at  that  place, 
and  spread  into  other  countries,  where 
the  Roman  money  was  not  known  or  in 
circulation.  The  original  form  of  these 
coins  was  boiTowed  from  that  of  the  By- 
zantian  gold  ones,  which,  about  that  time, 
lost  in  thickness  what  they  had  gained 
in  extension.  Allowance  was  made,  how- 
ever, for  the  greater  softness  of  the  silver. 
Gold  and  copper  bracteates  belong  only  to 
a  later  period.  The  name  hracteate  itself 
points  to  Byzantium  (according  to  Isidore, 
it  is  derived  from  fipaxth;  to  ring).  Brac- 
tea  signifies  leaf  of  gold,  or  other  metal. 
The  real  name,  at  the  time  when  they 
were  in  circulation,  was  denarius,  moneta, 
obolus,  panningus.  They  are  of  impor- 
tance as  illustrating  history.  A  very  good 
representation  of  a  rich  collection  of  iroc- 
teates  can  be  seen  in  W.  G.  Becker's 
Two  hundred  rare  Coins  of  the  Middle 
Ages  (Dresden,  1813, 4to.).  In  later  times, 
there  have  been  many  bad  imitations  of 
these  coins,  and  the  stu^  of  them  is  there- 
fore much  more  difficult. — Bradeated 
coins,  or  bracteati  nummi ;  a  term  used  to 
signify  coins  or  medals  covered  over  with 
a  thin  plate  of  some  richer  metal.  They 
are  usually  made  of  iron,  copper  or  brass, 
plated  over  and  edged  with  gold  or  silver 
leaf  Some  of  them  are  to  be  found  even 
among  the  truly  ancient  coins.  The 
French  call  them /ourrees. 

Bracton,  Henry  de,  one  of  the  earliest 
writers  on  English  law,  flourished  in  the 
13th  centiuy.    He  studied  civil  and  canon 


law  at  Oxford,  and,  about  the  year  1244, 
Henry  III  made  him  one  of  his  judges 
itinerant.  Some  writers  say,  that  he  was 
afterwards  chief  justice  of  England ;  but 
his  fame  at  present  is  derived  from  his 
legal  treatise,  entitled  De  Legibus  et  Con- 
suctudinibus  Amelia,  which  was  fii-st  print- 
ed in  1569,  foho,  but  of  which  a  more 
correct  edition  was  published  in  1640, 
4to.  It  is  possibly  to  the  unsettled  nature 
of  tlie  times,  and  the  alternate  ascendency 
of  the  crown  and  barons,  that  we  must 
attribute  his  inconsistency  with  regard  to 
the  royal  prerogative ;  in  one  place  ob- 
servmg  that  no  man  must  presume  to 
dispute  or  control  the  actions  of  the  king; 
and  in  another,  that  he  is  subordinate  to 
the  law,  and  may  be  "bridled"  by  his 
court  of  "earls  and  barons."  The  time 
of  his  death  is  unknown. 

Braddock,  Edward,  major-general, 
and  commander  of  the  British  anny  in 
tlie  exiiedition  against  the  French,  on  the 
river  Ohio,  in  1755,  arrived  in  Virginia 
in  February  of  that  year,  and,  in  the  spring, 
marched  against  fort  Du  Quesne,  now 
Pittsburg.  He  reached  the  Monongahela, 
July  8,  at  the  head  of  1200  men,  the  bag- 
gage having  been  left  behind,  under  the 
care  of  colonel  Dunbar,  to  advance  by 
slower  marches.  On  the  next  day,  he 
moved  forward  to  invest  the  fort,  and,  by 
disregarding  the  caution  of  his  provincial 
officers,  who  warned  him  of  the  danger 
of  surprise  in  an  Indian  war,  fell  into  an 
anAuscade,  by  which  he  lost  nearly  one 
half  of  his  troops,  and  received  himself  a 
mortal  wound.  All  his  officers  on  horse- 
back, except  colonel,  aftenvards  general, 
Washington,  who  acted  as  aid,  being 
killed,  the  army  retreated  precipitately, 
near  40  miles,  to  Dunbar's  camp,  where 
the  general,  who  was  conveyed  there  in 
a  tumbril,  expired. 

Bradford,  William,  an  American  law- 
yer of  eminence,  was  born  in  Philadel- 
phia, September  14th,  1755.  In  the 
spring  of  1769,  he  entered  the  college 
of  Nassau  hail,  at  Princeton,  New  Jersey, 
then  under  the  direction  of  the  late  learned 
and  pious  doctor  John  Witherspoon.  In 
1779,  he  was  admitted  to  the  bar  of  the 
supreme  court  of  Pennsylvania,  where 
his  character  soon  introduced  him  to  an 
unusual  share  of  business ;  and,  in  Au- 
gust, 1780,  only  one  year  after  he  was 
licensed  to  practise,  he  was  appointed 
attorney-general  of  the  state  of  Pennsyl- 
vania. '  August  22,  1791,  he  was  made  a 
judge  of  the  supreme  court  of  Pennsyl- 
vania. His  industry,  integrity  and  ability 
enabled  him  to  give  general  satisfaction 


BRADFORD— BRAHAM. 


335 


in  this  office.  On  tlie  attorney-general 
of  the  U.  States  being  promoted  to  the 
office  of  secretary  of  state,  B.  was  ap- 
pointed to  the  vacant  office,  Jan.  28, 1794. 
This  office  lie  held  till  his  death.  In  1793, 
he  pubhshed  an  Inquiry  how  far  the 
Punishment  of  Death  is  necessary  in 
Pennsylvania.  This  performance  justly 
gabled  him  great  credit.  His  death  was 
occasioned  by  an  attack  of  the  bilious 
fever.  He  died  August  23,  1795,  in  the 
40th  year  of  his  age. 

Bradley,  James,  a  celebrated  astrono- 
mer, was  born  at  Shirebom,  England,  in 
1692.  He  studied  theology  at  Oxford, 
and  took  orders ;  but  his  taste  for  astron- 
ozny  soon  led  him  to  change  his  course 
of  hfe.  His  uncle  instructed  him  in  the 
elements  of  mathematics,  his  own  indus- 
try did  every  thing  else,  and,  in  1721,  he 
was  appointed  professor  of  astronomy  at 
Oxford.  Six  years  after^vards,  he  made 
known  his  discoveiy  of  the  aberration  of 
light,  (q.  v.)  But,  althougli  this  discove- 
ry gave  a  greater  degree  of  accuracy  to 
astronomical  observations,  and  altliough 
the  discre})anci8sof  diffijrent  observations 
were  much  diminished,  yet  shght  differ- 
ences remained,  and  did  not  escape  his 
observation.  He  studied  them  during  18 
years  with  the  greatest  perseverance,  and 
finally  discovered  that  they  were  fully 
explained  by  the  supposition  of  an  oscil- 
lating motion  of  the  eartli's  axis,  com- 
pleted during  a  revolution  of  the  moon's 
nodes,  i.  e.,  in  18  yeare.  He  called  this 
phenomenon  the  nutation  of  the  earth's 
axis ;  and  pubUshed,  in  1748  (Philosoph. 
Trans.  No.  785),  his  account  of  the  ap- 
parent motion  of  the  fixed  stars,  with  its 
laws,  arising  from  this  phenomenon  of 
nutation.  D'Alembert  afterwards  ex- 
plained the  physical  causes  of  this  phe- 
nomenon, upon  the  principle  of  univei-sal 
attraction.  By  these  two  discoveries, 
astronomei-s  were,  for  the  first  lime, 
enabled  to  make  tables  of  the  motions  of 
the  heavenly  bodies  with  the  necessary 
accuracy.  B.  had  alreatly,  in  1726,  ex- 
plained the  method  of  obtaining  the  lon- 
gitude by  means  of  the  eclipse  of  Jupiter's 
first  satellite.  In  1741,  at  the  death  of 
doctor  Halley,  he  received  the  office  of 
astronomer  royal,  and  removed  to  the  ob- 
servatory at  Greenwich.  Here  he  spent 
the  remainder  of  his  life,  entirely  devoted 
to  his  astronomical  studies,  aiid  left  13 
volumes  folio  of  his  own  observations,  in 
manuscript.  Of  these,  the  first  volume 
was  published  by  Horesby,  1798.  The 
whole  a})pcared  under  the  title  of  Astro- 
nomicd  Obsei-vations  made  at  the  OhacT' 


vatory  at  Greenioich,  1750 — 62;  Oxford, 
1805,  2  vols,  folio.  From  this  rich  mine 
have  been  taken  thousands  of  observations 
on  the  sun,  moon  and  planets,  which, 
properly  arranged,  have  brought  our  as- 
tronomical tables  to  great  accuracy.  It 
was  from  this  that  Mayer  drew  the  ele- 
ments of  his  celebrated  tables  of  the  moon. 
In  addition  to  his  merit  as  a  man  of  sci- 
ence, B.  was  modest,  benevolent,  humane 
and  generous  in  private  life.  He  died  in 
1762';  aged  70. 

Bradshaw,  John ;  president  of  the  high 
court  of  justice  which  tried  and  condemn- 
ed Charles  I.  He  studied  law  in  Gray's 
Inn,  and  obtauied  much  chamber  prac- 
tice from  the  partisans  of  the  parliament, 
to  which  he  was  zealously  devoted. 
When  the  trial  of  the  king  was  determin- 
ed upon,  the  resolute  character  of  B. 
])ointed  him  out  for  president,  which 
office,  after  a  shght  hesitation,  he  accept- 
ed. His  de[)oitment  on  the  trial  was 
lofty  and  unbending,  in  conformity  to  the 
theory  which  rendered  the  unhappy  sove- 
reign a  criminal,  and  amenable  ;  and  every 
thing  was  done,  both  for  and  by  lum,  to 
give  weight  and  dignity  to  this  extraordi- 
iiaiy  tribunal.  He  rendered  himself  ob- 
noxious to  Cromwell,  when  the  latter 
seized  the  protectorate,  and  was  deprived 
of  the  chief  justiceship  of  Chester.  On 
the  death  of  Cromwell,  and  the  restora- 
tion of  the  long  parliament,  he  obtained  a 
seat  in  the  council,  and  was  elected  pres- 
ident. He  died  in  1659,  and,  on  his  death- 
bed, asserted  that,  if  the  king  were  to  be 
tried  and  condemned  again,  he  would  be 
tlie  fiz-st  to  agree  to  it.  He  was  mag- 
nificently buried  in  Westmmster  abbey, 
whence  his  body  was  ejected,  and  hanged 
on  a  gibbet  at  Tyburn,  with  those  of  OU- 
ver  and  Ireton,  at  the  restoration. 
Braga.  (See  Mythology,  northern.) 
Braganza  ;  one  of  the  oldest  towns  of 
Portugal.  It  was  made  a  duchy  in  1442, 
and  from  its  dukes  the  present  reigning 
familj'  of  Portugal  are  descended.  The 
town  and  surrounding  district  still  belong 
to  the  king  of  Portugal  as  duke  of  Bra- 
ganza. Lat.  41°  44'  N.;  Ion.  6°  25/  W. 
(See  Poiivgal.) 

Br  a  ham;  one  of  the  greatest  profes- 
sional singers  England  has  ever  produced. 
His  tenor  is  imrivalled  for  power,  com- 
jiass  and  flexibility.  His  compass  extends 
to  about  19  notes,  to  each  of  which  he 
knows  how  to  give  ahnost  tiny  degree  of 
strength  ;  and  h\»  falsetto,  from  D  to  A,  is 
so  entirely  within  his  control,  that  it  is 
hardly  possible,  in  the  ascent  and  descent 
of  the  scale,  to  distinguish  at  what  note 


236 


BRAHAM— BRAIN. 


the  natural  voice  begins  and  ends.  His 
intonation  may  be  called  perfect,  so  far  as 
respects  the  strength  and  quality  of  a  note, 
and  his  tone  readily  takes  the  character 
of  whatever  he  wishes  to  express.  His 
articulation  is  equally  excellent,  and  not  a 
syllable  escapes  the  hearer.  On  this  ac- 
count, be  particularly  excels  in  recitative. 
The  flexibility  of  his  organs,  and  his  rapid- 
ity of  execution,  are  incredible.  He  goes 
rapidly  through  the  whole  compass  of  his 
voice,  makes  the  boldest  leaps  from  tlje 
highest  to  the  lowest  notes,  and  makes 
chromatic  runs  with  incredible  velocity. 
The  hearer  is  never  troubled  with  the 
fear  of  his  failing ;  and  this  unlimited  pow- 
er is  used  with  extravagant  liberality.  B. 
enters  into  every  composition  with  a  glow 
of  feehng  which  gives  the  performance 
the  liveliest  coloring,  and  brings  into  full 
action  all  his  natural  powers.  Always 
enthusiastic,  his  imagination  pours  itself 
out  most  profusely  on  sentiment,  passion, 
melody,  expression  and  ornament,  i  But 
it  is  in  this  that  he  overleaps  the  bounds 
of  art,  and  often  excites  more  of  wonder 
than  pleasure,  often  dissatisfies  more  than 
he  delights,  and,  indeed,  too  often  de- 
stroys the  general  eftect.  From  this  man- 
ner of  his  arise  that  indescribably  pervert- 
ed and  constrained  tone,  tliose  sudden 
stops,  vehement  bursts,  and  immoderate 
heaping  together  of  notes,  which  injure 
the  singing ;  and  hence  also  proceeds  his 
mixture  of  the  theatrical  with  the  church 
and  concert  styles,  in  all  of  which  he  has  to 
sing  by  turns.  B.  has  had  numerous  imi- 
tators: the  whole  kingdom  resounds  with 
them ;  and  a  generation  must  pass  away 
before  the  bad  taste,  which  his  errors  have 
occasioned  in  every  corner  of  England, 
shall  be  destroyed.  Although  he  is  one 
of  the  greatest  singers  which  any  age  has 
produced,  yet  it  is  not  easy  to  find  united 
in  one  individual  such  extraordinary  pow- 
ers and  such  glaring  faults.  He  still  sings 
at  Drury  lane  theatre  with  great  applause. 
He  is  also  a  composer;  as,  for  example,  of 
the  Cabinet,  in  which  he  performs  the 
principal  part.    , 

Brahe,  Tycho  de.  (See  Tvch'}^ 
Brahilow,  Brailow,  or  Braila,  a 
strongly-foitified  Turkish  town  in  Wala- 
chia,  on  the  northern  bank  of  the  Daiuibe, 
with  30,000  inhabitants,  governed  by  a 
pacha  of  three  tails,  lies  in  a  Turkish  mil- 
itary district,  which  is  similarly  organized 
to  the  adjacent  frontier  districts  of  Austria. 
The  town  is  situated  at  the  confluence  of 
the  Sereth  and  the  Danube,  which  divides 
itself  there  into  three  arms,  embracing  a 
piece  of  neutral  territory  between  Uie 


dominions  of  the  Turks  and  the  Russians.. 
From  this  place  much  grain,  raised  in 
Walachia,  is  sent  to  Constantinojjle.  The 
fishery  of  sturgeon  in  the  Black  sea  car- 
ried on  from  B.  is  considerable.  Lon  28° 
le^E.;  lat.  45°16'N. 

BRAHMA,BRAHMiN.(SeeSra7na,jBramtn.) 

Brailow.    (See  Brahilow.) 

Brails  ;  certain  ropes  passing  through 
pulleys  on  the  mizzen-mast  (q.  v.),  and 
afterwards  fastened,  in  different  places,  on 
the  hinder  edge  of  the  sail,  in  order  to 
draw  it  up  to  the  mast,  as  occasion  re- 
(juires.  Brails  is  likewise  a  name  given 
to  all  the  ropes  employed  to  haul  up  the 
bottoms,  lower  corners  and  skirts  of  the 
great  sails  in  general.  The  operation  of 
drawing  them  together  is  called  brailing 
them  up,  or  hauling  them  up  to  the  brails. 

Brain.  The  brain  is  a  soft  substance, 
partly  reddish-gi-ay  and  partly  whitish, 
situated  in  the  skull,  penetrated  by  nu- 
merous veins,  and  invested  by  several 
membranes.  Democritus  and  Anaxago- 
ras  dissected  this  organ  almost  3000  years 
ago.  Haller,  Vicq  d'Azir,  and  other  anat- 
omists in  modern  times,  have  also  dissect- 
ed and  investigated  it  without  exhausting 
the  subject.  Between  the  skull  and  the 
substance  of  the  brain  three  membranes 
are  found.  The  outer  one  is  called  the 
dura  mater.  This  is  strong,  dense  and 
elastic.  It  invests  and  supports  the  brain. 
The  next  which  occurs  is  the  tunica 
arachnoidea.  This  is  of  a  pale  white 
color,  yet  in  some  degree  transparent, 
very  thin,  and,  in  a  healthy  state,  exhibits 
no  appearance  of  vessels.  The  mem- 
brane below  this  is  called  the  pia  vrnter. 
It  covers  the  whole  surface  of  the  brain. 
It  is  very  vascular,  and  a  great  portion  of 
the  blood  which  the  brain  receives  is 
spread  out  upon  its  surface  in  minute 
vessels.  The  brain  consists  of  two  prin- 
cipal parts,  connected  by  delicate  veins 
and  fibres.  The  larger  portion,  the  cere- 
brum, occupies,  in  men,  the  upper  part  of 
the  head,  and  is  seven  or  eight  times 
larger  than  the  other,  the  cerebellum,  lying 
behind  and  below  it.  It  re^ts  on  the 
l)oncs  which  form  the  cavities  of  the  eyes, 
the  bottom  of  the  skull  and  the  tentorium, 
and  projects  behind  over  the  cerebellum. 
On  the  whole  exterior  of  the  cerebrum 
there  are  convolutions,  resembling  the 
windings  of  the  small  intestines.  The 
external  reddish  substance  of  the  brain  is 
soft  and  vasculai-,  and  is  called  the  cortical 
substance ;  the  internal  is  white,  and  is 
called  the  medullary  substance  of  the 
brain.  This  medidla  consists  of  fibres, 
which  are  very  different  in  different  parts. 


BRAIN— BRAINERD. 


337 


The  cerehellum  lies  below  tlie  cerebrum,  in 
a  peculiar  cavity  of  the  skull.  By  exam- 
ining the  surface,  it  is  seen  to  be  divided 
into  a  right  and  left  lobe,  by  the  spinal 
marrow  lying  between,  but  connected  at 
the  top  and  bottom.  Like  the  cerebrum, 
it  is  surrounded  by  a  vascular  membrane, 
reddish-gray  on  the  outside,  and  compos- 
ed of  a  medullary  substance  within.  In 
j)ro])Ortion  to  its  size,  also,  it  has  a  more 
extensive  surface,  and  more  of  the  vascu- 
lar membrane,  than  the  cerebrum.  In  a 
horizontal  section  of  it,  we  find  parallel 
curved  portions  of  the  coi-tical  and  the 
medullary  substances  alternating  with 
each  other.  Between  the  coitical  and  the 
medullaiy  substance,  there  is  always 
found,  inthccere6eZiit7«,  athird  intenuedi- 
ate  yellow  substance.  All  the  medulla  of 
the  cerebellum  is  also  united  in  the  middle 
by  a  thick  cord.  Experience  teaches  that, 
in  the  structure  of  the  brain,  irregularities 
ai'e  far  more  unconnuon  than  in  other 
parts  of  the  human  body.  It  is  wortliy 
of  observation,  that  every  part  of  the  brain 
is  exactly  symmetrical  with  the  part  oj)po- 
site.  Even  those  which  lie  in  the  middle, 
and  are  apparently  single  (the  spinal  mar- 
row, for  instance)  consist,  in  fact,  of  two 
symmetrical  portions.  The  total  weight 
of  the  human  brain  is  estimated  at  two  or 
tln-ee  pounds.  It  is  larger  and  heavier  in 
proportion  to  the  youth  of  the  subject; 
and  in  old  age  it  becomes  specifically 
lighter.  In  delirious  affections,  it  is  some- 
times harder  and  sometimes  less  solid  and 
softer.  The  brain  is  the  organ  of  sensa- 
tion, and,  consequently,  the  material  rep- 
resentative of  tlie  soul,  and  the  noblest 
organ  of  the  body.  (See  SeiTes's  Anato- 
mii  compar6e  du  Cerveau  dans  les  quatre 
Classes  des  anitnavx  Vertebris,  &c.  (Com- 
parative Anatomy  of  the  Brain  in  the  four 
Classes  of  vertebral  Animals,  &c.);  Paris, 
1824,  with  engravings.  It  received  the 
prize  of  the  French  institute.) 

Brai.nerd,  David,  the  celebrated  mis- 
sionary, was  born  in  April,  1718,  at  Had- 
darn,  Connecticut.  From  an  early  pe- 
riod, he  was  remarkable  for  the  serious 
and  religious  turn  of  his  mind,  devo- 
tional exercises  occupying  a  considerable 
portion  of  his  time,  though,  as  he  says,  his 
piety  was  originally  proinj)ted  by  the  fear 
of  punishment,  and  not  by  the  love  of 
God.  In  173.9,  he  became  a  member 
of  Yale  college,  where  he  was  distin- 
guished for  api>lication  and  general  cor- 
rectness of  conduct ;  but  was  expelled,  in 
1742,  in  consequence  of  having  said,  in 
the  warmth  of  his  religious  zeal,  that  one 
of  the  tutors  was  as  devoid  of  grace  as  a 


chair — an  expression  which  reached  the 
cars  of  the  rector,  who  commanded  B.  to 
make  a  pubhc  confession  in  the  hall. 
Thinking  the  order  unjust  to  humble  him- 
self before  the  whole  college  for  what  he 
had  uttered  in  private  conversation,  he 
refused  to  comply,  and,  on  this  account, 
as  well  as  for  having  gone  to  the  separate 
religious  meeting  at  New  Haven,  after 
being  prohibited  to  do  so  by  the  authority 
of  the  college,  he  was  dismissed.  In  the 
spring  of  1742,  he  began  the  study  of 
divinity;  and,  at  the  end  of  July,  he  was 
licensed  to  preach,  for  which  a  thorough 
examination  had  shown  him  qualified. 
He  had  for  some  time  entertained  a  strong 
desire  of  preaching  the  gosjiel  among  the 
heathens,  which  was  gratified  by  an  ap- 
})ointment  as  missionary  to  the  Indians 
from  the  society  for  propagating  Christitin 
knowledge.  At  Kaunameek,  an  Indian 
village  of  Massachusetts,  situated  between 
Stockbridge  and  Albany,  he  commenced 
his  labors,  in  the  25th  year  of  his  age.  He 
lemaincd  there  about  12  months,  at  first 
residing  in  a  wigwam  among  the  Indians, 
but  afterwards  in  a  cabin,  which  he  con- 
structed ibr  himself,  that  he  might  be 
alone  when  not  engaged  in  his  duties  of 
preaching  and  instruction.  On  the  re- 
moval of  the  Kaunameeks  to  Stockbridge, 
he  turned  his  attention  towards  the  Dela- 
ware Indians.  In  1744,  he  was  ordained 
by  a  presbytery  at  Newark,  New  Jersey, 
and  took  up  his  habitation  near  the  forks 
of  the  Delaware,  in  Pennsylvania,  where 
he  resided  for  a  year,  during  the  coui-se 
of  which  he  made  two  visits  to  the  In- 
dians on  the  Susquehannsili  river.  His 
exertions,  however,  were  attended  with 
little  success,  until  he  went  to  the  Indians 
at  Crosweeksung,  near  Freehold,  in  New 
Jersey.  Before  the  end  of  a  year,  a  com- 
])lete  reformation  took  i)lace  in  the  lives 
of  the  savages,  78  of  whom  he  baptized 
within  that  time.  They  became  humble 
and  devout ;  and  it  was  not  unusual  for 
the  whole  congregation  to  shed  tears  and 
utter  cries  of  soiTow  and  repentance.  In 
1747,  be  went  to  Northampton,  in  Massa- 
chusetts, where  he  passed  the  short  resi- 
due of  his  life  in  the  family  of  the  cele- 
brated Jonathan  Edwards.  He  died  in 
1747,  after  great  sufferings.  B.  was  a  man 
of  vigorous  intellect  and  quick  discern- 
ment. He  was  gifted  with  a  strong  mem- 
ory, a  happy  elocjuence,  and  a  sociable 
rlisposition,  that  could  adapt  itself  with 
ease  to  the  different  capacities,  tempers 
and  circumstances  of  men,  which,  togeth- 
er with  an  intimate  knowledge  of  human 
nature,  as  well  as  of  theology  and  worldly 


S38 


BRAINERD— BRAMINS. 


science,  peculiarly  fitted  him  for  the  busi- 
ness of  instruction.  He  was  remarkably 
composed  and  resigned  during  the  ap- 
proaches of  death,  and  left  this  world  in 
the  full  liope  of  a  glorious  immortality. 
His  publications  are,  a  narrative  of  Ills 
labors  at  Kaunameek,  and  his  journal,  or 
account  of  the  rise  and  progress  of  a 
remarkable  work  of  grace  among  a  num- 
ber of  Indians  iu  New  Jersey  and  Peim- 
sylvania,  1746. 

Brainerd  ;  a  missionary  station  among 
the  Cherokee  Indians,  in  the  district  of 
Chickamaugab,  within  the  chartered  lim- 
its of  Tennessee,  near  the  boundary  hne 
of  Georgia,  on  Chickamaugab  creek,  a 
few  miles  above  its  entrance  into  the  river 
Tennessee ;  150  miles  S.  E.  of  Nashville, 
250  N.  W.  Augusta.  This  missionary 
station  was  commenced  in  1817,  and 
it  is  the  oldest  establishment  formed  by 
the  American  board  of  missions  among 
the  Cherokees.  The  property  belonging 
to  the  mission,  in  1822,  was  estimated  at 
$17,390,  and  there  are  between  30  and  40 
buildings  of  various  descriptions,  mostly 
of  logs.  The  labors  of  the  missionaries 
here  have  been  remarkably  successful  in 
imparting  to  the  Cherokees  a  knowledge 
of  the  rudiments  of  learning,  and  of  the 
arts  of  civihzed  life,  as  well  as  of  the. 
principles  and  duties  of  religion. 

Brakenbdrg,  Regner,  a  well-known 
Dutch  painter,  distinguished  for  his  rustic 
scenes,  family  pieces,  &c.,  was  born  at 
Haerlem,  in  1649.  The  time  of  his  death 
is  not  known :  it  took  place  at  Friesland. 
His  paintings  are  true  to  nature. 

Brama  ;  the  first  person  in  the  Trinitj^ 
or  Trimurti,  of  the  Hindoos,  consisting  of 
Brama,  the  creator,  Vishnu,  the  preserv- 
er or  redeemer,  and  Siva,  the  destroyer. 
He  is  represented  with  four  heads  and  as 
many  arms,  and  the  swan  is  consecrated 
to  liim.  His  name  signifies  knowledge  of 
the  laics,  in  allusion  to  his  creative  power. 
He  is  the  god  of  the  fates,  master  of  life 
and  death,  and,  by  some,  has  been  repre- 
sented as  the  supreme  eternal  power;  but 
he  is  himself  created,  and  is  merely  the 
agent  of  the  Eternal  One.  He  is  believed 
to  die,  according  to  some,  annually,  or, 
according  to  others,  after  a  longer  period, 
and  to  rise  again.  His  character  is  no 
better  than  that  of  the  Grecian  Jupiter. 
He  is  considered  as  tlie  author  of  the 
Vedas,  and  as  tlie  lawgiver  and  teacher 
of  India.  The  worship  of  B.  is  regarded 
as  the  oldest  rehgious  observance  in  that 
country.  (For  a  more  particular  account, 
Bee  Indian  Mythology.) 
Bramante  of  Urbkvo,  Francesco  Laz- 


zari,  shares  with  Brunelleschi  the  credit 
of  being  the  restorer  of  architecture.  He 
was  born  at  Castel  Duranti,  in  the,  duchy 
of  Urbuio,  in  1444.  He  applied  himself 
first  to  painting ;  but  his  passion  for  archi- 
tecture soon  gained  the  ascendency.  At 
length  he  went  to  Milan,  and  there  his 
whole  time  was  spent  at  the  cathedral. 
Pope  Alexander  VI  named  him  his  archi- 
tect, and  Julius  II  made  him  superin- 
tendent of  his  buildings.  At  the  command 
of  the  latter,  he  united  the  Belvedere  with 
tlie  palace  of  the  Vatican.  He  persuaded 
the  pope  to  order  the  church  of  St.  Peter 
to  be  torn  down,  and  another  to  be  erect- 
ed in  its  place,  which  should  not  have  its 
equal  in  the  world.  In  1513,  the  founda- 
tion of  this  edifice  was  laid,  according  to 
the  plan  of  B.  It  yet  remains  the  greatest 
production  of  modem  architecture.  B. 
died  in  1514,  without  living  to  see  this 
work  completed.  He  had  begun  the  edi- 
fice with  incredible  despatch ;  but  his  suc- 
cessoi-s,  Raphael,  Juhus  of  San  Gallo, 
Peruzzi  and  Michael  Angelo  altered  the 
original  plan,  and  left  nothing  of  B.'s 
workmanshi})  standing,  except  the  arches 
which  support  the  tower  of  the  dome. 
His  Avritings,  part  prose,  part  verse,  first 
discovered  in  1756,  were  piintcdjthe  same 
year  at  Milan. 

Bramins  ;  the  first  of  the  four  casts'of 
the  Hindoos.  They  proceeded  fi-om  the 
mouth  of  Brama,  which  is  the  seat  of 
wisdom.  They  foi-m  the  sacred  or  sacer- 
dotal cast,  and  its  members  have  luain- 
tained  a  more  absolute  and  extensive  au- 
thority than  the  priests  of  any  other  nation^ 
Their  great  prerogative  is  that  of  being 
the  sole  depositaries  and  interpreters  of 
the  Vedas  or  sacred  books.  There  are 
seven  subdivisions  of  the  Bramins,  which 
derive  their  origin  from  seven  penitents, 
personages  of  high  antiquity  and  remark- 
able purity,  who  are  said  to  have  rebuked 
the  gods  themselves  for  their  debauch- 
eries. The  great  body  of  the  Bramins 
j)ay  equal  veneration  to  the  three  parts  of 
the  mysterious  trinity,  but  some  attach 
themselves  more  particularly  to  one  per- 
son of  the  triple  godhead.  Thus  tlie 
Vishnuvites  are  distinguished  by  an  or- 
ange-colored dress,  and  the  mark  called 
nnma  on  their  foreheads.  The  devotees 
of  Siva  wear  the  lingam,  and  are  distin- 
guished from  the  former  by  their  great 
abstemiousness.  A  Bramin  should  pass 
through  four  states.  The  first  begins 
at  about  seven,  when  the  duty  of  the 
young  novice,  or  Brachmacari,  consists  in 
learning  to  read  and  write,  studying  the 
Vedas,  and  becoming  familiar  with  the 


BRAMINS— BRANDENBURG. 


239 


privileges  of  his  cast,  and  all  points  of 
corporeal  purity.  Thus  he  is  taught  his 
right  to  ask  alms,  to  be  exempted  from 
taxes,  from  cajiital  and  even  corporal  pun- 
ishment. Earthen  vessels,  belonging  to 
Bramins,  when  used  by  profane  persons, 
or  for  ceitain  purposes,  must  be  broken. 
Leather  and  skins  of  animals,  and  most 
animals  themselves,  are  impure,  and  must 
not  be  touched  by  them.  Flesh  and  eggs 
they  are  not  allowed  to  eat.  The  Bramin 
is  also  taught  to  entertain  a  horror  of  the 
defilement  of  the  soul  by  sin  ;  and  rules 
for  purification  by  ablution,  penances,  and 
vm"ious  ceremonies,  are  prescribed.  The 
second  state  begins  at  his  mamage,  when 
he  is  called  Grihastha.  Marriage  is  neces- 
sary to  his  respectabihty.  His  daily  du- 
ties become  more  numerous,  and  must  be 
more  strictly  perfomied.  Regular  ablu- 
tions, fasting,  and  many  minute  observ- 
ances, become  requisite.  The  Bramins, 
liowever,  engage  in  secular  employments, 
poUtical,  commercial,  &c.  The  third 
state  is  that  of  the  Vana-Prasthas,  or  in- 
habitants of  the  desert,  which  is  noAV,  how- 
ever, seldom  reached.  They  were  honored 
by  kings,  and  respected  even  by  the  gods. 
Retiring  to  the  forest,  green  herbs,  roots 
and  fruit  were  tlielr  food:  reading  the 
Vedas,  bathing  morning,  noon  and  even- 
ing, and  the  practice  of  the  most  rigor- 
ous penances,  were  prescribed.  "  Let  the 
Vana-Prastlia,"  says  IMenou  in  the  Insti- 
tutes, "  slide  backwards  and  forwards  on 
the  ground,  or  stand  the  whole  day  on 
tip-toe,  or  continue  rising  and  sitting 
down  alternately ;  in  the  hot  season,  let 
him  sit  exposed  to  five  fires ;  in  the  rain, 
let  him  stand  uncovered ;  in  the  cold  sea- 
son, let  him  wear  wet  garments;  then, 
having  stored  up  his  holy  fires  in  his 
mind,  let  him  live  without  external  fire, 
without  a  shelter,  wholly  silent,  and  feed- 
ing on  roots  and  fruit.  When  he  shall 
have  thus  become  void  of  fear  and  sorrow, 
and  shaken  oflf  his  body,  he  rises  to  the 
divine  essence."  The  fourth  state  is  that 
of  a  Sannyasi,  in  which  new  and  severer 
penances  are  to  be  performed.  Suppress- 
ing the  breath,  standing  on  the  head,  and 
other  such  ceremonies,  are  performed,  till 
the  devout  patient  rises  to  a  participation 
of  the  divine  nature.  The  sanctity  and 
inviolability  of  a  Bramin  are  maintained,  in 
die  eyes  of  his  countrymen,  by  the  most 
severe  penalties.  The  murder  of  one  of 
tlie  order,  robbing  him,  &c.,  are  inexpia- 
ble sins :  the  killing  of  his  cow  can  only  be 
expiated  by  a  painful  penance.  To  some 
travellers  it  appears  that  the  number  of 
Bramins  respectable  for  knowledge  and 


virtue  is  very  small ;  that  the  great  body 
of  them  are  devoted  to  ambition,  intrigue 
and  voluptuousness,  and  that  their  char- 
acter is  disgraced  by  avarice,  meanness 
and  cruelty.  Their  charity  extends  only 
to  those  of  their  own  cast.  The  objects 
of  their  worship,  besides  their  innumera- 
ble gods,  are  almost  every  species  of  ani- 
mals, and  a  variety  of  malignant  demons. 
The  transmigration  of  souls  is  one  of  their 
essential  doctinnes,  and  they  believe  in  the 
existence  of  a  hell.  Some  of  the  ceremo- 
nies of  the  Braminical  worship  are  horri- 
ble :  some  are  more  licentious  than  the  or- 
gies of  Bacchus.  The  sacrifices  conunoidy 
consist  of  vegetables,  but  animals  are  some- 
times sacrificed,  and  the  burning  of  widows 
is  a  relic  of  the  horrid  practice  of  offering 
human  victuns.  (See  Indian  Mythology.) 
Brandenburg,  mark  or  marquisate  of; 
one  of  the  most  extensive  districts  in  the 
former  circle  of  Upper  Saxony.  The  soil 
is,  in  some  parts,  fertile,  but  mostly  sandy, 
and  fit  for  grain.  It  is  rich  in  wood,  fish, 
flax,  hemp,  hops,  tobacco,  and  pastures, 
particularly  for  sheep ;  it  also  produces 
lime,  salt-petre,  turf,  and  some  iron,  &c. 
B.  carries  on  an  active  trade  in  manufac- 
tured articles,  and  is  well  situated  for 
commerce,  since  it  has  many  canals,  riv- 
ers, lakes,  and  many  to^vns  lying  on  them. 
JMost  of  the  inhabitants  profess  the  Lu- 
theran faith ;  the  rest  are  Calvinists.  From 
1685  to  1G88,  many  French  refugees, 
Walloons,  and  inhabitants  of  Lorraine 
and  of  the  Palatinate,  settled  in  the  mark. 
During  the  reign  of  Frederic  II,  prior  to 
1777,  more  than  10,000  families  took  up 
tlieir  residence  there.  The  country  is 
w  atered  by  the  Elbe,  Spree,  Havel,  Oder, 
Wartha,  Netze  and  Ucker.  The  district 
of  B.  is  divided  into  the  Electoral  Mark 
and  the  New  Mark.  I.  The  former  in- 
cludes, 1.  the  Old  Mark  (capital  Stendal); 
2.  the  Priegnitz  (capital  Perleberg);  3. 
the  Middle  Mark  (capital  Berlin)-;  4.  the 
Ucker  Mark  (capital  Prenglau).  II.  The 
New  IMark  (capital  Custrin)  receives  its 
name  from  this  circumstance,  that  the 
elector  Frederic  II  redeemed  it,  in  14.55, 
from  the  knights  of  the  Teutonic  order, 
to  whom  it  had  been  pledged  until  that 
period.  At  present,  B.  is  the  most  im- 
portant of  the  Prussian  states,  including, 
as  it  does,  the  capital  (Berlin),  and  the 
governments  of  Potsdam  and  Frankfort. 
It  contains,  upon  15,800  square  miles, 
1,3.35,160  inhabitants,  and  150  towns,  &c. 
The  first  people  who  are  known  to  have 
inhabited  B.  were  the  Suevi.  They  were 
succeeded  by  the  Sclavonians,  a  barba- 
rous people,  whom  Henry  I  conquered 


240 


BRANDENBURG— BRANDYWINE. 


aiid  converted  to  Christianity  in  the  early 
part  of  the  10th  centiiiy.  The  govern- 
ment was  first  conferred  on  a  Saxon 
count,  and  did  not  become  hereditary  till 
the  time  of  Albeit,  wliose  son  was  raised 
to  the  dignity  of  elector  in  1100.  This 
race  becoming  extinct,  Charles  IV  as- 
signed the  electorate  to  his  son  Sigis- 
niund,  who  became  emperor  in  1415,  and 
sold  the  region  to  Frederic,  bnrgrave  of 
N(iremb(jrg,  the  ancestor  of  the  present 
reigning  family.  Frederic  Williaffi  the 
Great  made  various  accessions  to  the  ter- 
ritories of  his  ancestors,  and  obliged  the 
king  of  Poland,  in  1G56,  to  declare  Prus- 
sia an  independent  state.  The  Old  Mark 
was  ceded  to  Napoleon  in  1807,  and 
formed  part  of  the  kingdom  of  Westpha- 
lia;- but  it  was  restored  to  Pnissia  in 
1814.  The  elector  of  B.  held  the  seventh 
rank  among  the  electors  of  the  empire,  and 
had  five  votes  in  the  council  of  princes. 

Brandenburg  ;  capital  of  tlie  province 
of  the  same  name  (q.  v.),  on  the  Havel,  30 
miles  west  of  Berlin,  formerly  the  resi- 
dence of  the  reigning  family  of  Prussia. 
It  contains  12,000  inhabitants. 

Brandes,  Ernest ;  a  learned  and  able 
German  scholar  and  statesman,  bom  at 
Hanover  in  1758.  Happily  endowed  by 
nature,  and  educated  under  favorable 
circumstances,  he  afterwards  extended 
his  views  by  travel,  by  his  connexion 
with  y)ublic  affairs,  by  his  intercourse 
with  the  best  society,  and  by  an  intimate 
union  with  the  greatest  scholars  in  Ger- 
many. From  1775  to  1778,  he  studied  at 
Gtittingen,  of  which  he  afterwards  be- 
came the  benefactoi",  when  the  govern- 
ment of  Hanover  appointed  him,  secretary 
of  the  cabinet,  and  intrusted  him  with  the 
chief  direction  of  the  affairs  of  the  uni- 
versity. During  a  tour  which  he  made 
through  Germany  and  France  {1780 — 81) 
his  attention  was  particulariy  drawn  to 
the  theatres  of  Paris  and  Vienna,  and  he 
gave  his  opinion  concerning  them  hi  his 
well-known  remarks  upon  tlie  theatres  of 
London,  Paris  and  Vienna.  During  his  res- 
idence in  England,  in  the  winter  of  1784, 
1785,  he  formed  many  hterary  and  politi- 
cal connexions,  besides  gaining  a  complete 
knowledge  of  the  English  constitution. 
His  journey  gave  his  mind  a  political 
turn.  After  having  been  appointed  to  fill 
a  number  of  honorable  offices,  he  was 
made  a  member  of  the  privy  council. 
When  the  French  took  possession  of 
Hanover,  in  1803,  he  was  one  of  the  del- 
egates appointed  to  treat  with  Mortier, 
and  remained  a  member  of  the  govern- 
ment, until  the  committee  of  administra- 


tion was  established  by  the  victors.  B. 
had  gained  so  much  respect,  that  his 
death,  in  1810,  was  lamented  as  a  public 
calamity.  Great  powers  of  obstrvation, 
and  an  extensive  knowledge  of  the  world, 
are  displayed  in  all  his  works 

Brandt,  Nicholas  or  Sebastian  ;  a  Ger- 
man chemist  of  the  17th  century,  usually 
considered  the  discoverer  of  phosphorus. 
Leibnitz  mentions  him  as  a'  chemist  of 
Hamburg,  who,  during  a  course  of  exper- 
iments on  urine,  for  the  purpose  of  dis- 
covering a  solvent  which  would  convert 
silver  into  gold,  accidentally  produced 
phosphorus,  in  1G67  or  10(39.  He  com- 
municated his  discovery  to  another  chem- 
ist, who  showed  it  to  Leibnitz  and  Boyle. 

Brandt,  Sebastian  (named  Titio),  born 
at  Strasburg,  in  1458,  died  tliere  in  1520. 
He  studied  law  at  Bale,  where  he  was 
graduated ;  and  delivered  lectures  on  this 
science,  for  many  years,  with  great  ap- 
j)lause.  He  was  still  more  distinguished 
for  his  poetical  talents,  and  the  emperor 
Maximilian  I  invited  him,  several  times, 
to  his  court.  He  has  immortalized  him- 
self by  a  poem  called  The  Ship  of  Fools,  or 
the  Ship  from  the  Land  of  Folly,  which 
satirizes  the  crimes  and  follies  of'^his  age, 
first  published  at  Bale,  1494,  4to.  Four 
editions  appeared  in  one  year.  It  has 
since  been  repeatedly  printed  and  trans- 
lated into  all  the  languages  of  Europe. 
In  Germany,  it  was,  for  about  a  century, 
truly  a  national  book,  so  well  known  and 
esteemed  by  all  classes,  that  the  cele- 
brated ])reacher  Geiler  of  Kaisersberg 
delivered  public  lectures  upon  it  from  the 
pulpit  at  Strasburg.  In  tliis  work,  we 
finci  a  collection  of  moral  insti'uctions, 
and  satires  upon  the  crimes,  vices  and 
abuses  common  both  in  public  and  pri- 
vate hfe.  The  book  is  divided  into  113 
chapters,  which,  however,  have  no  con- 
nexion with  each  other.  The  descrip- 
tions are  not,  in  general,  poetic,  but  still 
contain  many  hap])y  and  beautiful  pas- 
sages, often  display  learning,  and  not  sel- 
dom vigor ;  and  the  Ship  of  Fools  will 
always  be  a  valuable  book,  fiill  of  sound 
reasoning,  pure  morality,  clear  and  bold 
thoughts,  and  knowledge  of  mankind. 
It  has  been  rei)ubUshed  by  Hagen  in  his 
Fool's  Books. 

Brandt.    (See  Distillaiion.) 

Brandt  WINE,  a  small  river  Which 
rises  in  the  state  of  Pennsylvania,  passes 
iuto  the  state  of  Delaware,  and,  after  a 
course  of  about  45  miles,  joins  the  Chris- 
tiana, two  miles  below  Wilmington.  It 
abounds  in  favorable  sites  for  the  appli- 
cation of  water-power ;  and  the  Brandy- 


BRANDYWINE— BRAUWER. 


341 


wine  flour-mills  form  the  finest  collec- 
tion of  the  kind  in  the  U.  States. — This 
river  is  noted  for  giving  name  to  a  battle 
fought  near  it,  Sept.  11,  1777,  between 
the  British  and  Americans,  in  which  the 
latter  were  defeated,  with  the  loss  of 
about  300  men  killed  and  600  wounded. 

Brantome,  Pierre  de  Bourdeilles,  lord 
of  the  abbey  of,  bom  at  Perigord,  about 
1157,  died  in  1614.  In  his  epitaph,  com- 
posed by  himself,  he  relates,  in  a  vaunting 
manner,  how  he  first  bore  arms  under 
the  great  Francis  of  Guise,  and  after- 
wards served  the  king,  his  master.  After 
the  death  of  Charles  IX,  he  withdrew  to 
his  estate,  and  wTote  his  memoirs,  which 
have  a  great  deal  of  vanity  and  self- 
complacency,  mingled  with  much  that  is 
interesting.  They  are  a  living  picture  of 
his  age ;  for  B.  was  personally  acquainted 
with  all  the  great  charactei*s  of  the  time, 
and  an  eye-witness  of  all  the  important 
events  which  then  took  place,  and,  in 
some,  was  an  actor.  B.'s  character  was 
that  of  his  birth-place  (Gascony)  and  of 
his  rank.  He  was  a  courtier,  regardless 
of  right  or  wrong  ;  who  does  not  blame 
the  great,  but  observes  and  relates  their 
faults  and  crimes  as  ingenuously  as  if  he 
were  uncertain  whether  they  deserve 
praise  or  blame  ;  as  indifferent  about  hon- 
or and  chastity  in  women  as  about  integ- 
rity in  men.  He  describes  a  scandalous 
act  without  being  sensible  of  itsoffensive- 
ness.  He  speaks  of  the  good  king  Louis 
XI,  who  ordered  his  brother  to  be  poison- 
ed, and  of  the  virtuous  ladies,  whose  ad- 
ventures no  pen  but  his  own  could  de- 
scribe. He  places  us  in  the  middle  of 
that  century,  when  expiring  chivalry  was 
contending  with  the  fonning,  and,  as  yet, 
unsettled  manners  of  later  tunes.  B.,  in 
the  midst  of  his  wandering  Ufe,  had  ac- 
quired more  learning  than  most  of  his 
fellow-soldiers.  He  has  left  Vie  des 
Hommes  Ulustres  et  des  grands  Capitaines 
JPrangais ;  Vie  des  grands  Capitaines 
Ktrangers  ;  Vie  des  Dames  Ulustres  ;  Vie 
des  Dames  galantes  ;  Anecdotes  touchant 
les  Duels  ;  Rodomontades  et  Jurements  des 
Espagnols.  Twelve  editions  of  his  works 
vyere  published  fi-om  1666  to  1740,  some- 
times entire,  sometimes  in  selections. 

Brasil.    (See  Brazil.) 

Brass.    (See  Copper.) 

Brattleborough  ;  a  post-town  in 
Windham  county,  Vermont,  on  the  Con- 
necticut, 41  miles  N.  of  Northampton, 
110  S.  of  Montpelier;  population  in  1820, 
2,017.  It  is  one  of  the  most  considerable 
and  flourishing  towns  in  Vermont,  and 
contains  two  parishes,  in  each  of  which 

VOL.   II.  21 


there  is  a  handsome  village.  The  village 
in  the  west  parish  contains  an  academy  ; 
that  in  the  east  parish  has  a  large  printing 
establishment,  various  manufactures,  and 
a  flourishing  trade. — In  the  south-east 
comer  of  B.  was  fort  Dummer,  which 
was  established  in  1724,  and  was  the  first 
settlement  formed  by  Anglo-Americans 
in  Vermont. 

Brauwer,  Braur,  or  Brouwer,  Adii- 
an ;  a  celebrated  painter,  of  the  Dutch 
school,  bom  at  Haerlem,  in  1608,  or, 
more  probably,  at  Oudenarde,  where  his 
father  was  a  painter  of  common  paper- 
hangings.  Poverty  contributed,  perhaps, 
to  form  his  talents.  When  a  child,  he 
painted  flowers  and  birds  to  be  stitched 
on  caps,  which  were  sold  by  his  mother. 
Francis  Hals,  a  skilful  painter,  expecting 
to  piofit  by  the  talents  of  the  young  artist, 
took  him  to  Haerlem.  Here,  amidst 
wearisome  labors  and  poor  diet,  B.  spent 
the  greater  part  of  his  time  in  a  garret, 
occupied  in  making  little  paintings,  of  the 
A'alue  of  which  he  was  ignorant,  while 
Hals  kept  the  profits  of  them  for  himself' 
Two  pretty  paintings  of  his.  The  Five 
Se7ises  and  The  Twelve  Months,  are  men- 
tioned as  belonging  to  that  period.  By 
the  advice  of  Adrian  of  Ostade,  his  felloAv 
pupil,  he  escaped  to  Amsterdam,  where 
he  was  surprised  to  hear,  that  his  paint- 
ings were  esteemed.  He  noAV  gained 
considerable  sums  by  his  laboi-s ;  but,  in- 
stead of  devoting  himself  to  his  art,  he 
made  the  inn  his  workshop,  never  exert- 
ing himself  till  the  hostess  insisted  upon 
payment.  He  threw  into  the  fire  a  paint- 
ing for  which  he  did  not  receive  the 
price  demanded,  and  began  a  new  one 
with  more  care.  Having  gone  to  Ant- 
werp during  the  wars  of  the  Low  Coun- 
tries, he  was  thrown  into  prison  as  a  spy. 
He  declared  that  he  was  a  painter,  ap- 
pealing to  tlie  duke  of  Ahremberg,  who 
was  likewise  imprisoned  there ;  and,  at 
the  prince's  intercession,  having  been 
provided  with  materials,  he  painted  his 
guards  engaged  in  playing  cards,  with  so 
much  expression  and  truth,  that  Rubens, 
at  the  sight  of  the  picture,  exclaimed, 
"  This  is  B.'s  work ;  none  but  he  can 
succeed  so  well  in  such  subjects."  Ru- 
bens effected  his  release  by  standing 
bail  for  him,  clothed  him,  and  received 
him  into  his  house  and  at  his  table. 
B.,  however,  instead  of  being  grateful 
for  this  generosity,  escaped  secretly,  to 
plunge  into  still  greater  extravagan- 
ces. He  took  lodgings  with  a  baker, 
Craesbeke,  who  became  a  skilful  painter 
by  his  instructions.    This  man,  whose 


243 


BRAIJWER— BRAY. 


inclinations  agi-eed  with  tliose  of  B.,  had 
a  handsome  wife,  and  the  connexion 
between  these  three  persons  became  so 
intimate,  tliat  they  were  obliged  to  iiee 
from  justice.  B.  went  to  Paris,  but,  find- 
ing no  employment  there,  returned  to 
Antwerp,  where  he  died  in  the  hosjiital, 
in  1640.  Rubens,  who  remembered  only 
his  talents,  caused  him  to  be  honorably 
buried  in  the  church  of  the  Carmelites. 
All  the  pictures  of  B.  show  what  sort  of 
places  and  company  tliis  artist  Irequented. 
He  did  not,  however,  like  Teniers,  under- 
stand how  to  give  to  mean  objects  the 
vaiiety  of  which  they  are  suscejrtible. 
Nevertheless,  his  paintings  command  high 
prices  from  amateurs.  It  would,  indeed, 
be  difficult  to  excel  B.  in  power  and  har- 
mony of  coloring,  in  the  management  of 
the  chiaro-oseu.ro,  and  in  truth  of  expres- 
sion. 

Bravo,  Nicholas,  one  of  the  most  prom- 
inent leaders  in  the  Mexican  revolution, 
was  a  native  of  New  Sjjain,  and  son  of 
don  Leonardo  Bravo.  He  became  iden- 
tified with  the  })atriot  party  at  an  early 
period  of  their  struggle  for  independence, 
and  adhered  to  it  through  all  their  vicissi- 
tudes of  fortune.  After  the  fatal  termina- 
tion of  Hidalgo's  cai-eer,  B.  made  common 
cause  with  Morelos,  commanding  a  di- 
vision of  the  latter's  army  in  1812,  at 
which  period  he  was  particularly  distin- 
guished, among  other  achievements,  by  a 
victory  over  the  Spanish  general  Musitu. 
When  Iturbide's  deception  of  the  royal- 
ists gave  him  the  means  of  promoting  the 
revolution,  in  1821,  B.  was  one  of  the  fii"st 
to  take  advantage  of  circimistances,  and 
to  raise  anew  the  standard  of  revolt,  un- 
deten-ed  by  past  misfortunes.  Iturbide 
endeavored  in  vain  to  acquire  the  confi- 
dence of  B.,  Avho,  like  Victoria,  suspected 
his  ambitious  purposes  long  before  he 
suffered  them  openly  to  appear.  Victoria 
and  B.  steadily  oppot^ed  the  projects  of 
the  usurper,  and,  at  length,  became  so  far 
committed  in  their  opposition  as  to  be 
arrested  and  imprisoned  by  him,  whilst 
president  of  the  executive  junta.  They 
were  subsequently  released,  and  B.  took 
arms  against  the  emperor  at  the  earliest 
opportunity. — Upon  the  estabhshment  of 
a  provisional  republican  government  in 
1823,  subsequently  to  the  fall  of  Iturbide, 
the  executive  consisted  of  generals  Vic- 
toria, B.  and  Negrete.  During  the  dis- 
cussions relative  to  the  fonnation  of  a 
constitution,  B.  maintained  tlie  necessity 
of  a  central  system,  like  that  of  Colombia, 
in  opposition  to  the  federal  party,  which 
finally  prevailed  in  organizing  the  gov- 


ernment in  imitation  of  that  of  the  U. 
States.  The  new  constitution  was  sol- 
einnly  sworn  to  in  the  capital,  Feb.  3, 
1824;  and,  in  the  ensuing  elections,  B., 
being  unsuccessful  in  the  contest  for  the 
presidency,  was  chosen  vice-president ; 
and,  from  tliat  })eriod,  has  been  regarded 
as  the  leader  of  the  opposition  party  in 
Mexico. — During  the  year  1827,  it  is  well 
known,  the  struggle  between  the  party  in 
favor  of  the  present  constitution,  and  the 
]jarty  opposed  to  it,  daily  increased  in 
violence  and  bitterness,  the  fonner  being 
distinguished  by  the  party  name  of  York- 
inos,  the  latter  by  that  of  Escoceses,  from 
the  difterent  masonic  rites  which  they 
uphold.  Although  the  latter  party  in- 
cluded the  Spaniards  and  other  enemies 
of  the  republic,  it  was  hoped  that  B.'s 
love  of  his  country  and  weight  of  char- 
acter would  prevent  his  countenancing 
any  design  of  theirs  inimical  to  the  lil)er- 
ties  of  Mexico.  But,  Dec.  23,  1827,  lieu- 
tenant-colonel Manuel  Montano  raised  the 
standard  of  reliellion  at  Otumba,  and  the 
government  immediately  despatched  a 
strong  body  of  troops,  under  general 
Guerrero,  to  disperse  the  insurgents.  A 
few  days  aflcr  he  marched,  several  ofii- 
cers,  known  to  be  violent  Escoceses,  clan- 
destinely lefl  Mexico,  and  joined  Montano ; 
and,  at  length,  the  vice-president,  B.,  fol- 
lowed them.  Their  whole  force,  at  this 
time,  did  not  exceed  150  men.  They 
proceeded  to  Tulanciugo,  immediately  on 
li.'s  joining  them,  where  they  fortified 
themselves ;  but,  after  a  feeble  resistiuice, 
were  compelled  to  surrender.  B.,  and  25 
other  officei-s,  were  taken  prisoners,  and 
thus  terminated  this  desperate  attempt. 
B.'s  great  merits  in  the  cause  of  indepen- 
dence secured  to  him  the  lenity  of  the 
government;  and  he  was  merely  sen- 
tenced to  seven  years'  banishment  from 
the  republic.  No  authentic  account  has 
yet  transpired  of  B.'s  motives  and  partic- 
ular inducements  in  taking  this  step  ;  and, 
in  the  absence  of  such  evidence,  it  is  dif- 
ficult to  believe  that  a  man  of  his  tried 
patriotism  can  have  dreamed  of  restoring 
the  Spanish  authority*  in  Mexico.  (See 
Ward's  Mexico,  &c.) 

Bravura  Air  ;  an  air  so  composed  as 
to  enable  the  singer  to  show  his  skill  in 
execution  by  the  addition  of  embellish- 
ments, striking  cadences,  &c.  It  is  some- 
times used  for  the  style  of  execution. 

Brat  ;  a  small  village  in  the  county  of 
Berks.  The  church  is  a  vicarage  in  the 
gift  of  the  bishop  of  Oxford.  The  vicar 
of  Bray  lived  in  the  reigns  of  Henry  VIII, 
Edward  VI,  Mary  and  Elizabeth,  and 


BRAY— BRAZIL. 


343 


was  first  a  Papist,  then  a  Protestant,  then 
a  Papist,  and  finally  a  Protestant  again. 
Being  accused  of  inconstancy,  "  It  is  not 
80,"  he  replied ;  "  for  I  always  keep  to  my 
principle,  which  is  this — to  live  and  die 
vicar  of  Bray."  A  well  known  song  is 
founded  on  this  incident. 

Bray,  FranQois  Gabriel,  count  de  ;  in 
1809,  Bavarian  ambassador  at  St.  Peters- 
burg ;  since  1820,  at  Paris ;  was  bom  in 
Normandy,  where  his  father  belonged  to 
the  nobility  of  the  province ;  assisted,  as 
knight  of  St.  John  of  Malta,  in  a  bloody 
attack  upon  Algiers.  He  prepared  him- 
self for  the  diplomatic  career  at  Itatisbon, 
where,  prenous  to  the  overthrow  of  the 
German  empire,  French  diplomatists  ^vere 
))red  for  the  courts  of  Northern  Euro|)e. 
In  the  revolution,  he  entered  the  Bavari- 
an service,  and,  while  ambassador  at  St. 
Petersburg,  wrote  his  able  work,  Essai 
Critique  sur  VHistoire  de  la  LAvonie,  suivi 
dhin  Tableau  de  Vi^tat  actuel  de  cette  Pro- 
vince (1817,  Dorpat,  3  vols.) 

Brazil  ;  a  country  of  vast.extent,  and 
one  of  the  richest  regions  of  the  earth, 
comprising  the  eastern  and  central  parts 
of  South  America ;  bounded  N.  by  Colom- 
bia, Guiana,  and  the  Atlantic  ocean,  E. 
and  S.  E.  by  the  Atlantic  ocean,  and  W. 
by  Buenos  Ayres,  or  the  United  Provinces 
of  La  Plata,  Bolivia  and  Peru. — The  fol- 
lowing table  exhibits  the  population  of  the 
several  capUanias,  or  provinces,  as  stated 
by  Mr.  Brackenridge,  who  visited  South 
America  in  the  years  1817  and  1818. 

Provinces.  Pop.  ClUtf  Toicns. 

Pernambuco . , .  550,000 . . .  Pernambuco. 

Bahia 500,000 ...  St.  Salvador. 

Minas  Geraes . .  380,000 . . .  Villa  Rica. 
Rio  Janeiro  . . .  400,000 . . .  Rio  Janeiro. 

St.  Paul 300,000 ...  St.  Paul. 

Rio  Grande  . . .  250,000 . . .  Portalagre. 
Maranham  ....  200,000 ...  St.  Luis. 

Para 150,000 . . .  Para. 

Matto  Grosso  . .  100,000 . . .  Cuvaba. 
Goyas 170,000  . . .  Villa  Boa. 


Total,  3,000,000 

In  1826,  the  countrj'  was  divided  anew, 
so  as  to  constitute  nineteen  provinces. 
Of  the  population,  as  stated  by  Mr.  Brack- 
enridge, 1,000,000  are  supposed  to  be  of 
European  origin  or  descent,  1,200,000 
Negroes,  and  800,000  sulxlued  Indi- 
ans; the  unsubdued  Indians  not  being 
included.  A  later  estimate  makes  the 
number  of  Negro  slaves,  ]  ,800,000.  IMalte- 
Brun  estimates  the  population  of  B.  at 
3,800,000;  Hassel  and  Humboldt,  at 
4,000,000. — The  principal  rivers  are  the 


Amazon,  Madeira,  Topayas,  Xingu,  To- 
cantins,  Negro,  St.  Francisco,  Paraguay, 
Parana,  and  Uraguay. — There  is  scarcely 
to  be  found  on  the  globe  a  finer  coun- 
try than  B. ;  one  blessed  with  a  more 
genial  chmate,  or  a  more  fertile  soil ; 
more  happily  diversified  with  wood  and 
water,  or  with  abundance  of  navigable 
rivers;  or  more  famed  for  its  precious 
produce  of  gold  and  diamonds.  It  com- 
prises within  its  limits  nearly  all  the  most 
valued  productions  of  the  earth.  Viewed 
from  the  sea,  the  country  appeai-s  rugged 
and  mountainous ;  but,  on  a  nearer  ap-r 
preach,  its  ajjpearance  is  highly  romantic 
and  picturesque,  clothed  as  it  is  with  the 
most  luxuriant  vegetation,  its  hills  cov- 
ered with  thick  woods,  and  its  valleys 
with  a  verdure  which  never  fades.  To- 
wards the  interior,  the  land  rises,  by  gentle 
gradations,  to  the  height  of  from  3  to 
t5,000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea; 
and,  in  these  temperate  regions,  European 
fruits  and  grain  are  raised  in  abundance, 
while  the  intermediate  valleys  are  ex^ 
tremely  favorable  to  the  production  of 
sugar,  coflTee,  and  all  kinds  of  tropical 
produce.  A  large  part  of  the  interior  is 
overspread  with  an  impenetrable  forest, 
the  trees  being  closely  interwoven  with 
brushwood  and  shrubs,  and  covered  with 
creeping  plants,  adorned  with  beautiful 
flowers,  thus  giving  a  peculiar  and  ricK 
appearance  to  the  scenery.  The  forests 
abound  in  a  great  variety  of  useful  and 
beautiful  wood,  adapted  for  dyeing,  cab- 
inet-work and  ship-building.  They  con- 
tain numerous  wild  animals.  The  cli- 
mate, in  the  neighborhood  of  the  Amazon 
and  in  the  northern  parts,  is  hot,  but 
tempered  by  the  humidity  of  the  air ;  in 
the  southern  parts,  it  is  temperate,  and 
generally  healthy. — B.  has  been  long  cel- 
ebrated for  gold  and  diamonds,  which 
abound  in  the  higher  regions  of  the  in- 
terior, and  are  chiefly  found  in  the  beds 
of  the  mountain  torrents,  where  the  stream 
is  most  rapid.  Most  of  the  streams  that 
rise  from  the  chain  of  mountains  which 
extend  through  the  province  of  Minas  Ge- 
raes are  rich,  especially  near  tlieir  sources, 
in  gold  and  diamonds.  The  towns  of  St. 
Paul,*  Villa  Rica,  Cuyaba,  and  others  in 
the  interior,  have  grown  out  of  mining 
establishments.  Tejuco  is  the  chief  town 
of  the  principal  diamond  district. — Brazil 
was  discovered  by  Pedro  Alvarez  Cabral. 
Emanuel,  king  of  Portugal,  had  equipped 
a  squadron  for  a  voyage  to  the  East  In- 
dies, under  the  command  of  Cabral.  The 
admiral,  quitting  Lisbon,  March  9,  1500, 
fell  in  accidentally,   April  24,  with  the 


344 


BRAZIL. 


continent  of  Soutli  America,  Avhich  lie  at 
fii-st  supposed  to  be  a  large  island  on  the 
coast  of  Africa.  In  this  conjecture  he 
was  soon  undeceived,  when  the  natives 
came  in  sight.  Having  discovered  a  good 
harbor,  he  anchored  liis  vessels,  and  called 
the  bay  Puerto  Seguro.  On  the  next  day, 
he  landed  with  a  body  of  troops,  and,  hav- 
ing erected  the  cross,  took  possession  of 
the  country  in  the  name  of  his  sovereign, 
and  called  it  Santa  Cruz ;  but  the  name 
was  afterwards  altered  by  king  Emaimel 
to  that  of  Brazil,  from  the  red- wood  which 
the  country  produces. — The  Portuguese 
entertained,  for  some  time,  no  very  fa- 
vorable opinion  of  the  countrj ,  not  hav- 
ing been  able  to  find  there  either  gold  or 
silver ;  and,  accordingly,  they  sent  thither 
none  but  convicts,  and  women  of  aban- 
doned character.  Two  ships  were  annu- 
ally sent  fi'om  Portugal,  to  carry  to  the 
new  world  the  refuse  of  the  human  race, 
and  to  receive  from  thence  cargoes  of 
pari-ots  and  dye-woods.  Ginger  was  af- 
terwards added,  but,  in  a  short  time,  pro- 
hibited, lest  the  cultivation  of  it  might 
interfere  with  the  sale  of  the  same  article 
from  India.  In  1548,  the  Jews  of  Por- 
tugal, being  banished  to  B.,  procured 
sugar-canes  from  Madeira,  and  began  the 
cultivation  of  that  article.  The  coiut  of 
Lisbon  began  to  perceive  that  a  colony 
might  be  beneficial  without  producing 
gold  or  silver,  and  sent  over  a  governor 
to  regulate  and  superintend  it.  This  was 
Thomas  de  Souza,  a  wise  and  able  man. 
De  Souza  found  it  very  difficult  to  suc- 
ceed in  induchig  the  natives  to  fix  on 
settled  habitations,  and  to  submit  to  the 
Portuguese  government.  Dissatisfaction 
ensued,  which  at  length  terminated  in 
war.  De  Souza  did  not  bring  with  him  a 
sufficient  number  of  men  to  conclude 
hostilities  speedily.  By  building  St.  Sal- 
vador, in  1549,  at  the  bay  of  All  Saints, 
he  established  a  central  and  rallying  point 
for  the  colony ;  but  the  gi*eat  object  of  re- 
ducing the  Indians  to  submission  was 
effected  by  the  Jesuits,  who  gained  their 
affections  by  presents  and  acts  of  kind- 
ness.— The  increasing  prosperity  of  B., 
Avhich  became  visible  to  Europe  at  the 
beginning  of  the  17th  century,  excited 
the  envy  of  the  French,  Spaniards  and 
Dutch,  successively.  The  latter,  howev- 
er, were  the  principal  enemies  with  whom 
the  Portuguese  had  to  contend  for  the 
dominion  of  B.  Their  admiral,  Willekens, 
in  1694,  took  possession  of  the  country 
in  the  name  of  the  United  Provinces. 
Having  plundered  the  people  of  St,  Sal- 
vador, he  returned  to  Europe,  leaving  a 


strong  garrison.  The  Spaniards  next 
sent  out  a  formidable  fleet,  laid  siege  to 
St.  Salvador,  and  compelled  the  Dutch 
to  surrender.  When  the  affaii-s  of  the 
Dutch  assumed  a  more  favorable  aspect 
at  home,  they  despatched  admiral  Hen- 
ry Louk,  in  the  beginning  of  1630,  to  at- 
tempt the  entire  conquest  of  B.  He  suc- 
ceeded in  reducing  Peniambuco,  and,  on 
his  return  to  Europe,  left  behind  him 
troojis  which  reduced,  in  163.3,  1634  and 
1635,  the  provinces  of  Temeraea,  Parai- 
ba  and  Rio  Grande.  These,  as  well  as 
Pernambuco,  funiished  yearly  a  large 
quantity  of  sugar,  a  great  deal  of  wood 
for  dyeing,  and  other  commodities.  The 
Dutch  now  determined  to  conquer  all  B., 
and  intrusted  Maurice  of  Nassau  with 
the  direction  of  the  enterprise.  This  dis- 
tinguished officer  reached  the  ])lace  of  his 
destination  in  the  beginning  of  1637,  and 
subjected  Seara,  Seregippe,  and  the  greater 
part  of  Bahia.  Seven  of  the  fifteen  prov- 
uices  which  composed  the  colony  had 
already  suljmitted  to  them,  when  they 
were  suddenly  checked  by  the  revolu- 
tion, which  removed  Philip  IV  from  the 
throne  of  Portugal,  and  gave  to  the  Portu- 
guese independence,  and  a  native  sove- 
reign. The  Dutch,  then,  as  enemies 
of  Ihe  Spaniards,  became  friends  to  the 
Portuguese,  and  the  latter  confirmed  the 
title  of  the  Dutch  to  the  seven  provinces, 
of  which  they  were  in  possession.  This 
division  gave  rise  to  the  name  of  the  Bra- 
zils, in  i)lace  of  the  former  appellation. 
The  Dutch  government  soon  began  to 
oppress  the  Portuguese  colonists,  who, 
after  an  obstinate  contest,  drove  them  out 
of  several  of  the  provinces.  Finding  they 
were  not  able  to  retain  possession  of  the 
country,  the  Dutch  ceded  all  their  interest 
to  the  Portuguese  for  a  pecuniary  com- 
pensation. The  dominion  of  Portugal 
was  now  extended  over  all  B.,  which, 
during  the  18th  centurj',  remained  in  the 
peaceful  possession  of  the  Portuguese. 
— The  value  of  B.  to  Portugal  has  been  on 
the  increase  since  the  discovery  of  the 
gold  mines,  in  1698,  and  the  discovery  of 
the  diamond  mines,  in  1782.  Up  to  the 
year  1810,  B,  had  sent  to  Portugal  14,280 
cwt,  of  gold,  and  2100  pounds  of  dia- 
monds, which  foreign  countries,  and  es- 
pecially Great  Britain,  at  last  succeeded 
in  purchasing,  at  the  Lisbon  market. 
Rio  Janeiro  now  became  the  mart  for  the 
proceeds  of  the  Brazilian  mines  and  native 
productions.  But  the  administration  was 
any  thing  but  adapted  to  promote  the 
prosperity  of  the  countrj\  The  attention 
of  the  goVennnent  was  turned  almost  ex- 


BRAZIL. 


245 


clusively  to  the  gold  washings,  aiid  to  the 
working  of  the  diamond  mines ;  and  the 
pohcy  of  the  administration  consisted  in 
the  exaction  of  taxes  and  duties,  which 
were  collected  from  the  fortified  ports, 
to  which  trade  was  solely  confined. 
Foreigners  were  excluded,  or  jealously 
watched,  and  trade  was  pai'alysed  by  nu- 
merous restrictions.  In  the  interior,  the 
lands  situated  on  the  great  rivers,  aft;er 
being  surveyed,  were  frequently  pre- 
sented, after  tlie  year  1640,  by  the  kings 
of  the  house  of  Braganza,  to  tlie  younger 
sons  of  the  Portuguese  nobihty,  whom  the 
system  of  entails  excluded  from  the  pnos- 
pect  of  inheritance.  These  grantees  en- 
listed adventurers,  purchased  Negi'o  slaves 
by  thousands,  and  subjected  the  original 
inhal)itants,  or  drove  them  from  their  dis- 
tricts, and  ruled  their  dominions  with  al- 
most unlimited  sway.  The  missions  of 
the  Jesuits  also  received  similar  dona- 
tions from  the  kings.  They  oz-gauized  a 
brave  militia  from  the  converted  savages 
and  their  descendants,  and  bore  the  sword 
and  the  cross  farther  and  farther  into  the 
interior.  Ecjually  independent  with  the 
secular  lords  of  the  soil,  they  miited  the 
converted  savages  in  villages  and  parishes 
along  tlie  rivei-s.  The  celebrated  Jesuit 
Vieyra  introduced  the  cultivation  of 
apices,  in  which  Holland  alone  had  hith- 
erto traded.  As  these  Brazilian  proprie- 
tors defrayed,  from  their  own  means,  the 
above-mentioned  indemnifications  made 
to  the  Dutch,  tlie  Portuguese  govern- 
ment, in  return,  confirmed  and  enlarged 
all  the  privileges  of  the  ancient  planters, 
extending  them  to  the  present  and  future 
possessions  of  these  noble  families.  But, 
in  the  end,  the  government  multiplied  its 
own  monopoUes,  and  assumed  preroga- 
tives uitei-fering  with  the  interests  of  the 
ancient  and  rich  landlords.  Even  from 
1808  to  1821,  as  long  as  the  court  resided 
in  Rio  Janeiro,  the  Portuguese  by  birth 
continued  to  have  the  preference,  in  the 
high  oftices  of  state,  before  the  chief  na- 
tive families;  and  the  system  of  taxing 
the  productions  of  B.,  and  the  importa- 
tion of  articles  needed  by  the  Brazilian 
nobility  for  themselves  and  slaves,  was 
even  extended.  The  government  final- 
ly placed  obstacles  in  the  way  of  in- 
creasing the  number  of  the  latter,  which 
the  rich  landlords  deemed  indispensable 
for  the  estabUshment  of  new  j)lantations. 
The  vassals,  moreover,  always  had  a 
stumbling-block  in  their  way  in  the  fiscal 
prerogative  of  the  court,  that  the  land 
which  the  VEissal  called  his  own,  but 
which  he  had  hitherto  neglected  to  search 
31* 


for  gold,  or  for  diamonds,  in  case  of  any 
future  discovery  of  such  treasures,  should 
be  the  property  of  the  crown,  or,  at  least, 
the  object  of  high  taxation.  In  the  grants 
of  the  ancient  plantations,  the  crown  had 
not  indeed  provided  for  such  a  contin- 
gency, and  had  reserved  no  such  rights. 
Even  the  humanity  of  the  government, 
in  attempting  to  amehorate  by  laws  the 
condition  of  the  slaves,  was  a  subject  of 
offence,  because  it  appeared  to  the  lords 
to  be  an  injury  to  their  legal  property  to 
proceed  in  such  a  matter  without  theu' 
consent.  Out  of  Rio  Janeiro,  in  the  more 
northerly  and  more  fertile  section,  the 
number  of  young  merchants  in  the  large 
maritime  cities  and  their  vicinity  was 
greatly  increased  by  emigrations  from 
states  where  more  freedom  of  thought 
was  enjoyed  than  hi  B.  Many  came 
even  from  Germany.  These  adventurers, 
bent  on  gain,  naturally  felt  burthened  by 
the  heavy  system  of  taxation,  and  by  the 
monopolies  of  the  crown.  They  carried 
on  the  smuggling  trade  to  such  a  degree, 
that  they  lived,  in  fact,  in  open  war  with 
the  government.  In  addition  to  these 
malcontents,  there  were  many  disbanded 
soldiers,  who  had  embarked  from  Portu- 
gal, in  the  hope  of  being  rewarded  by  the 
court  for  their  sei-vices,  but,  from  the  pov- 
erty of  the  finances,  found  that  they  could 
obtain  nothing  but  land,  which  was  of  no 
value  to  these  waniors.  Moreover,  many 
Europeans  emigrated  to  Bahia  and  Per- 
nambuco,  who,  though  destitute,  were  not 
altogether  uninfonned,  and  who  desired 
to  make  their  fortune  there,  some  way  or 
other.  The  lower  class  of  the  native 
clergj^  too,  were  very  much  dissatisfied, 
because,  even  while  the  court  resided 
in  B.,  Portuguese  noblemen  received 
the  most  important  ecclesiastical  offices. 
Without  ascribing  to  the  Brazilians  any 
democratic  propensities,  all  these  circum- 
stances must  have  awakened  the  desire 
of  independence  in  their  breasts,  as  much 
as  it  augmented  their  hatred  of  the  Por- 
tuguese. From  these  two  causes,  a  con- 
flict of  parties  of  several  years'  duration 
has  lately  taken  place,  the  result  of  which 
is  the  new  empire. — The  removal  of  the 
Portuguese  goveniment  to  B.,  Jan.  19, 
1808),  when  the  royal  family  landed  in 
Bahia,  whence  it  transferred  its  residence 
to  Rio  Janeiro  in  March,  till  the  depar- 
ture of  king  John  VI  to  Lisbon,  April 
26,  1821),  was  the  commencement  of 
the  prosperity  of  B.  As  early  as  Jan. 
28, 1808,  all  the  ports  of  B.  were  open- 
ed for  the  unconditional  entrance  of 
all  friendly  and  neutral  vessels,  and  for 


246 


BRAZIL. 


the  exportation  of  Brazilian  productions, 
under  certain  duties,  Avith  the  sole  excep- 
tioii^  of  Brazil  wood.  B.  now  entered, 
also,  into  an  immediate  connexion  with 
Germany,  which  had  an  equally  bene- 
ticial  influence  on  its  agriculture,  intellect- 
ual improvement  and  commerce.  The 
treaty  of  alliance  and  commerce  conclud- 
ed with  England  at  Rio  Janeiro,  Feb. 
19,  1810,  permitted  the  British  even  to 
build  and  repair  vessels  of  war  in  the  har- 
bors of  B. ;  and  the  then  prince-regent 
of  Portugal  promised  never  to  introduce 
the  inquisition  into  B.,  and  to  co-operate 
in  earnest  to  effect  the  abolition  of  the 
slave-trade,  excepting  such  as  was  carried 
on  in  the  Portuguese  possessions  in  Af- 
rica. The  decree  of  Nov.  18,  1814, 
next  allowed  all  nations  free  intercourse 
with  B.  In  1815,  the  prince-regent 
promised  B.  independence  and  equal 
privileges  with  Portugal.  Dec.  16,  1815, 
he  made  it  a  monarchy.  Fuially,  by  the 
marriage  of  the  crown-prince  (now  em- 
j)eror)  of  B.,  don  Pedro,  with  the  arch- 
duchess Leopold  ine,  daughter  of  Francis 
I.  of  Austria,  Nov.  6,  1817,  Gennany 
was  in  various  ways  brought  into  contact 
with  B.  The  government  in  Rio  Janeiro 
now  allowed  the  free  prosecution  of 
natural  researches.  Thus  Mawe,  an  Eng- 
lishman, was  pennitted  to  examine  tlie 
diamond  mines ;  the  chevalier  Eschwege, 
afterwards  overseer  of  the  cabinet  of  min- 
erals in  Rio,  was  enabled  to  examine  the 
mountains  of  Minas  Geraes  at  Villa  Rica ; 
and  the  latest  work  on  B.,  by  Martins  and 
Spix,  contains  similar  evidence  how  zeal- 
ous even  a  royal  minister,  Conde  da 
Barca,  is  in  promoting  scientific  investi- 
gations. As  B.,  by  reason  of  its  soil  and 
chmate,  may  become  the  chief  mart  of  all 
colonial  commodities,  the  government 
has  encouraged,  since  1809,  the  settle- 
ment of  strangers,  and  has  granted  to 
foreigners,  at  a  small  price,  large  tracts  of 
land  [cisTnarias),  of  a  leagiie  (22,500  feet) 
in  breadth,  and  three  leagues  in  length, 
for  the  cultivation  of  sugar,  coflTee,  cotton, 
&c.,  as  well  as  wheat,  rice  and  maize, 
which  afford  here  annually  two  crops, 
Swiss  and  Germans  (such  as  Freyreiss, 
the  baron  Busche,  and  Paycke  of  Ham- 
burg) have  therefore  founded  large  set- 
tlements here.  According  to  Langsdorf, 
who  published  Observations  on  Brazil,  at 
Heidelburg,  1821,  Welsh  com  generally 
yields  in  B.  130  fold,  and  rice  80  fold. 
The  coffee-tree,  which,  in  the  West  Indies, 
yields  annually,  on  an  average,  li  pounds 
of  coffee,  in  B.,  yields  at  least  2  or  3, 
and  not  unfrequently  5  or  6  poimds. 


But  the  want  of  industry,  at  that  time, 
rendered  the  means  of  living  in  the  capi- 
tal and  neighborhood  extremely  dear, 
while  the  total  absence  of  highways,  and 
other  means  of  facilitating  transportation, 
deprived  the  products  of  the  interior  of 
almost  all  their  value.  Without  a  con- 
siderable capital,  no  foreigner  can  culti- 
vate the  land  bestowed  on  him,  and  B,  is 
as  yet  far  removed  from  that  equality  of 
rights,  which  secures  to  each  one  the  full 
use  of  his  means,  as  well  as  from  that 
toleration,  which  affords  protection  and 
freedom  of  conscience  to  every  creed. 
The  royal  decree  of  March  16,  1820, 
which  encourages  the  settlement  of 
foreigners,  by  an  exemption  from  taxes 
for  four  yeai-s,  will  never,  therefore,  while 
these  impedunents  exist,  produce  the  re- 
sults which  have  followed  the  coloniza- 
tion of  North  America — a  country,  in  other 
respects,  less  inviting.  The  foreign  rela- 
tions of  B.,  of  late  years,  have  not  been 
altogether  of  a  peaceful  nature.  After 
the  conclusion  of  the  congress  of  Vienna, 
Spain  refused  to  cede  Ohvenza  to  Portu- 
gal ;  on  which  account,  the  Banda  Oriental, 
with  its  capital, Monte  Video,  an  important 
portion  of  the  Spanish  province  of  Buenos 
Ayres,  was  taken  possession  of  by  B., 
and  maintained  with  effect  against  the 
claims  of  the  republic  of  Buenos  Ayres, 
after  it  had  attained  independence.  An 
insurrection  in  Pemambuco,  in  April, 
1817,  where  a  party  raised  the  repubhcan 
standard,  was  suppressed  by  the  Portu- 
guese troops  stationed  in  B.  But  when 
the  revolution  broke  out  in  Portugal,  Aug. 
1820,  having  for  its  object  the  estabhsh- 
ment  of  a  constitution,  the  Portuguese 
troops  in  B.  also  obtained  a  constitution 
in  behalf  of  the  latter  countr}\  Don  Pe- 
dro, the  crown -prince,  proclaimed  the 
acceptation  of  the  Portuguese  constitu- 
tion in  the  name  of  himself  and  father, 
Feb.  26,  1821.  King  John  VI  now  com- 
manded the  choice  of  deputies  (March 
7th)  to  meet  with  the  cortes  assembled  in 
Lisbon,  and  was  desirous  to  embark  with 
them  for  that  citj'.  But,  the  bank  being 
unable  to  make  the  necessary  advances 
of  money,  a  bloody  insiurection  ensued. 
The  kmg  therefore  changed  the  bank 
into  a  national  bank,  and,  to  defray  the 
sums  loaned,  appropriated  to  it  the  charge 
of  the  diamond  mines,  and  the  regulation 
of  the  trade  in  diamonds.  The  king  soon 
after  (April  21  and  22)  saw  himself  com- 
pelled to  order  tlie  miUtary  to  disperse 
the  assembly  of  electors,  who  demanded 
the  adoption  of  the  Spanish  constitution. 
On  the  other  band,  he  repeated  the  rati- 


BRAZIL. 


247 


fication  of  the  (then  incomplete)  Portu- 
guese constitution,  and,  April  22,  appoint- 
ed his  son  don  Pedro  prince-regent  of 
B.  He  now  embarked  for  Poitugal, 
April  26.  But,  as  the  Portuguese  cortes 
was  not  willing  to  grant  the  entire  equali- 
ty of  civil  and  political  relations  demanded 
by  the  Brazilians,  and,  without  waiting 
for  the  arrival  of  the  Brazihan  deputation, 
had  framed  the  articles  of  the  constitution 
which  related  to  B.,  and  subsequently  re- 
jected the  additional  articles  proposed  Jjy 
the  Brazilian  deputies,  and,  finally,  had 
expressly  declared,  that  B.  was  to  be  di- 
vided into  governments,  and  ruled  by  the 
ministry  of  state  at  Lisbon,  and  the  prince- 
regent  was  to  be  recalled  to  Portugal, — 
such  violent  convulsions  were  excited 'in 
Rio  Janeiro,  and  various  parts  of  B.,  Dec, 
1821,  that  it  was  explicitly  declared  to  the 
prince-regent,  that  his  departure  would 
be  the  signal  for  establishing  an  indepen- 
dent republic.  The  prince,  therefore,  re- 
solved to  remain  in  B.,  and  gave  a  public 
explanation  of  his  reasons,  Jan.  9th,  1822, 
to  his  father,  to  the  cortes  in  Portugal, 
and  to  the  people  of  B.  The  Portuguese 
troops  were  removed  from  B.  The  prince- 
regent  assumed.  May  13th,  1822,  the  title 
of  perpetual  defender  of  B.,  and,  in  Jime, 
convened  a  national  assembly,  composed 
of  100  deputies,  to  frame  a  separate  con- 
stitution for  the  country.  The  cortes  in 
Lisbon,  on  the  other  hand,  declared  this 
constitution  void,  Sept.  19th,  1822,  and 
demanded  the  return  of  the  prince-regent 
to  Europe,  on  pain  of  forfeiting  his  right 
to  the  throne.  Meanwhile,  the  national 
assembly  of  B.  had  declared  the  separa- 
tion of  that  country  from  Portugal,  Aug. 
1,  1822,  and,  Oct.  12,  appointed  don 
Pedro  the  constitutional  emperor  of  B. 
The  new  emperor  retained,  at  tlie  same 
time,  the  title  of  perpetual  defender  of  B. 
— Soon  after  the  estabhshment  of  the  em- 
pire, began  the  struggle  with  the  republi- 
can party.  In  this  party  were  many 
free-masons.  Don  Pedro,  who  had  pro- 
claimed himself,  shortly  before,  grand 
master  of  all  the  free-masons  in  B.,  or- 
dered that  all  the  lodges  should  be  closed, 
and  the  congress,  wliich  he  had  promised 
to  assemble  for  the  purpose  of  ti-aming  a 
constitution,  was  not  convened.  At  that 
time,  the  two  brothers  Andrade,  Jose 
Bonifacio,  minister  of  foreign  affairs  and 
of  the  interior,  and  Martin  F.  Ribeiro, 
minister  of  finances,  especially  the  former, 
possessed  the  entire  confidence  of  the 
emperor.  The  most  difficult  matter  was 
to  effect  his  recognition  in  Europe ;  for 
don  Pedro  had  acquired  the  new  dignity 


in  consequence  of  the  principle  of  the  sove- 
reignty of  the  people  in  a  colony  separated 
from  the  mother  country ;  and  it  A^as  also 
made  a  question,  whether  he  should  not  re- 
nounce his  claims  to  the  croAvn  of  Portugal. 
His  father,  indeed,  when  he  left  B.,  April 
2t),  1821,  had  given  him  full  powers  to  do 
all  that  might  be  necessary  to  preserve  this 
country  to  the  house  of  Braganza-  The 
mission,  nevertheless,  of  major  SchafFer 
to  Vienna,  could  not  procure  the  ac- 
knowledgment of  the  new  emperor  by 
his  father-in-law,  the  emperor  of  Austria. 
The  Brazilian  troops,  in  the  meantime, 
conquered  Monte  Video,  which  still  had 
a  Portuguese  garrison,  in  Dec,  1823,  after 
which  the  Banda  Oriental  was  united 
with  B.,  under  the  name  of  Cisplaiino,  as 
also  Bahia,  which  was  defended  by  a 
Portuguese  garrison,  under  general  Ma- 
deira. Lord  Cochrane,  the  Brazihan  ad- 
miral, blockaded  the  harbor  from  March 
26,  1823.  Madeira,  compelled  to  surren- 
der by  famine,  sailed,  during  the  nego- 
tiation, in  the  night  of  July  2,  to  Europe, 
and  the  Brazihan  troops  entered  the  place. 
At  home,  don  Pedro  had  two  parties  to 
contend  with — the  ancient  Portuguese, 
which  was  the  weaker,  and  the  repubU- 
can,  the  stronger.  The  latter  was  espe- 
cially powerful  in  Pemambuco.  The 
brothers  Andi-ade  sought  to  gain  both 
parties  by  the  proposal  of  a  free  constitu- 
tion, formed  after  the  model  of  the  Eng- 
lish ;  but  the  obstacles  of  all  kinds,  and  the 
violent  opposition  with  which  their  ad- 
ministration was  harassed,  compelled  them 
to  resort  to  arbitrary  measures  and  arrests. 
They  treated  the  malcontents  as  Cai-bon- 
ari,  and  thereby  excited  the  suspicion, 
that  the  emperor  aspired  to  absolute  au- 
thority. They  finally  convoked  the  cortes 
of  B.,  the  session  of  which  was  opened^ 
by  the  emperor.  May  3,  1823.  Of  the  20 
menibere,  who  constituted  the  opposition, 
out  of  the  60  (instead  of  160)  present, 
Araiijo  Lima  was  tlie  most  eloquent. 
The  ministers  succeeded  in  causing  se- 
cret societies  to  be  prohibited,  by  which 
means  they  gained  a  pretence  for  im- 
prisoning many,  whose  sentiments  were 
republican.  This  augmented  the  public 
dissatisfaction,  £md,  when  the  eni{>eror, 
having  been  severely  injured  by  a  fall 
from  a  horse,  did  not  appear  in  public  for 
a  month,  the  enemies  of  the  ministers 
became  more  bold  in  their  outcries,  and 
even  sent  threatening  representations  to 
the  emperor.  The  imprisoned  were  ac- 
quitted by  the  supreme  court  of  justice, 
and  the  emperor  found  himself  compelled 
to   dismiss  the  two  Andrade,  July  16, 


248 


BRAZIL. 


1823.  Don  Joaq.  de  Cameiro  Campos 
(formerly  professor  of  mathematics  at  the 
college  of  Lisbon)  received  the  depart- 
ment of  foreign  affairs,  and  don  Man. 
Jacint.  Figueroa  da  Gama  that  of  the 
finances — both  adherents  to  the  politi- 
cal principles  of  1791. — Meanwhile,  the 
royal  power  had  been  restored  in  Lis- 
bon in  May,  1823  ;  but  the  Brazilians 
demanded  the  more  loudly  a  free  con- 
stitution and  a  separation  from  Portu- 
gal. The  emperor,  therefore,  refused  to 
receive  the  envoy  of  the  king  his  father, 
the  count  de  Rio  Mayor,  SepL  6,  1823, 
because  he  could  not  give  assurance 
of  the  acknowledgment  of  the  indepen- 
dence of  B.  At  the  same  time,  the  con- 
gress authorized  a  loan  of  £2,500,000  in 
London,  which  has  subsequently  been 
increased  about  £700,000.  (75  per  cent, 
only  was  paid  in  specie,  at  6  per  cent, 
interest!)  The  constitution  of  Aug.  10, 
1823,  which  the  national  assembly  had 
accepted  with  some  alterations,  was  final- 
ly laid  before  the  emperor,  but,  in  conse- 
quence of  a  revolution  Avhich  suddenly 
ensued,  not  accepted,  because  it  resem- 
bled the  Spanish  and  Portuguese  consti- 
tutions, and  restricted  too  much  the  au- 
thority of  the  sovereign.  Since  the  fall  of 
the  Andrade,  the  republican  party  had 
gained  strength,  and  attacked,  in  their 
journals,  with  particular  violence,  the 
Portuguese  in  the  Brazilian  service,  and 
demanded  their  expulsion.  Two  ofBcers, 
in  retaliation,  did  some  injur}',  Nov.  8, 
to  an  apothecary  at  Rio,  who  laid  his 
complaints  before  the  congress.  The  two 
ex-ministers  Andrade,  and  their  third 
brother,  don  Antonio  Carlos,  likewise  a 
deputj',  demanded  that  congress  should 
investigate  the  matter ;  others  desired 
that  it  should  be  referred  to  the  courts  of 
justice.  This  gave  rise  to  a  violent  tu- 
mult on  the  10th  ;  the  people  took  part  in 
it ;  the  dismissal  of  the  ministers,  and 
the  departure  of  all  the -Portuguese,  were 
loudly  required.  The  ministers  gave  in 
tlieir  resignation,  and  the  emperor  col- 
lected the  troops  at  his  palace  San  Chris- 
tovao,  four  leagues  from  the  city.  The 
congress  hereupon  declared  itself^  perma- 
nent. Nov.  12,  it  was  informed,  by  a 
message  from  the  emperor,  that  all  the 
officers  regarded  themselves  as  injured 
by  two  journals,  of  one  of  which  the 
three  Andrade  were  editors,  and  j)atrons 
of  the  other ;  and  they  were  accused,  in 
general,  of  being  at  the  head  of  a  rebel- 
lious party.  The  minister  of  the  interior 
declared,  at  the  same  time,  that  the  troops 
insisted  on  the  removal  of  the  two  An- 


drade from  the  assembly.  Immediately 
after,  the  troops  entered  the  city,  sur- 
rounded the  hall  of  the  convention,  and 
an  officer  delivered  an  imperial  decree, 
ordering  the  dissolution  of  the  assembly. 
The  president  recorded  it  on  the  journal's, 
declared  the  session  terminated,  and  the 
deputies  separated,  Nov.  12,  1823.  But 
while  departing,  and  subsequently,  many 
were  arrested ;  among  them  the  three 
Andrade,  who  were  eventually  transport- 
ed. In  a  decree  of  the  same  day,  the 
emperor  termed  the  assembly  perjured, 
but,  on  the  following  day,  limited  this 
expression  to  the  faction  of  the  Andrade. 
— The  provinces,  also,  Avere  the  theatre 
of  many  turbulent  scenes.  In  Pemam- 
buco,  the  violent  dissolution  of  the  con- 
gress gave  rise  to  much  dissatisfaction, 
and  it  was  difficult  to  appease  the  hatred 
of  the  Brazilians  against  the  Portuguese. 
A  second  national  assembly  was  finally 
convened  at  the  end  of  Nov.,  182.3,  and 
the  emperor  caused  a  constitution,  drawn 
up  by  his  council  of  state,  to  be  laid  be- 
fore the  cabildo  (the  mimicipality)  of  the 
capital,  Dec.  11,  1823,  which  collected 
the  votes  of  the  citizens  respecting  it  in 
writing.  As  all  assented  to  this  constitu- 
tion, the  oath  was  administered  Jan.  9, 
1824.  The  same  course  was  pursued  in 
the  provinces:  but  here  many  citizens 
voted  against  the  constitution  ;  among 
others,  the  president,  Man.  de  Carvaiho 
Paes  d'Andrade  of  Pemambuco.  March 
25, 1824,  the  oath  to  observe  the  consti- 
tution was  also  taken  by  the  emperor  and 
empress.  In  its  fundamental  principles, 
this  constitution  coincided  with  tliose 
previously  projected.  The  four  branches 
of  civil  authority — the  legislative,  the 
mediative,  the  executive  and  the  judicial 
— are  administered  by  the  representatives 
of  the  people.  The  government  is  mo- 
narchical, hereditary,  constitutional  and 
representative.  The  representation  of  the 
Brazilian  nation  consists  of  the  emperor 
and  the  general  assembly,  a  body  com- 
posed of  two  chambers — that  of  the  depu- 
ties, chosen  for  four  years,  and  that  of  the 
senators,  chosen  by  the  emperor  from  the 
election-lists.  With  the  former  rests  the 
power  of  originating  bills  for  the  imposi- 
tion of  taxes  and  the  levying  of  soldiers, 
as  well  as  of  proposing  a  change  of  dyn- 
asty. The  latter  retain  their  dignity  for 
life.  The  sessions  of  these  chambers  are 
])ublic.  Tlie  majority  of  votes  decides. 
The  senate  has  jurisdiction  of  the  misde- 
meanors of  the  members  of  the  royal 
family,  of  the  ministers,  deputies  and 
council  of  state.    The  two  chambers  poa- 


BRAZIL. 


249 


sess,  in  general,  great  privileges.  The 
emperor  has  the  executive  and  mediato- 
rial authorities ;  hut  his  veto  is  not  abso- 
lute. He  cannot  refuse  his  sanction  to  a 
bill  equally  approved  by  two  legislative 
assemblies.  The  press  is  free,  but  libels 
are  punished  by  law.  AH  immunities, 
privileged  corporations,  &c.  are  abohsh- 
ed.  The  Roman  Catholic  is  the  estab- 
lished reUgion:  to  other  denominations 
domestic  worship  is  allowed,  but  without 
the  power  of  having  churches,  &c.  Not- 
withstanding this  liberal  constitution,  the 
republican  party  gained  the  supremacy  in 
Pernambuco.  The  president,  Man.  de 
Carvalho  Paes  d'Andrade,  recalled  by  the 
emperor,  attempted  to  unite  the  northern 
provinces  into  one  republic,  called  the 
Union  of  the  Equator.  But,  as  soon  as 
the  emperor  had  no  longer  cause  to  fear 
an  attack  from  Portugal,  his  forces  in- 
vaded Pernambuco,  in  August,  by  land 
and  sea,  under  the  command  of  lord 
Cochrane  and  general  Lima.  Carvalho 
and  Barros,  with  a  great  portion  of  the 
inhabitants,  made  an  obstinate  resistance ; 
but,  on  the  17th  of  Sept.,  1824,  the  city 
was  taken  by  assault.  Carvalho  had  fled 
to  an  English  ship  of  war ;  the  others 
into  the  interior  of  the  country. — In  the 
following  year,  the  emperor  sent  general 
Brandt  and  the  chev.  de  Cameiro  to  Lon- 
don, to  negotiate  there,  with  the  Portu- 
guese minister,  the  marquis  de  Villareal, 
respecting  the  independence  of  B.  Sim- 
ilar negotiations  afterwards  took  place  in 
Lisbon,  through  the  British  envoy  ex- 
traordinary, sir  Charles  Stuart,  who 
finally  concluded,  at  Rio  Janeiro,  with 
the  Brazilian  minister  of  foreign  affaire, 
Luis  Jose  de  Carvalho  e  Mello,  a  treaty 
between  B.  and  Portugal,  Aug.  29,  1825, 
on  the  following  terms : — 1.  B.  should  be 
recognised  as  an  independent  empire, 
separate  from  Portugal  and  Algarvia.  2. 
The  king  of  Portugal  was  to  resign  the 
sovereignty  of  B.  in  favor  of  his  son  and 
his  legitimate  posterity.  3.  The  king  of 
Portugal  should  retain  the  title  of  empe- 
ror of  B.  for  his  own  person  nierely.  4. 
The  emperor  don  Pedro  should  promise 
to  receive  from  no  Portuguese  colony 
proposals  for  a  union  with  B.  5.  The 
trade  between  the  two  nations  should  be 
restored,  and  all  property  confiscated 
should  be  returned,  or  compensation 
made  for  it  The  king  of  Portugal  rati- 
fied this  treaty  Nov.  15,  1825.  The  em- 
peror of  B.  has  since  sent  ambassadors  to 
the  courts  of  Lisbon,  London,  Paris  and 
Vienna.  Sir  Charles  Stuart,  soon  after, 
concluded  at  Rio,  Oct  18,  1825,  a  treaty 


of  amity  and  commerce,  anJ  another 
treaty, 'respecting  the  aboUtion  of  the 
slave-trade,  delayed  for  four  additional 
years,  between  B.  and  Great  Britain. 
But  neither  was  ratified  by  the  king  of 
Great  Britain,  because,  among  other 
things,  they  contauied  stipulations  for  the 
mutual  surrender  of  political  criminals 
(or  those  charged  with  high  treason)  and 
refugees.  About  this  time,  the  govern- 
ment of  the  United  Provinces  of  the  Plata 
urged  the  restoration  of  the  Banda  Ori- 
ental, which  B.  had  held  in  possession 
since  1816.  The  emperor,  therefore,  de- 
clared war  against  Buenos  Ayres,  Dec. 
10,  1825,  and  caused  the  mouth  of  the 
La  Plata  to  be  blockaded  by  his  vessels 
of  war.  But  the  people  of  the  Cisplatino, 
with  the  natives  of  Monte  Video,  had  al- 
ready taken  up  arms,  for  the  sake  of  a 
union  with  the'  United  Provinces  of  the 
Plata.  The  insurgents  took  Maldonado. 
General  Lecor  (viscount  de  Laguna), 
however,  maintained  himself  in  Monte 
Video.  On  the  other  hand,  the  repubUc 
of  the  Plata  formally  received  the  Banda 
Oriental  into  its  confederacy,  and,  at  the 
close  of  tlje  year  1825,  B.  possessed  tut 
two  points  in  the  Banda  Oriental — Monte 
Video  and  the  colony  del  San  Sagramen- 
to.  A  question  of  much  importance  now 
arose,  whether  the  emperor  don  Pedro 
should  succeed  his  father,  king  John  VI, 
in  the  kingdom  of  Portugal.  The  king 
tUed  March  10,  1826,  having  appointed 
his  daughter,  the  infanta  Isabella  Maria, 
provisional  regent.  According  to  the 
constitution  of  B.,  don  Pedro  could  not 
leave  the  country  without  the  consent  of 
the  general  assembly.  He  therefore  en- 
tered upon  the  government  of  Portugal, 
and  gave  this  kingdom  a  representative 
constitution,  but  renounced  the  crown 
of  Portugal  in  his  own  person  by  the  act 
of  abdication  of  May  2,  1826,  and  resign- 
ed his  right  to  his  daughter  donna  Maria 
da  Gloria,  princess  of  Beira,  bom  in  1819, 
who  was  to  marry  her  uncle  don  Miguel, 
bora  in  1802;  meanwhile,  the  emperor 
confirmed  the  present  regent  of  Portugal. 
(For  a  further  account  of  Maria,  Miguel, 
and  the  state  of  Portugal,  see  Portugal.) 
Soon  after.  May  8,  he  opened  the  second 
constitutional  assembly  of  B.  at  Rio.  He 
had  previously,  April  16,  1826,  founded 
the  new  Brazilian  order  of  Pedro  I.^ 
The  war  with  Buenos  Ayres  was  contin- 
ued  in  the  Banda  Oriental  with  httle 
vigor,  and  witli  little  prospect  of  advan- 
tage to  either  party,  but  with  a  ruinous 
charge  upon  the  finances  of  both.  A  ne- 
gotiation for  peace  was  at  length  opened, 


350 


BRAZIL— BREACH. 


xinder  the  mediation  of  Great  Britain, 
which  terminated  in  the  executi&n  of  a 
treaty,  Aug.  27,  1828.  In  this  treaty,  the 
emperor  of  Brazil  and  the  government  of 
the  United  Provinces  unite  in  declaring 
the  Cisplatino,  or  the  province  of  Monte 
Video,  which  had  been  the  chief  object 
of  controversy,  a  free  and  independent 
state,  under  such  form  of  government  as 
it  might  deem  most  suitable  to  its  inter- 
ests, wants  and  resources.  It  was  stipu- 
lated, that,  for  the  puipose  of  forming  this 
government,  the  existing  government  of 
the  Banda  Oriental  should,  immediately 
on  the  ratification  of  the  treaty,  convoke 
the  representatives  of  the  part  of  the 
province  subject  to  it,  and  the  govern- 
ment of  Monte  Video  its  citizens,  to  make 
choice  of  a  proportional  number  of  dele- 
gates, and  that  these  representatives  and 
delegates  should  constitute  a  provisional 
government,  whose  duty  it  should  be  to 
form  a  political  constitution  for  the  new 
state.  After  the  meeting  of  this  provis- 
ional government,  the  ftinctions  of  the 
previously  existing  governments  were  to 
cease.  The  independence  of  the  prov- 
ince of  Monte  Video  was  guarantied  by 
the  contracting  parties.  This  treaty  was 
duly  ratified,  the  blockade  of  the  La  Plata 
was  immediately  raised,  and  the  troops 
of  the  two  belligerents  were  withdrawn 
from  the  contested  tenitory. — By  an  act 
of  the  legislature,  passed  in  1827,  the  cel- 
ibacy of  the  clergy  has  been  abolished  in 
B.  (For  further  information,  see  Banda 
Oriental.) 

The  national  debt  of  B.  is  considerable, 
including  the  English  loan  of  £3,200,000. 
The  principal  ecclesiastical  dignitaries 
are  an  archbishop,  who  resides  at  Bahia, 
and  16  bishops,  of  tlte  Roman  Catholic, 
the  established  rehgion.  In  all  the  large 
towns,  the  government  supports  element- 
ary and  high  schools.  In  the  former,  the 
system  of  mutual  instruction  is  introduced. 
In  Bahia  and  Rio  Janeiro,  there  are  in- 
stitutions for  teaching  surgery,  medicine, 
engineering  and  law,  and  for  imparting 
commercial  information.  Rio  has  an 
academy  for  the  instruction  of  officers 
intended  for  the  naval  service ;  also  an 
obsen^atory.  This  city  and  Bahia,  also, 
contain  academies  for  the  promotion  of 
the  fine  arts,  public  libraries,  &c.  In 
1826, 300  young  Brazilians  were  pursuing 
their  studies  in  France.  The  army  con- 
sisted, in  1824,  of  30,000  regular  troops 
and  50,000  militia,  besides  a  regiment  of 
free  Negroes.  The  navy,  in  1826,  con- 
sisted of  96  ships,  including  1  ship  of  the 
line  and  4  frigates.    The  revenue  of  B, 


has  been  lately  estimated,  by  the  minister 
of  finances,  at  about  $16,290,000.  Of 
this  sum,  about  $7,200,0C0  are  all  which 
come  into  the  hands  of  the  general  gov- 
ernment for  the  supply  of  the  general  ex- 
penses. The  remainder  is  consumed  in 
the  internal  administration  of  the  prov- 
inces in  which  it  is  collected.  The  whole 
estimate,  however,  is  vague,  and  not  much 
to  be  depended  on.  Notwithstanding  the 
many  natural  resources  of  B.,  it  must 
long  remain  weak,  in  a  political  view; 
for  its  inconsiderable  population  is  too 
unequal  in  its  advantages  and  too  divided 
in  its  views.  1,800,000  are  Negro  slaves, 
ignorant  and  barbarous ;  the  Indians  are 
of  no  advantage  to  the  industry  of  the 
country.  They  live,  for  the  most  part,  re- 
tired in  the  wilderness.  The  Mulattoes 
seem  to  combine  in  themselves  the  vices 
of  the  savage  and  the  European.  Both 
sexes  give  themselves  up,  without  shame, 
to  the  impulses  of  their  passions,  and 
their  cruelty  to  their  slaves  is  often  horri- 
ble. The  Europeans  and  the  Creoles 
form,  to  some  extent,  the  aristocracy  of 
the  country.  Most  of  them  are  planters 
or  miners,  or  overseers  in  the  colonies, 
and,  in  this  way,  are  scattered  far  over 
the  country,  with  little  communication 
with  each  other,  without  knowledge  and 
education.  The  most  cultivated  persons 
are  found  in  the  maritime  cities.  But, 
even  in  Rio,  the  merchants,  according  to 
Mathisojj,  are  men  of  very  little  infonna- 
tion.  They  take  no  interest  in  any  thing 
but  what  immediately  concerns  their 
business.  The  clergy  Mathison  found 
so  dissolute,  that  he  was  ashamed  to  give 
a  description  of  their  morals.  Of  men  of 
higher  character,  capable  of  administering 
public  offices,  there  are  but  few,  and  they 
are  chiefly  Portuguese.  (See  the  Coro- 
grq/ia  Brazilica  of  Manoel  Ayres  de  Cazal, 
Rio  Janeiro,  1817,  2  vols.  4to. ;  Southey's 
History  of  Brazil,  London,  1818,  2  vols, 
4to.) 

Breach  ;  the  aperture  or  passage  made 
in  the  wall  of  any  fortified  place,  by 
the  ordnance  of  the  besiegers,  for  the 
purpose  of  entering  the  fortress.  They 
should  be  made  where  there  is  the  least 
defence,  that  is,  in  the  front  or  face  of  the 
bastions.  In  order  to  divide  the  resist- 
ance of  the  besieged,  breaches  are  com- 
monly made  at  once  in  the  faces  of  the 
attacked  bastions,  and  in  the  ravelin. 
This  is  effected  by  battering,  and,  at 
such  places  as  the  cannon  do  not  reach, 
by  the  aid  of  mines. — Breach'Battery, 
(See  fatten/.)-— The  breach  is  called  p-oc- 
tkahlt,  if  It  is  large  enough  to  afford 


BREACH— BREAD-FRUIT. 


251 


some  hope  of  success  in  case  of  an  assault. 
This  is  generally  considered  to  be  the 
case  if  it  allows  a  passage  to  14  men 
abreast.  Frequently,  however,  a  breach 
of  much  less  extent,  even  of  half  that 
width,  may  be  entered. 

Bread.     In  tlie  earliest  antiquity,  we 
find  tlie  flour  or  meal  of  grain  used  as 
food.     The  inconvenience  attending  the 
use  of  the  grain  in  its  natural  slate,  and, 
perhaps,  the  accidental  observation,  that, 
when    bruised,   and  softened    in   water, 
it    formed    a    paste,    and,    when    dried 
again,  a  more  compact,  mealy  substance, 
led,  by  degrees,  to  the  aitificial  prepara- 
tion of  bread.     Easy  as  it  seems  to  us,  it 
must  have  been  a  long  time  before  it  was 
completely   successful.     The  grain   was 
first  bruised  between  stones,  and,  from  the 
meal  mixed  with  milk  and  water,  a  dry, 
tough  and  indigestible  paste  was  made 
into  balls.     This  is  yet  the  chief  food  of 
the  caravans  in  the  deseits  of  Northern 
Africa.     The  Carthaginians,  also,  ate  no 
bread,  and  hence  were  called,  in  derision, 
by  the  Romains,puitiphagi  (pottage-eaters). 
After  many  attem])ts,  or,  perhaps,  acci- 
dentally, it  was  observed  that,  by  bring- 
ing the  paste  into  a  state  of  fermentation, 
its  tenacity  is  almost  entirely  destroyed, 
and   the    mass   becomes   bread,   porous, 
agi-eeable   to   the   taste,  digestible,    and, 
consequently,  healthy.     The  process  pur- 
sued is  the  following : — Some  old  dough, 
called  haven,  which,  by  a  peculiar  spirit- 
uous  fermentation,  has  swelled  up,  be- 
come spongy,  and  acquired  an  acid  and 
spirituous  smell,  is  kneaded  with  the  new 
dough,  and  produces,  though  in  an  infe- 
rior degree,  a  similar  fermentation  in  the 
whole  mass.     The  whole  thus  becomes 
spongy  ;  a  quantity  of  air  or  gas  is  devel- 
oped, which,  being  prevented  from  es- 
caping by  tlie   tenacity   of   the   dough, 
heaves  and  swells  it,  anil  gives  it  a  porous 
consistency.     This  is  called  the  working 
of  the  dough.     In  this  state,  the  dough  is 
put  into  the  heated  oven,  where  the  air 
contained  in  it,  and  the  spirituous  sub- 
stance, are  still  more  expanded  by  heat, 
and  increase  the  porosity  of  the 'bread, 
making  it  materially  different  from  the  un- 
baked dough.    The  best  and  most  whole- 
some  bread  is  btiked   in   some  ])arts  of 
France,  and  on  the  Rhine.     In  England, 
the  flour  is  adulterated  with  too  many 
foreign  substances,  in  order  to  make  the 
bread  whiter.    In  some  parts  of  Sweden, 
the  bread  is  composed,  in  part,  of  the  bark 
of  trees,  during  the  winter.     In  Westpha- 
lia, a  kind  of  very  coarse,  black  bread  is 
made,  of  which  the  peasants  bake  one 


large  loaf  for  the  whole  week.  This  is 
divided  for  use  with  small  saws.  It  is 
called  pumpernickel,  and  is  sometimes 
exported.  In  many  parts  of  Germany, 
bread  is  made  of  grain  nearly  entire,  or 
but  just  bruised,  which  is  very  coarse,  and 
frequently  forms  part  of  the  food  of  the 
horses.  Bread  is  found  wherever  civiU- 
zation  has  extended.  It  is  made  of  wheat, 
rye,  maize,  barley,  oats,  spelt,  &c.  The 
want  of  bread  has  often  occasioned  public 
commotions,  particularly  in  Paris  and  an- 
cient Rome. 

Bread-Fruit.     The  bread-fruit  is  a 
large,  globular  berry,  of  a  pale-green  color, 
about  the  size  of  a  child's  head,  marked 
on  the  surface  with  uregular  six-sided 
depressions,  and  containing  a  white  and 
somewhat  fibrous  pulp,  which,  when  ripe, 
becomes  juicy  and  yellow.    The  tree  that 
produces  it  [artocarpus  incisa)  grows  wild 
in  Otaheite  and  other  islands  of  the  South 
seas,  is  about  40  feet  high,  with  large  and 
spreading  branches,  and  has  large,  bright- 
green  leaves,  deeply  divided  into  7  or  9 
spear-shaped  lobes. — ^We  are  informed,  in 
captain  Cook's  first  voyage  round   the 
world,  that  tlie  eatable  part  of  this  fruit 
lies  between  the  skin  and  the  core  ;  and 
that  it  is  as  white  as  snow,  and  somewhat 
of  the  consistence  of  new  bread.    When 
gathered,  it  is  generally  used  immediate- 
ly :  if  it  be  kept  more  thfui  24  hours,  it 
becomes  hard  and  choky.     The  inhabit- 
ants of  the  South  sea  islands  prepare  it  as 
food  by  dividing  the  fruit  into  three  or 
four  paits,  and  roasting  it  in  hot  embei-s. 
Its  taste  is  insipid,  with  a  slight  tartness, 
somewhat  resembling  that  of  the  crumb 
of  wheaten  bread  mixed  with  Jerusalem 
artichoke.     Of  this  fruit,  the  Otaheitans 
make  various  messes  by  mixing  it  with 
water  or  the  milk  of  the  cocoa-nut,  then 
beating  it  to  a  paste  witli  a  stone  pestle, 
and    aftenvards   mingling  with    it    ripe 
plantains,  bananas,  or  a  sour  jjaste  made 
from  the  bread-fruit  itself,  called  mahie. 
It  continues  in  season  eight  months,  and 
so  great  is  its  utility  in  the  island  of  Ota- 
heite, "  that,"  observes  captain  Cook,  "  if, 
in  those  parts  where  it  is  not  spontane- 
ously produced,  a  man  plant  but  10  trees 
in  his  whole    lifetime,   he  will  as  com- 
pletely fulfil  his  duty  to  his  own  and  to 
future  generations,  as  the  native  of  our 
less  temperate  climate  can  do  by  plough- 
ing in  the  cold  of  winter,  and  reaping  in 
the  summer's  heat,  as  often  as  these  sea- 
sons return  ;  even  if,  after  he  has  procured 
bread  for  his  present  household,  he  should 
convert  the  surplus  into  money,  and  lay 
it  up  for  his  children."    Not  only  does 


252 


BREAD-FRUIT— BREATH. 


this  tree  supply  food,  but  clothing,  and 
numerous  other  conveniences  of  life. 
The  inner  bark,  which  is  white,  and 
composed  of  a  net-hke  series  of  fibres,  is 
formed  into  a  kind  of  cloth.  The  wood 
is  soft,  smooth^  and  of  a  yellowish  color, 
and  is  used  for  the  building  of  boats  and 
houses.  In  whatever  part  the  tree  is 
wounded,  a  glutinous,  milky  juice  issues, 
which,  when  boiled  with  cocoa-nut  oil,  is 
employed  for  making  bird-lime,  and  as  a 
cement  for  filling  up  cracks  in  such  ves- 
sels as  are  intended  for  holdhig  water. 
Some  parts  of  the  flowers  serve  as  tinder, 
and  the  leaves  are  used  for  wrapping  up 
food,  and  other  purposes. — As  the  climate 
of  the  South  sea  islands  is  considered  not 
very  different  from  that  of  the  West  In- 
dies, it  was,  about  42  years  ago,  thought 
desirable,  that  some  of  the  trees  should 
be  transferred,  in  a  gi-owing  state,  to  the 
English  islands  there.  His  majesty's  ship 
the  Boimty  sailed,  in  1787,  for  this  pur- 
pose, to  the  South  seas,  under  tlie  com- 
mand of  heutenant,  afterwards  admiral, 
Bligh.  But  a  fatal  mutiny  of  the  crew 
at  that  time  prevented  the  accomplish- 
ment of  this  benevolent  design.  The 
commander  of  the  vessel,  however,  re- 
turned in  safety  to  hfs  country,  and  a 
second  expedition,  under  the  same  person, 
and  for  the  same  purpose,  was  fitted  out 
in  the  year  1791.  He  arrived  in  safety 
at  Otaheite,  and,  after  an  absence  frojii 
England  of  about  18  months,  landed  in 
Jamaica,  with  352  bread-fruit-trees,  in  a 
living  state,  having  left  many  othei-s  at 
different  places  in  his  passage  thither. 
From  Jamaica,  these  trees  were  transfer- 
red to  other  islands ;  but,  the  Negi-ocs 
having  a  general  and  long-established 
predilection  for  the  plaintain,  the  bread- 
fruit is  not  much  relished  by  them. 
Where,  however,  it  has  not  been  gener- 
ally ultroduced  as  an  article  of  food,  it  is 
used  as  a  delicacy ;  and,  whether  em- 
ployed as  bread,  or  in  the  fonn  of  pud- 
ding, it  is  considered  highly  palatable  by 
the  European  inhabitants. 

Breakers  ;  billows  which  break  vio- 
lently over  rocks  lying  under  the  surface 
of  the  sea.  They  are  readily  distinguish- 
ed by  the  foam  which  they  i)roduce,  and 
by  a  peculiar  hoarse  roaring,  very  differ- 
ent from  that  of  waves  in  deep  water. 
When  a  ship  is  driven  among  breakers,  it 
is  hardly  possible  to  save  her,  as  every 
billow  that  heaves  her  upward  serves  to 
dash  her  down  with  additional  force. 

Breaking  Bulk  ;  the  act  of  beginning 
to  unlade  a  ship,  or  of  discharging  the 
first  part  of  the  cargo. 


Breakwater.  (See  Cherbourg,  Plym- 
outh and  Delaware.] 

Breast.     (See  Chest.) 

Breast-Piate  ;  a  piece  of  defensive 
armor,  covering  the  breast,  originally 
made  of  thongs,  cords,  leather,  &c.  (hence 
lorica,  cuirass),  but  after\vards  of  brass, 
iron,  or  other  metals.  It  may  be  consid- 
ered as  an  improvement  of  the  shield  or 
buckler,  which  was  borne  on  the  left  arm, 
and  moved  so  as  to  protect,  successively, 
all  paits  of  the  body.  It  being  i)erceived 
that  the  free  use  of  both  hands  in  the 
employment  of  offensive  weapons  was 
important,  the  defensive  armor  was  at- 
tached to  the  body,  and  received  diflferent 
names  from  its  position,  use,  &c. ;  as,  for 
instance,  breast-{)late,  cuisses,  greaves. 
These  different  species  of  defensive  ar- 
mor are  of  little  use  against  fire-arms,  and 
have,  therefore,  generally  fallen  into  dis- 
use in  modern  war.  (See  Cuirass.) — 
Breast-plate,  in  Jewish  antiquity,  was  a 
folded  piece  of  rich,  embroidered  stuff', 
worn  by  the  high-priest.  It  was  set  with 
12  })recious  stones,  bearing  the  names  of 
the  tribes.  It  was  also  called  the  breast- 
plate ofjudgvient,  because  it  contained  the 
[Jrim  and  Thummim. 

Breast- Wheel  ;  a  water-wheel  which 
receives  the  water  at  about  half  its  height, 
or  at  the  level  of  its  axis.  In  England, 
float-boards  are  employed,  which  are  fit- 
ted accurately  to  the  niill-coui-se,  so  that 
the  water,  after  acting  on  the  floats  by  its 
impulse,  is  detained  in  the  couree,  and 
acts  by  its  weight.  In  the  U.  States,  they 
are  often  constructed  vnth  buckets,  and 
with  a  part  of  the  circumference  fitted  to 
the  mill-course. 

Breast- Work.  In  the  military  art, 
eveiy  elevation  made  for  protection 
against  the  shot  of  the  enemy.  Wood 
and  stone  are  not  suitable  for  breast- 
works, on  account  of  their  liability  to 
splinter.  The  best  are  made  of  earth ;  in 
some  circumstances,  of  fascines,  duqg, 
gabions,  bags  of  sand  and  of  wool.  The 
thickness  of  the  work  must  be  in  proiwr- 
tion  to  the  artillery  of  tlie  enemy.  In 
geiierdi,  it  ought  not  to  be  less  than  10, 
nor  more  than  18,  or,  at  most,  24  feet 
thick.  The  rule  of  Cugnot  is,  that  the 
breast-work  should  be  so  high,  that  noth- 
ing but  tlie  sky  and  the  tops  of  trees  can 
be  seen  within  cannon  shot  from  the  in- 
terior of  the  intrenchments.  If  this  rule 
cannot  be  followed,  on  account  of  the 
height  of  neighboring  mountains,  the  in- 
terior of  the  fortification  ought  to  Ije  se- 
cured by  traverses. 

Breath.    The  air  which  issues  from 


BREATH— BREDOW. 


358 


the  lungs,  during  respiration  (q.  v.), 
tlirough  the  nose  and  mouth.  This  op- 
eration is  performed  without  eflbrt,  but 
still  it  causes  a  motion  in  the  external  air, 
before  the  nose  and  mouth.  The  air  ex- 
pired is  the  vehicle  of  sound  and  speech. 
A  smaller  portion  of  oxygen  and  a  larger 
portion  of  carbonic  acid  is  contained  in 
the  air  which  is  exhaled  than  in  that 
•which  is  injialed.  There  are,  also,  aque- 
ous particles  in  the  breath,  which  are 
jHccipitated,  by  the  coldness  of  the  ex- 
ternal air,  in  the  form  of  visible  vapor ; 
likewise  other  substances  which  owe 
tlieir  origin  to  secretions  in  the  mouth, 
ijose,  wind-pipe  and  lungs.  These  cause 
the  changes  in  the  breath,  which  may  be 
known  by  the  smell,  like  the  other  quali- 
ties of  the  air.  In  youth,  tlie  breatli  is 
insipid,  and  contains  acid :  it  loses  these 
qualities  after  the  age  of  ])uberty,  and  be- 
comes more  agreeable.  With  advancing 
age,  it  becoznes  again  unpleasant.  A  bad 
breath  is  often  caused  by  local  affections 
in  the  nose,  the  mouth,  or  the  wind-pipe : 
viz.  by  ulcei"s  in  the  nose,  cancerous  poly- 
pi, by  discharges  from  the  mouth,  by 
sores  on  the  lungs,  or  peculiar  secretions 
in  them.  It  is  also  caused  by  rotten 
teeth,  by  impurities  in  the  mouth,  and  by 
many  kinds  of  food  (viz.  horse-radish, 
onions,  and  also  by  flesh,  if  used  to  the 
exclusion  of  other  food),  and  by  fevers. 
In  tlie  last  case,  it  often  varies  with  the 
character  of  the  disease.  The  remedy 
for  this  complaint  must  depend  on  the 
causes  which  produce  it.  Substances  of 
an  aromatic  kind,  which  have  a  strong, 
rich  smell,  should  be  chewed  to  diminish 
its  offensiveness.  (See  Mengin's  Tcnta- 
men  Physiologicum  de  rtspirat  (Edin- 
burgh, 1790.)  But  it  is  often  impossible 
to  remove  this  unpleasant  disorder.  Ac- 
cording to  the  Prussian  code,  a  bad  breath 
furnishes  gi'ound  for  a  divorce. 

Breathixg.    (See  Respiration.) 

Breccia  ;  a  term  ajipUed  to  a  rock 
composed  of  angular  fragments  cemented 
together. 

Brechin  ;  a  town  of  Scotland,  83  miles 
north  of  Edinburgh,  with  5906  inhabit- 
ants. It  is  more  distinguished  in  histoiy 
than  for  its  present  importance.  David  1 
founded  a  bishop's  see  at  B.  in  1150,  and 
.some  remains  of  its  cathedral  still  exist. 
The  steeple  is  a  fine  tower,  surmounted 
by  a  spire,  and  is  120  feet  high.  Near  it 
is  one  of  those  old  towers  common  in 
Ireland,  103  feet  high,  and  16  feet  in  di- 
ameter at  the  base.  Nothing  is  known 
of  the  uses  of  these  towei-s,  or  of  the  time 
of  their  erection.     Tlie  Culdees  (q.  v.)  had 

VOL.  11.  22 


a  cell  or  convent  here.  There  was,  for- 
merly, a  strong  castle  a:t  B.,  wliich  sir 
Thomas  Maule  defended  agauist  Ed- 
ward I. 

Breda,  in  the  Netherlands ;  capital  of 
a  district  of  the  same  name,  has  9000 
inhabitants,  is  connected  with  the  Meuse 
by  the  navigable  river  JMerk.  B.,  being  a 
strong  frontier  fortress,  was  formerly  of 
the  greatest  importance  to  Holland,  and 
is  still  of  gi-eat  mihtary  value  as  the  chief 
point  of  the  line  of  fortresses  before  the 
Meuse.  The  fortifications  consist  of  15 
bastions,  as  many  ravelms,  and  5  horn- 
works,  besides  the  citadel.  The  cliief 
strength  of  this  fortress  lies  in  its  marshy 
environs,  wliich  may  easily  be  laid  under 
water.  B.  became  a  town  in  1534 :  since 
that  time,  it  has  often  been  a  subject  of 
contention  between  the  Dutch,  Spaniards 
and  French.  It  was  taken  by  surprise 
by  Barlaimont  in  1581,  and  by  Maurice 
of  Orange  in  1590.  The  latter  capture 
was  accomplished  by  means  of  a  boat 
loaded  with  tuif,  in  which  70  Dutch  sol- 
diers were  concealed.  Sphiola  took  B., 
in  1625,  after  a  siege  of  10,  and  Heniy  of 
Orange  after  one  of  4  months.  During 
the  French  revolutionaiy  war,  Dumouriez 
made  himself  master  of  the  city  and  for- 
tress in  February,  1793,  and  would  there- 
by have  prepared  the  way  for  the  con- 
quest of  Holland,  had  he  not  been  forced, 
by  the  loss  of  a  battle  at  Neerwinden,  to 
evacuate  the  city  and  fortress,  April  4. 
In  September,  1794,  B.  was  attacked  by 
the  army  of  Pichegni,  but  did  not  sur- 
render till  all  Holland  was  conquered,  in 
the  winter  of  1794.  On  the  approach  of 
tlie  Russian  van-guard,  under  general 
Benkendoi'f,  in  Dec,  1813,  the  French 
garrison  made  a  sallj^,  and  the  patriotic 
citizens  profited  by  the  occasion,  rose  en 
masse,  shut  the  gates,  and  prevented  the 
French  from  returning  into  the  town.  A 
peace  was  concluded  at  B.  between  Eng- 
land and  Holland  m  1667. 

Bredow,  Gabriel  Godfrey,  professor  of 
history  in  Breslau,  born  in  Berlin,  in 
1773,  of  poor  parents,  was,  lor  a  time, 
professor  at  Eutin,  and  a  colleague  of  the 
celebrated  Voss ;  afterwards  professor  at 
Helmstadt,  and,  still  later,  at  Frankfort  on 
the  Oder,  whence  he  went  to  Breslau  on 
the  removal  of  the  university  to  that 
place.  He  died  hi  1814.  He  was  distin- 
guished for  his  patriotism  and  his  hteraiy 
works.  His  Handbuch  der  alien  GeschicMe 
(Manual  of  Ancient  History)  has  passed 
through  five  editions,  the  last  of  which 
appeared  in  1825.  He  is  tlie  author  of 
Chroilik    des    neiinzehnten    Jahrhuyiderts 


254 


BREDOW— BREISLAK. 


(Chronicle  of  the  Nineteenth  Centuiy), 
Epistolce  Parisienses  (he  went  to  Paris  iu 
1807,  to  collect  all  that  has  been  left  to  us 
by  the  Greek  geographers),  Untersuch- 
ungen  i'lber  Geschichte,  Geographic  und 
Ckronologie  (Researches  on  Histoiy,  Ge- 
ography and  Chronology),  and  of  the 
Aery  useful  Historisclie  Tabellen  (Histoi-i- 
cal  Tables),  which  have  been  translated 
into  English. 

Bree,  Matthew  van,  first  painter  to  the 
crown-prince  of  the  Netherlands,  mem- 
ber of  the  national  institute  of  the  Neth- 
erlands, born  at  Antweq)  in  1773,  culti- 
vated his  talents  in  this  city,  and  after- 
wards in  Paris,  under  the  direction  of 
Vhicent,  and  hi  Italy.  As  early  as  1798, 
his  Death  of  Cato  was  admired.  This 
great  painter,  being  accustomed  to  sketch 
iiis  ideas  rapidly,  was  able  to  present  to 
Napoleon  the  manoeuvres  of  the  fleet  on 
the  Scheldt  before  Antwer]),  a  few  hours 
after  they  took  place.  With  almost  equal 
rapidity,  he  made  a  painting  of  Napp- 
leon's  entrance  into  Amsterdam,  at  the 
moment  chosen,  being  that  when  the 
magistrates  are  delivering  to  him  the 
keys  of  the  city.  In  architecture  and  in 
sculpture,  B.  also  exhibited  considerable 
talents. — Philip  James  van  B.  is  likewise 
a  celebrated  painter,  and  lives  at  Pavia. 
Several  of  his^  works  have  been  purchased 
in  France  for  the  Louvre,  St.  Cloud,  &c. 
He  was  born  in  1786. 

Breeches  ;  an  article  of  clothing  in 
use  even  among  tlie  Babylonians,  and 
which,  with  them,  were  made  so  as  to 
cover  the  foot,  and  supply  the  place  of 
stockmgs.  In  Europe,  we  find  hose  first 
used  among  the  Gauls ;  hence  the  Ro- 
mans called  a  part  of  Gaul  breeched  Gaul 
{Gallia  braccata).  In  the  5th  century, 
they  had  become  fashionable  in  Rome  ; 
but  the  breeches-makers  were  expelled 
from  the  city  by  an  imperial  edjct,  it 
being  considered  unworthy  of  the  lords 
of  the  world  to  wear  these  barbarous  in- 
vestments. The  stockings  were  separated 
fi-om  them  some  centuries  since.  Some- 
times they  were  worn  small,  and  some- 
times lai'ge,  as  the  fasliion  changed.  In 
some  instances,  an  immense  quantity  of 
cloth  was  put  in  them.  The  poor  stuffed 
theirs  out  with  such  substances  as  they 
could  procure.  Joachim  II,  elector"  of 
Brandenburg,  who  had  forbidden  the 
wearing  of  these  enormous  integuments, 
made  a  person,  whom  he  saw  with  a  pair, 
rip  them  open,  when  some  bushels  of 
bran  fell  out  of  them.  Osiander  (in  his 
Hoffahrtsteufel)  and  Musculus  (in  his 
Hostntevfd)  raised  their  voices  against 


this  preposterous  fashion.  The  modern 
breeches  were  first  introduced  during  the 
reign  of  Louis  XIV. 

Breeching  ;  a  rope  used  to  secure  the 
cannon  of  a  ship  of  war,  and  j)revent 
them  from  recoiling  too  much  in  the  time 
of  battle.  It  is  of  sufiicient  length  to  al- 
low the  muzzle  of  the  cannon  to  come 
within  the  ship's  side  to  be  charged. 

Breezes,  Sea,  Land  and  Mountain. 
(See  Winds.) 

Breguet,  A.  L.,  maker  of  time-pieces 
for  the  royal  marine  in  France,  member 
of  the  academy  of  sciences  and  the  bu- 
reau des  longitudes,  of  the  society  for  the 
encouragement  of  national  industry,  the 
royal  council  of  arts  and  manufactures, 
und  the  legion  of  honor,  born  at  Neuf- 
chatel,  in  1747,  contributed  to  the  perfec- 
tion of  the  art  of  watch-making,  as  well 
as  of  mechanics  in  general,  by  a  number 
of  useful  inventions,  for  instance,  astro- 
nomical double  watches,  double  chro- 
nometci-s,  marine  watches,  a  symj)athetic 
clock,  watches  that  need  not  be  wound 
up,  provided  they  are  occasionally  woni 
about  the  person,  the  metallic  thermome- 
ter, &c.  He  likewise  improved  the  tele- 
graph. He  has  a  son,  who  possesses  a 
large  share  of  his  father's  talents,  and  has 
been  concerned  with  him  in  the  execu- 
tion of  many  of  his  great  works. 

Brehon  ;  an  ancient  Irish  magistrate. 
The  office  appfeare  to  have  been  hereditary'. 
Each  tribe  had  one  brehon,  whose  judg- 
ments were  given  in  the  open  air  on  the 
hill-tops  ;  many  spots  are  yet  called 
Brelwns'  chairs.  The  office  was  abol- 
ished under  Edward  III.  Some  fragments 
of  tlie  brehon  law  are  yet  extant.  (See 
LedAvich's  Airiiquities  of  Ireland,  1790.) 

Breisgau.     (See  Brisgau.) 

Breislak,  Scjpio,  born  in  Rome,  1768, 
and  destined  for  the  church,  for  which 
reason  he  is  mentioned  as  an  abbate  iu 
the  works  of  Spallanzani,  was  one  of  the 
most  ingenious  geologists  of  our  times, 
and  opposed  to  the  Neptunian  system, 
Avithout,  however,  implicitly  adopting  the 
Vulcanian.  He  AA^as  professor  of  natural 
philosophy  and  mathematics  at  Ragusa. 
He  was  afterwards  professor  in  the  colle- 
gio  JVazareno,  at  Rome,  made  a  scientific 
tour  through  Naples,  and  Avent  to  Paris, 
Avhere  he  formed  an  intimacy  Avith  Four- 
croy,  Chaptal,  Cuvier,  &c.  Napoleon 
appointed  him  mspector  of  tlie  saltpetre 
Avorks  and  poAvder-mills  in  the  kingdom 
of  Italy.  He  Avas  also  a  member  of  the 
institute  and  many  other  hterary  societies. 
The  first  work,  by  which  he  made  him- 
self knoAvn  to  the  pubUe  as  an  observer 


BREISLAK— BREMEN. 


255 


of  nature  (e.  g.  his  treatise  on  the  sol/ata- 
ra  in  the  vicinity  of  Naples,  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  which  he  lived  for  years  as 
director  of  the  establishments  for  boiling 
alum),  contains  indications  of  the  princi- 
ples which  he  afterwards  develoj)ed  hi  his 
system.  The  fu-st  extensive  work,  \vhich 
he  pubhshed  at  Floix'nce  in  1798,  was  the 
Topogrqfia  Fisica  ddla  Campagna  (Phys- 
ical Topography  of  Campania).  After 
some  time  sj)ent  in  the  exumination  of 
this  region,  he  returned  to  Rome,  exam- 
ined the  adjoining  country  iji  a  geological 
j)oint  of  view,  and  conlirmed  his  former 
opinion,  that  the  seven  hills  are  chiefly 
tlie  remains  of  an  extinct  volcano.  Leav- 
ing his  native  city  on  account  of  pohtical 
disturbances,  he  went  to  France,  where 
he  made  himself  known  to  the  mineralo- 
gists, in  1801,  by  a  new  edition  of  tlie 
aljove-mentioned  work  (disfigured,  in- 
deed, by  many  misprints),  with  additional 
remarks,  supplements  and  corrections, 
imder  the  title  Vayages  Physiques  et  Li- 
tiiologiques  dans  la  Campanie,  2  vols.  A 
topographico-mineralogical  description  of 
the  environs  of  Rome  is  added  to  it.  It 
contains  the  results  of  12  years'  research- 
es. Till  dien,  there  had  been  no  system- 
atic treatise  ou  the  mineralogy  of  mount 
Vesuvius.  Earlier  writings  on  this  vol- 
cano contained  merely  the  history  of  sin- 
gle eruptions,  and  the  only  mineralogical 
work  on  this  subject,  by  Gonni,  is  notliing 
I)ut  a  catalogue.  B.  was  the  fii-st  who 
examined  geologically  the  regions  de- 
scriljed  in  his  work.  This  valuable  work 
has  been  translated  into  several  languages ; 
into  French  by  general  Pommereuil,  into 
German  by  Fr.  Ambr.  Reuss  (Leipsic, 
1802,  2  vols,  with  engravings). — B.  took 
advantage  of  his  residence  in  France  to 
examine  the  regions  of  Auvergne  famous 
for  the  Puys  (volcanic  mountains),  and 
his  observations  there  contributed  not  a 
little  to  the  formation  of  Iiis  theories  on 
the  effects  of  volcanoes.  In  Milan,  he 
wrote  his  Arte  di  Salnitrajo  (Art  of  man- 
ufacturing Saltpetre),  and,  in  1811,  pub- 
lished his  Introduzione  alia  Geologia  (In- 
troduction to  Geology),  2  vols.,  which 
was,  in  1818,  followed  by  an  edition  in 
French,  almost  a  new  work,  under  the 
title  Institutions  Geologiques,  3  vols.,  like- 
wise published  at  Milan.  In  1822,  his 
beautiful  geological  description  of  the 
provmce  of  Milan  appeared.  He  died  at 
Turin,  Feb,  15,  182G,  at  the  age  of  78. 
He  left  his  celebrated  cabmet  of  minerals 
to  the  family  of  Borromeo. 

Breitkopf,  John  Gottlob  Emmanuel ; 
Jx)ru  at  Leipsic,  in  1719.    He  pursued,  at 


first,  a  literary  career.  During  his  studies, 
the  works  of  All)ert  Diirer,  in  which  the 
proportions  of  lottere  ai'e  mathematically 
calculated,  fell  into  his  hands.  He  wjis 
pleased  with  this  subject,  and,  during  his 
whole  life,  laboi-ed  with  zeal  to  improve 
the  German  characters.  An  attem])t  was 
once  made  to  introduce  into  Germany 
the  Latin  characters  instead  of  those 
commonly  used  in  that  countrj'.  B.  was 
one  of  the  most  zealous  ojjposers  of  the 
j)lan.  In  1755,  he  essentially  improved 
the  art  of  printing  music  with  movable 
charactei-s.  His  invention  of  a  method 
of  printing  maps,  pictures,  and  even  Chi- 
nese characters,  by  means  of  movable 
types,  is  ingenious,  though  less  useful 
tlian  the  other.  Although  the  pope,  as 
well  as  the  academy  in  Paris,  testified 
their  gieat  approbation  of  this  invention, 
yet  no  practical  use  has  yet  been  made 
of  it.  He  was  engaged  in  Aviiting  a 
history  of  the  art  of  printing,  but  died  in 
1794,  before  this  work  was  finished.  B. 
was  a  man  of  great  probity. 

Bremen,  on  the  Weser,  situated  in  a 
territory  formerly  an  archbishopric,  but 
erected  into  the  duchy  of  Bremen  in 
1048,  was  one  of  the  leading  membere  of 
the  Hanseatic  league.  At  the  reforma- 
tion, the  city  embraced  the  Lutheran  reli- 
gion, and  expelled  the  archbishop.  Since 
1562,  Calvinism  has  been  the  prevailing 
religion.  By  the  peace  of  West])halia,  the 
crown  of  Sweden  came  into  possession 
of  the  secularized  ai-chbishopric,  under 
the  title  of  a  duchy.  When  the  elector 
of  Brimswick  gained  possession  of  the 
duchy  in  1731,  the  prerogatives  of  a  free 
city  were  confinned  to  B.  B.  is  divided 
by  the  Weser  into  the  old  and  the  new 
towns.  The  fortifications  have  been  de- 
molished, and  on  the  ground  where  they 
stood  a  garden,  in  the  English  style,  was 
laid  out  in  1802,  extending,  in  a  semicir- 
cle, round  the  old  town,  from  one  bank 
of  the  Weser  to  the  other :  the  garden  is 
])rovided  with  running  water,  and  wide, 
clean  walks.  Outside  of  each  of  its  gates 
is  a  retired  place,  planted  with  fir-trees, 
affording  sheltered  walks,  and  room  for 
sjiorts  of  various  sorts.  There  is,  also, 
much  taste  displayed  in  the  arrangement 
of  the  trees,  shrubs  and  plants.  Adjoining 
it  are  the  finest  houses,  which  have  a  good 
view  of  the  river,  the  city,  and  the  sur- 
rounding country.  The  principal  build- 
ings, besides  the  churches,  are  tlie  senate- 
house,  with  its  cellar  of  Rhenish  wine, 
the  former  archiepiscopal  palace,  con- 
verted, in  1819,  into  the  city  liall ;  the 
exchange,  a  museum,  theatre,  hospital, 


256 


BREMEN— BRENNUS. 


city  librarj',  and  two  orj)lian  asyhims. 
The  water-works  funiisli  the  old  toAm 
with  pure,  soft  water.  The  nuniher  of 
inhabitants  is  estimated  at  38,000 ;  that  of 
tlie  houses  is  5350.  The  city  contains  a 
gymnasium  (academy),  and,  for  scientific 
instruction,  a  pcBdagogium.  The  magis- 
trates (two  of  wliom  may  be  Lutlierans), 
are  4  burgomasters  and  24  senators,  com- 
posed partly  of  the  learned  and  partly  of 
the  mercantile  professions.  If  mattei-s  of 
general  moment  arise,  the  Wittheit  (wis- 
dom), consisting  of  all  the  citizens  who 
j)ay  taxes,  is  convoked.  The  tenitory 
belonging  to  the  city  is  about  74  square 
miles,  and  contains  48,500  inhabitants. 
From  1810  to  1813,  B.  was  the  capital 
of  tlie  French  department  of  tlie  Mouths 
of  tlie  Weser.  The  congress  of  A'ienna 
admitted  it  into  the  German  confederac}', 
as  a  fi-ee  city,  with  one  vote  in  the  gener- 
al assembly.  B.  and  the  three  other  free 
cities  have,  together,  a  vote  in  the  diet. 
The  revenues  amount  to  400,000  florins  ; 
the  debt,  to  4,500,000  florins.  The  con- 
stitution is,  like  that  of  Hamburg  and  Lii- 
beck,  a  relic  of  other  tunes.  A  thousand 
antiquated  forms  render  the  government 
of  this  small  city  a  complicated  web  of 
jarring  interests.  These  free  cities  do  not 
even  possess  tlie  liberty  ef  the  press,  and 
tlieir  existence  depends  on  the  mutual 
jealousy  of  the  powers  which  surround 
them,  with  whose  whims  they  must  al- 
ways comply.  The  only  advantage  of 
which  they  can  boast  is  the  comparative 
lightness  of  the  taxes.  The  chief  points 
deserving  of  remark  in  the  political  con- 
stitution of  these  cities  are,  that  they  have 
four  burgomasters  chosen  for  life,  a  sen- 
ate, chosen  frorh  among  the  citizens,  also 
for  life  ;  likewise  meetings  of  the  citizens, 
eitlier  in  primarj'  assemblies  or  by  dele- 
gates, whose  opinion  and  consent  are 
seldom  asked,  except  when  new  taxes 
are  to  be  imposed ;  and,  finally,  a  number 
of  subjects  not  represented.  In  1820,  the 
toll  at  Elsfletli  was  abolished ;  but  the' 
accumulation  of  sand  between  Vegesack 
and  B.  has  not  ceased,  and  vessels  deeply 
laden  can  go  up  the  river  orjy  to  Bracke 
and  Elsfleth,  or,  at  most,  to  Vegesack. 
Their  cargoes  are,  therefore,  discharged 
into  lighters,  which  is  inconvenient  and 
expensive.  The  herring  and  whale  fish- 
eries carried  on  from  this  city  are  import- 
ant, and  the  trade,  principally  in  German 
linen,  to  St.  Thomas  and  South  America, 
is  increasing.  Olbers  and  Heeren  were 
born  at  B.  B.  lies  hi  Ion.  8°  48'  3"  E. ; 
lat  53°  4'  45"  N. 
Brenxer,  in  tlie  Tyrol.     Mount  B., 


jiroperly  so  called  (also  viotis  Brenniu»\ 
rising  between  Inspruck  and  Sterzing,  and 
between  the  rivers  Inn,  Aicha  and  Adigc, 
729  fathoms  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  is 
(J0G3  feet  in  height.  The  road  from  Ger- 
many to  Italy  traverses  this  mountain. 
It  is  437G  feet  high,  and  about  12  miles 
long.  At  its  foot  is  the  jiass,  called  lAieg 
or  Z/Wg-,  where  the  milestones  of  Maximin 
and  31axentius  are  standing ;  the  first  of 
Avhich  was  erected  in  236,  or  the  year  of 
the  victoiy  over  the  Allemanni,  and  indi- 
cates the  distance  of  130  Roman  miles  to 
Augsburg.  The  B.  has  been  the  chief 
])ositinn  for  the  defence  of  the  Tyrol.  In 
the  last  revolution  of  the  Tyrolese,  in 
1809,  })articularly  in  August,  they  de- 
fended themselves  gallantly  in  this  place 
against  the  Bavarians  and  French,  Avho 
were  advancing,  cutting  oft' their  commu- 
nication with  Italy,  until  November.  (See 
Alps,  Roads  over.) 

Bre3<>-us  ;  the  name  of  several  princes 
of  the  ancient  Gauls,  and  expressive  of 
their  dignity.  Its  derivation  from  the 
old  Celtic  word  brenn  (chief,  leader)  is 
not  improbable.  A  leader  of  the  Sen- 
nones,  a  Gallic,  nation  in  the  ujiper  part 
of  Italy,  who  is  mentioned  under  this 
name,  made  an  invasion  into  the  Roman 
territoiy  about  the  year  390  B.  C.  Aruns, 
an  Etrurian,  having  failed  in  an  attempt 
to  obtain  justice  at  Rome  in  a  lawsuit 
Avith  his  ward,  addressed  himself  to  the 
Sennones  for  the  purpose  of  revenging 
liimself  Enticed  by  the  description  of 
the  fertility  of  Etruria,  they  conquered 
the  whole  country  from  Ravenna  as  far 
as  Picenum.  They  then  laid  siege  to 
Clusium,  the  inhabitants  of  which  city 
had  recourse  to  Rome  for  assistance. 
The  Romans,  in  consequence,  sent  three 
brothers  of  the  Fabian  family  to  remon- 
strate with  B.  B.  replied,  that  his  right 
lay  in  his  sword.  The  Fabii,  provoked 
by  this  haughty  answer,  entered  the  city 
under  pretence  of  negotiating,  exhorted 
the  iidiabitants  to  perseverance,  promised 
them  assistance,  and  even  conducted  a 
sallj-  at  their  head.  B.  resolved  to  avenge 
this  breach  of  faith,  and,  raising  the  siege 
of  Clusium,  directed  his  march  towards 
Rome,  after  having  in  vain  demanded  the 
suri'erider  of  the  Fabii.  They  were  ap- 
pointed military  tribunes,  and,  at  the  head 
of  40,000  men,  went  forth  to  meet  the 
enemy.  A  battle  was  fought  near  the 
river  Allia,  not  far  from  Rome  ;  the  Ro- 
mans were  totally  defeated,  and  B.  took 
possession  of  the  cit)'^,  which  had  been 
])reviously  abandoned  by  the  inhabitants. 
The  capitol  only  was  provided  with  a 


BRENNUS— BRESCIA. 


257 


garrison ;  but  several  aged  citizens  of  rank, 
priests,  ex-consuls  and  generals,  amount- 
ing in  the  whole  to  aljout  forty,  had 
resolved  to  remain  m  the  city,  and  de- 
vote themselves  to  the  infernal  deities. 
Attired  in  their  sacerdotal,  consular  and 
triumphal  robes,  like  victims  decorated 
for  the  sacrifice,  they  seated  thenjselves 
in  their  chairs  of  office,  in  the  middle  of 
the  forum,  awaiting  death.  When  B. 
aniyed  at  the  forum,  he  was  struck  wth 
astonishment  at  their  venerable  aspect. 
The  Gauls  looked  upon  them  as  so  many 
statues  of  deities,  and  feared  to  go  near 
them.  At  last  one  ventured  to  approach 
M.  Papirius,  and  stroke  his  beard,  upon 
which  the  latter  struck  him  with  his  ivory 
sceptre,  and  was  immediately  massacred, 
together  with  his  companions,  by  the 
infuriated  Gauls.  Rome  was  sacked,  and 
all  the  inhabitants  who  yet  remained  in 
their  houses  were  slain.  B.  then  assault- 
ed the  capitol,  and,  being  repelled  with 
considerable  loss,  he  set  fire  to  the  city, 
and  levelled  it  with  the  ground.  The 
capitol,  however,  was  so  strong,  that  he 
resolved  to  reduce  it  by  famine.  Detach- 
ed jiarties,  at  the  same  time,  plundered 
the  plain  countrj',  and  exacted  contribu- 
tions from  the  neighboring  cities.  Such 
a  party  appeared  before  Ardea,  the  place 
where  the  valiant  Camillus  lived  in  exile. 
This  magnanimous  patriot  persuaded  the 
senate  of  Ardea  to  defend  their  city, 
made  a  nocturnal  attack  on  the  besiegers, 
and  caused  a  dreadful  sla,ughter  lunong 
them.  By  this  victory,  the  courage  of  the 
Romans,  who  had  fled  from  their  city, 
was  revived :  they  rallied  a  body  of  40,000 
men,  chose  Camillus  their  leader,  and  the 
senate,  being  secretly  apprized  of  it,  nam- 
ed him  dictator.  Meanwhile,  the  garrison 
of  the  capitol  was  in  great  distress.  B. 
attempted  a  surprise  by  night,  in  which 
he  would  have  succeeded,  had  not  tlie 
cackling  of  the  geese,  sacred  to  Juno, 
awakened  the  Romans.  ManUus,  the  for- 
iner  consul,  alarmed  the  garrison,  and  tlie 
Gauls  were  repulsed.  As  it  was  not 
known  in  the  ca]iitoI  that  Camillus  was 
approaching,  or  that  the  Gauls  were  dis- 
tressed for  want  of  provisions  (Camillus 
having  cut  off  tlieir  supplies),  the  garrison 
was  inclined  to  enter  into  a  treaty.  B. 
promised  to  raise  the  siege,  and  leave  the 
Roman  territory,  for  1000  j)Ounds  of  gold. 
The  gold  was  weighed,  but  the  Gauls 
made  use  of  false  weights ;  and,  when  the 
Romans  complained  of  the  fraud,  B.  threw 
his  sword  into  the  scale,  and  cried  out, — 
"  Wo  to  the  vanquished !"  The  Romans 
were  about  to  submit  to  this  injustice, 
22  * 


when  Camillus  appeared  with  his  army, 
and  declared  the  treaty  void.  A  battle 
ensued :  after  having  sustained  an  incouT 
siderable  loss,  the  Gauls  retreated,  and,  in 
the  succeeding  night,  abandoned  their 
camp.  On  the  following  day,  Camillus 
jiursued  and  defeated  them.  Those  who 
escaped  death  in  battle  were  slain  by  the 
inhabitants  of  the  countrj',  so  that  not  one 
of  them  returned  to  his  native  land. — Aut 
other  B.,  likewise  a  leader  of  the  Gauls, 
invaded  Macedonia,  about  100  years  later, 
with  an  innnense  army  (150,000  foot  and 
30 — 40,000  horse),  and,  after  having  de- 
feated Sosthenes,  directed  his  march 
through  Thessaly  and  Greece,  towards 
Delphi,  where  he  plundered,  or  was  on 
the  point  of  plundering,  both  city  and 
temple  ;  but,  as  several  writei"s  assert,  he 
was  repelled  by  a  terrible  storm,  accom- 
panied by  lightning  and  earthquakes:  a 
(xreek  army  drew  near,  and  a  general 
defeat  of  the  Gauls  ensued.  B.  himself 
put  an  end  to  his  hfe. 

Brentaxo,  Clement,  bom  at  Frankfort 
on  the  Maine,  in  1777,  has  made  himself 
known  by  several  literary  works.  Among 
them  is  Des  Knaben  Wunderhom  (The 
Boy's  wondrous  Horn,  3  vols.,  1826),  a  coN 
lection  of  German  popular  songs,  which 
he  published  with  his  friend  Achim  von 
Arnini. 

Brentford  ;  a  to^vn  in  Middlesex,  Eng., 
si'ven  miles  W.  of  London.  It  has  a  vveekr 
ly  market  and  two  annual  fairs.  Here 
Edmund  Ironside  defeated  the  Danes, 
under  Canute,  in  lOlG ;  and  Cliailes  I  a 
part  of  the  parliainentaiy  forces,  in  1642. 
The  magnificent  edifice  of  the  duke  of 
Somerset,  where  lady  Jane  Grey  resided, 
now  belonging  to  the  duke  of  Northum- 
berland, was  built  here,  on  the  site  of  a 
suppressed  nunnery. 

Brescia  :  cajiital  of  a  delegation  coniT 
prising  314,000  inhabitants,  and  1200  sq. 
miles,  in  the  Milanese,  at  the  foot  of  a 
mountain  rising  between  the  hikes  Guarda 
and  Iseo,  on  the  rivere  Mella  and  Garza, 
This  latter  river  divides  the  city  into  two 
})arts,  in  which  respect  it  resembles  most  of 
the  cities  of  Lombardy.  It  is  a  manufacT 
turing  place,  containing  3438  houses  and 
31, Oct)  inhabitants.  It  is  commanded  by 
a  citadel,  elevated  on  a  rocky  height,  and 
is  adorned  with  a  magnificent  cathedral. 
This,  as  well  as  the  splendid  library  ui  the 
episcopal  palace,  it  owes  to  cardinal  Qui' 
riiii.  It  has  also  a  philharmonic  society, 
a  cabuiet  of  medals,  and  a  theatre.  This 
last  is  to  be  found  in  almost  all  Italian 
cities  of  equal  importance,  because,  in  Ita- 
ly, many  possessors  of  landed  estates,  hav* 


a.'ss 


BRESCIA— BRETEUIL. 


iiig  no  other  pursuit  than  pleasure,  si)eiid 
their  income  in  the  cities.  Iji  this  city 
(for  many  centuries  called  Armata)  and  in 
Bergamo  were  the  chief  manufactories  of 
arms  of  every  description,  to  answer  the 
demand  of  the  Levant,  where  nuich  lux- 
ury is  displayed  in  tliis  article.  Venice, 
for  a  long  time,  sent  thither  sup])Ues  ol" 
beautiful  and  costly  arms.  The  gimS  of 
B.,  and  tlie  steel  pre])ared  there,  are  cele- 
brated in  the  East.  li.  has  also  manufac- 
tures of  oil,  fustian,  linen,  silk,  paper  and 
hardware.  Much  silk,  wine,  flax  and 
cloth  is  conveyed  into  the  interior;  for  the 
artificial  irrigation,  by  the  aid  of  Alpine 
streams  and  the  abundance  of  lakes,  to- 
gether with  the  southern  exposure  of  tlie 
territory  of  B.,  impart  to  the  fertile  soil  of 
this  delegation  a  great  richness  of  vegeta- 
tion, which  is  increased  by  the  industry 
of  the  tenants,  assisted  by  the  advances 
of  funds  on  the  part  of  the  wealthy  pro- 
prietoi-s.  Under  the  government  of  Ven- 
ice, the  taxes  were  very  light;  neverthe- 
less, the  inhabitants  of  B.  and  its  tenitory 
were  veiy  unndy  subjects  of  the  republic, 
whose  police  was  so  lax,  as  scarcely  to 
])unish  those  who  undertook  to  revenge 
themselves.  An  end  has  been  put  to  the 
disorders,  caused  by  banditti  in  the  terri- 
tory of  Venice,  by  the  French  and  Aus- 
trian government  in  Italy.  In  182G,  a 
number  of  remarkable  antiquities  were 
found  buried  in  a  vault  near  B. 

Breslau,  capital  of  Silesia,  on  the  river 
Ohlau,  at  its  junction  with  the  Oder,  has 
78,860  inhabitants,  among  whom  are  4000 
Jews.  B.  is  tlie  residence  of  both  the 
military  and  civil  governoi-s  of  Silesia,  and, 
the  seat  of  a  superior  council  of  adminis- 
U'ation,  a  superior  court  of  justice,  &c.  It 
contains  more  than  20  Catholic  churches, 
of  which  the  cathedral  of  St.  John  on  the 
Dominsel  (island  of  the  cathedral)  is  the 
seat  of  the  bishop  of  B.  Among  84  liter- 
aiy  histitutions,  there  are  four  distinguish- 
ed gymnasia;  two  liUtheran,  one  Reform- 
ed and  one  Cathohc.  Among  the  hbraries 
worthy  of  notice  are  the  royal  library,  the 
library  of  the  university,  and  the  library 
of  llhediger,  which  belongs  to  the  city, 
and  is  remarkable  for  its  rich  collection 
of  manuscripts.  The  city  possesses,  in 
its  senate-house,  and  in  the  church  of 
the  cross,  standing  on  Sandinsel  (Sandy 
island)  two  magnificent  monuments  of 
ancient  German  architecture,  and,  in 
pubUc  places  as  well  as  private  collec- 
tions, contains  many  exquisitp  works  of 
art.  It  has  also  a  theatre.  B.  carries 
on  a  considerable  commerce,  which  has, 
however,  been  diminished  by  late  events. 


The  two  annual  fairs  of  wool  are  numer- 
ously attended.  Among  the  misfortunes 
that  have  Jjefallen  the  .city  in  modem 
times,  the  siege  in  1806  and  1807,  by  the 
French  and  the  troops  of  the  confedera- 
tion of  the  Rhine,  must  be  noticed.  After 
the  capture,  the  French  began  to  destroy 
the  fortifications,  which  have  since  been 
entirely  demolished.  The  spacious  walks 
and  new  buildings,  which  occupy  the  place 
of  the  works,  have  very  much  contributed 
to  embellish  B.  The  Catholic  university 
was  estabhshed  under  Leopold  II,  in 
1702,  by  the  Jesuits,  and,  in  1811,  com- 
bined witli  the  Protestant  university  of 
I'rankfort  on  the  Oder.  In  1820,  it  con- 
tained more  than  850  students.  The 
Brussian  government  has  done  much  for 
this  institution,  as  well  as  for  the  other 
new  universities  in  Berlin  and  Bonn. 

Brest  (anciently,  Brivates  Portus,  and 
Gisohrivate) ;  a  seaport  in  France,  and 
principal  place  of  a  district  in  the  depart- 
ment of  Finisterre,  in  the  former  province 
of  Brittany,  23  posts  N.  W.  Vannes,  69| 
W.  Paris ;  'ion.  4°  W  W. ;  lat.  48°  23'  N. ; 
pop.,  25,865 ;  houses,  2600.  It  has  one  of 
the  best  harbore  in  France,  and  a  safe 
road,  capable  of  containing  500  men-of- 
M'ar,  in  8, 10  and  15  fathoms  at  low  water, 
and  it  is  the  chief  station  of  the  French 
marine.  The  harbor  and  magazines  were 
constructed  in  1631,  by  Richelieu.  The 
coast,  on  both  sides,  is  well  fortified.  The 
entrance  is  narrow  and  difficult,  with 
covered  rocks,  that  make  it  dangerous  to 
those  not  well  acquainted  with  it.  It  con- 
tains two  parishes  and  a  marine  seminary. 
The  arsenal  is  an  immense  and  superb 
building,  and  the  dock-yards  are  well  con- 
structed. It  is  the  seat  of  a  governor,  of 
an  admiralty  board,  and  a  municipality. 
The  climate  of  B.  is  wet  and  uncomfort- 
able, and  the  sky  is  almost  always  obscur- 
ed. June  1,  1794,  the  French'  fleet  was 
beaten  oflT  Brest  by  the  English,  under 
Howe,  who  took  from  them  six  ships  of 
the  line,  and  sunk  a  seventh. 

Bretag.ve.     (See  Brittany.) 

Breteuil,  Louis  Auguste  le  Tonne- 
lier,  baron  de ;  born  in  1733 ;  a  French 
diplomatist;  at  first,  minister  plenijjoten- 
tiary  at  the  court  of  the  elector  of  Cologne, 
afterwards  at  the  Russian  court,  then  suc- 
cessively ambassador  in  Sweden,  Holland, 
Naples,  at  Vienna,  and  the  congress  at 
Teschen.  His  embassy  to  Vieima  ex- 
plains his  attachment  to  the  queen  Marie 
Antoinette.  As  minister  and  secretary  of 
state,  he  was  a  zealous  defender  of  the 
monarchy :  he  was,  therefore,  considered 
as  one  of  the  greatest  enemies  of  the  rev- 


BRETEUIL— BREVE. 


259 


olution.  After  the  14th  of  July,  he  escap- 
ed the  fate  of  Foulon  by  a  hasty  flight, 
lu  1790,  Louis  XVI  intrusted  him  ^\'ith 
several  secret  negotiations  at  the  prin- 
cipal northern  courts.  The  convention 
issued  a  decree  against  him.  In  Bertraud 
de  Moleville's  history  of  the  revolution, 
there  is  valuable  hifbrmation  with  respect 
to  his  last  dij)]omatic  labors.  In  1802,  he 
returned,  with  the  permission  of  the  gov- 
ernment, to  Fi'ance,  and  died  at  Paris,  in 
1807. 

Bretschneider,  Henry  Godfrey  von, 
born  at  Gera,  March  tJ,  1739,  died  at  the 
castle  of  Krzinitz,  near  Pilsen,  Nov.  1, 
1810.  He  was  a  soldier,  a  provincial 
counsellor,  librarian  at  Ofen  and  Lemberg, 
tlie  adviser  and  contidant  of  Joseph  II,  a 
travelling  adventurer,  a  poet,  a  writer  of 
songs,  a  collector  of  engravings  and  pic- 
tures, an  author  of  reviews  and  satires,  a 
Peregrinus-Proteus,  in  a  hundred  different 
colore ;  yet,  withal,  an  upright  friend  to 
what  he  considered  the  trutli ;  a  sworn 
enemy  to  all  ])olitical  and  priestly  imj)os- 
ture,  which  he  unmasked  without  mercy  ; 
an  encyclopedist,  without  having  ever 
been  coimected  with  d'Alcmbeit  and  Di- 
derot ;  an  instructer  and  benefactor  of  his 
age ;  in  his  writings  and  convei-sation,  an 
enenij' of  Napoleon ;  hated  by  thousands; 
loved  by  all  wlio  were  intimately  ac- 
quainted witli  him ;  courted  on  account 
of  his  wit  and  social  talents ;  feared  by 
all  fools  and  hypocrites.  lie  received  his 
first  instruction  in  the  academy  at  Ebei-s- 
dorf,  under  the  care  of  the  Bohemian 
brethren,  where  he  was  taught  by  hunger 
to  steal,  and,  by  hypocritical  cant,  to  doubt 
all  that  is  holy.  He  has  written  a  great 
deal,  and  no  folly  of  the  times  escaped 
him.  All  were  boldly  exposed  and  forci- 
bly attacked.  His  Journey  to  London 
and  Paris  (Berlin,  1817)  was  translated 
and  published  in  the  Edinburgh  Magazine. 
If  B.  had  wi-itten  nothing  but  the  Alma- 
nac of  the  Saints,  for  the  year  1788,  in 
which,  in  comjjliance  with  the  wish  of  the 
emperor  Joseph,  he  unsparingly  attacks 
priests  and  priestcraft,  he  would  deserve, 
for  this  work  alone,  to  be  known  to  en- 
lightened foreignei-s. 

Breughel  ;  the  name  of  a  celebrated 
Dutch  family  of  painters,  the  fii-st  of  whom 
adopted  this  name  ii'om  a  village  not  far 
from  Breda.  This  was  Peter  B.,  also 
called,  from  the  character  and  subject  of 
most  of  his  re[)resentations,  the  Droll,  or 
the  Peasants'  B.  He  was  born  in  1510 
(accordu)g  to  Mechel,  in  1530),  was  a  pu- 
pil of  Peter  Koeck  van  Aelst,  travelled 
into  Italy  and  France,  copying  the  beau- 


ties of  nature,  and,  after  his  return,  fixed 
his  residence  at  Antwerp,  where  he  was 
received  into  the  academy  of  painters  in 
that  j)lace.  He  subsequently  married  the 
daughter  of  his  instructor  Koeck,  and 
removed  to  Brussels,  where  he  died  in 
1570  (according  to  some,  in  1590).  In 
his  rural  jveddings,  his  rustic  feasts  and 
dances,  he  strikingly  represents  tlie  gay- 
ety  of  the  villagers,  as  he  himself  had 
frequently  observed  them,  in  disguise,  in 
his  youth.  He  also  etched,  but  many  of 
his  pictures  have  been  engraved  by  oth-, 
ers.  He  left  two  sons — Peter  and  John. 
Tlie  foi'iner,  (called  the  Younger  B.,)  pre- 
leiTing  subjects  aftbrding  striking  con- 
trasts, ])ainted  many  scenes  in  which 
devils,  witches  or  robbei-s  are  the  princi- 
pal figures.  This  jmrticular  turn  of  ge- 
nius ])rocured  him  the  name  of  Hell  B. 
Among  his  [)ieces  are  Oiyheus  playing  on 
his  Lyre  before  the  infernal  Deilies ;  also, 
the  Temptation  of  St.  Anthony.  The  for- 
mer picture  hangs  in  the  gallery  of  Flor- 
ence, The  second  brother,  John,  was 
distinguished  by  his  landscapes  and  small 
figures.  From  his  usual  dress,  he  i"e- 
ceived  the  title  of  Velvet  B.  He  also 
])ainted  for  other  masters  landscapes,  as 
back-grounds  to  their  ])ieces,  and  some- 
times little  figures  in  them.  He  was  a 
^ery  prolific  artist.  In  connexion  with 
Rubens,  he  rej>resented  Adam  and  Eve  in 
Paradise.  The  figures  in  this  picture  are 
])aiuted  by  Rubens.  This  piece,  his  Four 
Elements,  also  Vertumnus  and  Pomona, 
which  were  all  executed  jointly  with  Ru- 
bens, ai'e  among  his  principal  perform- 
ances. He  is  said  to  have  been  bom  in 
1568.  He  visited  Italy,  and  enriched  his 
imagination  with  beautiful  scenery.  He 
is  said  to  have  died  in  1640.  Other  mem- 
bei-s  of  this  family,  belongmg  to  a  later 
])criod,  are  Ambrose  and  Abraham,  who, 
fJ)r  a  time,  resided  in  Italy,  and  died  in 
1690 ;  the  brother  of  the  latter,  John 
Baj)tist,  who  died  in  Rome ;  and  Abra- 
jiam's  son,  Caspar  B.,  known  as  a  pamter 
of  flowers  and  fruits. 

Breve  ;  a  note  of  the  third  degree  of 
length,  and  formerly  of  a  square  figure, 
as  H  ;  but  now  made  of  an  oval  shape, 
Avith  a  line  perpendicular  to  the  stave  on 
each  of  its  sides :  [ol-  The  breve,  in  its 
simple  state,  that  is,  without  a  dot  after  it, 
is  equal  in  duration  to  one  quarter  of  a 
large,  or  to  two  semibreves,  and  is  then 
called  imperfect;  but,  when  dotted,  it  is 
equal  to  three  eighths  of  a  large,  or  to 
three  semibreves,  which  being  the  greatest 
length  it  can  assume,  it  is  then  called  per- 
fect. 


260 


BREVET— BREWING. 


Brevet;  a  term  borrowed  frono  the 
French,  in  which  it  signifies  a  royal  act 
granting  some  favor  or  privilege ;  as,brevet 
dHnverUion,  It  is  applied,  in  England  and 
the  U.  States,  to  nonnnal  rank  in  the  army 
higher  than  that  for  which  ])ay  is  received. 
Thus  a  bi-evet  major  ser\es  as  captain,  and 
draws  pay  as  such.  In  the  anny  of  the 
U.  States,  officers,  havuig  brevets  or  com- 
missions of  a  prior  date  to  tliose  of  the 
regiments  in  which  they  serve,  may  take 
place  in  courts-martial,  and  on  detach- 
ments com])osed  of  diiferent  corps,  ac- 
cording to  tlie  nuik  given  them  in  their 
brevets,  or  dates  of  their  former  commis- 
sion ;  but,  in  the  regiment,  troop  or  com- 
pany, to  which  they  belong,  they  shall  do 
duty  and  take  rank  according  to  the  com- 
missions by  which  they  are  mustered  in 
such  coi-ps.  [Rules  aiid  Aii.  of  fVar,  61.) 
By  act  of  congress,  April  16,  1818,  brevet 
officei-s  shall  receive  the  pay  and  emolu- 
ments of  their  brevet  commissions  only 
when  on  duty,  and  having  command  ac- 
cording to  their  brevet  rank.  The  same 
act  provides  that  brevet  commissions  shall, 
from  that  date,  be  confeired  oidy  with  the 
consent  of  the  senate. 

Breviary  ;  the  book  containing  the 
daily  service  of  the  churchof  Rome,  mat- 
ins, lauds,  prime,  third,  sixth,  nones  and 
vespers,  which  all  Catholics  were  fonnerly 
bound  to  read  daily.  This  obligation  is 
now  restricted  to  the  beneficiary  clergy, 

Brewi.xg.  The  juices  of  fruits  contain 
sugar,  which  is  essential  to  the  vinous  fer- 
mentation. But  this  does  not  exist,  in 
any  important  quantity,  in  seeds.  Instead 
of  it,  however,  we  have  starch,  and  this 
may  combine  \vith  water,  so  as  to  form 
sugar.  This  combination  is  perfonned 
very  perfectly  by  a  vital  process  ;  that  is 
to  say,  it  takes  [)lac«j  only  in  a  living  seed, 
and  not  in  one  wliich  is  trozen,  burned,  or 
otherwise  killed.  It  is  known  by  the 
name  of  germination  or  groioing,  and  is 
of  familiar  occurrence,  being  what  takes 
place  in  eveiy  seed  that  is  successfully 
planted.  The  seeds  of  wheat,  rye,  barley, 
&c.  consist  principally  of  starch.  If  a 
grain  of  these  is  examined,  we  find  near 
one  end  of  it  a  small  bodj^,  which  is  the 
rudiment  of  the  future  plant,  and  the 
microscope  shows  us  that  this  consists  of 
two  parts — the  plumula,  which  is  destined 
to  ascend  through  the  earth  to  form  tlie 
stalk,  and  the  radicle,  which  is  to  be 
spread  abroad  below,  and  form  the  root. 
Whenever  a  grain  of  barley,  oats,  or  cer- 
tain other  of  the  gramineous  seeds,  is 
exposed  to  water,  it  begins  to  swell  and 
absorb  the  moisture ;  and,  at  the  same  time, 


if  the  temperature  of  the  air  is  not  too 
cold,  the  radicle  thrusts  itself  out  at  the 
lower  end ;  the  plumula,  on  the  other  hand, 
pushes  itself  along  beneath  the  husk  of 
the  grain  to  the  other  end,  before  it  thrusts 
itself  out.  There  are  several  curious  con- 
siderations in  regard  to  this  process.  The 
one  which  concerns  us  at  present  is  this, 
that,  as  the  plumula  is  passing  along 
through  the  husk,  the  part  of  the  seed 
along  which  it  passes  becomes  changed 
into  the  substance  known  in  chemistry  by 
the  name  of  starch  sugar ;  that  is,  when 
the  plumula  has  passed  along  one  third 
of  the  length  of  the  grain,  that  third  is 
starch  sugar,  while  the  remaining  two 
thirds  are  still  starch ;  and  so  with  the  rest. 
The  starch  sugar  seems  to  be  some  com- 
bination of  starch  and  water.  The  final 
cause  of  the  change  is  undoubtedly  the 
support  of  the  growing  plant,  sugar  being 
evidently  necessary  to  the  growth  of 
])lants,  as  it  is  always  found  in  their  sap, 
and  sometimes,  as  in  the  sugar  maple,  in 
great  quantities.  The  moment,  however, 
the  plumida  begins  to  protrude  beyond 
the  end  of  the  grain,  the  sugar  diminishes, 
as  it  is  consumed  by  the  young  stalk ;  and 
the  substance  of  the  seed  is  also  consumed, 
though  by  no  means  to  the  same  extent, 
by  the  growth  of  the  root.  To  produce 
this  change  in  seeds,  and  thereby  to  fit 
them  for  yielding  a  sweet  fluid,  when 
mixed  with  water,  is  the  business  of  the 
maltster;  and  it  is  an  operation  of  great 
delicacy,  upon  the  successful  pertbrni^ 
ance  of  which  the  success  of  a  manulaC' 
tory  of  ale  or  beer  in  a  great  measure 
depends.  The  firet  operation  in  malting 
is,  to  plunge  the  barley,  or  other  grain  to  be 
malted,  into  a  large  cistern,  containing 
water  enough  to  cover  the  whole  mass. 
The  barley  immediately  separates  into 
two  parts ;  one  is  heavy,  and  remains  at 
the  bottom  of  the  water,  while  .the  lighter 
portion,  consisting  of  chaf^  defective 
grains,  &c.  floats  on  the  top.  This  latter 
is  skimmed  oft' as  of  no  use.  The  heavier 
jiart,  or  sound  barley,  is  suffered  to  remain 
till  it  has  absorbed  a  portion  of  the  water, 
sufficient  for  the  purpose  of  enabling  it  to 
germinate.  This  is  steeping.  It  is  the 
first  process,  and  usually  occupies  about 
two  days.  When  the  grain  is  sufficiently 
steeped,  the  water  is  let  off,  and  the  grain 
thrown  out  of  the  cistern,  and  piled  in  a 
heap,  or,  as  it  is  technically  called,  a  couch. 
After  a  few  hours,  the  bottom  and  uiner 
part  of  the  heap  begm  to  grow  warm,  and 
tlie  radicle  or  root  to  make  its  appearance ; 
and  the  gennination  thus  commenced 
would  go  on  rapidly  but  for  the  labor  of 


BREWING. 


261 


the  malster,  who,  with  a  view  of  making 
all  the  grains  grow  alike,  checks  the 
growtli  of  such  as  are  in  the  middle  of 
tiie  heap  by  turning  them  to  the  outside, 
and  vice  versa.  For  tliis  reason,  malting 
cannot  be  performed,  with  any  success,  in 
summer,  which  would,  at  fii-st  sight,  seem 
to  be  the  fittest  season.  On  the  contnu-y, 
die  best  maltsters  prefer  the  coldest  weatli- 
er ;  for,  at  this  season,  thej'  can  always 
keep  the  germination  going  on  at  the  rate 
tiiey  wish,  by  heaping  uj)  the  gi'ain ; 
whereas,  in  warm  weather,  it  grows  so 
rapidly,  that  no  effort  can  make  the  pro- 
cess equal  and  regular.  Thus  the  grain 
is  turned  backwards  and  forwards  for  14 
days,  at  the  end  of  which  pei'iod  the  acros- 
pire,  as  it  is  called,  or  the  plumida,  having 
nearly  reached  the  end  of  the  grain,  and 
the  latter  liaving  aciquired  a  sweet  taste, 
tJie  {jrocess  of  growth  is  suddeidy  and 
effectually  stopped  by  sj)reading  the  whole 
u|)on  a  kiln,  which  is  a  floor  of  iron  or 
tiles,  perforated  with  small  holes,  and 
liaving  a  fire  beneath  it.  There  the  life 
of  the  grain  is  destroyed,  and  it  is  thor- 
oughly dried. — The  malt  thus  made  is 
ground,  or  rather  crushed,  by  passing  it 
between  a  pair  of  iron  rollers.  It  is  then 
])rei)ared  for  brewing.  The  first  step  in 
brewing  is  called  mashtng.  It  consists  in 
stirring  up  the  malt  with  a  quantity  of  hot 
water,  which  dissolves  the  starch  sugar 
of  the  malt,  and  forms  a  sweet  liquor 
called  teort,  similar  to  the  must,  or  sweet 
juice  of  the  grape,  from  which  wne  is 
made.  The  manufacture  differs,  however, 
in  some  essential  particulai-s,  at  this  stage 
of  the  process,  from  that  of  wine  ;  for,  if 
the  wort  were  allowed,  as  the  must  is,  to 
ferment  without  obstruction,  it  contains 
so  n)uch  of  the  nmcilage  and  starch  of 
the  grain,  tJiat  it  would  run  into  the  ace- 
tous, and  from  thence  into  the  putrefac- 
tive fermentation,  and  would  l)e  J'oxed,  as 
it. is  technically  termetl;  that  is,  it  would 
become  ill-smelling  vinegar  instead  of 
beer.  To  prevent  this,  it  is  first  boiled. 
This  process  renders  it  stronger,  by  evap- 
orating a  jjoition  of  the  water;  and,  fur- 
ther, it  coagidates  or  curdles  the  mucilage, 
which  sulfides  afterwards,  and  is  not 
again  dissolved,  thus  separating  an  injuri- 
ous ingredient  While  boiling,  a  portion 
of  hops  is  julded.  One  object  of  this  is  to 
give  an  aromatic,  bitter  taste  to  the  hquor, 
which  hal)it  has  rendered  agreeable.  The 
))rincipal  object  of  adding  the  hoj)s,  how- 
ever, is,  to  ciieck  the  tendency  to  the  ace- 
tous fernientation,  which  is  always  far 
greater,  in  liquor  so  compound  in  its  char- 
acter as  beer,  than  in  the  simpler  liquoi-s, 


as  wine  and  cider.  It  is  further  a  com- 
mon opinion,  that  hops  add  to  the  intoxi- 
cating qualities  of  the  article ;  and  this 
opinion  is  jwobably  well  founded. — After 
the  worts  are  sufficiently  boiled,  they  are 
jjoured  out  into  large  shallow  cisterns  or 
coolei-s,  till  they  become  cool,  and  deposit 
much  of  the  curdled  mucilage.  They  are 
then  allowed  to  run  into  a  deep  tub  or 
vat  to  fennent.  If  left  to  themselves, 
however,  the  process  would  take  place 
very  imperfectly,  and  it  is  therefore  assist- 
ed by  the  ad(liti(jn  of  yeast.  The  tnie 
nature  of  this  sul)stance,  notwithstanding 
much  attention  and  some  laborious  anal- 
yses, is  not  yet  undei-stood.  It  excites  fer- 
mentation, however,  which  continues  for  a 
period  of  time  longer  or  shorter,  accoixling 
to  the  fancy  of  the  brewer,  and  is  then 
checked  by  drawing  oft'  the  liquor  into 
barrels  or  hogsheads.  In  these  the  fer- 
mentation still  goes  on,  but  it  is  now  called 
by  brewei-s  cleansing.  With  a  view  to 
take  advantage  of  this  process,  the  casks 
are  j)laced  with  their  bung-holes  open, 
and  hiclined  a  little  to  one  side.  The 
scum,  as  it  rises,  works  out  at  the  bung, 
and  runs  over  the  side,  and  thus  the  beer 
is  cleansed  from  a  quantity  of  mucilage, 
starch,  and  other  unfermented  matters. 
^V'hat  does  not  run  out  at  the  bung  sub- 
sides to  the  bottom,  and  constitutes  the 
lees.  After  this  cleansing  is  completed, 
the  clear  beer  is  racked  off  into  barrels, 
and  presented  for  use.  The  scum  and  lees 
are  collected,  and  the  former  constitutes 
the  yeast  for  the  next  brewing. — Such  is 
tiie  general  history  of  brewing,  whether 
the  product  is  to  be  beer,  ale,  porter  or 
wash,  except  that  in  the  latter  the  cleans- 
ing is  not  necessary. — Even  this  racking, 
however,  does  not  remove  all  the  unfer- 
mented matter.  Some  starch  and  gluten 
still  remain ;  of  coui-se,  the  liquor  soon 
begins  to  ferment  again  in  the  barrels; 
but,  as  these  are  closely  stojjped,  the  car- 
bonic acid  gas,  or  fixed  air,  caimot  escape, 
but  becomes  nungled  with  the  beer.  Ev- 
ery successive  fermentation  causes  some 
lees,  fi'oin  which  the  beer  n)ay  be  racked 
ott"  and,  by  repeated  racking,  the  fennent- 
ative  matter  may  be  com|)letely  removwl, 
and  such  beei-s  become  clear,  transparent, 
and  somewhat  like  the  German  wines,  as, 
for  instance,  that  commonly  called  hock. 
But,  the  disposition  to  ferment  being  thus 
entirely  destroyed,  they  are,  like  these 
wines,  perfectly  still,  and  acquire  no  dis- 
])osition  to  froth  by  being  bottled.  Hence 
old  sound  beei-s  may  remain  in  bottles  for 
years  without  coiniiig  up,  as  it  is  techni- 
cally called.    The  object  of  the  brewer  is 


262 


BREWING. 


to  produce  an  agreeable  beverage,  distin- 
guished not  so  much  for  absolute  strength, 
or  quantity  of  alcohol,  as  for  color,  flavor, 
transparency,  liveUness,  and  power  of 
keeping  well.  Some  of  these  qualities 
are  not  conij)atible  with  the  developement 
of  the  greatest  quantity  of  alcohol  or 
ardent  sjjirit,  which  is  the  main  object  of 
the  whiskey-distiller.  To  effect  this  pur- 
pose, he  makes  a  kind  of  beer,  which  is 
called  tvash.  This  difters  from  brewers' 
beer  in  some  important  particulars.  In 
the  first  place,  the  grain  is  not  all  malted : 
in  England,  only  a  part  of  it  is  so ;  in  the 
U.  States,  generally,  none  at  all.  In  the 
next  i)lace,  it  is  ground  a  great  deal  finer 
than  in  brewing.  If  the  brewer  were  to 
grind  his  grist  as  fine  as  the  distiller,  he 
would  run  great  risk  of  setting  his  mash, 
as  the  phrase  is;  that  is,  he  would  make 
paste  of  his  grain,  and -entangle  the  solu- 
tion of  sugar  so  effectually,  that  he  could 
not  get  it  oiit  again.  The  distiller  does 
not  run  the  same  risk,  because  he  does 
not  use  such  hot  water  as  the  brewer,  and 
he  can  mash  and  stir  his  goods  a  great 
deal  longer  without  injury,  and  even  with 
beneiit  to  his  liquor.  Again,  he  does  not 
need  to  boil  or  add  hops  to  his  worts,  for 
he  does  not  care  about  precipitating  the 
mucilage,  or  making  his  beer  keep.  In 
the  next  place,  he  adds  a  great  deal  of 
yeast,  and  ferments  violently  and  rapidly, 
so  as  to  decompose  the  sugar  as  quickly 
as  possible,  and  is  quite  indifferent  wheth- 
er the  worts  even  become  somewhat  soiir- 
isli  in  the  process,  as,  when  sufficiently 
fermented,  the  alcohol  is  removed  at  once 
by  distillation.  If  raw  grain  be  ground, 
mixed  with  water  at  a  certain  heat,  and 
allowed  to  stand,  the  change  of  the  starch 
into  starch  sugai',  or  the  combination  of 
starch  and  water,  takes  i)lace  iii  the  same 
way  as  in  malting.  It  takes  some  time, 
however,  and  hence  the  distillers'  mashes 
stand  longer  than  the  brewers'.  It  would 
seem,  therefore,  from  this,  that  the  malt- 
ing of  grain  is  not  necessary  for  the 
making  of  beer;  and,  accordingly,  this 
method  of  proceeding  has  been  recom- 
mended by  an  eminent  chemist,  one  who 
has  paid  much  attention  to  this  subject, 
and  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  a  certain 
description  of  small  beer  may  be  so  made. 
But  the  process  is  not  applicable  to  the 
finer  and  more  valuable  kinds  of  malt 
liquors,  for  reasons  which  it  would  require 
too  many  details  to  explain  perfectly. — 
Besides  the  kinds  of  beer  and  wash  al- 
ready tnentioned,  there  are  others  in  very 
common  use  in  the  U.  States.  These  are 
made  by  mixing  honey,  molasses  or  sugar 


with  water,  and  fermenting  with  yeast,  or 
some  other  leaven.  Beers  made  in  this 
way  are  commonly  mingled  with  some 
vegetable  substance,  as  ginger,  spruce, 
sarsaparilla,  &c.  to  give  them  a  particular 
flavor,  and  are  familiar  to  all  by  Uie  names 
of  ginger  beer,  spruce  beer,  sarsaparilla 
mead,  &c.  &c.  The  wash,  of  this  kind  is 
made  from  molasses  and  water,  fermented 
in  large  vats  under  ground,  by  means,  not 
of  yeast,  but  the  remains  or  returns  of 
former  fermentations.  The  liquor  thus 
fermented  is  pumped  up  at  once  into  the 
still,  and  the  product  is  common  under 
the  name  ofntm.  Of  the  beers  manufac- 
tured from  grain,  as  an  ai'ticle  of  con- 
sinnjJtion  in  that  state,  there  are  a  great 
many  varieties.  These,  however,  may  be 
all  comprehended  under  three  principal 
ones — beer,  ale  and  porter.  Beer  differs 
from  the  other  two  in  the  circumstance  of 
its  being  made  for  immediate  consump- 
tion. There  are  two  or  three  kinds  of  it, 
known  by  the  names  of  strong  beer,  table 
beer,  half-and-half,  &c.  These  differ  only 
in  their  relative  strength,  being  all  brewed 
upon  the  same  genei-al  principle,  and 
adapted  to  be  used  soon  after  they  are 
made.  It  is  of  no  consequence,  so  far  as 
regards  the  principle  of  brewing  beer, 
whether  the  malt  of  which  it  is  made  be 
of  one  color  or  another :  it  may  be  pale,  'or 
high-dried,  or  amber,  or  any  thing  else. 
It  is  not  even  of  the  first  consequence 
whether  the  malt  be  good  or  bad,  for  the 
beer  is  drank  soon  after  it  is  made,  and  if 
it  is  not,  it  is  lost ;  so  that  there  is  little 
opportunity  to  discover  any  particular 
flavor.  Moreover,  it  is  a  common  and 
necessary  practice  to  color  it  so  highly 
with  burned  molasses  or  sugar,  that  the 
original  taste  of  the  liquor  is,  in  a  great 
measure,  concealed.  There  is  also  a  sort 
of  fulness  of  taste  which  is  given  to  beer, 
by  this  practice  in  part,  but  still  more  by 
the  mode  of  femientation.  This  mode  is 
to  stop  the  progress  of  the  latter  before 
the  sweet  tast^  is  entirely  gone,  by  remov- 
ing the  beer  from  the  fermenting  tun  to 
the  smaller  casks.  In  some  places,  indeed, 
where  the  beer  is  to  be  sent  out  very 
weak,  it  does  not  go  into  the  fermenting 
tun  at  all,  but  the  yeast  is  mingled  with 
the  worts  in  the  small  casks,  and  it  is  sent 
out  at  once  in  full  fermentation,  and  drank 
uj),  in  fact,  before  this  has  time  to  subside 
entirely.  Ordinarily,  however,  it  is  fer- 
mented a  little  in  the  tun,  and  then  cleansed 
and  racked  in  a  ver}'  short  time.  When 
beer  is  sent  out  in  this  state,  it  is  always 
necessary'  to  mingle  with  it  a  quantity  of 
what  are  called  Jinings,  that  is  to  say. 


BREWING. 


263 


isinglass,  or  something  of  the  sort,  which 
has  the  same  effect  as  the  fish-skin  or  isin- 
glass commonly  put  into  coffee — it  settles 
it ;  that  is,  it  causes  the  dregs  to  subside 
to  the  bottom.     Beer  made  in  this  way  is 
an  agieeable  liquor,  and  well  adapted  to 
the  purposes  of  draught  in  cold  weather, 
especially  when  its  briskness  is  increased, 
as  it  usually  is,  by  warming  it  a  little.  How- 
ever, beer,  properly  so  called,  is  an  imper- 
fect liquor.     The  process  is  not  complete, 
and  very  slight  variations  alter  its  charac- 
ter.— The  other  varieties  of  malt  liquor  arc 
ale  and  porter,  or,  as  they  are  conmionlj' 
called,  stock  liquors.     These  are  not  in- 
tended for  innnediate  consumption,  but  to 
be  kept  for  a  longer  or  shorter  period, 
during  which  they  do  or  ought  to  im- 
prove in  quality.     Ale  is  a  sweeter  liquor 
than  porter,  and  much  stronger,  the  best 
London  brown  stout  being  about  25  per 
cent,  weaker  than  Burton  ale.     The  first 
part  of  the  process,  on  which  the  differ- 
ence in  the  liquors  depends,  is  the  diying. 
of  the  malt:  for  ale  it  must  be  dried  verj' 
carefully  and  slowly,  so  as  to  be  of  a  pale 
color;  and  the  article  is  inferior  if  any  of 
the  grains  are  scorched  or  burned,  so  as 
to  communicate  a  harsh  taste  to  the  liquor. 
In  the  next  place,  the  heat  of  the  water, 
when  poured  on  the  grain  or  mash,  must 
l)e  higher.     The  reason  given  for  this  is, 
that  it  renders  the  worts  clearer  when 
they  are  drawn  off  from  the  mash-tun.    It 
is  not  clear  why  this  is  of  any  conse- 
quence, for  it  would  seem  that  the  boiling, 
to  which  the  worts  are  afterwards  sub- 
jected, would  be  suflicient  to  curdle  and 
precipitate  any  mucilage  dissolved  during 
the  mashing.     Such,  however,  is  not  the 
case;  and  a  low  heat  in  mashing  is  always 
apt  to  be  followed  by  violent  fermentation, 
veiy  difiicult  to  check,  and  verj-  apt  to 
produce  acidity.     The  higher  llie  heat  of 
the  mashing-water  the  better,  provided  it 
is  not  sojiigh  as  to  set  or  make  paste  of 
the  mash.     The  exact  point  can  be  deter- 
mined only  by  experiment,  and  mustvarj'^ 
wth  the  comparative  softness  of  the  wa- 
ter and  comparative  paleness  of  the  malt. 
In  the  next  place,  the  mashing  or  stirring 
must  not  be  long  continued,  as  it  is  only 
desirable  to  dissolve  the  sugar;  and  the 
effect  of  long  mashing  is  to  mix  the  starch 
and  mucilage   with  the   worts,   and,   of 
course,   to    diminish    their    comparative 
sweetness.     For  the  same  reason,  the  fii-st 
mash  only  is  proper  for  fine  ales,  as  the 
last  always  contains  much  more  starch 
and  mucilage.     These  ales  thus  acquire  a 
sweetness  which  cannot  be  removed,  ex- 
cept by  very  long  fermentation,  and,  there- 


fore, they  long  continue  more  generally 
jialatable  than  porter. — The  fermentation 
of  ales  is  conducted  very  differently  from 
that  of  beer.     They  are  let  down,  or  put 
into  the  fermenting  tun,  at  a  lower  tem- 
perature, and  the  fermentation  is  made  to 
go  on  slowly  and  gradually.     They  are 
then  draAvn  off  clear,  and  cleansed,  till  the 
yeast  is  as  much   as  possible   removed. 
Hence  these  liquors,  when  well  made, 
require  no  finings,  but  are  racked  off  so 
clear  that  they  become  fine  of  themselves, 
and  much  higher  flavored  than  they  can 
possibly  be  when  finings  are  used.   Lastly, 
ale  can  only  be  had  in  y)erfection  from 
bottles.     Its  sweetness,   high  flavor  and 
effervescing  qnahty  cannot  long  be  pre- 
served on  draught,  any  more  than  the  fine 
qualities  of  Champagne. — Porter,  the  fa- 
vorite drink  of  Londoners,  to  be  perfect, 
in  the  first  place,  recjuires  a  large  propor- 
tion of  bro^via  or  high-dried  malt ;  i.  e.,  malt 
which  has  been  scorched  on  the  kiln ;  but 
it  is  rarely,  or,  rather,  never  made  so  at  the 
present  day.     It  is  a  wastefid  and  expen- 
sive practice  to  diy  malt  in  this  way,  as 
very  much  of  its  valuable  conslituents  is 
wasted  by  this  high-drj'ing,  which  ope- 
rates, in  fact,  like  distillation, carrjing  off 
iii  the  steam  what  ought  to  be  left  be- 
hind.   Only  a  small  jwrtion  of  such  malt 
is,  therefore,  now  used,  and  sometimes 
very   little   indeed,  the    color  of  porter 
being  produced  artificially,  by  means  of 
burned  sugar.     Low  heate  are  used  in  the 
mashing,  for  the  liquor  is  not  to  be  sweet, 
and  it  is,  therefore,  most  profitable  to  get 
as  much  starch  as  possible.   For  the  same 
reason,  the  products  of  all  the  mashings 
are  mingled  together,   thus   constituting 
entire  porter.     Formerly,  it  was  the  prac- 
tice, in    London,  to    take    the    sei)arate 
mashes,  for  porter,  of  three  different  (pial- 
ities,  which  were  mixed  by  the  retailer, 
to  form  porter  of  three  threads;  but,  after- 
wards, the  brewers,  dishkingthis  jnactice, 
made  the  porter  entire  at  once.     It  is  ob- 
vious that  ale  could  not  be  made  entire. 
Again,   porter  is   fermented   with   more 
rapidity  than  ale,  and  hence  it  requires 
very  careful   watching,   lest  it  suddeidy 
pass  the  bounds  of  the  vinous,  and  nni 
into  the  acetous  fermentation.   It  requires 
to  be  cleansed  off  sometimes  at  a  mo- 
ment's wanung,  or  else  it  gets  that  acidity 
which  is  its  most  common  fault.     After 
all,  it  abounds  in  unfeniiented  matter,  and 
requires  a  length  of  time  to  rij)en,  that  is, 
to  change  this  matter  into  alcohol ;  and 
this  it  does  best  in  large  masses.  Whether 
from  this  reason,  or  some  other  that  does 
not  appear,  it  seems  to  be  pretty  generally 


2G4 


BREWING— BRIBE. 


admitted,  that  no  brewery,  either  in  Eng- 
land or  elsewhere,  has  been  able  to  make 
I)orter  equal  to  the  large  porter-breweries 
of  London.  This  superiority  has  been  at- 
tributed to  the  use  of  the  Tliames  water ; 
but,  in  the  first  place,  the  small  London 
breweries,  which  do  not  make  good  por- 
ter, have  this  advantage  in  common  with 
the  larger  ones ;  and,  secondly,  these  last 
have  long  since  ceased  to  use  the  water 
of  the  river,  as  it  contains  too  much  vege- 
table matter,  and  is  liable  to  cause  acidity 
in  the  liquor.  The  superiority,  as  far  as 
it  exists,  is  doubtless  owing  to  command 
of  capital,  and  consequent  power  of  choice 
in  the  malt-market,  and  system  in  con- 
ducting the  business:  as  to  the  rest,  a 
wealthy  concei-ft,  like  a  London  brew- 
ing company,  has  always  means  of  per- 
suading botders  and  retailere  of  all  de- 
scriptions, that  it  is  for  their  advantage  to 
sell  and  praise  tlieir  porter  in  i>reference 
to  that  of  a  small  establishment,  whose 
liquor  may  be  equally  good,  but  not  quite 
so  cheap.  Of  the  two  stock  liquors,  por- 
ter is  generally  considered  more  whole- 
some, and  more  easily  digestible.  It  keejjs 
better,  and,  in  London,  is  generally  pre- 
ferred for  common  use.  The  ales  manu- 
factured in  many  parts  of  the  U.  States 
are  colored  by  the  addition  of  brown  malt 
or  burnt  sugar.  This  is  to  suit  the  taste 
of  the  consumers,  who  obstinately  asso- 
ciate the  idea  of  strength  and  body  with 
high  color.  It  is  impossible  that  ales  thus 
colored  should  be  without  a  harsh  taste, 
which  is  a  defect.  Ales,  to  be  perfect, 
must  be  pale,  and  the  fine  English  ales 
always  jire  so.  No  very  good  porter  is 
made  in  the  U.  States,  so  fiu-  as  is  known 
»  to  the  writer  of  this  article.  Three  mash 
tuns  are  necessary  to  make  it  iierfect,  and 
only  one  is  commonly  used  in  this  coun- 
tiy.    (See  Ale,  Beer,  Porter.) 

Brewster,  David ;  secretary  of  the 
royal  society  of  Edinbiu-gh  ;  one  of  the 
most  learned  natural  philosophers  in 
Great  Britain;  born  about  1785.  The 
great  number  of  treatises  which  he  has 
written,  on  various  subjects  in  natural 
philosophy,  are  chiefly  inserted  in  the 
Transactions  of  the  Edinburgh  Royal  So- 
ciety. He  is  the  editor  of  the  much 
esteemed  Edinburgh  Encyclopedia.  He 
is  also  the  principal  editor  of  the  Edin- 
burgh Philosophical  Journal,  which  ap- 
pears quarterly.  His  fame  became  gene- 
ral by  his  invention  of  the  kaleidoscope, 
(q.  V.)  Among  the  many  learned  men 
who  render  a  residence  in  Edinburgh 
agreeable  to  foreigners,  B.  is  one  of  tlie 
most  eminent,  as  he  has  a  great  fund  of 


general  information,  and  is  a  man  of  the 
most  polite  mannci-s. 

Brkzk,  marquis  de  ;  grand  master  of 
ceremonies  at  the  court  of  Louis  XVI ; 
known  in  consequence  of  the  famous  re- 
ply of  jMiral)eau  to  the  message  which 
he  brougiit,  June  23,  1789,  from  the  king 
to  the  deputies  of  tlie  tiers  etat,  ordering 
the  dissolution  of  their  body :  "  Tell  your 
master,"  said  Mirabeau,  in  a  voice  of 
thunder,  "  that  we  are  here  by  the  will  of 
the  people,  and  that  nothing  but  the  bay- 
onet shall  drive  us  out."  The  court,  in- 
timidated by  this  bold  answer,  which 
produced  the  highest  enthusiasm  in  the 
assembly  and  the  ])ublic,  became  waver- 
ing and  iiTesolute  in  its  measures.  Mira- 
beau, on  the  other  hand,  taking  advan- 
tage of  the  excitement,  carried  the  decree 
declaring  the  pei-sons  of  the  deputies  in- 
violable, and  that  whoever  should  dare 
issue  or  execute  a  warrant  of  airest 
against  a  part  or  tlie  whole  of  them 
should  be  deemed  guilty  of  treason.  The 
marquis  de  B.  followed  Louis  XVIII 
abroad,  and,  after  the  restoration,  was  re- 
instated in  his  former  office. 

Briareus  (also  ca]]ed  .Egceon) ;  a  giant 
with  100  arms  and  50  heads,  the  son  of 
Uranus  and  Ten-a.  His  two  brothers,  Cot- 
tus  and  Gyges,  were  formed  in  a  similar 
manner ;  and  their  formidable  appearance 
struck  their  father  widi  such  terror,  that 
he  imprisoned  tliem,  at  their  birth,  in  the 
bowels  of  the  earth.  (lies.  Theog.  147.) 
In  the  war  with  the  Titans,  Jupiter  set 
them  free,  and,  by  their  assistance,  gain- 
ed the  victon".  When  Juno,  Neptune 
and  Minerva  conspired  to  bind  the  sove- 
reign of  the  gods,  Thetis  brought  Bria- 
reus from  the  depths  Of  the  sea  (how  he 
came  there  is  not  known),  to  the  relief  of 
the  ti-embling  Jove.  (II.  a.  402.)  Virgil 
j)laces  B.  in  the  vestibule  of  hell.  [JEn.  vi, 
287.)  He  was  employed,  with  his  hun- 
dred-handed brotJiers  (Centimani),  in 
watching  the  Titans  in  Taitams.  (lies. 
Theog.  734.) 

Bribe  ;  a  reward  given  to  a  public  of- 
ficer, or  functionarj%  to  induce  him  to 
violate  his  official  duty  for  the  benefit 
or  in  compliance  with  the  wishes  of 
tlie  party  by  whom,  or  on  whose  be- 
half, the  bribe  is  given  or  promised.  The 
term  bribery  is  applicable  alike  both  to  the 
receiving  and  to  the  giving  of  the  reward. 
A  corrupt  bargain  for  the  votes  of  electors 
in  the  choice  of  persons  to  places  of  trust 
under  the  government  is  bribery.  In  this 
instance,  the  electors,  as  such,  are  a  kind 
of  public  functionaries.  Particular  spe- 
cies of  bribery  are  expressly  forbidden, 


BRIBE— BRICK. 


265 


with  penalties,  by  the  positive  laws  of 
every  state  that  is  governed  according  to 
a  written  code.  The  corrupt  discharge 
of  a  public  trust,  in  consideration  of  brib- 
ery, is  punishable  at  the  common  law, 
tliough  not  prohibited  by  any  positive 
statute.  A  clerk  to  the  agent  for  French 
prisoners  in  England  was  indicted  and 
punished  for  taking  bribes  given  for  the 
puqjose  of  inducing  him  to  procure  them 
to  be  exchanged  out  of  their  regular  turn. 
An  attempt  to  influence  jurymen  in  ^v- 
ing  their  verdict,  by  rewards,  is  a  species 
of  bribery,  denominated  embracery.  Even 
offering  a  reward  to  a  revenue  officer, 
to  induce  him  to  violate  his  duty,  though 
the  reward  was  not  received,  has  been 
held  to  be  an  indictable  offence.  (2  Dal- 
las's Repoiis,  p.  384.)  A  similar  doctrine 
is  held  in  England.  (3  Coke's  Institutes.^ 
part  third,  p.  147,  and  4  BurrovPs  Repoiis, 
p.  2500.)  The  same  was  held  of  a  prom- 
ise of  monej^  to  a  member  of  a  corpora- 
tion, to  induce  him  to  vote  for  a  mayor. 
{2  Lord  Raymond's  Reports,  p.  1377.) 
The  British  laws,  as  well  as  those  of 
the  U.  States,  specially  prohibit  bribeiy 
of  the  officers  of  the  revenue  ;  and  the 
forfeiture,  on  the  part  of  the  offender  of- 
fering the  bribe,  in  England,  is  £500 ; 
the  officer  receiving  the  bribe  incurs  the 
like  forfeiture,  and  is  disqualified  for  pub- 
lic employment,  civil  or  military.  Under 
the  U.  States'  laws,  the  party  offering  or 
i-eceiviug  a  bribe,  in  such  case,  incurs  a 
pecuniarj'  penalty,  and  becomes  disquali- 
fied for  any  place  of  trust  under  the  gov- 
ernment. The  laws  of  many  of  the  U. 
States  contain  special  provisions  against 
bribery  of  judges  or  jurymen,  or  of  elect- 
ors in  the  choice  of  public  officers. 

BriceSo  Mendez,  Pedro,  was  born  in 
1792,  in  Varinas,  capital  of  the  province 
of  that  name  in  Venezuela,  of  a  wealthy 
and  distinguished  family.  At  the  com- 
mencement of  the  Colombian  revolution, 
he  was  pureuing  the  study  of  law  in  Ca- 
raccas.  Having  concluded  his  studies 
there,  he  returned  to  Varinas  in  1812,  and 
obtained  the  office  of  chief  secretary  to 
the  provincial  legislature.  But  the  suc- 
cess of  Monteverde  dissolved  that  body, 
and  compelled  him  to  emigrate  into  New 
Grenada.  Here  he  joined  Bolivar  afi;er 
his  victories  in  Cucuta,  and,  making  a 
tender  of  his  services  as  a  volunteer,  Bo- 
hvar  appointed  him  his  secretary.  In 
this  capacity,  Briceilo  served  through  the 
campaign  of  1813.  After  the  disastrous 
battle  of  La  Puerta,  he  foUowed  Bolivar 
back  to  Carthagena,  and  continued  at- 
tached to  him,  as  secretary,  through  all 

VOL.  II.  23 


his  vicissitudes  of  fortune,  until  the  form- 
ation of  the  congi'ess  of  Angostura,  in 
1819.  At  this  period,  he  was  made  sec- 
retary of  war  and  the  marine,  with  the 
rank  of  colonel,  and  accompanied  the 
liberator  in  his  campaigns,  as  before.  In 
1821,  he  received  the  same  appointment 
under  the  constitution,  but  remained  at 
the  seat  of  government  when  Bolivar  de- 
parted for  the  campaign  of  Quito,  after 
having  been  confidentially  attached  to  his 
person  for  eight  years.  In  1823,  he  be- 
came general  of  brigade.  In  1825,  he 
resigned  his  office  of  secretary  of  war, 
and  was  succeeded  by  general  Soublette. 
{Restrepo^s  Colombia,  vi,  29.) 

Brick  is  a  sort  of  artificial  stone,  made 
principally  of  argillaceous  earth,  formed 
ill  moulds,  dried  in  the  sun,  and  baked  by 
burning.  The  use  of  unbumt  bricks  is 
of  great  antiquity.  They  are  found  in 
the  Roman  and  Grecian  monuments,  and 
even  in  the  ruins  of  Egypt  and  Babylon. 
They  were  dried  in  the  sun,  instead  of 
being  burned,  and  mixed  with  chopped 
straw,  to  give  them  tenacity.  On  account 
of  the  extreme  heat  and  dryness  of  the  cli- 
mate, they  acquired  a  great  hardness,  and 
have  lasted  for  several  thousand  years; 
but  they  are  unsuitable  for  more  northern 
latitudes.  The  most  common  bricks, 
among  tlie  Romans,  were  17  inches  long 
and  11  broad,  and,  in  later  periods,  they 
were  burned.  Modern  bricks  are  gener- 
ally about  twice  as  long  as  they  are  broad, 
and  twice  as  broad  as  they  are  thick; 
their  length  is  ordinarily  about  10  inches. 
The  best  are  made  of  a  mixture  of  argil- 
laceous earth  and  sand.  Their  red  color 
is  owing  to  the  presence  of  oxyde  of  iron, 
which  is  turned  red  by  burning. — The 
best  season  for  making  them  is  spring  or 
autumn,  since  the  process  of  drying  then 
takes  place  more  gradually  and  equably. 
The  clay  should  be  dug  in  autumn,  and 
exposed  to  the  influence  of  frost  and  rain. 
It  should  be  worked  over  repeatedly  with 
the  spade,  and  not  made  into  bricks  until 
the  ensuing  sprhig,  previously  to  which  it 
should  be  well  tempered  by  treading  it 
with  oxen,  or  by  a  horee  mill,  till  it  is  re- 
duced to  a  ductile  and  homogeneous 
paste.  The  clay  may  have  too  great  or 
too  small  a  proportion  of  argillaceous 
earth  or  of  sand  to  form  a  paste  of  proper 
consistency ;  it  will  then  be  necessary  to 
add  the  one  or  the  other,  as  the  case  may 
be.  Wlien  the  mass  has  thus  been  thor- 
oughly mixed,  the  moulder  throws  it  into 
the  mould,  presses  it  down  till  it  fills  all 
the  cavity,  and  removes  the  overplus  with 
a  stick.    The  bricks  are  then  arranged  on 


066 


BRICK— BRIDGE. 


hacks  to  dry,  disposed  diagonally,  to  al- 
low a  free  passage  to  the  air.  In  about 
nine  or  ten  days,  they  are  ready  for  the 
burning,  for  which  purpose  they  are 
formed  into  clamps  or  kilns,  having  flues 
or  cavities  at  the  bottom  for  the  insertion 
of  the  fuel,  and  interstices  between  them 
for  the  fire  and  hot  air  to  penetrate.  A 
lire  is  kindled  in  these  cavities,  and  grad- 
ually increased  for  the  first  12  hours,  af- 
ter which  it  is  kept  at  a  uniform  height 
for  several  days  and  nights,  till  the  bricks 
are  sufficiently  burned.  Much  care  is 
necessary  in  regulating  the  fire,  since  too 
much  heat  vitrifies  the  bricks,  and  too 
little  leaves  them  soft  and  friable. — 
Pressed  bricks  are  those  which,  after  be- 
ing moulded  in  the  common  manner,  are 
placed  in  a  machine,  and  subjected  to  a 
strong  pressure,  by  which  they  become 
regular  in  shape,  and  smooth,  and  more 
capable  of  resisting  the  action  of  the  at- 
mosphere.— Floating  bricks  are  so  called 
on  account  of  their  property  of  SAvimming 
on  the  water.  They  are  made  of  Agaric 
mineral,  or  fossil  farina,  which  is  found 
in  some  parts  of  the  U.  States.  Their 
infusibihty  at  the  highest  temperatures 
renders  them  useful  in  constructuig  rever- 
beratory  furnaces,  pyrometers,  and  maga- 
zines of  combustible  materials.  Their 
lightness  and  non-conducting  property 
render  them  particularly  useful  for  the 
construction  of  powder-magazines  on 
board  of  ships. 

Bridewell  Hospital,  situated  in 
Blackfriars,  Loudon,  is  now  used  as  a 
house  of  correction  for  dissolute  persons, 
idle  apprentices  and  vagrants.  The 
building  is  a  large  quadrangle,  one  side 
of  which  is  occupied  by  the  hall,  contain- 
ing a  picture  by  Holbein,  repi-esenting 
Edward  VI,  who  founded  the  hospital  in 
1553,  deUvering  the  charter  to  the  corpo- 
ration of  London.  The  other  sides  of 
tlie  quadrangle  are  occupied  by  tlie  mas- 
ters of  the  trades,  with  whom  several 
youths  are  placed  as  apprentices,  and  by 
the  prison,  where  disorderly  persons  are 
made  to  work  during  their  confinement. 

Bridge.  It  is  needless  to  investigate 
ancient  authors  for  a  description  of  the 
primitive  bridge,  as  its  origin  and  ele- 
ments are  to  be  found  in  uncultivated  na- 
tions of  modern  times.  Stepping-stones, 
in  shallow  rivers,  covered  with  planks 
from  stone  to  stone,  exhibit  the  incipient 
principles  of  piers  and  arches,  wliich  sci'' 
ence  has  brought  to  their  present  perfec- 
tion. In  deeper  rivers,  an  accumulation 
of  stones  forms  a  loftier  pier ;  and,  where 
the  opemngs  were  sufficiently  narrow. 


and  the  slabs  of  stone  sufficiently  long, 
or  the  art  and  strength  of  the  untaught 
architect  sufficient  to  the  task,  a  roadway 
was  formed  from  pier  to  pier,  hke  the 
Vitrtivian  architrave  of  the  primitive  Tus^ 
can  temple.     Witli  the  Greeks,  who  were 
a  more  maritime  people,  and  more  accus* 
tomed   to   navigation  than  the  Romans, 
there   is   no  doubt  that  ships  and  boats 
preceded,  if  they  di<l  not  supersede,  the 
use  of  bridges.     In  their  brightest  days, 
when  their  fine  style  of  architecture  was 
complete,    when    their    porticoes    were 
crowded  with  paintuigs,  and  their  streets 
with  statues,  the  people  of  Athens  wad- 
ed or  ferried    over    tlie    Cephisus,    for 
want  of  a  bridge.    The  Greeks  do  not 
seem  to  have  valued  the  construction  of 
the  arch  sufficiently  to  excel  in  bridge- 
building.      No    people    of    the    ancient 
world  carried  the  power  of  rearing  the 
stupendous    arch    and    the    magnificent 
dome  to  such  an  extent  as  the  Romans. 
After  the  construction  of  their  great  sew- 
ers, then*  aqueducts,  and  the  cupola  over 
the  Pantheon  of  JI.  Agi'ippa,  a  bridge 
over  the  Tiber  was  of  easy  execution ; 
and  the  invention  of  the  architecture  of 
stone  bridges,  as  practised  in  its  best  and 
most  eflfectual  manner,  must  be  conceded 
to  this   great  and   indefatigable    people. 
The  most  celebrated  bridges  of  ancient 
Rome  were  not  distinguished  by  the  ex- 
traordinary size  of  their  arches,  nor  the 
peculiar  lightness  of  their  piei-s,  but,  like 
the  rest  of  the  inagiiificent  works  of  this 
city,  as  far  as  construction  is  concerned, 
they  are  worthy  of  study  from  their  ex- 
cellence and  durability.     The  span  or 
chord  of  their  arches  seldom  exceeded 
70  or  80  ft;et,  and  tlie  versed   sine  or 
height  was  nearly  half  of  the  chord,  so 
that  they  were  mostly  semicircular,  or 
constituted  a  segment  nearly  of  that  form. 
— Among  the  most  celebrated  bridges  in 
modem  times,  or  those  built  subsequently 
to  the  destruction  of  the  Roman  empire, 
are  those  of  the  Moors  in  Spain,  who  im- 
itated and  rivalled  the  best  constructions 
of  the  Romans.    The  bridge  of  Cordova, 
over  the  Guadalquivir,  is  an  eminent  ex- 
ample of  their  success.    The  bridge  over 
the  Rhone,  at  Avignon, is  one  of  the  most 
ancient  bridges  of  modern   Euroi>e.    It 
was  built  by  a  reUpous  society,  called  the 
brethren  of  the  bridge,  which  was  estab- 
Ushed  upon  the  decline  of  the  second, 
and  the  commencement  of  the  third  race 
of  French  kings,  when  a  state  of  anarchy 
existed,  and  there  was  little  security  for 
travellers,  particularly  in  passing  rivers, 
on  which  they  were  subject  to  the  rapaci- 


BRIDGE. 


267 


ties  of  banditti.  The  object  of  this  soci- 
ety was,  to  put  a  stop  to  these  outrages, 
by  forming  fraternities  for  the  purpose  of 
building  bridges  and  estabhshing  ferries 
and  caravansaries  on  their  bapks.  The 
bridge  of  Avignon  was  commenced  in 
1176,  and  completed  in  1178.  It  was 
composed  of  18  arches.  The  length  of 
the  chord  of  the  largest  was  110  feet  9 
inches,  and  its  height  45  feet  10  inches. 
France  can  boast  of  many  fine  bridges, 
built  during  the  last  two  centuries. — In 
Great  Britain,  the  art  of  building  bridges 
apjjears  to  have  been  diligently  studied 
from  early  times.  The  most  ancient 
bridge  in  England  is  the  Gothic  triangu- 
lar bridge  at  Croyland  in  Lincolnsliire, 
said  to  have  been  built  in  860.  The  as- 
cent is  so  steep  that  none  but  foot-passen- 
gers can  go  over  it.  The  longest  bridge 
in  England  is  that  over  the  Trent  at  Bur- 
ton in  Staffordshire,  built  in  the  12th 
century,  of  squared  free-stone.  It  con- 
sists of  34  arches,  and  is  1545  feet  long. 
London  bridge  was  commenced  in  1176, 
and  was  incumbered  with  houses  for 
many  years.  These  were  removed  be- 
tween 1756  and  1758.  The  other  bridges 
over  the  Thames  are  highly  ornamental, 
as  well  as  necessary,  to  the  metropolis. 
Blackfriars  bridge  is  both  novel  and  hand- 
some in  design,  and  its  elliptical  arches 
ai-e  well  suited  to  its  situation,  but  its  ma- 
terial is  bad  and  perishuig.  This  bridge 
was  designed  and  erected  by  Robert 
Milne,  an  able  Scotch  architect.  It  was 
commenced  in  1760,  and  completed  in 
1771.  It  is  995^  feet  long,  and  43  feet  6 
inches  broad  between  the  parapets.  The 
centre  arch  is  100  feet  in  span,  and  41 
feet  6  inches  in  height.  Waterloo  bridge 
is  one  of  the  greatest  architectural  works 
of  our  times.  It  is  the  only  bridge  over 
the  Thames  which  has  a  flat  surface  in 
its  whole  com-se.  Its  length  is  1250  feet. 
It  consists  of  9  eUiptical  arches,  each  of 
120  feet  span,  and  32  feet  in  height. 
Westminster  bridge  is  one  of  the  hand- 
somest as  well  as  most  scientifically  con- 
structed bridges  in  Europe,  and  forms  an 
era  in  English  bridge  architecture,  from 
the  success  of  the  method  employed  in 
laying  the  foundations  in  deep  water  and 
a  rapid  current.  It  was  commenced  in 
1740,  and  completed  in  1750.  It  is  1220 
feet  long,  and  44  feet  between  the  para- 
pets, has  13  large  and  2  small  arches,  all 
semicircular.  The  middle  arch  is  76  feet 
in  span. 

Metal  bridges  are  the  invention  of 
British  artists.  The  true  elements  of 
their  construction  are  as  yet  but  unper- 


fectly  understood.  The  first  bridge  of 
cast-iron  ever  erected  is  that  over  the 
Severn,  about  two  miles  below  Colebrook- 
dale,  in  Shropshire.  It  is  an  arch  com- 
posed of  five  ribs,  forming  the  segment 
of  a  circle.  Its  chord  is  100  feet  long, 
and  its  height  45  feet.  It  was  erected  in 
1777.  The  second  cast-iron  bridge  was 
designed  by  Thomas  Paine,  the  famous 
pohtical  writer,  and  was  intended  to  have 
been  taken  to  America ;  but,  the  specula- 
tor faiUng  in  his  payments,  the  materials 
were  afterwards  used  in  constructing  tiie 
beautiflil  bridge  over  the  river  Wear  at 
Bishop's  Wearmouth,  in  the  county  of 
Durham.  The  chord  of  the  arch  is  240 
feet  long ;  the  height,  30  feet.  The  South- 
wark  or  Trafalgar  bridge  over  the  Thames 
at  London  is,  at  present,  the  finest  iron 
bridge  in  the  world.  It  consists  of  three 
arches.  The  chord  of  the  middle  arch  is 
240  feet  long,  and  its  height  24  feet. 
There  are  several  other  fine  bridges  of  this 
kind  in  England.  Mr.  Telford  proposed 
an  iron  arch  of  much  larger  dimensions 
than  any  now  existing,  to  take  the  place 
of  London  bridge.  The  length  of  the 
chord  was  to  be  600  feet,  and  its  height 
65.     The  plan  has  not  been  executed. 

Timber  bridges.  Timber  is  the  most 
ready,  and  perhaps  the  most  ancient  ma- 
terial used  for  the  construction  of  bridges. 
The  earliest  timber  bridge  on  record  is 
that  thrown  by  Julius  Csesar  over  the 
Rhine,  and  described  in  his  Commenta- 
ries. Germany  is  the  school  for  wooden 
bridges,  as  England  is  for  those  of  iron. 
The  most  celebrated  wooden  bridge  was 
that  over  the  Rhine  at  SchafFhausen. 
Tliis  was  364  feet  in  length,  and  18  feet 
broad.  The  plan  of  the  architect  was, 
that  the  bridge  should  consist  of  a  single 
arch.  The  magistrates  of  the  place,  how- 
ever, required  that  he  should  make  it  of 
two,  and  use  the  middle  pier  of  a  stone 
bridge,  which  had  previously  stood  there. 
He  did  so,  but  contrived  to  leave  it  doubt- 
ful whether  the  bridge  was  at  all  support- 
ed Ijy  the  middle  pier.  It  was  destroyed 
by  the  French,  in  April,  1799.  The 
same  architect  and  his  brother  have  also 
erected  several  otlier  fine  arched  wooden 
bridges.  Sevei-al  others  have  been  erect- 
ed, in  Germany,  by  Wiebeking,  perhaps 
the  most  ingenious  carpenter  of  our 
times. — In  the  United  States,  the  Trenton 
bridge  over  the  Delaware,  erected  by 
Burr  in  1804,  is  the  segment  of  a  circle 
345  feet  in  diameter.  Its  chord  measures 
200  feet ;  its  height,  or  versed  sine,  is  32 
feet,  and  the  height  of  the  timber  fi-aming 
of  the  arch,  at  its  vertex,  is  no  more  than 


268 


BRIDGE. 


2  feet  8  inches.  The  timber  bridge  over 
the  Schuylkill,  at  Philadelphia,  is  of  the 
extraordinary  span  of  340  feet.  The 
versed  sine  is  oidy  20  feet,  and  the  height 
of  the  wooden  framing,  at  the  vertex,  7 
feet.  Its  architect  was  Wemwag,  Avho 
built  it  in  1813.  The  bridge  built  by 
Palmer,  over  the  Piscataqua,  near  Ports- 
mouth, New  Hampshire,  in  1794,  is  the 
segment  of  a  circle  600  feet  in  diameter. 
Its  chord  line  measures  250  feet,  its  versed 
sine  27  feet  4  inches,  and  the  height  of 
the  timber  frame- work  of  the  arch  18  feet 

3  inches.  It  is  put  together  with  wooden 
keys.  The  same  ingenious  mechanic 
erected  two  other  wooden  bridges,  one 
over  the  Merrimack,  at  Deer  Island,  near 
Newburyport,  of  160  feet  diameter,  fin- 
ished in  17i^,  and  the  other  over  the 
Schuylkill  at  Philadelphia,  of  194  feet 
chord,  and  12  feet  versed  sine,  being  the 
segment  of  a  circle  796  feet  in  diameter. 
This  was  finished  in  1803. 

Pendent  bridges,  or  bridges  of  suspen- 
sion, although  held,  by  some  persons,  to 
be  a  modern  invention,  or  derived  from 
the  rope  bridges  of  South  America  and 
tiie  East  Indies,  were  in  use  in  Europe  in 
the  time  of  Scamozzi,  as  may  be  seen  in 
his  Del  Idea  Archi,  1615 ;  yet  the  princi- 
ples requisite  to  determine  the  structure 
of  this  khid  of  bridges  had  not  been  made 
public  before  the  time  of  Bernouilli. 
The  use  of  these  bridges  is  of  great  an- 
tiquity in  mountainous  countries.  The 
most  remarkable  bridge  of  suspension  in 
existence  is  that  lately  constructed  by  Mr. 
Telford  over  the  Menai  strait,  between 
the  isle  of  Anglesea  and  Caernarvonshire 
in  Wales.  It  was  finished  in  1825.  The 
roadway  is  100  feet  above  the  surface  of 
the  water  at  high  tide.  The  opening  be- 
tween the  pomts  of  suspension  is  560  feet. 
The  platform  is  about  30  feet  in  breadth. 
The  whole  is  suspended  from  4  lines  of 
strong  iron  cables  by  perpendicular  iron 
rods,  5  feet  apart.  The  cables  pass  over 
rollers  on  the  tops  of  pillars,  and  are  fixed 
to  iron  fi-ames  under  ground,  which  are 
kept  down  by  masonry.  The  weight  of 
the  whole  bridge,  between  the  points  of 
suspension,  is  489  tons.  There  are  sever- 
al other  bridges  of  suspension  in  Great 
Britain.  In  1814,  a  chain-bridge,  1000 
feet  long,  was  projected  by  Mr.  Telford, 
to  cross  the  Mersey  at  Liverpool,  but  it 
has  never  been  executed. — In  the  U. 
States,  such  bridges  are  to  be  found, 
though  not  of  the  dimensions  of  the  Eng- 
lish. That  over  the  Merrimack,  at  New- 
buryport, is  a  curve  whose  chord  meas- 
ures   244    feet.      That    over    the    river 


Brandywine,  at  Wilmington,  has  a  chord 
of  145  feet ;  that  at  Brownsville,  over  the 
Monongahela,  measures  120  feet  between 
the  points  of  suspension.  Another,  in  its 
vicinity,  forms  an  inverted  suspended 
arch,  Avith  a  chord  of  112  feet.  Besides 
these  there  are  some  others. 

The  following  remarks  -on  the  con- 
struction of  bridges  are  from  Bigelow's 
Technology,  (Boston,  1829):— The  con- 
struction of  small  bridges  is  a  simple  pro- 
cess, while  that  of  large  ones  is,  under 
certain  circumstances,  extremely  difficult, 
owing  to  tlie  fact,  that  the  strength  of  ma- 
terials does  not  increase  in  proportion  to 
their  weight,  and  that  there  are  limits, 
beyond  which  no  structure  of  the  kind 
could  be  earned,  and  Avithstand  its  own 
gravity.  Bridges  differ  in  their  constiTic- 
tion,  and  in  the  materials  of  which  they 
are  comj)osed.  The  principal  varieties 
ai-e  the  following : — 1.  Wooden  bridges. 
These,  when  built  over  shallow  and  slug- 
gish streams,  are  usually  supported  upon 
piles  driven  into  the  mud  at  short  distances, 
^or  upon  frames  of  timber.  But,  in  deep 
and  powerful  currents,  it  is  necessary  to 
supi)ort  them  on  strong  stone  piei-s  and 
abutments,  built  at  as  great  a  distance  as 
practicable  from  each  other.  The  bridge, 
between  these  piers,  consists  of  a  stiff' 
frame  of  carpentiy,  so  constructed,  with 
reference  to  its  material,  that  it  may  act 
as  one  piece,  and  may  not  bend,  or  break, 
with  its  own  weight  and  any  additional 
load  to  which  it  maybe  exposed.  When 
this  fi-ame  is  straight,  the  upper  part  is 
compressed  by  the  weight  of  the  whole, 
while  the  lower  part  is  extended,  hke  the 
tie-beam  of  a  roof.  But  the  strongest 
wooden  bridges  are  made  with  curved 
ribs,  which  rise  above  the  abutments  in 
the  manner  of  an  arch,  and  are  not  sub- 
jected to  a  longitudinal  Strain  by  exten- 
sion. These  ribs  are  commonly  connect- 
ed and  strengthened  with  diagonal  braces, 
keys,  bolts  and  straps  of  iron.  The  floor- 
ing of  the  bridge  may  be  either  laid  above 
them  or  suspended  by  trussing  under- 
neath them.  Wooden  bridges  are  com- 
mon in  this  country,  and  some  of  them 
are  of  large  size.  One  of  the  most  re- 
markable is  the  upper  Schuylkill  bridge 
at  Philadelphia,  already  mentioned. — 2. 
Stone  bridges.  These,  for  the  most  part, 
consist  of  regular  arches,  buUt  upon  stone 
piers  constructed  in  the  water,  or  upon 
abutments  at  the  banks.  Above  the 
arches  is  made  a  level  or  sloping  road. 
From  the  nature  of  the  material,  these 
are  the  most  durable  kuid  of  bridges,  and 
many  »re  now  standing,  which  were  built 


BRIDGE— BRIEF. 


369 


by  the  ancient  Romans.  The  stone  piers, 
on  which  bridges  are  supported,  require 
to  be  of  great  soUdity,  especially  when 
exposed  to  rapid  currents,  or  floating  ice. 
Piers  are  usually  built  with  their  greatest 
length  in  the  direction  of  the  stream,  and 
with  their  extremities  pointed  or  cuned, 
so  as  to  divide  the  water,  and  allow  it  to 
glide  easily  past  them.  In  building  piers. 
It  is  often  necessary  to  exclude  the  water 
by  means  of  a  coffer-dam.  This  is  a 
temporary  enclosure,  formed  by  a  double 
wall  of  piles  and  planks,  having  their 
uiterval  filled  with  clay.  Tlie  interior 
space  is  made  dry  by  pumping,  and  kept 
so  till  the  structure  is  finished. — 3.  Cast- 
iron  bridges.  These  have  been  construct- 
ed, in  England,  out  of  blocks  or  frames  of 
cast-iron,  so  shaped  as  to  fit  into  each  oth- 
er, and,  collectively,  to  form  ribs  and  arches. 
These  bridges  possess  great  strength,  but 
are  hable  to  be  distui'bed  by  the  ex])an- 
sion  and  contraction  of  the  metal  with 
heat  and  cold. — 4.  Suspension  bridges. 
In  these  the  flooring  or  main  body  of  the 
bridge  is  supported  on  strong  iron  chains 
or  rods,  hanghig,  in  the  form  of  an  invert- 
ed arch,  from  one  point  of  support  to  an- 
other. The  points  of  support  are  the  tops 
of  strong  pillars  or  small  towers,  erected 
for  the  purpose.  Over  these  pillars  the 
chain  passes,  and  is  attached,  at  each  ex- 
tremity of  the  bridge,  to  rocks  or  massive 
frames  of  iron,  firmly  secured  under 
ground.  The  great  advantage  of  sus- 
pension bridges  consists  in  their  stability 
of  equilibrium,  in  consequence  of  which 
a  smaller  amount  of  materials  is  necessary 
for  their  construction  than  for  that  of  any 
other  bridge.  If  a  suspension  bridge  be 
shaken,  or  throwii  out  of  equilibrium,  it 
returns  by  its  weight  to  its  proper  place, 
whereas  the  reverse  happens  in  bridges 
which  are  built  above  the  level  of  their  sup- 
porters.— 5.  Floating  bridges.  Upon  deep 
and  sluggish  water,  stationaiy  rafts  of  tim- 
ber are  sometimes  employed,  extending 
fit)m  one  shore  to  another,  and  covered 
with  planks,  so  as  to  form  a  passable  bridge. 
In  military  operations,  temporaiy  bridges 
are  often  formed  by  planks  laid  upon  boats, 
pontons,  and  other  buoyant  supporters. 

Bridgetown  ;  a  seaport  town,  and  cap- 
ital of  the  island  of  Barbadoes,  in  the 
West  Indies,  lying  in  the  S.  W.  part, 
and  in  the  parish  of  St.  Michael.  Lon. 
59°  40'  W. ;  lat.  13°  5'  N.  Population,  15 
or  20,000.  It  is  situated  on  the  innermost 
part  of  Carlisle  bay,  which  is  large  enough 
to  contaiii  500  ships,  being  4  miles  in 
breadth,  and  3  in  depth  ;  but  the  bottom 
is  foul,  and  apt  to  cut  the  cables.  It  suf- 
23* 


fered  greatly  by  fire,  on  Feb.  8th,  1756, 
3Iay  14th,  1766,  and  Dec.  27th,  1767, 
when  the  greatest  part  of  the  town  was 
destroyed ;  before  which  time,  it  had 
about  1500  houses,  mostly  brick,  very  ele- 
gant, and  said  to  be  the  finest  and  largest 
in  all  the  Caribbee  islands,  the  greatest 
part  of  which  have  been  rebuilt.  It  has 
a  college,  founded  hberally,  and  endowed 
by  colonel  Codrington.  Here  arc  com- 
modious wharves  for  loachng  and  unload- 
ing goods,  with  some  forts  and  castles. 
The  town  is  subject  to  hunicanes.  On 
the  east  side  of  the  town  is  a  small  fort  of 
eight  guns,  where  the  magazines  of  j)ow- 
der  and  stores  are  kept  under  a  strong 
gujud.  This  is  the  seat  of  the  governor, 
council,  assembly,  and  court  of  chancerj'. 

Bridgewater  ;  a  borough  town  in  the 
county  of  Somerset,  England,  on  the 
Parret,  over  which  is  an  iron  bridge. 
Although  the  town  is  12  miles  from  the 
sea,  the  tide  rises  six  fathoms  at  high  wa- 
ter, and  flows  in  \vith  such  impetuosity 
as  fi-equently  to  injure  the  shipping.  This 
rapid  motion  is  called  the  bore,  and  is  not 
uncommon  in  the  rivers  which  flow  into 
the  Bristol  channel,  (q,  v.)  It  has  little 
coasting,  but  considerable  foreign  trade. 
In  the  castle  built  by  king  John,  the  duke 
of  Monmouth  lodged,  and  was  here  pro- 
claimed king,  in  1685,  before  the  battle 
of  Sedgemoor,  which  was  fought  about 
three  miles  from  the  town,  B.  then  be- 
came the  theatre  of  Fevereham's  and  Jef- 
feries'  bai-barity.  The  borough  sends  two 
membei-s  to  parliament.  Population, 6155. 
Lon.  2°  59^  W. ;  lat.  51°  7'  N. 

Bridgewater  Canal.    (See  Canal.) 

Bridle  ;  the  head-stall,  bit  and  reins,  by 
which  a  horse  is  governed.  The  origin  of 
it  is  of  high  antiquity.  The  first  horse- 
men guided  their  horses  with  a  little  stick, 
and  the  sound  of  their  voice,  A  cord 
drawn  through  the  nose  is  sometimes  used 
for  other  animals.  The  ancient  Thes- 
salian  coins  often  represent  a  horse  with 
a  long  rein  trailing  on  the  ground.  The 
Romans  were  trained  to  fight  without 
bridles,  as  an  exercise  in  the  manege. 
On  Trajan's  column,  soldiei-s  are  thus 
represented  at  full  speed.  The  parts  of  a 
modem  bridle  are  the  snaffle  or  bit ;  the 
headstall,  or  leathers  from  the  top  of  the 
head  to  the  rings  of  the  bit ;  the  fillet, 
over  the  forehead,  and  under  the  forcrtop  ; 
the  throat-band,  which  buttons  under  the 
throat ;  the  reins  ;  the  nose-band,  buckled 
under  the  cheeks  ;  the  trench,  the  cavesan, 
the  martingal  and  the  chaff-lialter. 

Brief,  from  the  French  bref,  which 
comes  i'lom  the   Latin  brevis,  denotes  a 


270 


BRIEF— BRIENNE. 


thing  of  short  extent  or  duration.  It  is 
more  particularly  used  for  a  sununarj'  or 
short  statement. — Brief,  iu  law,  signifies 
an  abi-idgment  of  tlie  client's  case,  made 
out  for  the  instruction  of  counsel  on  a  trial. 
In  this,  the  case  of  the  party  is  to  be  con- 
cisely but  fully  stated ;  the  j)roofs  are  to 
be  placed  in  due  order,  and  projjer  an- 
swers made  to  whatever  may  be  objected 
against  the  cause  of  the  client.  In  pre- 
paring tiie  brief,  great  care  is  requisite, 
that  no  omission  be  made  which  may  en- 
danger the  case. — Briefs,  apostolical ;  WTit- 
ten  messages  of  the  pope,  addressed  to 
princes  or  magistrates,  respecting  matters 
of  pubhc  concern.  Such  brevia  as  are 
despatched  by  the  datani  or  secretarii,  and 
called  rescripts,  despatches,  concessio7is, 
mandates,  &c.,  ai'e  written  on  parchment, 
and  sealed,  with  the  fisher's  ring,  in  red  wax. 
Pastoral  letters,  directed  to  princes  and 
bishops,  are  without  seal.  These  papers 
derive  their  name  from  the  shortness  of 
their  formalities,  since  they  have  no  in- 
troductory preamble,  but  commence  with 
the  pope's  name,  and  these  words :  dilecto 
Jilio  salutem  el  apostolicam  benediciionetn. 
Briefs  are  not  subscribed  by  the  pope,  nor 
w  ith  his  name,  but  witli  tliat  of  his  secre- 
tary. 

Briel,  or  Brielle,  a  town  of  the  Neth- 
erlands, near  the  mouth  of  the  Maese, 
with  a  good  haibor,  well  built  and  strong- 
ly fortified.  It  is  remarkable,  in  historj', 
as  the  place  where  the  confederates  laid 
the  foundation  of  the  Dutcli  republic,  in 
1572.  Having  been  expelled  by  Alva 
from  the  Low  Countries,  they  equipped  a 
small  fleet  in  England,  and  were  carried 
accidentally,  by  an  unfavorable  wind,  to 
B.,  which  capitulated  to  them,  and  thus 
became  the  cradle  of  Dutch  liberty. — Van 
Tromp  was  bom  here. — ^The  population 
is  3200,  principally  engaged  in  the  fish- 
eries.   Lon.  4°  10'  E. ;  lat.  51°  54'  N. 

Brienne,  a  small  town  in  the  depart- 
ment of  the  Aube  (Upper  Champagne),  con- 
sists of  Brienne-la-Ville  and  Brienne-le- 
Chateaii,  containing  together  285  houses, 
and  3200  inhabitants,  with  a  number  of 
manufactories  and  vineyards.  In  the  mili- 
taiy  academy  for  young  noblemen,  for- 
merly existing  at  B.-le-Chaleau,  Napoleon 
received  his  first  instmction  in  the  mili- 
tary art.  B.  afterwards  became  celebrated 
as  the  scene  of  tlie  last  struggles  of  his 
long  and  oppressive  dommation.  There 
the  first  battle  within  the  boundaries  of 
France  was  gauied  by  the  allied  powers, 
the  last  trust  of  the  army  in  Napoleon 
shaken,  and  the  charm,  which,  it  was  sup- 
posed, would  render  the  French  invinci- 


ble at  their  own    hearths,  was  broken. 
The  way  to  Paris  and  the  overthrow  of 
the  iiii})erial  dignity  were  prepared.  After 
the  battle  at  Bar-sur-Aube  (Jan.  24, 1614), 
where  the  allied  armies  met  with  the  first 
resistance  after  their  entrj'  into  France 
by  tlie  way  of  Switzerland,  tliey  advanced 
rapidly.  Napoleon,  having  left  Paris,  com- 
pelled  Bliicher  to  retreat,  on  the  2Gth, 
near  Vitrj',  before  superior  numbci-s,  an»l 
concentrated  his  forces  on  the  28th  at  B. ; 
Schwarzenberg  took  up  his  position   at 
Chaumont,  Blucher  at  St.  Dizier,  Wrede 
at  Andelot,  and   Witgenstein   at   Vassy. 
On  the  29th,  the  French  made  an  impetu- 
ous attack  on  the  allies.    The  struggle 
on  both  sides  was  obstinate  and  bloody. 
Night   came    on,  but   the   flames  of  B., 
which  had  been  set  on  fire,  shed  their 
light  over  the  field  of  battle.     Greiieral 
Chateau,  with  two  battaUons,  had  taken 
tlie  castle  of  B.,  but  was  soon  forced  to 
relinquish  it.     The  battle  continued  till 
11  o'clock.    It  was  renewed  on  the  fol- 
lowing day,  and  Blucher  was  compelled, 
by  superior  numbers,  to  fall  back  upon. 
Trannes.    On  the  31st,  Napoleon  aiTayed 
his  whole  force  in  the  plains  between 
La  Rothiere  and  Trannes.    The  corps  of 
the  crown-prince  of  Wiirtemberg,  count 
Giulay,  and  the  Russian  reserves  of  gren- 
adiers, having  effected  a  junction  with 
Blucher  oil  tl>e  1st  of  Feb.,  prince  Schwar- 
zenberg gave   orders  to  commence  the 
battle.     About  noon,  Bliicher's  forces  ad- 
vanced m  three  columns ;  genera]  Sacken 
leading  one  upon  La  RothitVe,   Giulay 
another  upon  Dienville,  and  the  crown- 
prince    of    Wiirtemberg    another    upon 
Chaumreil.     In  the  mean  time,  general 
Wrede  took  up  his  line  of  maich  from 
Doulevent  upon  B.     Only  a  few  field- 
pieces  conld  be  brought  into  action,  on 
account  of  the  nature  of  the  ground  ;  but 
the  courage  of  the  soldiers  compensated 
for  tliis  deficiency.      The  cro\vn-j)rince 
of  Wiirtemberg  firet  drove  the  enemy  fi"om 
his  position,  which  was  covered  by  woods, 
and  deprived  him  of  the  important  jioint 
of  La  Gibrie.    Although  he  was  imme- 
diately assailed  in   this  position,  he   re- 
mained in  possession  of  it  after  a  strug- 
gle of  more  than  an  hour.     Giulay  took 
Unienville,  and  Sacken  forced  his  way  to 
La  Rothiere.     By  3  o'clock,  all  the  lines 
were  brought  into  action.    A  heavy  snow- 
storm silenced  for  a  moment  the  fire  of 
the  'artillerj',  but  could  not  paralyse  the 
activity  of  the  combatants.     Napoleon  di- 
rected all  tlie  operations  of  his  army,  and 
repeatedly  exposed  his  person,  with  a  full 
conviction  of  the  importance  of  success. 


BRIENNE— BRIGHTON. 


271 


The  allied-  monarchs,  also,  encouraged 
their  troops  by  theu"  presence  in  the  field. 
La  Rothiere  was  repeatedly  taken,  lost 
and  recovered.  Sacken  renewed  his  ef- 
forts to  gain  possession  of  it :  the  cavalry 
of  the  enemy  had  already  encountered 
tlie  bayonets  of  liLs  mfantry,  when  he  re- 
ceived succor.  The  French  cavalry  was 
forced  back  as  far  as  Old  B.,  and  threw 
the  infantry  into  disorder.  Sacken  took 
32  pieces  of  cannon.  Meantime,  Blucher 
had  brought  up  fresh  troops  against  La 
Rothiere,  and  ca])tured  that  jiosition.  The 
crown-prince  of  Wiiitemberg  got  pos- 
session of  Petit  Masnil,  Wrede  of  Chauin- 
reil,  Giulay  of  Dienville.  Tlie  victory 
was  decisive  for  the  allied  powers.  Dur- 
ing the  night,  the  French  retreated  on  all 
sides  upon  the  road  of  B.,  leaving  there  a 
small  detachment  as  a  rear  guard,  which, 
however,  on  the  following  morning,  was 
compelled  to  retreat  wth  the  main  armj'. 
The  loss  was  great  on  botli  sides.  The 
allies  took  60  pieces  of  cannon  and  a 
considerable  number  of  prisoners. 

Brie>>'e,  cardinal  de  Lomenie  de.  (See 
Lomenie.) 

Brig,  or  Brigantine  ;  a  square-rigged 
vessel,  with  two  masts.  The  term  is  ap- 
plied to  difterent  kinds  of  vessels,  by 
mariners  of  different  countries.  Tlie 
term  brigantme  is  also  applied  to  a  light, 
flat,  open  vessel,  with  10  or  15  oars  on  a 
side,  furnished  also  with  sails,  and  able  to 
cai'n,'  upwards  of  100  men.  The  rowers, 
being  also  soldiers,  have  their  muskets 
lyijig  ready  under  the  benclies.  Brigaii- 
tines  are  frequently  made  use  of,  especial- 
ly in  the  ^Icditcmuiean,  for  the  purpose 
of  piracy,  from  which  they  derive  their 
name.    They  are  very  fast  sailere. 

Brigade  ;  in  general,  an  indeterminate 
number  of  regiments  or  squadrons.  In 
die  English  army,  a  brigade  of  infantry 
is  generally  composed  of  3  regiments  ;  a 
brigade  of  lioi"se,  of  from  8  to  12  squad- 
rons ;  and  one  of  artillerj",  of  5  guns  and 
a  howitzer. — In  the  U.  States'  army,  the 
brigade  is  conimonly  composed  of  two, 
but  sometimes  of  more  regiments.  A 
number  of  brigades  form  a  division,  and 
several  divisions  an  army  corps.  A  biig- 
ade-niajor  is  the  chief  of  tlie  brigade-staff. 
A  brigadier-general  is  the  officer  who 
commands  a  brigade.  In  the  British  ser- 
vice, this  rank  is  now  abolished.  In  the 
U.  States'  ser\'ice,  he  is  next  in  rank  to 
the  major-general,  who  is  the  highest  of- 
ficer under  the  president,  as  commander- 
in-chief.  Brigadier-general  is  also  the 
title  of  the  chief  of  tlie  staff  of  an  army- 
corps.    In  the  French  military  language, 


brigade,  in  the  cavalry,  signifies  a  cor- 
poral's guard.  Hence  brigadier  signifies 
a  corporal. 

BRiGA:>jDi?fE ;  a  kind  of  defensive  armor, 
consisting  of  thin,  jointed  scales  of  plate, 
phant  and  easy  to  the  body. 

Briga>ti>e.    (See  Brig.) 

Brighella.    (See  Mask.) 

Bright,  in  painting ;  a  picture  is  said 
to  be  bright,  when  the  lights  so  much 
prevail  as  to  overcome  the  shadows,  and 
are  kept  so  clear  and  distinct  as  to  pro- 
duce a  brilUant  appearance. 

Brighthelmstone,  or  Brighton  ;  a 
seaport  town  in  the  countj'  of  Sussex, 
England,  much  resorted  to  for  sea-bath- 
ing. It  was  not  long  since  a  mere  village 
of  fishermen  ;  but,  under  the  patronage  of 
George  IV,  when  prince  of  Wales,  it  rap- 
idly increased,  and,  by  the  returns  of  1821, 
the  population  was  24,429.  It  is  situated 
on  a  gentle  eminence,  at  the  base  of  which 
is  the  Steine,  a  lawn  surrounded  with 
elegant  buildings.  The  Steine  jmd  ma- 
rine pai-ade  are  fashionable  promenades. 
The  esplanade,  extending  from  the  Steine 
to  the  j)ier,  which  is  1154  feet  long,  and 
supported  by  8  chains,  is  1250  feet  in 
length.  The  king  has  a  palace  here, 
called  the  marine  pavilion.  B.  contains 
several  public  libraries  and  reading-rooms, 
and  hot,  cold,  vapor  and  salt-water  baths, 
air-pump  water  baths,  for  the  gout  and 
violent  scorbutic  affections,  and  a  swim- 
ming bath.  The  streets  are  clean  and 
well  paved,  and  the  hotels  numerous  and 
well  fitted  up.  Travellers  embark  hence, 
in  the  steam-packets,  for  France.  The 
number  of  visitoi-s  is  greatest  towards  the 
end  of  July.  B.  is  52  miles  south  of 
London. 

Brighton,  in  England.  (See  Bright- 
helmstone.) 

Brighton;  a  post-town  in  Middlesex 
county,  Massachusetts,  4i  miles  west  of 
Boston.  Population,  in  1820,  702.  It  is 
a  pleasant  town,  and  contains  a  number 
of  elegant  country  seats. — A  cattle  fair 
was  begun  here  during  the  revolutionar}- 
war,  and  has  been  increasing  since  the 
peace  of  1783.  Most  of  the  cattle  for  the 
supply  of  Boston  market  are  driven  to 
this  place.  Oflien  fi-om  2  to  3000,  and  even 
5000,  have  come  m  one  week  ;  and  sheep, 
also,  in  great  numbers. — -In  1816,  the  trus- 
tees of  the  Massachusetts  agricultural 
society  commenced  a  cattle-show  and  ex- 
hibition of  domestic  manufactures  at  this 
place ;  and  a  commodious  house,  70  feet 
by  36,  has  been  erected,  for  the  accommo- 
dation of  the  trustees,  and  the  exhibition 
of  cloths,  implements  of  husbandry,  &c. 


272 


BRILLIANT— BRISACH. 


Brilliant.  (See  Dianumd.) 
Brimstone.  Sulphur  (q.  v.),  as  first 
obtained,  is  mixed  with  foreign  bodies, 
and,  for  the  purpose  of  purification,  is 
mehed  in  a  close  vessel,  by  wliich  the 
impurities  are  allowed  to  subside.  It  is 
tlien  poured,  in  the  liquid  state,  into  cylin- 
drical moulds,  in  which  it  becomes  hard, 
and  is  known  in  commerce  by  the  name 
of  roU  brimstone. — ^The  Jewish  history 
(Gen.  xix,  24)  relates  that  Sodom  and 
Gomorrah  were  destroyed  by  fire  and 
brimstone  fi-om  heaven.  Showers  of  fire 
have  been  observed  by  Bergmann  (occa- 
sioned by  electricity)  ( Geog.  Physique  ii, 
45,  §  115),  and  showers  of  brimstone  may 
be  produced  fi-om  the  sulphuric  acid 
which  exists  in  the  atmosphere. 

Brindley,  James,  a  native  of  Tunsted, 
near  Wormhill,  Derbyshire,  an  eminent 
engineer  and  mechanic,  was  bom  in  1716. 
The  poverty  of  his  family  prevented  his 
receiving  more  than  the  rudiments  of 
education,  and,  at  17,  he  became  appren- 
tice to  a  millwright.  On  the  expiration 
of  his  indentures,  he  conunenced  busi- 
ness as  an  engineer,  and,  m  1752,  dis- 
played great  talent  in  contriving  a  wa- 
ter-engine for  draining  a  coal-mine.  A 
silk-mill,  which  he  constructed  on  a  new 
plan,  and  other  works  of  the  same  de- 
scription, introduced  him  to  the  patronage 
of  the  duke  of  Bridgewater,  then  occupied 
in  planning  a  communication  between  bis 
estate  at  Worsley  and  the  towns  of  Man- 
chester and  Liverpool  by  water.  Tliis 
immense  work,  the  idea  of  which  was 
ridiculed  by  most  of  the  scientific  men 
of  the  period  as  impracticable,  B.  under- 
took, and,  by  means  of  an  aqueduct  over 
valleys,  rivers,  &c.,  completed,  so  as  to 
form  a  junction  with  the  Mersey.  This 
success  caused  him  to  be  employed,  in 
1766,  to  unite  the  Trent  and  Mersey, 
uix)n  which  he  commenced  the  "grand 
trunk  navigation  canal,"  but,  dying  before 
its  completion,  the  work  was  finished,  in 
1777,  by  his  brother-in-law,  Mr.  Henshaw. 
From  this  main  branch  B.  also  cut  an- 
other canal  near  Haywood  in  StaflTord- 
shire,  uniting  it  with  the  Severn  in  the 
vicinity  of  Bewdley,  and  finished  it  in 
1772.  From  this  period  scarcely  any 
work  of  the  kind  in  the  kingdom  was 
entered  upon  without  his  superinten- 
dence or  advice.  Among  other  designs, 
he  prepared  one  for  draining  the  fens  in 
Lincolnshire  and  the  Isle  of  Ely,  and 
another  for  clearing  the  Liverpool  docks 
of  mud,  which  was  especially  successful. 
The  variety  of  his  inventions,  and  the 
fertiUty  of  his  resources,  were  only  equal- 


led by  the  simplicity  of  the  means  with 
which  he  carried  his  expedients  into 
effect.  He  seldom  used  any  model  or 
drawing,  but,  when  any  material  difficulty 
intervened,  generally  retired  to  bed,  and 
there  meditated  on  the  best  mode  of 
overcoming  it.  On  such  occasions,  he 
has  been  known  to  seclude  himself  for 
days;  and  so  partial  was  he  to  inland 
navigation,  that  he  is  said,  to  a  question 
humorously  put  to  him  on  his  examina- 
tion before  tlie  house  of  commons,  "  For 
what  purpose  did  he  consider  rivers  to 
have  been  created,"  at  once  to  have  re- 
plied, "Undoubtedly  to  feed  navigable 
canals."  The  intensity  of  his  application 
to  business  brought  on  a  hectic  fever,  of 
which  he  died  in  1772. 

Bring-to  ;  to  check  the  course  of  a 
ship,  when  she  is  advancing,  by  arranging 
the  sails  in  such  a  manner,  that  they  shall 
counteract  each  other,  and  prevent  her 
fi*om  moving  forward  or  backward.  In 
tliis  situation,  she  is  said  to  lie  to,  having 
some  of  her  sails  aback,  to  oppose  tlie 
force  of  those  which  are  full. 

Brinkmann,  Charles  Gustavus,  one  of 
the  most  eminent  living  scholars  of  Swe- 
den, bom  in  1764,  was  for  a  long  time 
ambassador  in  France  (in  the  time  of  the 
republic),  England  and  Germany.  He 
now  fives  retired  in  Stockholm,  and  keeps 
up  an  extensive  correspondence  with 
many  of  the  most  distinguished  persons 
of  our  times.  He  carried  on  a  lively  cor- 
respondence with  the  baroness  de  Stafil. 
He  is  distinguished  in  the  literarj'  world 
by  works  in  German  as  well  as  in  Swe- 
dish. 

Brion,  Luis,  a  native  of  the  island  of 
Cui-aQoa,  distinguished  for  his  love  of 
freedom,  early  took  part  with  the  patri- 
ots of  Carthagena.  When  Bolivar  set 
on  foot  the  celebrated  enterprise  against 
Margarita,  the  command  of  the  maritime 
forces  was  intrusted  to  Brion,  who,  being 
possessed  of  considerable  property,  con- 
tributed largely  fi-om  his  private  resources 
towards  defitiying  the  expenses  of  the 
expedition.  He  had  previously  sen'ed 
on  board  the  republican  flotilla,  and  re- 
ceived the  privileges  of  citizenship  in  ac- 
knowledgment of  his  braveiy  and  con- 
duct, and  continued  to  be  actively  engag- 
ed in  the  naval  operations  of  the  patriots 
until  near  the  close  of  the  war.  (See 
Colombia.) 

Brisach,  Old ;  a  town  of  the  gi-and- 
duchy  of  Baden,  once  included  in  the 
Brisgau,  formerly  on  the  west  side  of  the 
Rhine,  but,  since  the  river  changed  its 
course,  near  the  east  bank.    It  was  for' 


BRISACH— BRISTOL. 


273 


merly  a  very  strong  place,  and  has  sus- 
tained several  sieges. — New  B.  is  in  the 
department  of  tlie  Upper  Rhine,  m  France, 
on  the  west  side  of  the  river.  Vauban 
fortified  it  in  1699,  and  it  is  considered 
one  of  his  master-pieces.  It  is  30  miles 
south  of  Strasburg. 

Briseis.    (See  Achilles.) 

Brisgau,  also  Breisgau,  with  the  dis- 
trict of  Ortenau,  formerly  constituted  a 
landgravjate  in  the  south-western  jiart  of 
Suabia,  between  the  Schwartz waJd  and 
the  Rhine.  This  is  one  of  the  most  fer- 
tile parts  of  Germany,  containing  1,272 
square  miles,  and  140,000  inhabitants. 
Though  chiefly  in  possession  of  Austria 
since  the  15th  centuiy,  it  was  governed 
by  its  own  laws.  At  the  peace  of  Lune- 
ville,  1801,  Austria  ceded  B.,  one  of  the 
oldest  possessions  of  the  house  of  Haps- 
biirg,  to  the  duke  of  Modena,  after  whose 
death  it  fell  to  his  son-in-law,  the  arch- 
duke Ferdinand  of  Austria,  as  duke  of 
Brisgau.  By  the  peace  of  Presburg, 
1805,  it  was  assigned  to  Baden,  with  the 
exception  of  a  small  part,  and  still  be- 
longs to  the  grand-duchy. 

Brissac.     (See  Cosse.) 

Brissot  de  Warville,  Jean  Pierre ; 
born  in  1754,  at  Ouarville,  a  village  in 
the  vicinity  of  Chartres,  where  his  father, 
a  pastry-cook,  and  keeper  of  an  ordinary, 
possessed  a  small  estate.  This  circimi- 
stance  led  him  to  assume  the  surname 
d'Ouarville,  which  he  afterwards,  while 
in  England,  changed  into  de  Warville. 
At  the  age  of  20,  he  had  already  publish- 
ed several  works,  for  one  of  which  he 
was  thrown  into  the  Bastile,  in  1784. 
Madame  de  Grenlis,  in  her  memoirs,  says, 
that  she  procured  his  liberty  through  her 
influence  with  the  duke  of  Chartres.  He 
married  one  of  the  household  of  madame 
d'Orleans,  and  went  to  England,  where 
he  was  in  the  pay  of  the  lieutenant  of 
the  police  in  Paris.  At  the  same  time,  he 
was  engaged  in  literary  pursuits,  and  at- 
temj)ted  to  establish  a  lyceum  in  London ; 
but,  being  disappointed  in  his  plans,  he 
returned  to  France.  In  1788,  he  travel- 
led in  America,  as  it  is  asserted,  to  study 
the  principles  of  democracy.  After  his 
return,  he  published,  in  1791,  a  work  on 
the  United  States.  On  the  convocation 
of  the  states  general,  he  published  several 
pamphlets  in  Paris,  and  afterwards  a 
journal — the  French  Patriot.  When  the 
municipal  government  of  Paris  was  es- 
tablished, July,  1789,  he  was  one  of  the 
members,  and  was  one  of  the  principal 
instigators  of  the  revolt  of  the  Champ 
de  Mars,    where   the  dethronement  of 


Louis  XVI  and  the  estabhshment  of  a 
republican  constitution  were  demanded. 
He  constantly  displayed  a  hostile  dispo- 
sition towards  foreign  powers,  and  the 
first  declaration  of  war  against  Austria 
was  owing  to  him.  On  the  10th  of  Au- 
gust, the  new  ministry'  was  almost  entirely 
composed  of  his  partisans.  In  the  con- 
vention, he  was  at  the  head  of  the  diplo- 
matic committee,  in  the  name  of  which 
he  made  a  motion  for  war  against  Eng- 
land and  Holland.  On  the  trial  of  Louis 
XVI,  he  endeavored  to  refer  the  sentence 
to  the  decision  of  the  people,  and  voted 
for  the  kuig's  death,  proposing,  at  the 
same  time,  that  the  execution  should  be 
deferred  till  the  constitution  should  be 
sanctioned  by  the  whole  people  in  pri- 
mary assemblies.  In  the  midst  of  the 
revolutionary  ferment,  the  ground  where- 
on his  party  stood  was  insensibly  under- 
mined. After  several  charges  had  been 
brought  against  him,  RobespieiTe  accused 
him.  May  28,  1793,  of  favoring  a  federa- 
tive constitution,  with  two  parUaments, 
&c.,  and  demanded  that  he  should  be 
brought  before  the  revolutionary  tribunal. 
The  31st  of  May  completed  his  ruin. 
He  endeavored  to  reach  Switzerland  in 
the  disguise  of  a  merchant  of  Neufchatel, 
but  was  aiTested  at  MouUns,  and  led  to 
the  guillotine,  in  Paris,  October  31,  at  the 
age  of  39.  He  was  a  great  admirer  of 
the  Americans,  assumed  the  habits  of 
the  Quakers,  and  introduced  the  fashion 
of  wearing  the  hair  without  powder.  His 
personal  qualities  were  below  his  fame  : 
he  was  indeed  a  leader  among  the  Girond- 
ists, but  many  others  of  this  party  were 
far  superior  to  him  in  courage  and  talents. 

Brissotins,  or  Brissotists  ;  a  name 
sometimes  given  to  the  Girondists  (q.  v.), 
from  the  subject  of  the  preceding  article. 

Bristol  ;  a  city  and  county  of  England, 
situated  on  the  Avon.  The  river  is  here 
deej)  and  rapid,  and  the  tide  flows  to  the 
height  of  40  feet,  so  that  a  vessel  of  1000 
tons  can  come  uj)  to  the  city.  It  was 
constituted  a  bishop's  see  by  Henry  VIII, 
and  part  of  a  monastery  founded  by  Ste- 
phen, in  1140,  has  been  converted  into  a 
cathedral.  The  church  of  St.  Mary's, 
RedchfFe,  is  one  of  the  finest  Gk)thic 
structures  in  the  kingdom.  The  city  has 
long  been  distinguished  for  its  well  con- 
ducted and  extensive  charities,  and  is 
adorned  with  many  handsome  public 
buildings.  Manufoctories  of  glass  and 
sugar,  distilleries  and  brass-works,  the 
largest  in  England,  give  employment  to 
many  of  its  inhabitants.  Its  foreign  trade 
is  also  considerable,  principally  to  the 


274 


BRISTOL— BRITAIN. 


West  Indies.    It  returns  2  members  to 
parliament,  and  is  governed  by  a  mayor, 
2  sheriffs,  12  aldermen,  and  28  common 
councilmen.    Here  the  famous  Chatterton 
was  born :  his  father  M'as  sexton  of  St. 
Mary's.    About  a  mile  from  B.  stands  the 
village  of  the  Hot- Wells,  famous  for  its 
medicinal    spring,  the    temperature    of 
which  is  from  72°  to  76° :  it  discharges  60 
gallons  a  minute.    The  Hot-Wells,  and 
the  village  of  Clifton,  on  the  hill  above, 
are  fashionable  resorts.    At  the  time  of 
the  earthquake  at  Lisbon,  in   1755,  the 
water  of  the  spring  became  red  and  tur- 
bid, the  tide  of  the  Avon  flowed  back, 
and  the  water  in  the  vicinity  turned  black, 
and  was  unfit  for  use  for  a  fortnight.    The 
extensive  commerce  and  fine  harbor  of 
B.  rendered  it  desirable  to  obviate  the  in- 
convenience attending  ships  lying  aground 
at  every  tide.    By  constructing  extensive 
works,  and  opening  a  new  channel  for  the 
'   Avon,  the  flux  and  reflux  of  the  tide  at 
the  quays  have  been  prevented,  and  mer- 
chant-ships of  any  burden  may  now  con- 
stantly lie  afloat      B.  is  very  ancient, 
Gilda3  mentions  it,  in  430,  as  a  fortified 
city.    By  the  Britons  it  was  called  Catr 
Brito,  and  by  the  Saxons  Brightstowe,  or 
Pleasant  Place.    It  was  erected  into  an 
independent  county  by  Edward  III,  in 
1372,  and  has  since  been  endowed  with 
various  privileges.    All  persons  are  free 
to  trade  here,  and  the  markets  are  un- 
equalled in  plenty  and  variety  by  any  in 
England.    Many  of  the  houses  in  the 
older  part  of  the  town  are  built  of  wood, 
and  crowded  together  in  narrow  streets, 
but  those  of  more  recent  erection  are  of 
brick  and  stone,  and  disposed  in  spacious 
streets  and  squares.    The  common  sew- 
ers, which  run  through  the  town,  render 
»     it  remarkably  clean.    Carts  are  not  ad- 
mitted into  the  city  for  fear  of  damaging 
the  arches  of  vaults  and  gutters  under  the 
streets,  and  every  thing  is  conveyed  by 
sledges.    The  population,  in  1821,  includ- 
ing the  suburbs,  was  52,889.     It  is  117 
mUes  west  from  London  5  Ion.  2°  46'  W. ; 
lat.  51°  3^  N. 

Bristol  (Indian  names,  Pocanocket 
and  Sowam) ;  a  seaport  town,  and  capital 
of  a  county  of  the  same  name  in  Rhode 
Island,  on  the  continent:  15  miles  S. 
-  Providence,  15  N.  Nevqjort,  56  S.  S.  W. 
Boston  ;  Ion.  71°  12'  W. ;  lat.  41°  38'  N. ; 
population,  in  1820,  3197.  It  is  a  very 
pleasant  town,  finely  situated,  and  hand- 
somely built,  has  a  safe  and  commodious 
harbor,  and  is  a  place  of  considerable 
trade.  The  shipping  belonging  to  this 
port  in  1820  amounted  to  10,701  tons. 


The  trade  is  chiefly  to  the  West  Indies 
and  to  Europe.  It  contains  a  court- 
house, a  jail,  a  market-house,  a  masonic 
hall,  an  academy,  a  public  library,  con- 
taining about  1400  volumes,  and  four 
houses  of  public  worship.  Great  qujmti- 
ties  of  onions  are  raised  here  for  exporta- 
tion. Mount  Hope,  which  Ues  two  miles 
N.  E.  of  Bristol,  within  the  township,  is  a 
pleasant  hill  of  a  conical  form,  and  is  fa- 
mous for  having  been  the  residence  of  the 
Indian  king  PhiUp. 

Bristol  Channel  ;  an  arm  of  the  Irish 
sea,  extending  between  the  southern  shores 
of  Wales  and  the  western  peninsula  of 
England,  and  terminating  in  the  estuary 
of  the  Severn.  It  is  about  90  miles  long, 
and  from  15  to  50  miles  wide.  It  is  re- 
markable for  its  high  tides  and  the  rapid- 
ity with  which  tliey  rise.  (See  Bridge- 
water.) 

Britain,  according  to  Aristotle,  was 
the  name  which  the  Romans  gave  to 
modem  England  and  Scotland.  This 
appellation  is,  perhaps,  derived  from  the 
old  word  brit,  party-colored,  it  havuig  been 
customary  with  the  inhabitants  to  paint 
their  bodies  with  various  colors.  Ac- 
cording to  the  testimony  of  Pliny  and 
Aristotle,  the  island,  in  the  remotest  times, 
also  bore  the  name  of  ./3Zfcion.  (q.  v.)  The 
sea,  by  which  B.  is  surrounded,  was  gen- 
erally called  the  Western,  the  JUlantic,  or 
the  Hesperian  ocean.  Until  the  time  of 
Csesai*,  B.  was  totally  unknown  to  the 
Romans.  But  the  Phoenicians,  Greeks 
and  Carthaginians,  especially  the  first, 
were  acquainted  with  it  from  the  eariicst 
period,  being  accustomed  to  obtain  tin 
there.  On  this  account,  they  called  it 
Tin  island,  as  Herodotus  informs  us. 
Caesar  undertook  two  expeditions  to  B. 
He  defeated  tlie  inhabitants,  whom  he 
found  entirely  savage,  and  continued  a 
short  time  on  the  island.  It  was  not, 
however,  until  the  time  of  Claudius,  that 
the  Romans  gained  a  firm  footing  there. 
At  that  period,  they  extended  their  pos- 
sessions in  the  country,  and  called  the 
territory  under  their  dominion  Britannia 
Romana.  The  most  important  acquisi- 
tions were  afterwards  made  under  Adrian 
and  Constantine.  At  last,  the  inhabitants 
assumed  the  manners  of  their  conquerors. 
The  country  wqis  very  populous  in  the 
time  of  Csesar,  and,  according  to  the  tes- 
timony of  Tacitus,  fertile.  It  was  divided 
into  Britannia  Romana  and  B.  Barbara. 
The  Romans,  firom  the  time  of  Adrian, 
anxiously  endeavored  to  secure  the  for- 
mer against  the  invasions  of  the  barbari? 
ansjby  a  wall  or  rampart  of  earth  fortified 


BRITAIN— BRITANNICUS  CAESAR. 


375 


with  turrets  and  bulwarks.  Lollius  Urbi- 
cus,  in  the  reign  of  Antoninus,  extended 
this  wall ;  but  Septimius  Severus  restored 
its  former  limits.  In  his  time,  the  Ro- 
man province  was  divided  into  the  east- 
ern (prima,  or  inferior)  and  the  western 
part  {secunda,  or  superior).  Two  prov- 
inces were  added  by  Constantine.  Tlie 
jnliabitants  of  ancient  B.  derived  their 
origin  partly  from  an  original  colony  of 
Celtae,  partly  from  a  mixed  body  of  Gauls 
and  Germans.  The  Celtic  colonists,  or 
the  Britons,  properly  so  called,  living  in 
the  interior  of  the  country,  had  less  inter- 
course with  foreign  merchants  than  the 
Gauls,  who  Uved  along  the  coasts.  They 
are  therefore  represented  by  the  Romans 
as  less  civilized.  The  Gallic  uihabitants, 
who  had  settled  nearer  the  sea-coast,  pos- 
sessed some  property,  and  were  therefore 
more  easily  intimidated  than  those  tribes 
that  were  dispersed  through  the  forests. 
None  of  them  cultivated  the  ground : 
they  all  Uved  by  raising  cattle  and  hunt- 
ing. Their  dress  consisted  of  skins. 
Then*  habitations  were  huts  made  of 
wicker-work  and  covered  with  rushes. 
Their  priests,  the  Druids,  together  with 
the  sacred  women,  exercised  a  kind  of 
authority  over  them.  (For  the  modem 
kingdom  of  Great  Britaui,  see  Great 
Britain.) 

Britain,  New ;  a  group  of  islands  be- 
longing to  Australia  (q.  v.),  and  separated 
by  Dampier's  strait  from  New  Guinea. 
The  situation  of  these  islands  has  not 
been  very  exactly  ascertained ;  but  they 
stretch  from  about  1°  3(y  to  6°  S.  lat.,  and 
from  148°  to  153°  E.  Ion.  Their  extent 
is  equally  uncertain.  Some  geographers 
uiclude  in  this  group  the  island  of  the 
same  name.  New  Ireland,  New  Hanover, 
Admiralty  islands,  and  some  smaller  ones. 
Some  of  the  group  are  volcanic.  The 
natives  are  Papuas,  and  manage  their  ca- 
noes, some  of  which  are  80  feet  long, 
with  great  skill.  They  are  black ;  their 
hair  is  curled  and  woolly ;  but  they  have 
neither  the  thick  lips  nor  the  flat  noses  of 
tlie  Negroes.  Those  of  the  Admiralty 
islands  are  gentle  and  peaceful ;  those  of 
New  Holland  are  warlike.  The  islands 
contain  some  high  mountains,  covered 
with  lofty  trees  to  their  summits.  The 
bread-fruit-tree,  tlie  fig-tree,  pepper,  aloes, 
nutmeg,  &c.,  are  found  here.  The  seas 
abound  in  coral  reefs,  which  often  render 
tlie  navigation  dangerous.  Dampier  first 
discovered  that  this  archipelago  was  sep- 
arate from  New  Guinea.  Carteret  first 
showed  that  New  Ireland  was  separated 
from  New  Britain  by  the  strait  which  he 


called  St.  George's  channel.  These  islands 
have  been  also  visited  by  d'Entrecasteaux, 
Bougainville,  Hunter,  &c.  (See  LabU- 
lardiere's  Voyage,  2  vols.,  4to.,  1798.) 

Britain,  New ;  a  vast  country  of  North 
America,  lying  round  Hudson's  bay,  north 
and  north-west  of  Upper  and  Lower  Can- 
ada, comprehending  Labrador, New  North 
Wales  and  New  South  Wales,  attached  to 
the  government  of  Lower  Canada,  and 
belonging  to  Great  Britaui. — The  face  of 
the  country  is  various.  On  the  south- 
west of  Hudson's  bay,  from  Moose  river 
to  Churchill's  river,  in  some  parts,  for  the 
distance  of  600  miles  inland,  the  country 
is  flat,  marshy,  and  wooded,  in  many 
parts,  with  pines,  birch,  larch  and  wil- 
lows. North  of  Churchill's  river,  and  on 
the  eastern  coast,  it  is  high,  rocky  and 
ban-en,  every  where  unfit  for  cultivation, 
covered  with  masses  of  rock  of  amazing 
size,  composed  of  fruitless  valleys  and 
frightful  mountains,  some  of  tlicni  of 
great  height.  The  valleys  are  full  of 
lakes  formed  by  rain  and  snow,  and  are 
covered  with  stunted  trees,  pines,  fir,  birch 
and  cedar,  or  juniper.  The  mountains 
have  here  and  there  a  blighted  shrub,  or 
a  little  moss.  The  chmate  is  extremely 
severe,  and,  in  lat.  60.,  on  the  coast,  veg- 
etation ceases. — The  principal  rivei-s  are 
Mackenzie's  river,  Copper-Mine  river, 
Nelson's,  Churchill's,  Albany,  Moose, 
Seal,  Severn,  Rupert  and  Pokerekesko. 
The  most  considerable  lakes  are  Winni- 
peg, Slave  lake.  Great  Bear  lake,  and 
Athapescow. — The  principal  article  of 
trade  is  fur.  The  trade  is  earned  on  by 
two  companies,  who  have  several  forts, 
viz.  forts  Prince  of  Wales,  Chi])peyan, 
Alexandria,  Churchill,  Albany,  Nelson, 
Severn,  &c. — The  wild  animals  are  nu- 
merous, such  as  bears,  beavers,  deer, 
raccoons,  &c.  The  Esquimaux  Indians 
occupy  the  coasts  of  Labrador :  the  inte- 
rior is  inhabited  by  various  tribes  of  a  di- 
minutive and  miserable  race. 

Britannicds  CiESAR  (Tibcrfus  Claudi- 
us Germanicus),  son  of  the  emperor 
Claudius  and  Messalina,  was  bom  a  few 
days  after  the  accession  of  Claudius  to 
the  throne.  After  the  return  of  the  em- 
peror from  his  expedition  to  Britain,  the 
surname  Britannicus  was  bestowed  on 
the  father  and  son.  As  the  eldest  son  of 
the  emperor,  B.  was  the  legitimate  heir 
to  the  throne ;  but  Claudius  was  prevailed 
upon  by  his  second  wife,  the  ambitious 
Agrippina,  to  adopt  Domitius  Nero,  her 
son  by  a  former  marriage,  who  was  three 
years  older  than  B.,  and  declare  him  liis 
successor.     The  venal   senate  gave  its 


276 


BRITANNICUS  CAESAR— BRITTANY. 


consent  In  the  mean  time,  Agrippina, 
under  the  pretext  of  motherly  tenderness, 
strove  to  keep  B.,  as  mucli  as  possible, 
in  a  state  of  Imbecility.  She  removed 
his  servants,  and  substituted  her  own 
creatures.  Sosibius,  his  tutor,  was  mur- 
dered by  her  contrivance.  She  did  not 
permit  him  to  appear  beyond  the  pre- 
cincts of  the  palace,  and  even  kept  him 
out  of  his  father's  sight,  under  the  pre- 
tence that  he  was  insane  and  epileptic. 
Although  the  weak  emperor  showed  that 
he  penetrated  the  artifices  of  Agrippina, 
yet  his  death,  of  which  she  was  the  au- 
thor, prevented  him  from  retrieving  his 
error.  Nero  was  proclaimed  emperor, 
while  B.  continued  in  close  confinement. 
In  a  dispute  with  Nero,  Agrippina  threat- 
ened to  place  B.,  who  was  tlien  14  years 
old,  on  the  throne,  upon  which  Nero 
caused  him  to  be  poisoned. 

Britinians  ;  a  body  of  monks  of  the 
order  of  St.  Augustiije,  who  received  their 
name  fi-om  Britini,  in  Ancona,  which  was 
the  place  of  their  institution.  Their  man- 
ner of  living  was  very  austere.  They  ab- 
stained from  all  kinds  of  meat,  and  fasted 
from  the  festival  of  tlie  Exaltation  of  the 
Cross  to  Easter,  besides  observing  the 
fasts  prescribed  by  the  church,  wliich 
they  were  strictly  enjoined  to  do  by  the 
rules  of  their  order.  Their  dress  was 
gray ;  and,  to  distinguish  themselves 
from  the  Minorites,  they  wore  no  ^rdle. 
When  Alexander  IV,  in  1256,  eftected 
the  union  of  the  different  congregations 
of  the  order  of  St.  Augustme,  the  Britini- 
ans  became  members  of  this  union. 

British  America.  Under  the  general 
name  of  British  America  is  comprehend- 
ed all  that  part  of  the  continent  of  North 
America  which  lies  to  the  north  of  the  U. 
States,  with  the  exception  of  the  Russian 

{)ossessions  in  the  north-west,  and  Green- 
and  in  the  north-east.  It  consists  of  four 
provinces :  1.  Lower  Canada,  to  which  is 
annexed  New  Britain  ;  2.  Upper  Canada ; 
3.  New  Brunswick;  4.  Nova  Scotia;  to- 
gether with  the  island  of  Newfoundland. 
The  whole  country  is  under  a  governor- 
general,  whose  residence  is  at  Quebec. 
Each  of  the  four  provinces  has  also  a 
lieutenant-governor ;  and  Newfoimdland 
is  governed  by  an  admiral. 

British  Channel.  (See  English  Chan- 
nel.) 

British  Museum  was  founded  by  sir 
Hans  Sloane,  who,  in  1753,  bequeathed 
his  collection  of  natural  and  artificial  cu- 
riosities, and  his  hbrary,  consisting  of 
50,000  volumes  of  books  and  MSS.,  to 
the  nation,  on  condition  of  the  payment 


of  £20,000  to  hia  heirs.  Montague-house, 
one  of  the  largest  mansions  in  the  me- 
tropolis, was  appropriated  to  its  recep- 
tion, and  it  has  since  been  gradually  in- 
creased by  gifts,  bequests,  and  purchases 
of  every  species  of  curiosity — animals, 
vegetables,  minerals,  sculptures,  books, 
MSS.,  &c.  The  main  buildhig  is  216 
feet  long  and  57  high  ;  the  wings  are  oc- 
cupied by  the  ofKcers  of  the  establish- 
ment. The  library  of  printed  books  oc- 
cupies 16  rooms.  The  upper  floor  is 
composed  of  11  rooms,  2  of  which  con- 
tain miscellaneous  collections,  4  contain 
collections  of  natural  history,  and  5  tlie 
hbrary  of  MSS.,  which  is  extremely  val- 
uable, besides  the  saloon,  containing  the 
minerals.  The  Lansdowne  librarj'  of 
MSS.  consists  of  1245  volumes,  exclusive 
of  rolls  and  charters,  and  contains  the 
Burleigh,  Csesar  and  Kennet  papers. 
{Catalogue  of  Lansdoicnc  MSS.,  folio, 
1819.)  The  Sloane  and  Birch  MSS., 
consisting  of  44.37  volumes,  are  valuable. 
(See  Ayscough's  Undescrihed  MSS.,  2 
vols.,  4to.,  1782.)  The  Harieian  MSS. 
were  collected  by  Hai-ley,  lord  Oxford, 
and  form  7639  volumes,  containing  40,000 
documents.  ( Catalogue  of  Harieian  MSS., 
4  vols.,  folio,  1809.)  The  Cottonian  col- 
lection was  injured  by  fire  in  1751.  The 
number  of  articles  is  upwards  of  20,000, 
among  which  is  the  original  of  the. >fag7ia 
Charta,  and  original  documents  connected 
with  it.  [Catalogue,  folio,  1802.)  There 
are  many  other  very  valuable  collections, 
which  we  cannot  enumerate.  The  galle- 
ry, or  department  of  antiquities,  is  dis- 
tributed in  15  rooms  ;  6  of  which  contain 
Greek  and  Roman  sculptures  and  antiqui- 
ties, and  2  are  occupied  with  Egj'ptiaii 
sculptures  and  antiquities,  many  of  which  . 
were  collected  by  the  French,  and  fell 
into  the  hands  of  the  E'inglish  at  the  cap- 
ture of  Alexandria,  September,  1801. 
Salt's  Egyptian  antiquities  have  also 
been  lately  added.  The  famous  Rosetta 
stone  belongs  to  the  collection.  Other 
rooms  are  occupied  by  terracottas,  the 
Hamilton  vases,  coins  and  medals,  prints 
and  drawings,  the  Pliigalian  marbles,  and 
the  Elgin  marbles.  The  anteroom  con- 
tains tlie  famous  Barberini  vase,  or,  as  it 
is  generally  called,  the  Portland  vase. 

Brittamt,  or  Bretag^je  ;  formerly  one 
of  the  lai'gest  provinces  of  France,  being 
a  peninsula  washed  by  the  Atlantic  on  all 
sides  except  the  east,  where  it  joined 
Poitou,  Anjou,  Maine  and  Normandy. 
It  now  forms  five  departments  (q.  v.), 
containing  2,532,500  uihabitants,  on  1775 
square  miles.     It  is  supposed  to  have 


BRITTANY— BROEKHUIZEN. 


277 


received  its  name  from  tlie  Britons,  who 
were  expelled  from  England,  and  took 
refuge  here  in  the  fifth  century.  It  form- 
ed one  of  the  duchies  of  France,  .till  it 
was  united  to  the  crown  by  Francis  I,  in 
1532.  The  province  was  divided  into 
Upper  and  Lower  B.  Agriculture,  in 
this  territory,  is  ver}^  backward,  and  it  is 
estimated,  that  about  one  half  of  the  sur- 
face lies  waste.  Corn  and  wine  are  pro- 
duced in  small  quantities.  Flax  and 
hemp,  apples  and  pears,  are  abundant, 
and  of  good  quality.  Cider  is  the  prin- 
cipal drink.  Salt  is  made  on  the  coast, 
and  coals,  lead  and  iron  are  found  in  va- 
rious parts.  There  are  manufactures  of 
liemp,  flax  and  iron.  The  fisheries,  also, 
employ  many  of  the  inhabitants.  The 
Bas-Bretons  speak  a  dialect  of  the  Celtic. 
There  is  also  a  patois  among  them,  called 
Lueache,  of  which  the  words  are  princi- 
pally Greek.  The  lower  classes  ai-e  poor 
and  ignorant. 

Brizard.    (See  French  Theatre.) 

Broach  ;  a  large,  ruinous  town  in  Gu- 
zcrat,  Hiudostan,  on  the  Nerbuddah.  It 
contains  a  Hindoo  hospital  for  sick  and 
infirm  beasts,  birds  and  hisects,  which  has 
considerable  endowTiients  in  land,  and 
accommodates  not  only  animals  consid- 
ered sacred  by  the  Hindoos,  such  as 
monkeys,  peacocks,  &c.,  but  hoi-ses,  dogs 
and  cats :  it  has,  also,  in  little  boxes,  an. 
assortment  of  lice  and  fleas.  These  ani- 
mals are  fed  only  on  vegetable  food,  and 
are,  generally,  in  a  miserable  condition. 
Near  B.  is  the  celebrated  banian-tree, 
which  has  been  renowned  ever  since  the 
first  aiTival  of  the  Portuguese  in  India, 
and  which,  according  to  the  natives,  Avas 
capable  of  sheltering  10,000  horsemen 
mider  its  shade.  Part  of  it  has  been 
washed  away  by  the  river,  but  enough 
yet  remains  to  make  it  one  of  the  noblest 
gi-oves  in  the  world.  B.  was  captured  by 
the  English  in  1803.  Lon.  73°  6'  E. ;  lat. 
21°  41'  N. 

Broach  ;  any  thing  which  will  pierce 
through  ;  a  pin  ;  that  part  of  certain  orna- 
ments by  which  they  are  stuck  on ;  tlie 
ornament  itself.  Among  the  Highlanders 
of  Scotland,  there  are  preserved,  in  sev- 
eral families,  ancient  broaches  of  rich 
workmanship,  and  highly  oruan)ented. 
Some  of  them  are  inscribed  with  charac- 
ters to  which  particular  virtues  were  at- 
tributed, and  seem  to  have  been  used  as 
a  sort  of  amulet  or  talisman. 

Broach-to  ;  to  incline  suddenly  to 
windward  of  the  ship's  course  when  she 
sails  with  a  large  wind ;  or,  when  she 
sails  directly  before  the  wind,  to  deviate 

VOL.  II.  24 


from  her  line  of  course  with  such  rapid- 
ity as  to  bring  her  side  to  windward,  and 
exi)Ose  her  to  tlie  danger  of  oversetting. 
The  masts  act  Uke  levers  on  the  shijt, 
sideways,  so  as  to  overturn  her,  unless 
she  is  relieved  by  the  rending  of  the  sails, 
or  the  carrj'ing  away  of  the  masts. 

Broad  Piece  ;  a  denon)inatioii  that  has 
been  given  to  some  English  gold  pieces 
broader  than  a  guinea,  particularly  Caro- 
luses  and  Jacobuses. 

Broadside,  in  a  naval  engagement ; 
the  whole  discharge  of  the  artillery  on  one 
side  of  a  shi[)  of  war,  above  and  below. — A 
squall  of  wind  is  said  to  throw  a  ship  on 
her  broadside,  when  it  presses  her  do\\Ti 
in  the  water,  so  as  nearly  to  overset  her. 

Broad-Sword  ;  a  sword  with  a  broad 
blade,  designed  chiefly  for  cutting,  used 
by  some  regiments  of  cavalry  and  High- 
land infantry  in  the  British  service.  It 
has,  in  general,  given  place  to  the  sabre, 
among  the  cavalry.  The  claymore  or 
broad-sword  was  formerly  the  national 
weapon  of  the  Highlandei-s. 

Brocade  ;  a  stuff  of  gold,  silver  or 
silk,  raised  and  enriched  with  flowers, 
foliage  and  other  ornaments.  Formerly, 
it  signified  only  a  stuff  wove  all  of  gold 
or  silver,  or  in  which  silk  was  mixed  ;  !xt 
present,  all  stuffs,  grograms,  satins,  taffe- 
tas and  lustrings  are  so  called,  if  they  are 
worked  with  flowers  or  other  figures. 

Brocken.    (See  Hartz.) 

Brody,  a  town  in  Austrian  Gallicia, 
situated  in  the  circle  of  Zloczow,  border- 
ing on  the  Russian  frontier,  includes  2600 
houses,  and  10,500  inhabitants,  half  of 
whom  are  Jews,  who  have  a  college  and 
a  school  for  the  instruction  of  artists  and 
mechanics.  The  commerce,  carried  on 
jmncipally  by  Jews,  is  important,  the 
to^\^l  being  very  favorably  situated  for  the 
exchange  of  fhe  products  of  Poland  for 
the  hoi-ses,  black  cattle,  wax,  honey,  tal- 
low, skins,  furs,  anise,  presened  fiTiits, 
&c.,  of  Walachia,  the  Crimea,  &c.  B. 
belongs  to  count  Potocki. 

Broekiiuizen,  Jan  van  (better  known 
as  Janus  Broukhusius) ;  bom  at  Amstcr- 
.dam  in  1649.  When  young,  he  lost  his 
father,  a  hatter,  and  was  put  under  the 
guardianship  of  one  of  his  relations,  who 
placed  him  with  an  apothecary,  though 
he  desired  to  study  a  leai'ned  profession. 
While  in  this  situation,  he  wrote  verses, 
and  was  encouraged  by  the  applause  of 
the  pubhc.  He  subsequently  entered  the 
military  service  of  his  native  country.  In 
1074,  he  embarked  under  the  command 
of  the  famous  admiral  de  Ruyter,  as  a 
marine,  on  an  expedition  to  the  West 


278 


BROEKHUIZEN— BROGLIO. 


India  islands.  In  the  autumn  of  the  same 
year,  he  went  into  winter  quarters  at 
Utrecht.  Here  he  became  acquainted 
with  several  scientific  men,  and  published 
-a  collection  of  his  poems  Utrecht,  1684). 
A  splendid  edition  of  them  appeared  at 
Amsterdam  in  1711,  4to.  He  afterwards 
received  a  militaiy  appointment  at  Am- 
sterdam, which  afforded  him  leisure  for 
literary  pursuits.  He  published  an  edi- 
tion of  the  poems  of  Sannazarius,  and 
also  of  Palearius's  works,  an  edition  of 
Propertius  (Amsterdam,  1702  and  1726, 
4to.),  and  Tibullus  (Amsterdam,  1708 
and  1727,  4to.),  with  critical  notes.  In 
tliese  works,  he  displayed  extensive 
knowledge.  After  the  peace  of  Ryswick, 
he  received  his  dismission,  with  tlie  rank 
of  a  captain.    He  died  in  1707. 

Broglio  ;  a  family  distinguished  in  the 
annals  of  French  wars  and  French  di- 
plomacy, which  derives  its  origin  from 
Piedmont — 1.  FranQois  Marie,  marshal 
of  France,  bom  in  1671,  died  in  1745 ; 
fi-om  1689,  fought  with  distinction  in  the 
Netherlands,  in  Germany  and  Italy.    He 
was  also  employed  in  diplomatic  affairs. 
He  rose  by  degrees,  till,  in  17.34,  he  be- 
came marshal  of  France.    In  the  Austrian 
war  of  succession,  he  had  the  chief  com- 
mand of  the  armies  of  Bavaria  and  Bohe- 
mia ;  but,  leading  tliem  back  to  the  fron- 
tiers of  France,  he  fell  into  disgrace  at 
court. — 2.  Victor  Fran<jois,  the  eldest  son 
of  the  preceding,  likewise   marshal  of 
France,  bom  in  1718,  commenced  his 
career  in  the  battles  of  Guastalla  and  Par- 
ma (1734) ;  was  engaged  in  all  the  wars 
of  France,  and  was  always  distinguished 
for  his  valor,  though  not  uniformly  suc- 
cessful.   During  the  seven  years'  war,  he 
fought  under  d'Estrees  at  Hastenbeck, 
and  at  Rossbach   under  Soubise.      He 
was  more  successful  as  commander-in- 
cliief  at  Bergen.    The  emperor,  to  reward 
him  for  the  victory  obtained  at  that  place, 
created  him  a  prince  of  the  empire.    Dis- 
putes with  Soubise,  who  was  in  particu- 
lar favor  with  madame  de  Pompadour, 
caused  his  recall  and  banishment.    In 
1789,  when    the  revolution    broke  out,. 
Louis  XVI  appointed  him  minister  of 
war ;  at  the  same  time,  he  received  the 
command  of  the  troops  that  were  to  keep 
Paris  in  check.     The  desertion  of  the 
national  guards  rendered  all  his  efforts 
vain,  and  B.  left  France.    In  the  cam- 
paign of  1792,  he  commanded  a  division 
of  tlie  emigres  without  success.    After  its 
close,  he  withdrew  entirely  fi-om  public 
life,  and  died  at  Miinster  in  1804,  in  the 
86th  year  of  his  age. — 3.  Claude  Victor, 


the  third  son  of  Victor  Frangois,  on  the 
other  hand,  entered  wholly  into  the  vievi-s 
of  the  revolutionary  party.  He  was  dep- 
uty of  the  nobility  of  Cofmar  to  tiie  states 
general.  After  the  dissolution  of  the  con- 
stituejit  assembly,  he  was  appointed  field- 
marshal  in  the  army  of  the  Rhine,  but, 
upon  his  refusal  to  acknowledge  the  de- 
crees of  tlie  10th  of  August,  was  deprived 
of  his  command,  and  afterwards,  on  the 
same  account,  summoned  before  the  rev- 
olutionary tribunal,  and  led  to  the  guillo- 
tine in  June,  1794. — 4.  Charles  Fran^jois, 
a  brother  of  Victor  Franijois,  is  known  in 
the  history  of  French  diplomacy  as  the 
head  of  the  secret  ministry  of  Louis  XV. 
Although  B.  discharged  the  duties  of  this 
difficult  office  wth  much  ability,  yet,  as 
his  views  were  often  in  direct  opposition 
to  those  of  the  public  ministrj%  the  great- 
est and  the  most  ridiculous  confusion  was 
often  produced.  He  was,  therefore,  for- 
mally banished  by  the  king ;  but,  at  the 
same  time,  received  secret  instructions  to 
continue  his  usual  duties  in  his  exile. 
Under  Louis  XVI,  he  was  not  employed, 
and  died  in  1781.-— 5.  Victbr,  peer  of 
France,  a  son  of  Claude  Victor :  see  the 
following  article. 

Broglio,  Victor,  duke  of,  peer  of 
France,  born  in  1785,  married  a  daughter 
of  the  celebrated  madame  de  Stael.  His 
grandfather  was  the  marshal  duke  of  B., 
who  was  distinguished  in  the  seven  years' 
war.  His  father,  Victor,  notwitlistanding 
tlie  patriotism  which  he  had  always  dis- 
played, fell  a  victim  to  tlie  revolutionary 
tribunal.  The  son  received  an  excellent 
education,  and  devoted  himself,  at  first,  to 
hterature  and  the  fine  arts.  But  he  soon 
engaged  in  more  serious  studies,  and  in 
political  affairs.  He  became  counsellor 
of  state,  auditor,  military  intendant  in  II- 
lyria  and  Valladolid,  and  was  attached  to 
the  French  embassies  in  Warsaw,  Viemia 
and  Prague.  In  1814,  he  took  his  seat  in 
tlie  chamber  of  peei"s,  where  he  gave 
splendid  proofs  of  his  intimate  acquaint- 
ance with  the  jircsent  state  of  society,  and 
with  the  legislation  adapted  to  it.  In  the 
trial  of  Ney,  he  was  one  of  the  few  peers 
who  voted  for  his  acquittal.  He  spoke 
with  energy  against  the  laws  of  exception 
and  the  proscription  lists.  At  the  time 
when  the  ministry  was  making  efforts  to 
extend  the  power  of  the  police,  the  fol- 
lowing observation  of  his  met  with  great 
approbation:  "The  existing  government 
(said  he)  wish  to  know  all  things,  and  to 
confine  this  knowledge  to  themselves. 
Hence  arises  the  inconvenience,  that  the 
public  remains  ignorant  of  facts  by  which 


BROGLIO— BRONNER. 


279 


the  government  are  guided,  and  the  gov- 
ernment of  the  opinions  of  the  public." 
In  the  debates  upontlie  censorship  of  the 
public  journals,  he  observed:  "A  new 
government  may  more  readily  grant  free- 
dom of  speech,  as  it  is  not  called  upon  to 
defend  former  abuses.  Restrictions  on 
the  liberty  of  the  press  prevent  the  njin- 
istei-s  from  acquiring  a  knowledge  of  their 
real  situation,  and  discredit  them  with  the 
nation.  The  restraint  of  the  press  can  only 
be  of  unportance  to  ministei-s,  who  throw 
themselves  into  the  arms  of  a  violent 
j)arty,  with  the  intention  of  allowing  it  an 
unlimited  hcense."  The  duke  is  pro- 
foundly versed  in  the  whole  department 
of  political  economy. 

Broker  ;  an  agent  who  is  employed  to 
conclude  bargains,  or  transact  other  busi- 
ness, for  his  employer,  for  a  certain  fee  or 
l)remium.  Brokers  are  of  several  kinds — 
merchandise,  money,  exchange,  shij),  in- 
surance, real  estate,  pawn,  stock  brokei-s, 
&c.  Exchange  brokei-s  negotiate  notes 
and  bills  of  exchange  ;  money  brokers 
exchange  different  kinds  of  money ;  these 
two  classes  are  not  unfrequently  united. 
Merchandise  brokers  make  contracts  for 
the  sale  of  merchandise.  Pawn  brokei"s 
make  it  their  business  to  lend  money 
ufwn  pawns.  Insurance  brokers  are 
those  whose  business  it  is  to  procure  in- 
surance of  vessels  at  sea  or  bound  on  a 
voyage.  They  are,  at  once,  the  agents 
of  the  underwriters  (who  expect  from 
them  a  full  disclosure  of  all  circum- 
stances affecting  the  risk,  and  the  pay- 
ment of  their  premiums),  and  of  the  party 
insured  (who  trusts  to  them  for  the  regu- 
larity of  the  contract,  and  a  proper  selec- 
tion of  underwriters).  An  agent  or  broker 
should  not,  therefore,  be  an  insurer ;  for 
he  then  becomes  too  much  hiterested  to 
settle  with  fairness  the  rate  of  premium, 
the  amount  of  partial  losses,  &c.  Stock 
brokei-s  are  those  who  are  employed  to 
buy  and  sell  shares  in  the  stocks,  includ- 
ing the  pubhc  funds  of  their  own  and 
other  countries,  bank  stock,  &c.  In  the 
U.  States,  brokers  are  not  required  to  be 
licensed,  nor  to  give  bonds.  In  France, 
the  brokers  who  deal  in  money,  exchange, 
merchandise,  insurance  and  stock,  are 
called  agents  de  chaiige,  and  their  number 
at  Paris  is  fixed  at  60.  The  company  of 
agents  de  change  is  directed  by  a  chamber 
of  sjndics  (chambre  syjidicale),  chosen  an- 
nually by  the  company.  They  are  obliged 
to  give  bonds  to  the  amount  of  125,000 
francs,  for  the  pi-evention  of  abuses.  They 
are  also  obliged  to  keep  books,  and  are 
restricted  to  from  Ho  4  per  cent,  for  each 


negotiation.  They  are  allowed  to  deal  in 
the  pubUc  funds,  foreign  and  domestic, 
and  the  different  kinds  of  merchandise, 
&c.  In  London,  the  brokers  must  be 
licensed  by  the  lord  mayor,  who  takes 
bonds  for  the  failhtiil  execution  of  their 
duties.  In  Egypt,  the  Arabs  are  the  ex- 
change brokers,  and  are  called  coTisids. 
In  the  Levant  and  the  Indies,  the  Jews, 
Armenians  and  Banians  are  the  chief 
brokers. 

Brome  ;  a  peculiar  substance  discov- 
ered in  1826,  and  named  from  the  Greek 
AoKVOf,  in  consequence  of  its  disagi'ecable 
odor.  It  is  obtained  from  the  bittern  of 
sea-water,  or  the  washings  of  the  ashes 
of  sea-weed.  It  is  a  dark-red  liquid,  of 
a  specific  gravity  of  2.965,  highly  volatile, 
and  emits  copious  red  fumes  at  the  ordi- 
nary temperature  of  the  air.  It  boils  at 
116°.  The  vapor  does  not  sustain  the 
combustion  of  a  candle,  though  several 
of  the  metals  bum  in  it.  It  possesses  the 
bleaching  powers  of  chlorine,  and,  like 
that  substance,  is  eminently  hostile  to 
life  ;  a  single  drop  of  it,  placed  upon  the 
bill  of  a  bird,  being  sufficient  to  kill  it. 
With  oxygen  and  hydrogen  it  forms  acids. 
Its  properties  have  led  to  the  opmion,  that 
it  might  be  a  compound  of  chlorine  and 
iodine  ;  but,  as  neither  of  these  substances 
have  been  detected  in  it,  we  are,  for  the 
present  at  least,  obliged  to  regard  it  as  a 
simple  element. 

Bromelia.    (See  Pine-Nipple.) 

Bromiu s  ;  a  surname  of  Bacchus. 

Bronkhorst,  Peter  van ;  a  Dutch 
painter,  born  at  Delfl  in  1588,  and  died 
in  1661.  He  painted,  with  great  success, 
perspective  views  of  temples  and  church- 
es, enlivened  with  small  but  well  exe- 
cuted human  figures.  In  the  town-house 
of  Delfl  is  his  representation  of  Solomon's 
judgment. — John  van  B.,  bom  at  Leyden 
in  1648,  learned  the  art  of  painting  with- 
out any  instruction,  and  attained  to  a  high 
degree  of  perfection.  He  princip,il!y 
painted  animals,  and  was  particularly 
successful  in  his  birds.  The  lightness 
and  brilliancy  of  the  feathers  are  repre- 
sented with  much  truth.  He  was  a 
pastrj-cook,  and  painted  merely  for  his 
amusement. — Another  John  van  B.,  born 
at  Utrecht  in  1603,  was  a  painter  on  glass. 
His  Works  in  the  new  church  at  Amster- 
dam are  much  esteemed.  He  has  also 
engraved  some  works  of  Cornelius  Poel-: 
enburg. 

Bronner,  Francis  Xaver,bom  in  1758, 
at  Hochstadt,  on  the  Danube,  of  the  low- 
est extraction,  while  a  boy,  entered  the 
Jesuit  college    at  Dillingen,  as  a  singer. 


280 


BRONNER  -BROOKLYN. 


He  afterwards  became  a  Benedictine 
monk,  and  devoted  himself,  with  the 
greatest  zeal,  to  the  study  of  philosophy 
and  mathematics,  as  well  as  to  music  and 
poetry.  He  fled  twice  from  the  monas- 
teiy,  and  took  shelter  in  Zurich.  In 
1810,  he  was  made  professor  in  Kazan, 
in  Russia,  whence  he  returned  in  1817. 
His  poems,  in  jjarticular  his  piscatory 
idyls,  are  interesting  for  their  truth  anfl 
simplicity,  and  the  refined  feeling  of 
moral  and  natural  beauty  which  pervades 
tliem.     He  wrote  his  own  life,  in  3  vols. 

Bronze.  I'or  the  mode  in  which  this 
metal  is  prepared,  see  Copper. 

Bronzes,,  in  archa3olog\- ;  works  of  art 
cast  in  bronze.  The  ancients  used  bronze 
for  a  great  variety  of  purposes :  arms  and 
other  instnnnents,  medals  and  statues,  of 
this  metal,  are  to  be  found  in  all  cabinets 
of  antiquities.  Egyptian  idols  of  bronze 
ai'e  contained  in  the  British  museum. 
The  most  celebrated  antique  bronze 
statues  are,  the  sleeping  satyr ;  the  two 
youthful  athletes ;  the  colossal  equestrian 
statue  of  Marcus  Aurelius,  at  Rome ;  the 
Hercules  of  the  capitol ;  the  colossal  head 
of  Commodus ;  the  statue  of  Septimius 
Severus  in  the  Barberini  palace.  The 
horses  of  St.  Mark,  at  Venice,  are  of  pure 
copper.  On  tables  of  bronze  were  in- 
scribed laws,  edicts,  and  treaties.  3000 
of  these  were  destroyed  by  fire  in  the  time 
of  Vespasian.  Bass-reliefs,  vaults,  and 
doors  of  public  edifices,  were  ornamented 
with  decorations  of  the  same  metal.  Ur- 
ban Vin  took  fi"om  the  Pantheon  alone 
450,000  pounds  of  bronze,  winch  he  used 
for  the  ornaments  of  St.  Peter's,  and  for 
tlie  cannon  of  the  castle  of  St.  Angelo. 
One  of  these  was  composed  wholly  of 
bronze  nails,  taken  fi"om  the  portico,  and 
bore  the  inscription.  Ex  clavis  trabalibus 
porticiis  Jigrippm.  The  ancients  consid- 
ered this  metal  as  naturally  pure;  all 
their  instruments  of  sacrifice,  and  sacred 
vessels,  were  therefore  of  bronze.  They 
also  believed  it  endowed  with  the  power 
of  driving  away  spectres  and  malignant 
spirits.  ( Ov.  Met.  vii.  226,  and  Fast.  v.  441.) 
The  words  moneta  sacra  are  found  only 
on  bronze  medals.  It  was  sacred  to  the 
gods;  and  the  Roman  emperors,  who 
struck  gold  and  silver  coins,  could  not 
strike  them  of  bronze  without  the  per- 
mission of  the  senate;  hence  the  inscrip- 
tion S.  C.  {Senatus  considto).  (For  the 
method  of  casting  in  bronze  among  the 
ancients,  see  Winckelmann's  History  of 
Art,  book  ii.)  The  modems  have  also 
made  much  use  of  bronze,  particularly 
for  statues  exposed  to  accidents,  or  the 


influence  of  the  atmosphere,  and  for  casts 
of  celebrated  antiques.  The  moulds  are 
made  on  the  pattern,  of  plaster  and  brick 
dust.  The  parts  are  then  covered  on  the 
inside  with  a  coating  of  clay  as  thick  as 
the  bronze  is  intended  to  be.  The  mould 
is  now  closed,  and  filled  on  its  inside  with 
a  nucleus  or  core  of  ])laster  and  brick- 
dust,  mixed  with  water.  When  this  is 
done,  the  mould  is  opened,  and  the  clay 
carefully  removed.  The  mould,  with  its 
core,  are  then  thoroughly  dried,  and  the 
core  secured  in  its  ])Osition  by  bars  of 
bronze,  which  pass  into  it  through  the 
external  part  of  the  mould.  The  whole 
is  then  bound  with  iron  hoops,  and  the 
melted  bronze  is  poured  in  through  an 
aperture  left  for  tiie  purpose:  of  course, 
the  bronze  fills  the  sanje  cavity  which 
was  previously  occupied  by  the  clay,  and 
forms  a  metallic  covering  to  the  core.  It 
is  afterwards  made  smooth  by  mechanical 
means. 

Bronzing.  Bronze  of  a  good  quality 
acquires,  by  oxydation,  a  fine  green  tint, 
called  patina  antiqua,  or,  by  the  Romans, 
cBrugo.  Corinthian  brass  receives  in  this 
way  a  beautiful  clear  green  color.  This 
apjiearance  is  imitated  by  an  artificial 
process,  called  bronzing.  A  solution  of 
sal  ammoniac  and  salt  of  soitcI  in  vine- 
gar is  used  for  bronzing  metals.  Any 
number  of  layers  may  be  applied,  and 
the  shade  becomes  deeper  in  proportion 
to  the  number  applied.  For  bronzing 
sculptures  of  wood,  plaster,  figures,  &c.  a 
composition  of  yellow  ochre,  Prussian 
blue,  and  lampblack,  dissolved  in  glue- 
water,  is  employed. 

Bronzino,  Angelo,  a  painter  of  the 
Florentine  school,  and  imitator  of  Michael 
Angelo,  flourished  about  1550.  He  paint- 
ed a  great  number  of  portraits;  and  his 
historical  paintings  are  distinguished  by 
the  striking  and  pleasing  features  of  the 
heads  which  they  contain.  One  of  his 
best  paintings  is  a  Christ,  m  the  church 
Santa  Croce,  at  Florence.  It  is  remark- 
able for  its  grouping  and  coloring,  as  well 
as  for  the  heads,  many  of  which  are  the 
portraits  of  his  friends  and  contempora- 
ries; yet  it  is  not  altogether  fi-ee  fi-om 
mannerism  and  affectation.  Some  persons 
have  found  faidt  with  the  nakedness  of 
his  figures.    He  died  at  Florence,  1570. 

Brooding.     (See  Ornithology.) 

Brooklyn,  a  post-town  of  New  York, 
in  King's  county,  on  the  west  end  of 
Long  Island,  separated  from  the  city  of 
New  York  bv  East  river.  Population  in 
1810,  4,402 ;  "in  1820,  7,175.  The  village 
of  B.,  witliin  the  township,  is  incorporat- 


BROOKLYN— BROOM. 


281 


ed,  and  has  a  pleasant  and  somewhat 
elevated  situation,  opposite  to  the  city  of 
New  York,  from  which  it  is  three  fourths 
of  a  mile  distant.  It  is  a  flourishing  vil- 
lage, compactly  and  handsomely  built, 
having  various  manufactures,  and  an  ex- 
tensive trade ;  and  contained,  in  1825, 
8,800  inhabitants,  and  5  houses  of  pub- 
lic woi'ship.  To  the  east  of  the  village  is 
a  tract  of  land  called  the  Wallaboghi, 
which  is  the  site  of  a  navy-yard,  and 
pubhc  store-houses,  belonging  to  the  U. 
States.  Between  B.  and  Flatbush,  on 
the  south,  a  severe  battle  was  fought 
during  the  revolutionary  war,  between 
the  British  and  Americans,  in  which  tlie 
latter  were  defeated  with  great  loss. 

Brooks,  John,  was  born  in  Medford, 
Mass.  in  the  year  1752.  His  father  was 
a  respectable  farmer.  After  receiving  a 
common  education  at  the  town  school, 
young  B.  was  indented  as  an  apprentice, 
according  to  the  prevailing  custom,  to 
doctor  Simon  Tufts,  for  the  space  of  seven 
years.  He  here  contracted  an  intimacy 
with  tlie  celebrated  count  Rumford,  which 
was  continued  by  correspondence  until 
the  latter's  death. — After  completing  his 
studies,  he  commenced  the  practice  of 
his  profession  in  the  neighboring  town 
of  Reading ;  but  he  had  not  been  long  so 
engaged,  when  the  revolutionaiy  war 
broke  out,  and  he  was  a])j)ouited  to  com- 
mand a  company  of  minute  men,  whom 
he  soon  had  an  opportunity  of  exercising 
against  the  British,  on  their  retreat  from 
Lexington  and  Concord. — He  was  soon 
after  raised  to  the  rank  of  major  in  the 
continental  semce,  and  was  distinguish- 
ed for  his  knowledge  of  tactics,  being 
considered  as  second,  in  that  respect,  to 
baron  Steuben  alone,  with  whom  he  was 
associated  in  the  duty  of  introducing  a 
uniform  system  of  exercise  and  manoeu- 
vres.— In  1777,  he  was  ajjpointed  lieuten- 
ant-colonel, and  had  no  small  share  in  the 
capture  of  Burgoyne,  on  the  7th  of  Oc- 
tober, at  Saratoga. — When  the  conspiracy 
of  some  of  the  oflicei-s  against  the  com-- 
mander-in-chief,  in  March,  1783,  had 
well  nigh  ruined  the  country,  Washing- 
ton rode  up  to  Brooks,  and  requested  him 
to  keep  his  officers  within  quarters,  to 
prevent  their  attending  the  insurgent 
meeting.  Brooks  replied,  "Sir,  I  have 
anticipated  your  wishes,  and  my  orders 
are  given."  Washington  took  him  by 
the  hand,  and  said,  "Colonel  Brooks,  this 
is  just  wliat  I  expected  from  you."  He 
was  one  of  the  committee  wlio  brought 
in  the  resolutions  of  the  officei-s,  express^ 
ing  their  abhorrence  of  this  plot,  and  also 
^* 


one  of  that  appointed  by  the  officers  to 
adjust  their  accounts  with  congress. — 
After  the  army  was  disbanded,  colonel 
Brooks  resumed  the  practice  of  medicine 
in  Medford  and  the  neighborhig  towns. 
He  was  soon  after  elected  a  member  of 
the  Massachusetts  medical  society,  and, 
on  its  extension,  and  new  organization, 
in  the  year  1803,  a  counsellor.  He  was 
for  many  years  major-general  of  the  mi- 
litia of  his  county,  and  his  division,  during 
the  insurrection  of  1786,  was  very  effi- 
cient in  the  protection  of  the  courts  of 
justice,  and  the  support  of  the  govern- 
ment. General  Brooks  also  represented 
his  town  in  the  general  court,  and  was  a 
delegate  in  the  state  convention,  for  the 
adoption  of  the  federal  constitution,  of 
which  he  was  one  of  the  most  zealous 
advocates.  In  the  late  war  with  England, 
he  was  the  adjutant-general  of  governor 
Strong,  and  was  chosen  to  succeed  him 
on  his  retirement  from  office,  almost 
without  opposition.  As  governor,  he 
discharged  his  duties  with  signal  ability 
and  excellent  temper. — He  was  president 
of  many  literarj-,  religious,  patriotic,  be- 
nevolent and  professional  societies. — 
After  discharging,  for  seven  successive 
years,  the  duties  of  chief  magistrate,  he 
retired  to  jnivate  life,  and  spent  his  re- 
maining years  in  the  town  of  Medford, 
where  he  was  much  beloved.  The  in- 
habitants refen-ed  to  him  all  their  dis- 
putes, and  his  decisions  generally  satisfi- 
ed lx)th  parties.  The  death  of  this  ex- 
cellent man  took  place  in  the  73d  year 
of  his  age,  IMarch  1st,  1825. — As  a  j)hy- 
sician,  he  was  judicious  and  accurate  in 
his  investigations,  and  clear  in  his  dis- 
cernment ;  prudent  rather  than  bold,  and 
kind  and  attentive  to  his  patients.  His 
mind  was  active,  ardent,  and  indefatiga- 
ble. His  whole  conduct  was  regulated 
by  the  purest  sentiments  of  morahty  and 
religion,  imbibed  at  an  early  period, 

Broo3i;  a  genus  of  plants  which  in^ 
eludes  numerous  species.  The  common 
Iroom  {spartium  scoparium)  is  a  shrub 
growing  abundantly  on  sandy  pastures 
and  heaths  in  England.  It  is  distin- 
guislied  by  having  lai-ge,  yellow,  butterfly- 
shaped  flowers,  leaves  in  threes,  and  sin- 
gle, and  the  branches  angular.  This  is 
a  handsome  shinib,  and  one  of  the  most 
useful  of  the  common  plants  of  Great 
Britain.  Its  twigs  are  tied  in  bundles, 
and  formed  into  brooms.  Some  persons 
roast  the  seeds,  and  make  them  into  a 
kind  of  coffee.  The  fibrous  and  elastic 
parts  of  the  bark,  separated  by  soaking 
in  water,  may  be  manufactured  into  cor-; 


"282 


BROOM— BROUGHAM. 


dage,  matting,  and  even  into  a  coarse 
kind  of  cloth.  The  twigs  and  young 
branches  have  been  successfully  employ- 
ed as  a  substitute  for  oak  bai-k  in  tanning 
leather.  They  may  also  be  rendered  ser- 
viceable as  thatch  for  houses  and  corn- 
ricks  ;  and  some  persons  mix  them  with 
hops  in  browing;  but  it  is  doubtful  wheth- 
er, in  this  resj)ect,  they  are  wholesome. 
The  flowor-buds,  when  jjickled,  have, 
occasionally,  been  used  as  a  substitute  for 
capers.  The  wood,  wiien  the  dhnensions 
are  sufficient  for  the  purpose, is einplojed 
by  cabinet-makers  for  veneering ;  and  it 
is  stated,  by  doctor  Mead,  that  a  decoction 
of  the  green  tops,  in  conjunction  with 
mustard,  has  been  found  efficacious  in  the 
ctire  of  dropsy. — Spanish  broovi,  or  spart 
(spartium  junceinn),  is  an  ornamental 
floM'ering  shrub,  common  in  English  gar- 
dens, which  has  opposite  round  branches, 
that  flower  at  the  top,  and  spear-shaped 
leaves.  In  the  provuice  of  Valencia,  and 
other  parts  of  Spain,  great  attention  is 
])aid  to  the  manufacture  of  various  articles 
from  the  twigs  and  bark  of  this  shrub. 
They  are  plaited  into  mats,  carpets,  cov- 
ering for  plants,  baskets,  ropes,  and  even 
shoes.  A  great  portion  of  these  twigs 
was  fomierly  exported  to  different 
French  ports  in  the  Mediterranean,  par- 
ticularly to  Marseilles;  but,  in  1783,  on 
account  of  the  employment  of  which  it 
deprived  the  Spanish  people  in  working 
them,  their  expoitation  was  proliibited  by 
the  government. 

Brosses,  Charles  de,  first  president  of 
the  parliament  of  Burgundy,  was  bom  at 
Dijon  in  1709.  He  applied  himself  to  the 
study  of  law',  and,  at  the  same  time,  did 
not  neglect  the  arts  and  sciences.  His 
intimate  acquaintance  with  Roman  his- 
tory produced  in  him  a  desire  of  visiting 
Italy,  whither  he  went  in  1 739.  On  his 
return,  he  published  his  Lettere  on  the 
present  Condition  of  the  subterraneous 
City  Herculaneum  (Dijon,  1750).  Ten 
years  afterwards  appeared  his  treatise  on 
the  religious  worship  called  Fetisch.  At 
the  request  of  Buffon,  who  had  been  his 
friend  from  youth,  he  wrote  a  History  of 
tlie  Voyages  to  Australia  (1756).  At  that 
time,  it  was  generally  believed  that  there 
was  a  southern  continent,  to  which  De  B. 
gave  the  name  of  Magellania.  The  erro- 
neous nature  of  this  supposition  was  first 
made  known  by  Cook.  A  work  of  a 
very  different  kind  succeeded  this,  and 
displayed  the  extent  and  variety  of  the 
author's  learning.  This  was  a  treatise  on 
the  mechanical  formation  of  languages. 
It  contained,  together  with  many  imper- 


fections, numerous  curious  and  profound 
investigations,  ingenious  conjectures,  and 
I)enetrating  views.  De  B.  employed  him- 
self, through  his  whole  life,  on  a  work 
which  was  held  in  no  slight  estimation 
by  the  learned.  This  was  a  translation 
of  Sallust,  in  which  he  labored  to  su])}»ly 
the  lost  i)arts  of  this  liit^torian.  For  this 
purpose,  he  collected  above  700  fragments 
of  Sallu.^t,  by  means  of  which,  with  some 
inqiortant  additions,  he  composed  a  his- 
tory of  the  7th  century  of  the  Roman 
republic,  displaying  a  great  extent  of 
erudition.  The  work  would  have  been 
received  with  greater  ajiprobation,  if  the 
graces  of  style  had  been  joined  to  the 
depth  and  sagacity  of  research  which  it 
manifests.  Though  these  various  labors 
claimed  a  large  portion  of  his  time,  yet 
they  did  not  hinder  him  from  attending 
to  the  duties  of  his  office.  He  died  in 
1777.  The  manuscripts  which  he  left 
were  lost  during  the  revolution. 
Brothel.  (See  Bawdy- House.) 
Brotherhood,  Holy.  (See  Herman- 
dad.) 

Brotherhoods.  (See  Fraternities:) 
Brothers  ;  male  children  of  the  same 
father  or  mother,  or  both.  Among  the 
ancients,  the  temi  was  employed  to  denote 
more  remote  relations.  Thus,  among  the 
Jews,  Abraham  was  called  the  brother  of 
Lot,  his  nephew.  By  the  civil  law> 
brothers  and  sisters  stand  in  the  second 
degree  of  consanguinity :  by  the  canon 
law,  they  are  in  the  fii-st  degree.  In  the 
monastic  and  military  orders,  the  membci-s 
were  called  brothers,  as  being  united  in 
one  family.  In  Europe,  the  kings  ad- 
dress each  other  by  the  title  of  brother: 
the  president  of  tlie  U.  States  uses  the 
same  title  in  addressing  the  Indian  chiefs 
who  are  sent  to  talk  with  him. 

Brougham,  Henry,  was  bom  at  Lon- 
don, in  1779.  He  attracted  public  notice, 
originally,  as  one  of  the  principal  contrib- 
utors to  the  Edinburgh  Review.  Sound 
learning,  a  tei-se  and  expressive  style, 
logical  reasoning,  vigor  and  independence 
of  thought,  were  the  distinguishing  traits 
of  his  compositions.  But  his  efforts  as  a 
parliamentary  orator,  as  an  advocate,  and 
as  a  public  "benefactor,  have  given  him 
the  most  extensive  reputation,  and  raised 
liim  to  an  enviable  height  in  public  opin- 
ion. As  an  advocate,  he  stands  in  the 
front  rank  of  the  Enghsh  bar;  and  the 
variety  of  his  talents  and  acquisitions 
have  sen'ed  to  reflect  credit  upon  his  char- 
acter as  a  law  yer ;  while  the  solid  foot- 
ing of  professional  eminence  has  commu- 
nicated authority  and  weight  to  his  exer- 


BROUGHAM— BROUSSONET. 


283 


tions  in  other  walks  of  life.  His  profes- 
sional course  has  been,  to  a  considerable 
degree,  associated  with  his  political  ca- 
reer, in  consequence  of  the  differences 
between  George  IV,  when  prince-regent, 
and  the  then  prmcess  of  Wales.  During 
ttie  discussions  relative  to  her  conduct  and 
affaii-s,  he  acted  as  her  counsel ;  and  af- 
terwards, on  tiie  accession  of  George  IV, 
wlicn  queen  Carolme  claimed  the  rights 
and  privileges  of  queen-consort,  B.  was 
apjjointed  her  attorney-general,  and  acted 
in  that  capacity  at  her  trial.  Of  course,  he 
belonged  to  the  opposition  party ;  and  he 
has  consistently  maintained  the  principles 
of  the  whigs  down  to  the  present  mo- 
ment. The  responsible  part  he  took  in 
behalf  of  queen  Caroline  secured  to  him 
the  regard  of  her  friends  and  of  the  op- 
position. But  he  possesses  more  solid 
claims  to  the  respect  of  the  liberal  party, 
from  his  labore  as  a  member  of  the  house 
of  commons.  Among  these  may  be  men- 
tioned his  efforts  to  procure  a  repeal  of 
the  orders  in  council ;  his  opposition  to 
tlie  leather  tax ;  his  opinions  on  the  liber- 
ty of  the  press ;  his  eflbrts  in  behalf  of 
popular  education ;  and,  recently,  his  at- 
tempts to  procure  a  reform  in  the  admin- 
istration of  the  laws.  On  all  occasions, 
he  has  acted  with  purity  and  independ- 
ence, and  has  proved  himself  above  mere 
personal  considerations.  Although  he 
never  took  office,  yet  he  is,  unquestiona- 
bly, the  most  prominent  man  in  the 
house.  The  variety  of  his  powei-s  and 
attainments  is  not  the  least  of  his  claims 
to  attention.  Preeminent  as  a  man  of 
science,  a  literary  man,  a  statesman,  law- 
j^er  and  orator,  and  throwing  himself, 
Avith  energy  and  success,  into  all  these 
different  departments  of  intellectual  j)ar- 
suit,  he  necessarily  occupies  a  large  space 
in  the  public  eye.  As  an  orator,  he  is 
neither  finished  nor  accurate  in  style,  but 
his  characteristics  are  ingenuity  and  force 
of  argument,  quickness  and  strength  of 
sarcasm,  and  a  prompt,  vigorous,  impas- 
sioned style  of  reasoning,  Avhich  ren- 
der him,  as  an  antagonist  in  debate,  al- 
ways redoubtable,  and  often  irresistible. 
In  addition  to  his  contributions  to  the 
Edinburgh  Review,  and  to  various  scien- 
tific journals,  we  may  mention,  among  his 
publications,  the  following: — 1.  An  lu- 
quirj'  into  the  Colonial  Policy  of  the  Eu- 
ropean Powers;  2  vols.,  8vo.,  1803.  2. 
On  the  State  of  the  Nation.  3.  Speech 
on  the  State  of  Commerce  and  Mauuflic- 
tures ;  1812.  4.  Speech  at  Liverpool ; 
1812.  5.  Practical  Observations  on  the 
Education    of  the    People ;    1825.      6. 


Speech  on  the  State  of  the  Law ;  1828. 
The  reputation  which  he  has  hitherto  ac- 
quired by  his  occasional  efforts,  upon 
temporary  and  transient  subjects,  is  splen- 
did ;  but  he  is  now  laying  the  foundation 
of  a  deeper  and  more  brilliant  fame,  by 
his  unwearied  industry  in  the  cause  of 
])opular  instruction  and  of  legal  reform. 
As  to  the  fii^st,  it  is  suliicient  to  say,  that 
his  princij)les  on  the  subject  of  extending 
the  elements  of  knowledge  among  the 
middling  or  loAver  classes,  have  met  with 
the  most  decided  su})})ort,  and  are  the 
basis  of  much  that  is  now  doing  for  their 
impi-ovement.  His  propositions  of  legal 
reform  having  been  brought  forward  but 
lately,  the  result  remains  to  be  seen  ;  but 
the  reception  they  have  met  with  augurs 
auspiciously  for  the  result.  His  life,  we 
Iioj)o,  will  long  be  spared  to  his  countn,'. 

Broughto>''3  Archipelago  ;  an  ex- 
tensive range  of  islands,  rocky  islets  and 
rocks,  in  an  arm  of  the  Pacific  ocean,  on 
the  west  coast  of  North  America  ;  so  call- 
ed from  an  Englishman,  who  discovered 
them  in  1790.  Lon.  232°  5&  to  233°  40^ 
E. ;  lat  50°  33'  to  51°  N. 

Broussoxet',  Pien-e  Marie  Auguste, 
physician  and  naturalist,  bom  at  Mont- 
pellier  in  1761,  first  uitroduced  the  Lui- 
naean  system  into  France.  Daubenton, 
though  an  opponent  of  Linnaeus,  made 
him  his  substitute  in  the  college  de  France, 
and,  in  1784,  his  assistant  in  the  veterina- 
ry school.  B.  read  several  valuable  pa- 
])ers  before  the  academy,  and  was  chosen 
a  member.  As  secretary  of  the  agricul- 
tural society  at  Paris,  he  ])ublished  the 
useful  UAnnee  rurale  ou  Calendrier  a 
r  Usage  des  Cvltivateurs,  and  caused  the 
fii-st  flock  of  Merino  sheep  to  be  introdu- 
ced from  Sjiain,  and  Angora  goats  from 
the  Levant.  In  1789,  he  became  a  mem- 
ber of  the  national  assembly,  and,  al- 
though he  did  not  distinguish  hiuiself  in 
])olitical  disputes,  he  was  imprisoned  by 
the  convention  as  a  Girondist.  He  escap- 
ed to  Madrid,  but  was  obliged,  by  tlie 
royalist  Emigres,  to  fly  from  that  place. 
liy  the  assistance  of  his  friend  sir  Joseph 
Banks,  he  embarked  in  an  English  ves- 
sel for  India.  A  storm  forced  the  vessel 
into  the  harbor  of  Lisbon,  where  he  soon 
met  with  new  pei-secutions.  Under  the 
title  of  physician  to  the  American  consul 
at  Morocco,  he  went  to  Africa,  and  reas- 
sumed  his  botanical  studies.  His  name 
was  finally  struck  from  the  list  of  emi- 
grants. He  was  made  consul  at  Moga- 
dore,  and  at  the  Canaries,  and,  in  1805, 
member  of  the  coiys  legislatif.  He  died, 
in  1807,  from  the  consequences  of  a  fall 


284 


BROUSSONET— BROWN. 


he  had  met  with  some  time  before,  by 
which  lie  lost  his  memory  for  all  proper 
names  and  other  substantives,  but  had  ad- 
jectives in  abundance  at  his  command. 
His  manuscripts  are  of  great  value. 

Brower.    (See  Brauwer.) 

Brown,  Charles  Brockden,  greatly  dis- 
tinguished as  a  novelist,  and  the  editor  of 
various  periodical  vrorks,  was  bom  in  the 
city  of  Philadelphia,  in  1771,  He  was 
remarkable  in  his  childhood  for  his  at- 
tachment to  books,  and,  at  the  age  of  16, 
after  having  received  a  libei-al  education, 
had  already  formed  plans  of  extensive 
literary  works.  The  profession  of  which 
he  made  choice  was  the  law.  He  was 
apprenticed  to  an  eminent  member  of  the 
Philadelphia  bar,  but,  during  the  tenn 
intended  for  preparatory  legal  study,  was, 
in  fact,  principally  occupied  witli  literary 
pursuits ;  and,  when  the  time  approached 
for  his  admission  into  the  courts,  he  re- 
nounced, altogether,  the  legal  career  from 
constitutional  timidity,  and  an  invincible 
dislike  to  the  scenes  which  courts  present. 
His  friends  remonstrated  and  reasoned  in 
vain.  The  youth  desired  only  retirement 
and  the  employments  of  a  student  and  an 
author.  The  delicacy  of  his  frame,  more- 
over, incapacitated  him  for  the  bustle  of 
business  and  all  athletic  amusements. 
During  frequent  visits  to  New  York,  he 
became  intimate  with  a  literary  club,  who 
fostered  his  devotion  to  lettere,  and  in- 
creased his  eagerness  to  be  conspicuous 
as  a  writer.  He  kept  minute  journals, 
indited  essays  and  dissertations,  and  cul- 
tivated, with  unremitting  assiduity,  the 
arts  of  composition. — Tlie  first  novel 
which  he  wrote  was  entitled  Sky  Walk. 
It  was  never  pubUshed,  owing  to  the 
death  of  the  printer,  who  had  undertaken 
to  issue  it  at  his  own  risk.  Parts  of  it 
were  afterwards  incor[)orated  in  the  pro- 
ductions by  which  B.  became  so  advan- 
tageously known  to  his  country  and  Great 
Britain.  The  first  of  these  was  tiie  novel 
called  Wieland,  which  appeared  in  1798. 
It  soon  acquired  the  leputation  of  a  pow- 
erful and  original  romance.  The  next 
published,  in  the  following  year,  was  Or- 
mond,  or  the  Secret  Whness,  which  had 
neither  the  success  nor  the  merit  of  the 
other,  but  still  exhibits  uncommon  pow- 
ei-s  of  invention  and  description.  At  this 
time,  B.  had  begun  no  less  than  five  nov- 
els, two  of  which — Arthur  3Iervj'n  and 
Edgar  Huntley — were  completed  and 
sent  forth  ahnost  immediately.  In  Ar- 
thur Mervyn,  the  ravages  of  the  yellow 
fever,  which  the  author  had  witnessed  in 
New  York  and  Philadelphia,  are  painted 


■with  terrific  trutli.  All  these  composi- 
tions abound  both  with  excellences  and 
faults,  and  bear  a  character  of  originality. 
In  1801,  he  published  another  novel — 
Clara  Howard — less  open  to  exception, 
but  also  less  deserving  of  praise.  Its  fona 
is  different  from  that  of  the  others,  being 
epistolaiy.  The  last  of  his  novels  was 
Jane  Talbot,  originally  published  in  Lon- 
don, in  1804.  It  is  deficient  in  interest, 
and,  indeed,  in  all  respects,  ulterior  to  its 
j)redecessors.  In  April,  1799,  B.  pub- 
lished the  first  number  of  the  3Iontlily 
Magazine  and  American  Review.  This 
work  he  continued  with  great  uidustrj^ 
and  ability  until  the  end  of  the  year  1800. 
He  wrote  abundantly  for  it.  Circum- 
stances compelled  him  to  relinquish  it ; 
but,  in  1805,  he  commenced  another 
journal,  with  the  title  of  the  Lilerarj' 
Magazine  and  American  Register ;  and, 
in  this  undertaking,  he  pereevered  for  five 
years.  His  prolific  pen  gave  birth  to 
three  large  political  pamjihlots  in  the 
same  inten-al.  Their  respective  titles  are, 
an  Address  to  the  Government  of  the  U. 
States  on  the  Cession  of  Louisiana  to  the 
French,  and  on  the  late  Breach  of  Treaty 
by  the  Spaniards ;  the  British  Treaty ; 
and  an  Address  to  the  Congress  of  the  U. 
States  on  the  Utility  and  Justice  of  Re- 
strictions on  Foreign  Commerce,  whh 
Reflections  on  Foreign  Trade  in  general, 
and  the  future  Prospects  of  America.  In 
1804,  B.  mai'ried  Miss  Linn,  a  sister  of 
the  amiable  and  popular  poet,  the  rever- 
end doctor  John  Blair  Linn.  The  match 
]>roved  eminently  happy.  In  1806,  he 
entered  upon  a  new  work,  a  semi-annual 
American  Register,  five  volumes  of  which 
he  lived  to  comjilete  and  pubhsh.  It  is 
now  and  must  long  be  consulted  as  a 
valuable  body  of  annals. — We  have  al- 
ready mentioned  the  dehcacy  of  B.'s  con- 
stitution. It  had  a  tendency  to  consump- 
tion of  the  lungs,  which  his  sedentaiy  and 
studious  habits  unfortunately  aggravated. 
In  1809,  it  was  discovered  that  his  lungs 
were  seriously  affected,  and  he  then  con- 
sented to  travel  for  the  recovery  of  his 
health.  The  remedy,  however,  was  ap- 
plied too  late.  In  November  of  that  year, 
after  an  excursion  into  the  states  of  New 
Jersey  and  New  York,  he  betook  hunself 
to  his  chamber,  as  he  thought,  for  a  few 
days;  but  his  confinement  lasted  until 
February,  and  ended  only  with  his  life. 
He  expired  on  the  22d  of  that  month,  at 
the  age  of  39.  Among  his  manuscripts, 
an  unfinished  system  of  geography  was 
found,  to  which  his  friends  have  ascribed 
rare  merit.    He  was  widely  and  criucally 


BROWN. 


285 


conversant  with  geography  and  history, 
and,  therefore,  particularly  qualified  to 
produce  a  superior  system  of  this  kind. 
His  knowledge  of  the  French  language  is 
evinced  in  his  accurate  translation  of 
Volney's  Travels  in  the  U.  States. — 13. 
was  a  man  of  romantic  tempei",  benevo- 
lent heart,  pregnant  invention,  extensive 
attainments  and  jjrodigious  industry.  His 
colloquial  powers  were  considerable,  but 
rarely  indulged  in  mixed  society.  He 
was  reserved,  but  not  unsocial.  He  could 
be  taxed  with  no  excess,  save  that  of  ap- 
phcation.  His  moral  cliaracter  has  no 
stain.  He  was  one  of  the  gentlest  of 
human  beings.  In  person,  he  was  of  the 
middle  size,  and  bore  the  marks  of  a 
valetudinarian  and  literary  devotee. — The 
writings  of  B.  were  admired  and  current 
during  his  life.  Even  his  novels,  how- 
ever, fell,  after  his  death,  into  comparative 
oblivion  at  home,  and  remained  so  until 
tliey  began,  not  long  since,  to  be  read  and 
praised  in  England.  An  edition  of  them 
in  6  vols.  8vo.  was  printed  in  Boston  in 
1828.  Their  leading  traits  are,  a  rich  and 
correct  diction,  variety  of  incident,  vivid 
scenes  of  joy  and  sorrow,  a  minute  devel- 
opement  and  strong  display  of  emotion, 
and  a  powerful  use  of  wonderful  phe- 
nomena in  the  physical  faculties  and 
liabits  of  man.  Almost  all  is  new  and 
strange  in  his  machinery  and  situations ; 
but  he  deals  too  much  in  the  horrible  and 
criminal.  Extravagant  and  consummate 
depravity  actuates  too  many  of  his  char- 
acters. His  scenes  may  rivet  attention, 
and  his  plots  excite  the  keenest  ciuuosity ; 
yet  they  pain  the  heart  beyond  the  privi- 
Ipge  of  fiction,  and  leave  in  the  imagina- 
tion only  a  crowd  of  terrific  phantasms. 
None  of  his  novels  can  be  said  to  possess 
unity  in  the  details,  or  to  be  finished  in 
the  general  design  and  execution.  These 
merits  were  inconqiatiljle  with  the  ex- 
ti-eme  rapidity  of  his  workmanship,  and 
tlie  number  of  distinct  performances  in 
which  his  fancy  and  pen  were  engaged 
at  the  same  time. 

Baowr.-,  George,  count,  an  Irishman, 
born  in  1698,  studied  at  Limerick,  and 
entered  the  Russian  service,  in  1730,  as 
Heutenant,  where  he  distinguished  him- 
self in  several  ^vars,  and  was  three  times 
made  prisoner  and  sold  as  a  slave  by  the 
Turks.  In  reward  for  the  discovery  of 
some  secrets  of  the  divan,  he  was  niade 
major-genei-al  in  the  Russian  army.  In 
the  battle  of  Zorndorf,  he  was  taken  pris- 
oner by  the  Prussians,  and  disabled,  by 
wounds,  for  future  military  senices. 
Notwithstanding  his  bold  remonstrances 


against  the  Danish  war,  Peter  III  made 
him  governor  of  Livonia,  in  which  post 
he  remained  30  years,  and  was  not  less 
honoi-ed  by  Catharine  II.  He  died  in 
1792. 

Brow:*,  John,  31.  D.,  the  founder  of 
the  Bioinonian  system  in  ])hysic,  wasboni 
at  Buncle  in  Berwickshire,  m  1735.  His 
parents  aj)prenticed  hiui  to  a  weaver,  but, 
it  being  discovered  tliat  he  possessed  abil- 
ities superior  to  his  occupation,  he  was 
sent  to  a  grannnar-school.  Having  im- 
bibed a  considerable  portion  of  relipous 
enthusiasm,  he  looked  fonvard  to  the 
ministerial  office,  among  the  strict  sect  of 
seceders.  Upon  some  disgust,  however, 
he  changed  his  mind,  and,  in  1756,  en- 
tered himself  as  a  student  of  divinity  in 
the  university  at  Edinburgh.  His  tlieo- 
logical  predilection  gradually  forsaking 
him,  after  officiating  as  the  usher  of  the 
school  in  which  he  had  been  educated, 
he  returned  to  Edinburgh  in  1759,  and 
commenced  the  study  of  physic.  He 
was  admitted,  as  an  indigent  scholar,  to  a 
gratuitous  attendance  on  the  lectures,  and 
obtained  the  patronage  of  doctor  Cullen, 
who  employed  him  as  a  tutor  in  his  own 
family.  During  this  course  of  study,  he 
married,  and  set  up  a  boarding-house,  but 
failed,  and  became  bankrupt.  About  this 
time,  by  a  long  couree  of  meditation  on 
the  animal  system,  and  the  vigor  of  his 
own  mind,  directed  by  some  reading,  but 
seconded  by  little  or  no  aid  from  practical 
observation,  he  elaborated  a  new  theoiy 
of  medicine.  The  result  was  the  publica- 
tion of  his  Elementa  Mediciiice,  which  he 
further  explained  in  a  course  of  private 
lectures.  B.  scru})led  at  no  means  to 
push  his  doctrines.  A  new  medical  lan- 
guage was  introduced ;  ideas  totally  at 
variance  with  former  opinions  were  main- 
tained ;  and  the  most  virulent  abuse  of 
the  regular  professoj-s  of  the  university 
was  perseveringly  uttered.  At  length, 
ruined  in  reputation  and  involved  in  his 
circumstances,  he  repaired,  in  1786,  to 
London.  Here  he  endeavored  to  excite 
attention  by  his  Observations  on  the  Old 
Systems  of  Physic,  but  without  success, 
and  died  suddenly  of  apoplexy,  probably 
produced  by  laudanum,  which  he  was  in 
the  habit  of  taking  when  common  spirits 
failed  to  excite  him  suff.ciently.  The  opin- 
ions of  B.,  although  not  admitted  to  the 
extent  and  in  the  Ibrm  in  Avhich  he  pro- 
posed them,  made  a  considerable  change 
in  medical  language  and  doctrines,  not 
only  in  Great  Britain,  but  in  the  principal 
schools  of  Europe,  his  Elementa  and  Ob- 
servations having  been    translated    and 


BROWN. 


published  at  more  than  one  place  on  the 
continent.  His  object  was  to  simplify 
medicine,  by  arranging  both  diseases  and 
remedial  powers  into  large  and  strongly- 
marked  classes.  He  divided  all  diseases 
into  sthenic  and  asthenic,  or  those  in 
which  excitement  is  too  great  or  too  little, 
and  all  curative  means  into  such  as  in- 
crease or  diminish  excitement.  The  sys- 
tem has  been  useful  in  overturning  false 
and  trifling  analogies,  and  in  leading  to 
a  full  trial  of  vigorous  remedies ;  but 
in  ])ractice  it  is  found  impossible  to  act 
on  ideas  so  general  and  abstract.  The 
best  edition  of  the  Enghsh  translation  of 
the  Elementa  is  that  revised  and  correct- 
ed by  doctor  Beddoes,  Avith  a  biographi- 
cal preface. 

Brown,  Robert,  the  founder  of  a  reli- 
gious sect,  first  called  Brotvnists,  and  af- 
terwards Independents,  was  born  of  an 
ancient  family  in  Rutlandshire,  and  studied 
at  Cambridge,  where,  in  1580,  he  began 
openly  to  attack  the  government  and  lit- 
urgy of  the  church  of  England  as  anti- 
Christian.  He  first  ascended  the  pulpit 
at  Norwich  in  1581,  where  he  succeeded 
in  converting  a  number  of  Dutch,  who 
liad  a  congregation  there,  to  his  opinions, 
for  which  he  was  brought  before  the  ec- 
clesiastical commissioners,  to  whom  he 
behaved  so  rudely,  that  he  was  sent  to 
prison,  but  soon  obtained  a  release.  He 
then  went  to  Middleburg,  in  Zealand, 
with  his  followers,  and  wrote  a  book 
called  A  Treaiise  of  Reformation  loithout 
tarrying  for  any  Man.  In  1585,  he  re- 
turned to  England,  and,  as  he  still  labor- 
ed to  gain  converts,  he  was  excommuni- 
cated by  the  bishop  of  Peterborough. 
This  censure,  joined,  perhaps,  with  the 
evaporation  of  his  zeal,  induced  him  to 
submit;  and,  in  1590,  he  was  presented  to 
a  hving  in  Northamptonshire,  of  which 
he  received  the  emoluments  wthout  dis- 
charging the  duties.  In  other  respects, 
too,  his  morals  were  licentious,  so  that  he 
retained  little  of  the  austerity  of  the 
founder  of  a  sect  After  leading  a  turbu- 
lent life,  this  extraordinary  character  died 
in  1630,  in  Northampton  jail,  where  he 
had  been  sent  for  assaulting  a  constable  and 
insulting  a  magistrate.  The  sect  of 
Brownists  was  far  from  expiring  with 
their  founder,  but  spread  so  as  to  become 
a  great  object  of  alarm  ;  and  a  bill  was 
brought  into  parliament  which  inflicted 
on  them  very  severe  pains  and  penalties. 
In  ])rocess  of  time,  however,  the  nanie  of 
Brownists  was  merged  in  that  of  Congre- 
gationalists  or  Independents  (q.  v.),  under 
the  latter  of  which  titles  they  formed  a 


j)owerful  party  in  the  commonwealth,  and 
were  very  obnoxious  to  the  Presbyterians, 
whose  successors,  it  is  remarkable,  have, 
for  the  most  part,  gradually  adopted 
Brownist  principles  in  relation  to  church 
government. 

Brown,  doctor  Thomas  ;  an  ingenious 
writer  on  metaphysics  and  morals.  He 
was  born  in  Scotland,  in  1778,  and  was 
educated  at  the  high-school,  and  subse- 
quently at  the  university  of  Edinburgh, 
where  he  obtained  the  professorship  of 
moral  philosophy.  He  distinguished  liiru- 
self,  at  a  veiy  early  age,  by  an  acute  re- 
view of  the  medical  and  physiological 
theories  of  doctor  Darwin,  in  a  work  en- 
titled Observations  on  Darwin's  Zoono- 
mia,  8vo.  This  work  introduced  him  to 
the  academy  of  physics,  of  which  ]\Iac- 
kenzie,  JefFery  and  Brougham  were  mem- 
bers. It  was  this  society  which  gave  rise 
to  the  Edinburgh  Review,  to  which  the 
first  contributors  sent  their  papers  gratu- 
itously. B.  wrote  the  review  of  the  phi- 
losophy of  Kant,  in  the  second  number, 
but,  being  displeased  with  some  liberties 
taken  with  one  of  his  papers  intended  for 
the  fourth  number,  his  connexion  with  it 
was  terminated.  He  also  published  some 
poems,  which  displayed  considerable  tal- 
ent. His  principal  poetical  work  is  the 
Paradise  of  Coquettes,  London,  1814. 
But  he  chiefly  deserves  notice  on  account 
of  his  metaphysical  speculations ;  and  his 
last  work,  on  the  Philosophy  of  the  Hu- 
man IMind,  affords  ample  proof  of  his 
merit  as  a  profound  and  original  thinker. 
He  died  at  Brompton,  near  London,  April 
2,  1820. 

Brown,  WilUam,  tlie  celebrated  admi- 
ral of  Buenos  Ayres,  was  bom  in  Ireland, 
from  whence  he  emigrated  to  Baltimore, 
in  the  U.  States,  in  1793,  being  then  about 
14  years  of  age.  He  was  employed  in 
the  American  mercantile  marine  until 
1796,  when  he  was  impressed  by  a  British 
man-of-war.  He  continued  pai-tly  in  the 
English  navy  and  partly  in  the  merchant 
service  until  1814,  when,  being  at  Buenos 
Ayres,  in  the  command  of  an  English 
merchant-ship,  during  the  war  of  inde- 
pendence, he  was  induced  to  enter  into 
the  naval  service  of  the  countiy.  Being 
appointed  to  the  command  of  the  repub- 
lican flotilla  of  two  brigs,  three  coi-vettes 
and  a  schooner,  he  put  to  sea  in  Aj)ril, 
1814,  and  engaged  some  ships  of  the 
Spaniards,  off  the  island  of  Martin  Garcia. 
In  the  ensuing  May,  a  more  decisive  en- 
gagement took  place  off  Monte  Video,  in 
which  four  of  the  enemy's  vessels  wero 
either  taken  or  destroyed,  and  the  rest 


BROWN— BROWNE. 


S287 


dispei-sed.  This  victory  enabled  B.  to 
blockade  Monte  Video,  and  thus  contrib- 
ute essentially  to  bring  about  the  surren- 
der of  that  citj',  which  speedily  took 
place. — B.  was  now  raised  to  tlie  rank  of 
admiral ;  and,  there  being  no  further  oc- 
casion for  his  ser\'ices  in  the  river  La 
Plata,  after  the  destruction  of  the  Spanish 
fleet,  he  planned  an  expedition  against 
the  Spaniards  in  the  Pacific  ocean.  For 
some  time  he  cruised  with  great  success, 
making  many  rich  prizes  from  the  Span- 
iards, who  had  no  force  in  those  seas  ad- 
equate to  oppose  him.  He  was  daring 
enough  to  attack  Callao,  but  without  suc- 
cess ;  and  afterwards  made  a  similar  at- 
temj)t  to  gain  possession  of  Guayaquil. 
But,  on  the  latter  occasion,  his  flag-ship, 
the  Trinidad,  grounded  on  the  sands  un- 
der the  guns  of  a  batteiy,  and  he  was 
obliged  to  surrender  at  discretion.  He 
remained  in  confinement  but  a  few  days, 
being  exchanged  for  the  governor  of 
Guayaquil,  don  Manuel  Mendibum,  who 
had  been  made  prisoner  by  one  of  his 
cruisers.  In  May,  1816,  he  anchored  in 
the  harbor  of  Buenaventura  with  the  cor- 
vettes Hercules  and  Hawk,  and  entered 
into  communication  with  the  government 
of  Popayan,  for  the  purpose  of  selhng 
some  of  the  property  taken  from  his 
prizes,  and  obtaining  supplies.  At  this 
time,  the  patriot  cause  in  New  Grenada 
was  in  its  most  desperate  condition,  Mo- 
rillo  having  overrun  the  whole  countrj^, 
and  obtained  possession  of  Santa  Fe. 
Some  of  the  most  eminent  republican 
leaders,  who  were  flying  for  their  lives, 
took  the  road  for  Buenaventura,  hoping 
to  escape  on  board  B.'s  vessels.  But,  the 
Spaniai'ds  having  gained  possession  of 
Choco,  B.  found  it  necessaiy  to  put  to  sea 
precipitately  in  the  Hercules,  scuttling  the 
Hawk,  and  abandoning  a  number  of  his 
seamen,  who  were  on  shore,  with  a  large 
quantity  of  valuable  merchandise. — After 
having  greatly  annoyed  the  Spanish  com- 
merce in  the  Pacific,  and  sent  a  immber 
of  his  prizes  to  Buenos  Ayres,  he  return- 
ed in  the  Hercules,  with  a  rich  booty  on 
board,  to  enjoy  the  fruits  of  his  intrepidity 
and  enterprise.  Finding  the  La  Plata 
blockaded  by  the  Portuguese,  and  his 
vessel  needing  repaii-s,  he  determined  to 
proceed  either  to  the  West  Indies  or  the 
U.  States.  On  the  way,  he  was  captured 
by  the  British  ship  of  war  Brazen,  cap- 
tain Sinclair,  carried  into  Antigua,  and 
condemned  by  the  admiralty  court,  upon 
allegations  so  frivolous  and  unreasonable 
as  to  afford  good  cause  to  charge  the 
captors  or  the  court  with  corrupt  and 


arbitrary  conduct. — Owing  to  this  unjust 
proceeding,  B.  lived  at  Buenos  Ayres  in 
retirement,  and  almost  in  poverty,  until 
the  war  with  Brazil  commenced.  This 
event  brought  him  once  more  into  notice, 
and  gave  him  an  opportunity  of  acquiring 
no  small  share  of  naval  reputation. — As 
admiral  of  the  naval  forces  of  the  repub- 
lic during  this  war,  B.  has  displayed  un- 
common bravery,  activity  aiid  skill,  hav- 
ing been  generally  successful  hi  his 
military  enterprises.  But,  owing  to  the 
straitened  means  of  the  republican  gov- 
ernment, his  courage  has  generally  been 
wasted  upon  small  enterprises,  which 
have  signaUzed  his  talents  and  prowess  on 
many  brilliant  occasions,  but  produced  no 
decisive  effect  upon  the  war. 

Browne,  MaximiUan  Ulysses,  count, 
field-marshal  in  the  Austrian  sen'ice, 
bom  at  Bale,  in  1705.  His  father,  Ulys- 
ses de  Browne,  left  Ireland  in  1690,  as  a 
follower  of  king  James  II,  became  colo- 
nel in  the  Austrian  service,  and  died  in 
1721.  The  son  served  from  his  early 
youth  in  the  imperial  army ;  distinguish- 
ed himself  in  the  Italian  war,  in  particu- 
lar, in  tlie  battles  of  Parma  and  Guastalla ; 
and,  in  1739,  was  made  heutenant-field- 
niarshal.  In  the  Silesian  wars,  B.  serv- 
ed with  zeal  and  ability;  the  15th  June, 
1746,  he  gained  the  battle  of  Piacenza 
against  the  French,  took  tlie  pass  of 
Bochetta,  and  made  himself  master  of 
Savona.  In  1752,  he  was  made  governor 
of  the  city  of  Prague,  and  commander  in 
chief  of  the  forces  in  Bohemia;  and,  in 
1756,  when  king  Frederic  II  attempted 
to  penetrate  through  Saxony  to  Bohemia, 
he  was  appointed  field-marshal.  Octo- 
ber 1, 1756,  he  lost  tlie  battle  of  Lowositz, 
but,  seven  days  after,  advanced  towards 
Saxony,  to  rescue  the  Saxon  troops,  who 
were  surrounded  between  Pirna  and 
Konigstein.  Although  he  did  not  effect 
this  purpose,  he  forced  the  Prussians  to 
evacuate  Bohemia,  and  was,  in  conse- 
quence, rewai-ded  with  the  order  of  the 
golden  fleece.  Frederic  invaded  Bohe- 
mia a  second  time  with  his  whole  force, 
and,  May  6,  1757,  the  battle  of  Prague 
was  fought.  B.  was  obliged  to  leave  the 
field,  and  was  can-ied  to  Prague,  mortally 
wounded,  and  died  in  June,  1757.  Fred- 
eric II  called  him  his  master. 

Browne,  Simon;  a  learned  and  inge- 
nious dissenting  divine,  remarkable  for 
an  extraordinary  species  of  mental  de- 
rangement, bom  about  1680.  He  jireach- 
ed  for  some  time  at  Portsmouth;  after- 
wards at  the  Old  Jewry,  one  of  the  ])rin- 
cipal  congregations  of  Dissenters  in  Lon- 


288 


BROWNE— BRUCE. 


don.  Here  he  published  a  volume  of 
hymns,  and  one  of  semions.  In  1723, 
the  loss  of  his  wife  and  only  son  threw 
liim  into  a  settled  melaiiclioly,  attended 
with  tJie  persuasion,  thai  God  had  anni- 
liilated  in  him  the  thinking  substance, 
and  utterly  divested  h'im  of  conscious- 
ness ;  and,  although  he  retained  the  hu- 
man shape,  and  the  faculty  of  speaking 
in  a  jnanner  that  appeared  to  others  ra- 
tional, he  had  all  the  while  no  more  no- 
tion of  what  he  said  than  a  parrot.  He, 
tlierefore,  thought  himself  no  longer  a 
moral  agent,  or  a  subject  of  reward  or 
punishment,  and,  desisting  from  his  func- 
tions, could  not  be  prevailed  upon  to  join 
in  any  act  of  worship,  public  or  private. 
This  persuasion,  which  remained  with 
him  to  the  end  of  his  Ufe,  at  first  tempted 
him  to  commit  suicide ;  but  he  at  length 
became  calm,  and  appeared  uneasy  only 
when  his  friends  apj)eared  to  doubt  the 
truth  of  his  assertions.  Notwithstanding 
this  ahenation  of  mind,  his  faculties,  in 
otlier  respects,  were  in  full  vigor,  which 
he  proved  by  various  publications,  in- 
cluding the  compilation  of  a  dictionary. 
This,  he  observed,  "  was  nothing  that  re- 
quired a  reasonable  soul."  Towards  the 
close  of  his  life,  he  pubhshed  several 
clearly-wi-itten  theological  pieces,  and, 
among  the  rest,  a  defence  of  revelation. 
So  strong,  however,  was  his  delusion, 
that,  in  a  dedication  to  queen  Caroline, 
which  his  friends  would  not  permit  him 
to  publish,  but  which  appeared  in  the 
88th  number  of  the  Adventurer,  he  de- 
scribes his  deprivation  of  a  soul  with 
great  force  of  expression,  and  even  pa- 
thos.   He  died  in  1732,  aged  55. 

Browne,  sir  Thomas,  a  physician  and 
writer,  was  bom  in  London,  in  1605. 
He  was  educated  at  Winchester  school, 
whence  he  was  removed  to  Oxford,  and 
afterwards  received  the  degree  of  M.  D. 
at  Leyden.  On  his  return  to  England^ 
he  settled  at  Norvvich,  where  he  acquired 
extensive  practice  and  reputation.  In 
1642,  he  published  his  famous  work,  en- 
titled Religio  Medici,  which  was  trans- 
lated into  various  languages.  In  1646, 
his  literary  character  was  still  further  ex- 
alted by  liis  Pseudodoxia  Epidtmica,  or 
Treatise  on  Vulgai-  Eirors,  a  work  of  ex- 
traordinary learning.  In  1658,  liis  Hy- 
driotaphia,  or  Treatise  on  Urn-Burial,  ap- 
peared, with  his  Garden  of  Cynis.  In 
1665,  he  was  constituted  an  honorary 
member  of  the  college  of  physicians,  and, 
in  1671,  Charles  II  conferred  on  him  the 
honor  of  knighthood.  He  died  in  1682. 
Fancy  and  feeUng  predominated  in  him 


over  judgment ;  he  believed  in  the  exist- 
ence of  guardian  angels,  in  the  reality  of 
witchcraft,  and  the  a))pearance  of  spectres. 
The  Treatise  on  Vidgar  Enoi-s  ably  dis- 
cusses the  causes  of  error.  A  folio  edi- 
tion of  his  works  was  pubhshed  in  1686. 
Doctor  Johnson,  who  has  written  his  life, 
speaks  highly  of  his  exuberance  of  knowl- 
edge and  plenitude  of  ideas. 

Browny,  in  the  Hebrides,  and  the 
Highlands  of  Scotland ;  a  spirit  who 
cleaned  the  house,  churned,  threshed, 
and  did  other  good-natured  offices.  He 
seems  to  be  the  same  as  the  English 
puck,  hobgoblin,  or  Robin  Goodfellow, 
whom  Reginald  Scott(Discovery  of  Witch- 
craft) describes  as  one,  who,  for  his  pains 
in  grinding  malt  and  mustard,  and  sweep- 
ing the  house,  had  a  bowl  of  milk  set  for 
him.  When  Johnson  visited  the  Hebri- 
des, nothing  had  been  heard  of  the  bro^\ny 
for  many  years. 

Bruce,  James,  a  celebrated  modem 
traveller,  was  bom  at  Kinnaird -house,  in 
Scotland,  in  1730.  He  received  his  early 
education  at  Han'ow,  whence  he  was  re- 
moved to  the  imiversity  of  Edinburgh, 
where  he  studied  with  a  view  to  ])ursue 
the  profession  of  the  law.  His  object, 
however,  changing,  he  entered  into  part- 
nership with  a  wine-merchant,  Avhose 
daughter  he  manied ;  but,  upon  his  wife's 
death  within  a  year,  he  made  a  tour 
abroad,  during  which  absence  he  suc- 
ceeded, by  the  death  of  his  father,  to  the 
estate  of  Kinnaird.  On  his  return  to 
England,  he  sought  public  employment, 
and  at  length  was  indebted  to  lord  Hali- 
fax for  the  appointment  of  consul  at  Al- 
giers. He  repaired  to  his  post  in  1763, 
and  employed  himself  there  for  a  year  in 
the  study  of  the  Oriental  languages.  He 
commenced  travelling  by  visits  to  Tunis, 
Tripoli,  Rhodes, Cyprus,  Syria,  and  several 
parts  of  Asia  Minor,  where,  accompanied 
by  an  able  Italian  draughtsman,  (of  whose 
labors  he  is  now  known  to  have  assum- 
ed the  merit,)  he  made  drawings  of  the 
ruins  of  Palmyra,  Baalbec,  and  other  re- 
mains of  antiquity.  These  were  deposit- 
ed in  the  king's  hbrary  at  Kew,  and,  in 
the  language  of  boast  and  hyperbole, 
which  fbnned  the  great  weakness  of  this 
able  and  adventurous  character,  consti- 
tuted "the  most  magnificent  present  in 
that  line  ever  made  by  a  subject  to  his 
sovereign."  Of  his  first  travels  he  never 
jjublished  an  account  In  June,  1768, 
he  set  out  on  his  famous  journey  to  dis- 
cover the  source  of  the  Nile.  Proceed- 
ing first  to  Cairo,  he  navigated  the  Nile 
to  Syene,  thence  crossed  the  desert  to 


BRUCE. 


280 


the  Red  sea,  and,  arriving  at  Jidda,  pass- 
ed some  raontlis  in  Arabia  Felix,  and, 
after  various  detentions,  reached  Gondar, 
the  capital  of  Aljyssinia,  in  Febniary,  1770. 
In  that  country,  he  ingmtiated  hhnself 
with  the  sovereign,  and  other  influential 
persons,  of  both  sexes,  in  the  several  ca- 
pacities of  physician,  courtier  and  soldier. 
On  November  14,  1770,  he  obtained  the 
great  object  of  his  wishes — a  sight  of  tlie 
Koiirces  of  the  Nile.  Claiming  to  be  the 
first  European  who  had  accomplished 
this  interesting  discovery,  his  exultation 
was  proportionate,  and  lie  records  it  with 
singular  strength  of  expression.  The 
right  of  the  fountains  which  he  visited  to 
the  title  of  the  principal  sources  of  the 
Nile  is  rationally  controverted ;  but,  wheth- 
er they  be  so  or  not,  tlicy  had  been  previ- 
ously visited  by  the  missionary  Jesuits  of 
Portugal,  a  fact  of  which  he  could  scarce- 
ly have  been  ignorant.  On  his  return  to 
Gondar,  he  found  tlie  country  engaged 
in  a  civil  war,  and  was  detained  two 
years  before  he  could  obtain  permission 
to  leave  the  country.  Thirteen  months 
more  were  occupied  in  travelhng  back  to 
Cairo,  in  wliich  journey  he  endured  ex- 
cessive privations.  He  returned  to  his 
native  country  in  1773,  and  retired  to  his 
paternal  seat.  He  manied  again,  and 
maintained  the  character  of  an  elegant 
and  hospitable  host,  and  an  amiable  man 
in  private  life,  but  capricious  in  his  friend- 
ships, and  haughty  and  arrogant  to  stran- 
gers. His  long-expected  Travels  did  not 
appear  until  1796,  in  four  large  quarto 
volumes,  decorated  with  plates.  These 
volumes  are  replete  with  curious  infor- 
mation concerning  a  part  of  the  world 
but  little  known  to  Europeans,  and  con- 
tain much  interesting  personal  adven- 
ture, and  fine  description.  It  is  to  be 
lamented  tliat  tlie  authority  of  the  work, 
in  regard  to  facts  of  natural  history  and 
human  manners,  is  not  altogether  satis- 
factory ;  and,  the  pride  of  the  author  not 
allowhig  him  to  remove  objections,  it  is, 
})erhaps,  entitled  to  more  credit  than  it 
has  received.  Whatever  its  portion  of 
accuracy  and  merit,  the  nature  of  its  re- 
ception may  serve  to  guard  all  future 
travellers  against  the  indulgence  of  too 
much  egotism  and  personal  vanity  in  their 
narrations ;  for,  with  little  direct  evidence 
against  either  his  facts  or  his  veracity, 
those  faults  have  greatly  obscured  tlie 
feme  of  B.,  who,  after  escaping  the  most 
momentous  danger  in  a  long  peregrina- 
tion throogh  bai'barous  countries,  lost  his 
life  m  consequence  of  an  accidental  fall 
down  stairs,  as  he  was  attending  the  de- 
voL.  ir.  25 


parture  of  some  guests  whom  he  had 
been  entertaining.  His  death  took  place 
in  April,  1794. 

Bruce,  Michael,  a  British  poet  of 
the  last  century,  distinguished  for  the 
plaintive  elegance  of  his  compositions. 
He  was  born  at  Kinnasswood,  in  Scotland, 
in  1746 ;  and,  his  friends  being  persons 
in  low  circumstances,  he  had  to  struggle 
whh  poverty,  which,  together  with  con- 
stitutional disease,  gave  a  melancholy  turn 
to  his  mind,  and  influenced  the  character 
of  his  writings.  For  a  short  time,  he  was 
engaged  in  the  occupation  of  a  village- 
schoolmaster,  the  fatigues  of  which  prob- 
ably shortened  his  life.  He  became  con- 
sumptive, and  died  in  1767.  His  poems, 
which  are  few  in  number,  were  pubhshed 
by  the  reverend  John  Logan,  together  with 
some  of  liis  own,  at  Edinburgh,  in  1770. 
One,  comjjosed  on  the  anticipation  of  his 
own  death,  is  peculiarly  affecting. 

Bruce,  Robert ;  the  competitor  of  John 
Baliol  for  the  throne  of  Scotland.  On 
the  death  of  Alexander  III,  without  any 
lineal  descendant,  the  right  to  the  crown 
devolved  on  the  descendants  of  David, 
earl  of  Himtington,  who  were  John  Baliol, 
descended  from  his  oldest  daughter,  and 
Bruce,  descended,  though  one  generation 
nearer,  from  his  second  daughter.  Baliol, 
therefore,  claimed  as  issue  of  the  elder 
branch  ;  Bruce  as  one  degree  nearer  the 
common  stock.  If  the  principle  of  rep- 
resentation were  regarded,  the  fomier  had 
the  better  claim ;  if  propinquity  were  con- 
sidered, the  latter  was  entitled  to  the  pref- 
erence. The  dispute  was  refeiTcd  to  the 
decision  of  Edward  I  of  England,  who 
decided  in  favor  of  Baliol ;  and  the  new 
king  took  the  oath  of  fealty  as  vassal  of 
England.  The  oppressions  of  the  Enghsh 
mduced  Baliol  and  his  countrymen  to 
have  recourse  to  arms,  and  Bruce  served 
in  the  anny  of  Edward.  Scotland  was 
subjected,  her  king  imprisoned,  her  de- 
fenders reduced,  slain,  or  made  captive, 
when  an  obscure  individual  arose  to  re- 
v'enge  her  ■wrongs.  WilUam  Wallace 
(q.  v.),  having  succeeded  in  delivering  his 
coimtry,  was  accused  by  Bruce  of  aspir- 
ing to  tlie  throne,  and,  in  the  dreadfiil 
battle  of  Falkirk,  B.  was  in  the  English 
ranks.  In  the  pursuit,  WaUace  had  the 
celebrated  interview  with  him  on  the 
banks  '  of  the  Carron.  Hume  (ch.  13) 
relates  that  the  interview  was  between 
Wallace  and  the  younger  Bruce ;  but  the 
Scottish  historians  Drummond,  Lesly, 
Buchanan,  &;c.,  give  die  account  as  here 
stated.  Wallace  displayed  such  eleva- 
tion of  sentiment,  such  disinterestedness 


290 


BRUCE— BRUGES. 


of  patriotism,  that  Bnice  melted  into  tears, 
and  swore  to  embrace  the  cause  of  his 
oppressed  country. 

Bruce,  Robert ;  son  of  the  preceding. 
Seven  years  of  alternate  resistance  and 
submission,  of  wars  and  truces,  had  pass- 
ed, from  the  battle  of  Falkirk,  when  Ed- 
ward I  returned  to  London,  in  1305,  vic- 
torious for  the  third  time  over  Scotland, 
and  delivered  by  treachery  from  the 
dreaded  Wallace.  In  his  train,  among 
other  Scotch  nobles,  were  Robert  Bruce 
and  John  Cimiyn,  who,  formerly  rivals, 
now  conspired  to  deliver  themselves  fi-om 
the  perfidious  Edward.  They  agreed 
that  B.  should  be  declared  king,  and  that 
Scotland  should  be  summoned  to  arms. 
Cumyn  betrayed  his  accompUce,  who, 
without  beuig  informed  of  the  discovery 
of  the  plot,  was  ordex'ed  not  to  leave  the 
coiu't.  He  received  the  first  intimation 
of  his  danger  by  the  present  of  a  pair  of 
spurs  and  a  purse  of  gold  from  one  of 
his  friends ;  and,  undei-standing  the  hint, 
he  had  his  horses  shod  with  their  shoes 
inverted,  that  the  traces  on  the  snow  might 
baffle  his  pursuers,  and  escaped  to  Scot- 
land. He  immediately  assembled  his 
fi-iends  at  Dumfiies,  and  aU  the  nobles, 
except  Cumyn,  encouraged  his  resolution, 
and  promised  their  aid.  Cumyn  endeav- 
ored to  dissuade  them  from  so  desperate 
an  undertakhig ;  and,  after  the  assembly 
was  dismissed,  he  was  attacked  by  B.  in 
the  cloistei-s  of  the  Gray  Friars,  and  nm 
through  the  body.  B.  was  soon  after 
crowned  at  Scone.  Being  twice  defeat- 
ed, he  dismissed  his  troops,  and  retired  to 
the  Hebrides,  accompanied  only  by  two 
friends.  His  wife  was  earned  captive  to 
London,  his  three  brothers  were  hanged, 
and  he  himself  was  supposed  to  be  dead, 
when  he  reappeai-ed  in  Scotland,  collect- 
ed an  army,  put  to  the  sword  die  English 
garrisons,  and  rallied  all  Scotland  under 
his  banners.  Edward  set  out  to  subdue 
the  thrice-conquered  Scots,  and  was  on 
the  point  of  entering  tlie  kingdom,  vow- 
ing revenge,  and  secure  of  success,  when 
iie  sickened  and  died,  enjoining  it  with 
his  last  breath  on  his  successor  never  to 
desist  till  he  had  subjected  all  Scotland. 
B.,  though  obliged  to  be  carried  in  a  liuer, 
defeated  the  English  at  Bannockburn, 
near  Stirling,  and  secured  tlie  indepen- 
dence of  his  crown,  June  24, 1314.  The 
distracted  state  of  the  country  required 
vigorous  measures.  The  Scottish  nobles 
had  encroached  on  the  possessions  of  the 
king  and  the  commons.  The  king  called 
upon  them  to  show  the  tides  by  which 
they  held  their  lands.    "  By  these,"  they 


exclaimed,  drawing  their  swords,  "we 
have  acquired  our  lands,  and  with  tliese 
we  will  preserve  them !"  King  Robert 
was  once  more  obliged  to  defend  his  ter- 
ritories from  tlie  English,  who,  encour- 
aged by  tliese  disputes,  had  again  passed 
the  Scottish  borders.  On  die  plains  of 
Byland,  1-323,  he  gained  another  memo- 
rable victor}'  over  those  formidable  ene- 
mies. On  the  accession  of  Edward  III, 
1329,  he  obtained  from  that  king  the  rec- 
ognition of  the  independence  of  Scot- 
land, and  the  renimciation  of  all  claims 
of  sovereignty  on  the  part  of  the  English. 
He  died  in  the  course  of  the  same  year. 

Bruges  ;  a  city  of  the  Netherlands,  and 
capital  of  West  Flanders,  situated  about  6 
miles  from  die  sea.  It  is  the  centre  of 
an  extensive  canal  commerce.  The  ])rin- 
cipa!  canals  are  those  which  lead  to  Sluys 
and  Ostend,  on  the  latter  of  which  ves- 
sels of  300  tons  can  come  up  to  B.  In 
the  14th  century,  it  "was  one  of  the  chief 
commercial  places  in  Europe,  and  an  im- 
portant member  of  the  Hanseatic  confed- 
eracy. Towards  the  end  of  the  15th  cen- 
tuiy,  it  began  to  decline.  It  now  carries 
on  a  considerable  trade  with  tlie  north  of 
Europe.  The  population  is  about  34,300. 
The  exchange  is  supposed  to  have  been 
one  of  the  earliest  establishments  of  the 
kind  in  Europe,  and  is  still  a  fine  build- 
ing. B.  has  also  a  chamber  of  commerce, 
a  large  insurance  company,  a  navigation 
school,  and  a  dock-yard ;  likewse  an 
academy  of  painting,  sculpture  and  ar- 
chitecture ;  a  national  literary  societj^, 
&c.,  and  many  valuable  specimens  of 
architecture  and  sculpture.  In  the  church 
of  Notre  Dame,  with  its  elevated  spire, 
are  the  splendid  tombs  of  Charles  the 
Bold,  and  of  Mary  of  Burgimdy,  his 
daughter,  constructed  in  1550.  Philip 
the  Good  here  founded  the  order  of  the 
golden  fleece,  in  1430 ;  and  the  celebrated 
John  van  Eyk,  or  John  of  Bruges,  the 
supposed  inventor  of  painting  in  oil,  was 
bom  here.  (See  Collection  de  Gravnres 
aic  Tt'ait  representant  les  pnncipaux  Mon. 
(P  Architect,  et  de  Sculpt,  de  Bruges,  dtpuis 
le  14?ne  jitsqu^  au  17me  Siecle,  1824.) 
The  chief  articles  manufactured  at  B.  are 
lace  and  linen.  It  also  exports  much  grain, 
and,  when  the  English  ports  are  open, 
immense  quantities  are  shipped.  Lat. 
51°  13'  N. ;  Ion.  3°  14'  E. 

Bruges,  viscount  of;  one  of  the  prin- 
cipal persons  of  the  French  court.  He 
was  a  Ueutenant  in  the  marine  when  the 
French  revolution  broke  out,  and  served 
among  the  Enghsh  troops  on  the  expedi- 
tion to  St.  Domingo,  where  his  family 


BRUGES— BRUHL. 


291 


had  great  possessions.  He  afterwards 
married  the  countess  Golofkin,  in  Ger- 
many. After  the  restoration  of  the  Bour- 
Iwns,  tlie  viscount,  who  drew  his  origin 
from  one  of  tlie  oldest  families,  was  ap- 
pointed inspector  of  the  eighth  military 
division  of  Provence.  He  could  not  jire- 
vent  the  landing  of  Napoleon,  on  his  re- 
turn from  Elba,  in  1815.  He  served  in 
the  army  of  the  duke  of  Angouleme, 
in  the  south  of  France,  ami  attempted  to 
take  Marseilles  in  June,  1815,  when  mar- 
shal Brune  compelled  the  duke  to  capit- 
ulate. In  1816,  he  was  sent  by  the  French 
government  on  an  iinjiortant  mission  to 
Berlin.  His  elder  brother,  count  Bruges, 
became,  in  1815,  uasi)ector-general  of  the 
national  guards. 

Brugmans,  Sebald  Justinus ;  a  learned 
Dutchman,  physician-in-chief  of  the  army, 
of  the  marine,  and  of  the  colonies;  mem- 
ber of  the  institute  of  the  Netherlands,  and 
of  many  learned  societies.  He  was  born 
at  Franeker,  in  1763,  and  graduated,  in 
1781,  at  Groningen.  His  dissertations, 
lAthologia  Groningiana ;  On  hurtful  and 
jjoisonous  Plants  in  Pastures ;  On  the 
Symptoms  of  Decay  in  Trees,  and  De 
Puogenia,  in  1785,  procured  him  distinc- 
tion. He  became  professor  of  philoso- 
phy and  physics  in  Franeker,  where  he 
formed  a  cabinet  of  compamtive  anatomy, 
one  of  the  first  in  Europe.  In  1795,  he 
went  to  Leyden  as  professor  of  chemistry. 
His  labors  for  the  organization  of  the 
medical  department  of  the  army  com- 
menced in  1794.  He  was  an  active  con- 
tributor to  the  Pharmacopoeia  Batava. 
King  Louis  made  him  his  physician,  and 
confirmed  all  his  institutions.  After  the 
union  of  Holland  with  France,  Napoleon 
made  him  inspector-general  of  the  hospi- 
tals, and  rector  of  the  university  of  Ley- 
den, for  wliich  he  procured  large  sums  of 
money  from  the  state,  and,  in  later  times, 
the  return  of  its  collection  of  natural  his- 
tory from  Paris.  Durmg  the  many  years 
lie  was  director  of  the  miUtary  hospital, 
the  number  of  deaths  by  wounds  and  dis- 
eases was  never  increased  by  hospital 
fevers.  After  the  battle  of  Waterloo,  he 
promptly  procured  medical  aid  for  more 
than  20,000  wounded  men.  His  treatise 
On  the  Nature  of  the  Miasma  of  Hospi- 
tal Fever  gained  the  prize  of  the  acade- 
my in  Haarlem.  His  original  views  on 
the  organization  of  fishes  are  to  be  found 
in  the  transactions  of  the  national  ui- 
stitute  of  the  Netherlands.  He  died  in 
1819. 

Bruhl,  Frederic  Aloysius,  count  of, 
Jwr»  at  Dresden,   1739,  son  of  Henry 


count  of  Briihl,  described  in  the  next  arti- 
cle, was  very  unlike  his  father.  Educated 
by  his  mother,  an  estimable  and  enlighten- 
ed lady,  with  prudence  and  strictness,  and 
liappily  endowed  by  nature,  he  became 
the  ideal  of  an  accomplished  man  of  the 
world.  He  was  remarkable  for  his  beauty 
and  strength,  wrote  and  spoke  almost  all 
the  European  languages,  was  skilled  in 
music,  painted  with  taste,  and  was  well 
acquainted  with  mathematics  and  gun- 
nery. He  worked  a  whole  year  incognito 
in  a  cannon  foundery.  His  activity  and 
temperance  were  botli  extraordinary.  He 
excelled  in  writing,  and  still  more  in  con- 
versation. 

Bruhl,  Henry,  count  of,  minister  of  Au- 
gustus III,  kuig  of  Poland  and  elector  of 
Saxony,  was  bora  in  1700,  in  Thuringia. 
His  family  not  being  very  rich,  he  entered, 
as  a  page,  the  service  of  the  duchess  Eliz- 
abeth, whose  favor,  as  well  as  that  of  Au^ 
gustus  II,  he  gained  by  his  hvely  and  grace- 
ful manners.  On  the  death  of  the  king, 
at  Warsaw,  in  1733,  the  croAvn  of  Poland, 
with  the  other  regalia,  being,  through  the 
good  fortune  of  B.,  intnisted  to  him,  he  car- 
ried them  immediately  to  the  new  elector, 
Augustus  III,  and  showed  the  greatest  acr 
tivity  in  promoting  his  election.  From 
this  time,  fortune  never  deserted  him.  He 
had  cunning  and  skill  sufllicient  to  govern 
liis  master  and  get  rid  of  his  rivals.  While 
he  felt  himself  not  sufficiently  powerfid 
to  remove  his  rival,  count  Sulkowski,  lie 
acted  as  his  friend ;  but,  after  liis  mamage 
with  the  countess  Kollowrath,  the  favor- 
ite of  the  queen,  he  effected  the  dismissal 
of  Sulkowski  through  her  influence.  He 
now  succeeded  in  keeping  every  body  at 
a  distance  from  the  king.  No  servant 
entered  his  service  without  the  consent 
of  B. ;  and,  even  when  he  went  to  the 
chapel,  all  approach  to  him  was  prevent- 
ed. The  monarch's  wish  that  his  minis- 
ter should  make  a  great  parade  was  grat- 
ified in  the  widest  extent.  B.  kept  200 
domestics;  his  guards  were  better  paid 
than  those  of  the  king  himself,  and  his 
table  more  sumptuous.  Frederic  II  says 
of  him,  "B.  had  more  garments,  watches, 
laces,  boots,  shoes  and  slippers  than  any 
man  of  the  age.  Ciesar  would  have 
counted  him  among  those  curled  and 
})erfumed  heads  Avhich  he  did  not  fear." 
But  Augustus  III  was  no  Caesar.  When 
this  idle  prince  loitered  about,  smoking, 
and  asked,  without  looking  at  his  favor- 
ite, "  Briilil,  have  I  any  money .'"  "  Yes, 
sire,"  was  the  continual  answer ;  and,  to 
satisfy  the  king's  demands,  he  exhausted 
the  state,  plunged  the  country  into  debts. 


292 


BRUHL— BRINE. 


and  gi'eatly  reduced  the  anny.  At  the 
begiiining  of  the  seven  years'  war,  it  com- 
prised but  17,000  men,  and  these  were 
compelled  to  sun-ender,  at  Pima,  from 
want  of  the  necessary  supi)lies.  B.  fled 
■with  the  king,  the  pictures  and  the  china, 
to  Poland;  but  the  archives  of  the  state 
were  left  to  the  victor.  He  was  no  less 
avaricious  of  titles  and  money  than  of 
power.  He  died  a  few  weeks  after  liis 
king,  in  1763.  An  examination,  after  his 
death,  showed  that  he  owed  his  immense 
fortune  to  the  ])rodJgality  of  the  king, 
rather  than  to  unlawful  means  of  accu- 
mulation. His  own  profiision  was  often 
beneficial  to  the  arts  and  sciences.  He 
had  four  sons.  An  account  of  the  eldest 
is  contained  in  the  preceduig  article. 

BnuHL,  John  Maurice,  nephew  of  the 
minister,  died  in  1809,  while  Saxon  am- 
liassador  hi  London,  is  known  by  his  in- 
genious im])rovements  of  several  instru- 
ments, by  his  essays  in  the  Philosophical 
Transactions,  and  by  his  Recherches  sur 
divers  Objets  de  VEconomie  politique  (Dres- 
den, 1781). 

Brulotta.    (See  Fire-Ship.) 

Brdmaire,  the  18th  (Nov.  9),  1799. 
On  tliis  day,  general  Bonaparte  overthrew 
the  directoiy.  The  next  day,  he  dispersed, 
at  the  point  of  the  bajonet,  the  council  of 
the  five  hundred,  and  was  elected  consul. 
(See  JVapoleon  and  France.) 

Brun.    (See  Lebrun.) 

Brc:»ck,  Richai-d  Francis  Phihp,  one 
of  the  most  ingenious  critics  of  modern 
times,  bom  at  Strasburg,  in  1729,  made 
rapid  progress  in  learning,  when  he  stud- 
ied with  the  Jesuits  in  Paris,  but  neglect- 
ed study  as  soon  as  he  entered  into  active 
life.  While  in  whiter  quarters  at  Giessen, 
as  commissary  of  war,  during  the  French 
campaigns,  he  resided  with  a  professor, 
who,  by  his  advice  and  example,  revived 
his  love  of  letters,  and  led  him  to  the  study 
of  tlie  classics.  When  B.  returned  to 
Strasburg,  he  devoted  all  his  leisure  time 
to  Greek,  and,  at  the  age  of  30  yeai"s,  and 
while  holding  a  piibUc  oftice,  attended  the 
lectures  of  the  Greek  professor  of  the 
university.  The  zeal  which  had  encour- 
aged him  to  undertake  this  laborious  study 
was  increased  by  the  pleasure  of  overcom- 
ing difficulties,  and  he  became  fixed  in  tlie 
conviction,  that  all  the  instances  of  appar- 
ently careless  wTitin^  m  the  Greek  poets 
were  only  errors  of  the  transcribers.  En- 
tertaining this  opinion,  he  altered  what- 
ever displeased  him,  overthrew  the  ortler 
of  the  verses,  and  permitted  himself  liber- 
ties which  criticism  must  needs  reject. 
To  tliis  rage  of  alterhig  lie  gave  himself 


uj),  particularly  in  the  marginal  comments 
of  his  books,  and  in  the  numerous  co])ie9 
which  he  made  of  the  Greek  poets,  more 
for  his  own  pleasure  than  for  use.  This 
urbitrar}'  ])rocess  is  so  visible,  even  in  the 
editions  he  has  published,  that  much  cau- 
tion is  required  in  using  them.  B.  has 
nevertheless  been  of  essential  service  to 
Greek  literature ;  and,  since  the  revival  of 
letters,  few  scholars  have  so  effectually 
promoted  it.  It  is  wonderful  how  much 
he  has  done  in  the  space  of  20  years.  He 
published  also  a  valuable  edition  of  Virgil. 
Of  his  Greek  editions  we  may  mention 
those  of  the  Analecta,.ipoUonius  RliodiuSj 
Aristophanes,  the  Gnomic  poets,  and  his 
masterjiiece,  Sophocles,  for  which  the  king 
allowed  him  a  ])ension  of  2000  francs.  At 
this  time,  the  French  revolution  interrupt- 
ed his  studies.  He  adopted  the  new  ideas 
with  enthusiasm,  and  was  one  of  the  fii-st 
members  of  the  po})ular  society  in  Stras- 
burg, without  deviating,  however,  from 
the  principles  of  moderation.  This  is 
proved  by  the  circumstance  that  he  was 
arrested  at  BesanQon,  during  the  reign  of 
ten-or,  and  did  not  obtain  his  hberty  until 
after  the  death  of  Robespierre.  In  1791, 
economical  reasons  obhged  him  to  sell 
part  of  his  Ubraiy,  and,  in  1801,  he  was 
obliged  to  adopt  the  same  resource  a  sec- 
ond time.  As  he  was  passionately  fond 
of  his  books,  and  his  former  fortune  liad 
enabled  him  to  collect  an  excellent  libra- 
ry, this  was  a  severe  privation.  If  he 
was  reminded  of  an  author  he  had  once 
possessed,  tears  came  into  liiseyes.  From 
this  time,  Greek  became  his  aversion ;  but 
he  prepared  an  edition  of  Terence,  and 
had  PlaiUiis  ready  for  publication,  when 
he  died,  in  1803.  Many  of  the  papers 
which  he  left  are  in  the  librar\'  at  Paiis. 

Brundusium  (now  Brindisi) ;  a  city  in 
Terra  di  Oti*anto,  in  the  kingdom  of  Na- 
ples, on  the  Adriatic  sea,  very  celebrated 
in  tlie  time  of  the  ancient  Romans.  It 
had  then  an  excellent  harbor,  which  is 
now  almost  filled  up  with  sand.  From 
this  place  the  Romans  usually  embarked 
for  Greece  and  Asia.  The  Appian  way 
led  to  this  city.  It  was  also  on  the  nearest 
route  from  Constantuiople  to  Rome,  by 
tlie  way  of  the  mountams  of  Macedonia 
and  Albania.  Virgil  died  here.  The  pop- 
ulation, in  the  12tii  century,  was  60,000, 
but  is  now  reduced  to  about  5900.  It  is 
the  seat  of  an  archbishop. 

Bru^je,  William  Maria  Anne,  marshal 
of  France,  son  of  a  lawyer  at  Brives  la 
Gaillairde,  was  born  there  March  13, 1763, 
and  went  while  young  to  Paris.  At  the 
breaking  out  of  the  revolution,  he  was  a 


BRUNE— BRUNEHILD. 


293 


jirmter,  and  had  made  liiiiiself  kjiown  by 
some  small  pieces  of  his  own  composition. 
He  now  devoted  himself  ardently  to  poli- 
tics, became  a  member  of  the  club  des  Cor- 
deliers, was  connected  with  Danlon,  ajid 
played  an  active  part  in  the  tempests  of 
that  period.  Till  Aug,  10,  1792,  he  was 
engaged  in  pubhshing  a  daily  newspaper. 
Afterwards,  he  went  as  a  commissary  to 
Belgium.  In  1793,  he  entered  the  mili- 
tarj'  service  in  the  revolutionary  army,  in 
the  Gironde.  Oct  10,  1795,  he  aided 
Barras  to  put  down  the  Jacobins,  who 
had  assaulted  the  camp  of  Grenelle.  Af- 
terwards, he  distinguished  himself  as  gen- 
eral of  brigade  in  tJie  Itahan  army,  in 
1797,  in  the  attack  of  Verona,  and  in  the 
battle  of  Arcoli.  When  the  directory  of 
Switzerland  declared  war,  B.  received  the 
chief  command  of  an  anny,  entered  the 
country,  without  much  opposition,  in  Jan- 
uary, 1798,  and  effected  a  new  organiza- 
tion of  the  government.  In  179it,  he 
received  the  chief  command  in  Holland, 
defeated  the  Enghsh  in  the  north  of  Hol- 
land, Sept  19,  near  Bergen,  and  compel- 
led the  duke  of  York  to  agree  to  tlie 
treaty  of  Alcmaer,  Oct.  18,  by  which  the 
English  and  Russians  were  to  evacuate 
the  north  of  Holland.  In  January-,  1800, 
he  was  ziiade  a  counsellor  of  state,  and 
was  placed  at  the  head  of  the  army  of 
the  west.  The  restoration  of  tranquilUty 
to  the  provinces,  torn  by  civil  war,  ^vas, 
in  a  great  degree,  effected  by  him.  Aug. 
13,  he  was  appointed  commander-in-chief 
of  the  Italian  army.  Towards  the  end 
of  December,  he  led  his  troops  over  the 
Mincio,  conquered  the  Austrians,  i)assed 
the  Adige,  Jan.  8,  1801,  took  possession 
of  Vicenza  and  Roveredo,  and  concluded 
an  armistice,  Jan.  16,  at  Treviso,  with  the 
Austrian  general  Beliegarde,  by  which 
several  fortitied  places  in  Italy  were  sur- 
rendered to  the  French  troops.  When 
peace  recalled  him  to  the  council  of  state, 
towards  the  end  of  November,  1802,  he 
laid  before  the  legislative  body  for  con- 
firmation the  treaty  of  peace  with  the 
court  of  Naples.  The  next  year,  he  went 
as  ambassador  to  the  court  of  Constanti- 
nople. He  prevailed  there  at  first  over 
the  English  party,  and  received  from  the 
Turkish  ministry  the  highest  marks  of 
lionor ;  but,  when  new  dissensions  arose 
between  the  two  powers,  he  left  Turkey. 
During  his  absence,  3Iay  19, 1804,  he  was 
apj)ointed  marshal  of  the  empire.  At  the 
end  of  1806,  Napoleon  ap])ointed  him 
governor-general  of  the  Hanseatic  towns, 
and,  soon  after,  commander  of  the  troops 
in  Swedish  Pomerania,  against  the  kmg 
25* 


of  Sweden.  This  monarch  invited  the 
marshal  to  a  personal  mterview,  in  which 
he  endeavored  to  convert  him  to  the 
cause  of  Louis  XVIII.  B.  refused  every 
proposal.  He  may,  however,  have  drawn 
upon  himself  the  indignation  of  Napoleon 
by  his  conduct  in  this  mterview,  or  by 
favoring  the  English  contraband  trade  in 
Hamburg.  At  any  rate,  he  was  i-ecalled, 
and  suffered  to  remain  without  emj)loy- 
ment.  After  the  revolution  of  1814,  he 
recognised  Louis  XVIII,  and  received  the 
cross  of  Louis,  but  no  appointment.  This 
was  the  cause  of  his  declai'ing  liimself  for 
Napoleon,  innnediately  upon  his  return. 
He  received  the  chief  command  of  an 
important  army  in  the  south  of  France, 
and  was  made  a  peer.  When  circum- 
stances changed  again,  he  delayed  a  long 
time  before  he  gave  uj)  Toulon,  which 
was  in  his  possession  m  1815,  to  the  troops 
of  Louis  XVHI,  and  sent  in  his  resigna- 
tion to  the  king.  This  circumstance,  and 
the  severities  exercised  by  liis  command, 
might  well  have  excited  agauist  him  the 
rage  of  tlie  people.  While  retiring  from 
Toulon  to  Paris,  he  was  recognised,  at 
Avignon,  by  the  people  who  favored  the 
king ;  and  the)'  immediately  collected  to^ 
gether  about  the  hotel  where  he  had  en-r 
tered.  The  excited  i)opulace  were  heated 
still  more,  when  a  report  was  spread 
among  them,  that  B.  was  the  murderer  of 
the  princess  Lamballe.  The  marshal  wa3 
permitted,  however,  to  go  away  quietly. 
But  scarcely  had  his  caiTiage  left  the  city, 
before  a  mob  of  the  rabble  which  had 
followed  compelled  the  driver  to  turn 
back  to  the  hotel.  Wlien  the  marshal 
had  ahghted,  and  retired,  with  his  two  ad- 
jutants, to  his  former  chamber,  the  doora 
of  the  house  were  locked.  The  insur- 
gents had,  in  the  mean  time,  gained  a 
powerful  accession  to  their  numbers,  and, 
v.ith  loud  shouts,  demanded  the  death  of 
tlie  marshal.  In  vain  did  tlie  prefect  and 
the  mayor  strive  to  defend  him  (as  there 
were  no  troops  in  the  city)  for  the  space 
of  four  hours  ajjd  a  half,  at  the  peril  of 
their  lives.  The  door  was  at  last  broken 
open,  a  crowd  of  murderers  rushed  into 
the  chamber,  "and  the  unhappj'  marshal 
fell  under  a  shower  of  balls,  after  a  fruit- 
less attempt  to  defend  himself  and  justify 
his  conduct.  His  body  was  exposed  to 
the  most  shameful  insults,  and  then  drag- 
ged from  the  hotel  to  the  bridge  over  the 
Rhone,  from  which  it  was  thrown  into 
the  river. 

BaUiNEHACT.    (See  Brunehild.) 
Brcnehild,  Brunichild ;    married  to 
Siegbert  I,  kuig  of  Austrasia,  in  568,  a 


294 


BRUNEIIILD— BRUNINGS. 


Visigothic  princess,  of  powerful  mind, 
enteq)rising  spirit,  heroic  resolution,  deej) 
political  knowledge,  and  (nu*estrained 
umbition.  She  involved  her  husband  in 
a  wai"  with  his  brother  Cliilperic,  in  the 
course  of  which  he  was  murdered,  A.  D. 
575;  but  she  continued  to  live  and  rage 
till  613,  wiien  she  fell  into  the  hands  of 
Clothaire  II,  king  of  Soissous,  who  put 
her  to  a  most  terrible  death,  as  having 
been  the  jnurderess  of  10  kings  aud  royal 
jmnces.    (See  Fredegonde.) 

Brunelleschi,  Philip,  born  1377,  at 
Florence,  devoteil  himself  to  the  study  of 
the  works  of  Dante,  to  natural  philosophy 
and  perspective,  the  rules  of  which  were 
tlien  scarcely  known.  He  formed  various 
figures,  and  invented  ingenious  machines. 
He  devoted  himself  particularly,  however, 
to  architecture,  antl  learned  the  ait  of 
dra\ving,  to  make  his  architectural  plans ; 
statuary,  to  adorn  them ;  and  mechanics, 
that  he  might  be  able  to  raise  the  materi- 
als. He  was  also  profoundly  vereed  in 
mathematics  ami  geometry.  He  is  said 
to  have  drawn  views  of  the  finest  monu- 
ments in  Florence  in  perspective — an  art 
which  then  excited  much  astonishment. 
This  various  knowledge  prepared  him  for 
bold  and  difficult  undertakings,  and  gaui- 
ed  him  the  name  of  the  restorer  of  ai'chi- 
tecture.  As  a  statuary,  he  was  much 
indebted  to  his  ultimate  connexion  with 
Donatello,  who  was  then  very  young,  but 
very  able.  Both  went  to  Rome.  Here  B. 
conceived  the  idea  of  restoring  architect- 
ure to  the  principles  of  the  Greeks  and 
Romans.  When  the  architects  assembled, 
in  1407,  at  Florence,  to  consult  upon  the 
building  of  the  dome  of  the  cathedral, 
the  plan  which  B.  projiosed  received  but 
little  attention,  and  he  went  back  to 
Rome.  It  was  foimd  necessary,  however, 
to  have  recourse  to  him,  as  the  under- 
taking far  surpassed  the  powers  of  the 
other  ai'chitects.  He  engaged  to  erect  a 
dome,  which,  by  its  OAVit  weight,  and  by 
the  strong  connexion  of  its  parts,  should 
hang  suspended.  This  proposal  seemed 
so  wonderful,  that  tlie  autlior  was  regard- 
ed as  insane.  As  all  other  plans,  howev- 
er, failed  to  answer  the  Apectations  of 
tiie  magistrates,  B.  was  again  recalled,  and 
ordered  to  explain  the  mode  in  which  he 
intended  to  execute  his  plan.  -This  he 
refused  to  do,  but  built  two  small 
chai)els  according  to  his  new  system, 
upon  which  the  charge  of  erecting  the 
dome  was  committed  to  him.  As  he  ob- 
eerved  that  the  higher  the  building  was 
raised  the  more  time  was  lost  in  going  up 
and  down,  he  erected  some  small  lodg- 


ings on  the  dome  itself,  and  by  that  means 
saved  the  laborers  the  time  thus  sjient. 
Aided  only  by  his  own  genius,  he  accom- 
plished the  work,  which  remains  one  of 
the  boldest  creations  of  the  human  mind. 
But  the  ingenious  lantern,  which  formed 
tlie  upper  part  of  the  dome,  was  not  fin- 
ished when  he  died,  in  1444,  aged  67.  It 
was  completed,  howcA'er,  according  to  his 
fii-st  design.  No  monument  of  ancient 
architecture  is  so  noble  as  this  wonderful 
building.  Only  the  dome  of  St.  Peter's 
at  Rome,  which  was  built  since,  excels  it 
ui  height,  but  is  inferior  to  it  in  lightness 
and  grandeur  of  style.  Michael  Angelo 
said  it  was  difficult  to  imitate  B.,  and  im- 
possible to  excel  him.  B.  is  the  author 
of  a  great  number  of  other  masterpieces 
of  architecture. 

Brunet,  James  Charles,  bookseller  at 
Paris,  began  his  bibliograpliical  career  by 
the  preparation  of  several  auction  cata- 
logues, of  which  the  most  interesting  is 
that  of  the  count  d'Ourches  (Paiis,  1811), 
and  of  a  supplementaiy  volume  to  Cail- 
leau's  and  Duclos's  Didionnaire  Biblio- 
graphique  (Paris,  1802).  In  1810  was  jiub- 
hshed  the  first  edition  of  his  Manud  du 
LAbraire  et  de  VJlmaleur  de  Livres,  in  3 
vols.,  which  gained  such  univei-sal  ap- 
j)lause,  that,  in  1814,  a  second,  and,  in 
1820,  a  third  edition,  of  four  volumes  each, 
were  demanded.  This  work  showed  him 
the  worthy  successor  of  tlie  meritorious 
Debure  (Irom  whose  works  those  of  B. 
are  distinguished  only  by  tlie  alphabetical 
form.)  An  attempt  to  unite  the  plan  of 
his  work  with  the  considerations  which 
must  guide  the  man  of  learning  in  his 
studies  and  laboi-s,  is  contained  in  the  Bib- 
hograjiliical  Lexicon,  by  Ebert,  since 
published. 

Bru-vet.  (See  Paris,  Theatre  of.) 
Bru>'hildis.  (See  J^ibtlungen.) 
Bru>u.  (See  Bruiio,  Giordano.) 
Bru.xi>'gs,  Christian;  one  of  the  great- 
est hydraulic  architects  of  Holland ;  born 
1736,  at  Neckerau,  in  the  Palatinate.  In 
his  childhood,  he  devoted  himself  to  the 
sciences  connected  with  hydraulic  archi- 
tecture. In  1769,  the  states  of  Holland 
appointed  him  general  uispector  of  rivers. 
This  uitroduced  him  to  a  share  in  several 
important  commissions ;  for  instance,  that 
for  the  improvement  of  the  chke  system, 
in  171)6 ;  that  for  da-aining  the  tracts  be- 
tween Niewskogs  and  Zevenhoven,  in 
1797,  &c.  His  most  important  water- 
works are  his  improvements  in  the  diking 
of  the  lake  of  Haerlem,  the  improved 
dikuig  and  deepening  of  the  Oberwasser, 
so  called,\  in  the  Netherlands,  which,  at 


BRUNINGS— BRUNO. 


295 


high  tides,  often  inundated  vast  extents 
of  country,  together  Avith  the  change  in 
iJie  course  of  the  Waal-stream  and  the 
canal  of  Paimerde,  by  Avliich  the  beds  of 
tlie  Rhme,  the  Waal  and  the  Leek  Avere 
improved.  He  introduced  into  his  de- 
partment the  use  of  the  stream  measure, 
so  called.  His  many  official  duties  j)er- 
mitted  this  wortliy  officer  but  seldom  to 
appear  as  an  author.  Yet  we  find  scien- 
tific essays  written  by  him  in  the  14th, 
19th  and  20th  volumes  of  the  Memoh-s  of 
tlie  Haerlem  Society  of  Sciences,  and 
some  other  pieces.  He  died  m  1805. 
The  directory  of  the  then  repubhc  wish- 
ed to  erect  a  monument  to  him  in  the 
ciithedral  church  at  Haerlem  ;  but  it  has 
never  been  completed,  on  account  of  the 
political  disturbances  tliat  occuired  soon 
after  his  death. 

Brunn  ;  the  capital  of  i\Ioravia,and  of 
a  circle  of  thesame  name,  which  contiiins 
a  population  of  300,000,  and  is  fertile  in 
corn  and  flax.  Tiie  j)opulation  of  the 
city,  with  the  suburbs,  is  33,300.  It  con- 
tains the  government  offices,  the  house 
for  the  meeting  of  the  states,  the  palace 
of  prince  Lichtenstein,  a  gj'mnasium, 
many  fine  houses,  &c.  There  are  at  B. 
several  flourishing  manufactures  of  fine 
woollen  cloths  and  kerseymeres,  one  of 
which  employs  5000  individuals.  It  is 
the  centre  of  the  INIoravian  conunerce,  a 
great  part  of  which  is  earned  on  by  faii-s 
held  at  B.  eveiy  three  months.  On  a  liill 
near  it  is  the  fortress  of  Spielberg,  now 
used  as  a  prison.  Lat.  49°  11'  N. ;  Ion. 
16°.35'E. 

Brono  the  Great,  archbishop  of  Co- 
logne and  duke  of  Lorraine,  third  son  of 
Hem-y  the  Fowler,  and  brother  of  the 
emperor  Otho  I,  had  a  great  share  in  tlie 
events  of  liis  time,  and  siu'passeil  all  the 
contemporary  bishops  in  talents  and 
knowledge.  A  numerous  train  of  learn- 
ed men  from  all  countries,  even  from 
Greece,  continually  followed  him,  and 
his  excellent  example  was  imitated  by 
many  prelates.  He  died  at  Rheims,  Oct. 
11,9G5.  Commentaries  on  the  five  books 
of  Moses,  and  the  biographies  of  some 
saints,  are  ascribed  to  him. 

Bruno,  St.  Among  several  individuals 
of  this  name,  the  most  famous  is  the  one 
who  estabhshed  the  order  of  Carthusian 
monks.  He  was  bom  at  Cologne,  about 
1030,  of  an  old  and  noble  familj',  which 
still  flourished  in  the  middle  of  the  18th 
century  ;  was  educated  in  the  school  of 
the  collegiate  church  of  St.  Cunibert ;  in 
which,  also,  he  aftenvards  received  a 
canonship,  and  then  studied  at  Rheims, 


where  he  distmguished  himself  to  such  a 
degree,  that  Gei-vais,  the  bishop,  appoint- 
ed him  to  superintend  all  the  schools  of 
the  district.  He  attracted  many  distin- 
guished scholars,  and,  among  otliers,  Odo, 
afterwards  pope  Urban  II.  The  iinmo- 
rahty  of  his  times  induced  him  to  go  into 
solitude.  He  i-etired,  therefore,  with  six 
friends  of  the  same  disposition,  to  the  res- 
idence of  St.  Hugo,  bishop  of  Grenoble, 
who,  in  1084,  led  them  to  a  desert,  four 
or  five  leagues  distant  from  the  city,  call- 
ed Chartreuse,  whence  the  order  of  monks 
received  its  name.  Here,  in  a  narrow 
valley,  overshadowed  by  two  steep  rocks, 
covered  with  snow  and  thorns,  B.  and  liis 
com])anions  built  an  oratoiT,  and  small, 
sei)arate  cells  to  dwell  in,  and  founded,  in 
1086,  one  of  the  severest  orders  of  monks. 
In  the  mean  time,  Urban  II  became  pope, 
and,  in  1089,  invited  his  former  instructer 
to  his  court.  B.  reluctantly  obeyed,  but 
refused  everj'  sjjiritual  dignity,  and,  in 
1094,  received  i)ermission  to  fomid  a 
second  Carthusian  establishment  in  the 
solitude  of  della  Torre,  in  Calabria.  Here 
he  hved  in  his  former  mode,  ruled  his 
now  colony  with  wisdom,  and  died  in  the 
arms  of  his  scholai-s,  A.  D.  1101.  Leo  X, 
hi  1514,  permitted  the  Carthusians  to  cel- 
e!)rate  a  mass  in  honor  of  him ;  and  Greg- 
oi-y  XV,  in  1623,  extended  it  to  the  whole 
Catholic  church.  He  was  afterwards 
CiUionized.  B.  gave  his  scholars  no  par- 
ticular laws.  A  complete  set  of  regula- 
tions for  theCaithusians  was  fii-st  formed 
A.  D.  1581,  and  confinned  by  Inno- 
cent XI. 

Bru.xo,  or  Broi  (Bnmus,  Leonardo), 
of  Arezzo,  whence  his  name  Aretino 
(Aretinus),  was  one  of  the  most  famous 
of  the  literati  at  the  period  of  the  revival 
of  classic  literature  in  Italy.  He  was 
born  in  1370,  and,  in  his  childhood,  Avas 
excited  by  the  character  of  Petrarch,  to  tlie 
])ursuit  of  those  studies  to  Avhicli  he  con- 
secrated his  hfe.  lie  fii-st  stitdied  law  ht 
Florence  and  Ravenna ;  but  the  amval  of 
Emanuel  Chrysolonis  at  Florence  gave 
liim  a  decided  turn  for  classical  learning. 
lie  afterwards  filled  many  offices  in  the 
Roman  Catholic  church,  and  accompani- 
ed pope  John  XXIII  to  Constance,  where 
the  latter  was  deposed,  and  B.  escaped  to 
Florence.  Here  he  wrote  his  Florentine 
History,  received,  in  consequence,  the 
rights  of  citizenship,  and  afterwards,  by 
the  favor  of  the  Medici,  became  secretaiy 
to  the  republic.  In  this  important  post 
lie  died,  A.  D.  1444.  Florence  and  Arez- 
zo A'ied  with  each  other  in  honoring  his 
memory  by  splendid  obsequies  and  mon- 


996 


BRUNO. 


uments.  The  merits  of  B.,  in  S]ireading 
and  advancing  the  study  of  Greek  Htera- 
ture,  consist  particularly  in  his  hteral  Latin 
translations  of  the  classics ;  for  instance, 
the  writings  of  Aristotle,  the  orations  of 
Demosthenes,  the  biographies  of  Plutarch, 
&c.  The  other  works  on  which  his  fame 
rests  are,  his  Florentine  History,  also  a 
history  of  his  times,  from  1378  to  1440, 
and  his  speeches.  His  collection  of  let- 
ters, also,  is  valuable.  His  writings  are 
in  the  Latin  language,  with  the  exception 
of  two  biogi-aphies  of  Dante  and  Petrarch. 
His  chief  work  is  Historia  Florentims  (12 
books,  Strasb.,  1610,  folio),  with  which  is 
connected  the  Commentarius  Rerum  siio 
Tempore  Gestarum,  published  in  Italian, 
at  Venice,  1476,  foho. 

Bruno,  Giordano ;  a  philosopher  of  the 
16th  century,  distinguished  by  the  origin- 
ality and  poetical  boldness  of  his  specula- 
tions ;  born  at  Nola,  in  the  Neapolitan  ter- 
ritory ;  entered  the  order  of  Dominicans ; 
took  refuge,  probably,  from  the  persecu- 
tions which  he  drew  upon  himself  by  his 
religious  doubts  and  his  satires  on  tlie  life 
of  the  monks,  at  Geneva,  in  1582,  wTiere, 
however,  he  was  soon  ])ei'secuted,  by  the 
Calvinists,  for  his  paradoxes  and  his  vio- 
lence ;  stood  forth,  in  1583,  at  Paris,  as  the 
antagonist  of  the  Aristotelian  philosophy, 
and  as  teacher  of  the  ars  Indliana.  Hei-e 
he  found  many  opponents,  went  to  Lon- 
don, returned  to  Paris,  and,  from  1580  to 
1588,  taught  his  philosophy  at  Witten- 
berg. Why  he  left  Wittenberg  is  not 
known  ;  but  it  is  certain  that  he  went,  in 
1588,  to  Helrastadt,  and  he  seems  to  have 
visited  Prague  before  that  year.  Protect- 
ed by  duke  Julius  of  Wolfenbiittel,  he 
remained  in  Helmstadt  till  his  protector 
died,  in  1589.  He  was  then  engaged,  at 
Frankfort  on  the  Maine,  with  the  puljli- 
cation  of  some  works,  but  left  this  city, 
also,  in  1592,  and  returned  (it  is  not 
known  for  what  purjiose)  to  Italy.  He 
.  remained  for  some  time  at  Padua  in  tran- 
quillity, until  the  inquisition  of  Venice  ar- 
rested him,  in  1598,  and  transferred  him 
to  Rome.  After  an  imprisonment  of  two 
years,  that  he  might  have  opportunity  to 
retract  his  doctrines,  he  was  burnt,  Feb. 
16th,  1600,  for  ajMJStasy,  heresy,  and  vio- 
lation of  his  monastic  vows.  He  suffered 
death,  which  he  might  have  averted,  even 
eight  days  before,  by  a  recantation,  with 
fortitude.  Whilst  his  violent  attacks  on 
the  prevailing  doctrines  of  the  Aristotelian 
philosophy,  and  on  the  naiTow-minded 
Aristotelians  themselves,  every  where 
created  him  enemies,  his  rashness  and 
pride  threw  him  into  the  hands  of  lus  ex- 


ecutioners. •His  philosophical  writings, 
which  have  become  very  rare,  display  a 
classical  cultivation  of  mind,  a  deep  in- 
sight into  the  spirit  of  ancient  philosophy, 
wit  and  satire,  as  well  as  a  profound 
knowledge  of  mathematics  and  natural 
philosophy.  Most  of  them  were  publish- 
ed between  1584  and  1591,  as  appears 
from  the  enumeration  of  the  oldest  edi- 
tions in  the  Bibliographical  Lexicon  of 
Ebert  (Lps.,  1821,  quarto,  vol.  i,  p.  238 
et  seq.).  In  1584  appeared,  at  Paris,  his 
famous  Spaccio  della  Bestia  trionfante  (a 
moral  allegory,  with  many  satirical  strokes 
on  his  own  times),  also  his  work  De  la 
Causa,  Prindpio  et  Uno  (Venice  and 
London,  1584),  besides  De  Vlnfinito, 
Universo,  et  Mondi.  The  former  con- 
tains the  foundation,  the  latter  the  appli- 
cation, of  metaphysics  to  the  natural  world. 
The  doctrine  is  a  pure  Pantheism,  con- 
nected with  truly  dignified  notions  of 
God — a  more  complete  Pantheistical  sj's- 
tem  than  had  been  previously  exhibited, 
and  which,  since  his  time,  Spinoza  only, 
wlio,  like  Descartes,  bon-owed  his  ideas, 
has  carried  to  a  greater  perfection.  The 
notion  that  God  is  the  soul  of  the  uni- 
verse, and  the  world  endowed  with  or- 
ganization and  life,  might  have  been  for- 
given by  his  contemporaries ;  but  his  in- 
ference that  the  world  is  infinite  and 
immeasurable,  and  his  doctrine  of  the 
jilurality  of  worlds,  at  the  moment  Avhen 
the  new  system  of  Copernicus  was  at- 
tacked from  all  quartere,  could  not  but  be 
looked  upon  as  a  crime.  His  writings 
are  mostly  in  the  form  of  dialogues,  with- 
out any  methodical  order.  His  language 
is  a  strange  mixture  of  Italian  and  Latin. 
His  style  is  violent  and  fierj'.  The  orig- 
inality and  loftiness  of  his  ideas  take  a 
powerful  hold  on  those  who  can  under- 
stand hint.  His  logical  writings,  in  which 
he  boldly  and  skilfully  applies  Raymond 
Lully's  art  of  topical  memoiy,  are  more 
obscure  and  less  interesting.  His  belief 
in  magic  and  astrology,  notwithstanding 
his  enlightened  views  of  the  nature  of 
things,  is  to  be  attributed  to  the  sj)irit  of 
his  age.  He  has  also  written  poems,  He- 
roici  Furori,  and,  among  others,  a  come-, 
dy,  11  Candelajo.  The  most  eminent  ])hi- 
losophers  since  his  time  have  borrowed 
much  fi-om  him.  Among  recent  writers, 
Schelling  resembles  him  the  most  in  his 
metaphysics  and  his  philosophical  views 
of  natm-e,  and  has  given  his  n«ime  to  one 
of  his  philosojihical  WTitings  {Bruno, 
oder  iiber  das  gotiliche  una  naturliche 
Pnncip  der  Dinge,  Berl.,  1802).  On 
Bruno    and    his    writings,  see    Sieber's 


BRUNO— BRUNSWICK. 


297 


and  Thanner's  Lehrmeinungen  berilhmter 
Physiker  (5  vols.,  Sulzb.,  1824.) 
Brunonian  System.  [See  Brotvn,  John.) 
Bruxswick,  Family  of.  The  true 
founder  of  this  ancient  house  was  Azo  II, 
marquis  of  Tuscany,  who,  in  the  11th 
century,  married  Cunigunda,  heiress  of 
the  counts  of  Altorf,  and  thus  united  the 
two  houses  of  Este  and  Guelpli.  The 
previous  history  of  the  Este  family  is  un- 
certain. Guelph,  the  son  of  Azo,  was 
created  duke  of  Bavaria  in  1071.  He 
married  Judith  of  Flandei-s,  who  was  de- 
scended from  Alfred  the  Gi-eat  of  Eng- 
land. His  posterity  acquired  Brunswick 
and  Luneburg,  and  William,  or  his  son 
Otho  (1235),  was  the  first  who  bore  the 
title  of  duke  of  B.  John,  eldest  son  of 
Otho,  foimded  the  house  of  Luneburg. 
Albert  the  Great,  a  younger  son  of  Otho, 
conquered  Wolfenbiittel,  and,  ou  his  death 
(1278),  his  thi'ee  sons  divided  his  domin- 
ions. Henry  founded  the  house  of  Gru- 
benhagen  ;  Albert  became  duke  of  Bruns- 
wick, and  William  duke  of  Brunswick- 
Wolfenbiittel.  Henry  Juhus,  of  this  last 
l)ranch,  inherited  Grubenliagen  (1596). 
Ernest  of  Zell,  of  the  second  branch, 
who  succeeded  (1532),  conquered  tlie 
territories  of  Wolfenbiitfjl,  and  left  two 
sons,  by  wJiom  tlie  family  was  divided  into 
the  two  branches  of  Brunswick-Wolfen- 
biittel  (II)  and  Brunswick-Hanover ;  from 
the  latter  of  which  comes  the  present 
royal  family  of  England.  The  former  is 
the  German  family,  now  in  possession  of 
tlie  duchy  of  Brunswick- Wolfenbiittel. 
(q.  V.)  Charles  William  married  Au- 
gusta, sister  of  George  III  of  England 
(1764).  His  descendants  are  presinnptive 
heirs  to  the  throne  of  Great  Britain  in 
case  of  a  failure  of  the  direct  line.  Er- 
nest Augustus,  of  the  Brunswick-Hano- 
ver house,  was  created  elector  of  Hanover 
in  1692.  He  jnarried  Sophia,  daughter 
of  Elizabeth,  the  daughter  of  James  I  of 
England.  George  Louis,  son  of  Ernest 
Augustus  and  Sophia,  succeeded  his  fa- 
ther, as  elector  of  Hanover,  in  1698,  and 
was  called  to  the  throne  of  Great  Britain 
in  1714,  by  act  of  parliament  j)assed  in 
the  reign  of  queen  Aime,  which  vested 
the  succession  in  the  Protestant  line  of 
James  I.  George  IV,  the  present  king 
of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  and  of  Han- 
over (made  a  kingdom  in  1815),  is  the 
2.3d  of  the  family  of  Brunswick  by  lineal 
descent  from  Azo  ;  the  53d  king  of  Eng- 
land from  Egbert,  and  is  descended  from 
Woden,  the  head  of  the  ancient  Saxon 
family,  from  which  so  many  sovereigns 
of  Europe  have  sprung,  by  52  genera- 


tions.   (See  the  articles  George,  Hanover, 
EngloTui,  &c.) 

Brunsavick  ;  the  duchy  of  Brunswick- 
Wollenbiittel,  in  Gennany,  situated  in  the 
former  circle  of  Lower  Saxony,  and  bor- 
dering upon  Luneburg  on  the  nortli  and 
Westjihaha  on  the  west.  The  duke  holds 
the  12th  rank  among  the  membere  of  the 
German  confederation.  The  duchy  com- 
prises 1500  square  miles,  and  232,000  in- 
habitants. It  is  divided  into  six  districts, 
besides  the  tAvo  cities  of  Brunswick  and 
Wolfenbiittel,  which  are  also  considered 
as  districts.  The  family  of  B.  (q.  v.)  is 
one  of  the  most  ancient  in  Europe.  In 
1806,  the  duchy  was  annexed,  by  Napo- 
leon, to  the  kingdom  of  Westphalia,  but 
its  native  prince,  Frederic  William  (q.  v.), 
was  restored  by  the  peace  of  Leipsic, 
1813.  The  reigning  duke,  Charles,  bora 
Oct.  30th,  1804,  succeeded  to  the  govern- 
ment in  1824.  The  revenue,  exclusive 
of  Oels  (q.  v.),  is  2,000,000  florins.  The 
circumstances  and  mannei-s  of  the  inhab- 
itants resemble  those  of  the  adjacent 
countries.  Most  of  the  people  are  Luther- 
ans. The  whole  number  of  Catholics 
and  Cahnnists  does  not  probably  exceed 
4000.  The  ducal  house  is  Lutheran. 
(For  the  form  of  government,  see  Consti- 
tutio-ns.) — B.  has,  Avith  Nassau,  one  vote 
in  the  diet  of  tlie  German  states ;  and  has, 
by  itself,  two  votes  m  the  general  assem- 
bly. Its  contingent  of  troops  to  the  army 
of  the  confederacy  is  2096  men.  The 
most  important  aiticles  of  trade  and  man- 
ufacture are  corn,  rape-seed,  flax,  tobac- 
co, chicory,  hops,  madder  and  Avood. 
The  country  affords  sheep,  SAvine,  goats, 
poultry  and  bees  in  sufficient  quantities 
to  supply  the  inhabitants.  Some  fat  cat- 
tle and  horses  are  imported.  In  the  for- 
ests there  are  wild  boai-s,  deer,  hares, 
heath-cocks,  black-cocks,  partridges  and 
hazel  grouse ;  but,  as  no  attempts  are  made 
to  preserve  the  game,  the  quantity  gradu- 
ally decreases.  The  mountainous  tracts 
yield  iron,  copper,  salt,  marble,  coal,  por- 
celain earth  and  other  minerals.  In  the 
Rammelsberg  are  found  silver,  copper, 
lead,  ai-senic,  vitriol  and  suljihur,  and 
small  quantities  of  gold.  Large  tracts 
are  covered  Avitli  jieat,  in  the  sandy 
regions  in  the  northern  districts.  The 
breAveries  anfl  distilleries  of  spirit,  the 
spinning  of  linen  yam  (the  most  exten- 
sive branch  of  industry),  the  manufacture 
of  linen  and  leather,  the  preparation  of 
paper,  soap,  tobacco,  sal-ammoniac,  mad- 
der and  chicory  afford  the  principal  em- 
ployment of  the  people.  The  lackered 
AA'ares  and  porcelain  of  B.  are  famous 


298 


BRUNSWICK. 


even  in  foreign  countries.  B.,  the  capital, 
is  the  centre  of  trade.  The  country  is 
provided  with  good  roads. 

Brunswick,  capital  of  the  duchy  of  the 
same  name,  is  situated  on  the  Ocker,  and 
contains  3041  houses,  with  32,500  inhab- 
itants. It  was  formerly  one  of  the  free 
cities  of  Germany,  but  it  is  now  subject 
to  the  duke,  and  has  been  the  ducal  resi- 
dence since  1754.  The  principal  build- 
ings are  the  ducal  palace,  the  mint,  the 
house  in  which  the  diet  assembles,  the 
town-house,  the  6u«enal  and  the  cathedral, 
the  public  wine-cellai-s.  The  collegium 
Carolinum  was  founded  in  1745,  and  in- 
tended as  a  medium  between  the  com- 
mon schools  and  the  universities.  It  has 
enjoyed  a  high  reputation  even  in  foreign 
countries,  particularly  in  England  and 
Russia.  The  principal  manufactures  are 
wool,  yam,  linen,  porcelain,  pasteboard, 
paper  hangings  and  chemical  prepara- 
tions. The  traffic  in  home  produce,  and 
the  carrying  trade,  are  of  some  conse- 
quence, and  the  gi*eat  Brunswick  fairs 
reuik  next  to  those  of  Leipsic  and  Frank- 
fort.   Lat.  52°  1&  N. ;  Ion.  10°  29'  30"  E. 

Brunswick  ;  a  post-town  of  Maine,  in 
Cumberland  county,  on  the  south-west 
side  of  the  Androscoggin,  26  miles  N.  E. 
of  Portland  ;  lat  43°  53'  N. ;  Ion.  69°  55' 
\V. ;  population,  2931.  The  falls  of  the 
Androscoggin,  at  this  place,  afford  excel- 
lent seats  for  several  mills  and  manufac- 
tories. Bowdoin  college,  in  this  town, 
was  hicorporated  in  1794,  and  went  into 
operation  in  1802.  It  is  pleasantly  situ- 
ated on  an  elevated  plain,  about  half  a 
mile  from  the  Androscoggin,  is  a  well 
endowed  and  flourishuig  institution,  and 
has  a  medical  school  connected  with  it. 
The  officers,  in  1829,  consisted  of  a  presi- 
dent, a  professor  of  mathematics,  natural 
philosophy,  chemistry  and  mineralogy,  a 
professor  of  the  learned  languages,  a  pro- 
fessor of  moral  and  intellectual  philos- 
ophy. 

Brunswick,  New.  (See  JVei*  Bruns- 
wick.) 

Brunswick,  Charles  William  Ferdi- 
nand, duke  of,  was  bom  in  1735.  He 
was  the  eldest  son  of  the  reigning  duke 
Charles  of  Brunswick  and  a  sister  of 
Frederic  the  Great.  At  the  age  of  7,  his 
education  was  committed  to  the  abbe  Je- 
rusalem, then  chaplain  to  the  court  at 
Wolfenbuttel.  At  the  age  of  12,  he  en- 
tered, under  the  superintendence  of  Jeru- 
salem, the  collegium  Carolinum,  then  re- 
cently estabUshed,  His  tutor  was  the 
chamberlain  von  Wittorf— a  man  of  tal- 
ents, 1)ut  without  prmciple.    His  ambi- 


tion was  early  kindled  by  the  achieve- 
ments of  Frederic  II.  The  seven  years* 
war  affijrded  him  the  first  opportiniity  of 
cultivating  his  military  talents.  He  com- 
manded the  Brunswick  troops  in  the  alU- 
ed  army,  and,  in  the  fatal  battle  at  Has- 
tenbeck,  July  28th,  1757,  in  which  he 
recaptured  a  battery  that  had  been  taken 
by  the  French  in  the  centre  of  the  allied 
army,  "he  showed"  (such  was  the  ex- 
pression of  Frederic)  "that  nature  had 
destined  him  for  a  hero."  Jime  23d, 
1758,  he  decided  the  victory  of  Crefeld, 
He  took  the  most  active  part  in  all  the 
enterprises  of  his  uncle  Ferdinand ;  and 
Frederic's  esteem  for  him  continued  to 
increase,  as  appears  from  his  Geschichte 
des  Siebenjdhrigen  Kriegs  (History  of  the 
Seven  Years'  War),  anil  his  Ode  auf  den 
Erbprinzenvon  Braunschtveig  (Ode  on  the 
hereditary  Prince  of  Brunswick).  In  1764, 
he  married  the  princess  Augusta  of  Eng- 
land. Having  early  become  acquainted 
with  the  real  situation  of  his  native  coun- 
try, and  drawn  salutaiy  instruction  from 
the  constant  etnbarrassments  of  his  father, 
before  he  entered  upon  the  government, 
he  practised  the  greatest  economy,  living 
mostly  retired  fiom  public  business,  and 
devoted  to  the  arts  and  sciences.  In 
1773,  he  entered  the  Prassian  service,  and 
became  general  of  infantry,  but  had  no 
opportunity  of  cultivating  his  military 
talents.  After  the  death  of  his  father  (in 
1780),  he  entered  upon  the  govermnent 
with  zeal  and  activity.  Anxious  above 
all  for  tlie  improvement  of  the  finances, 
he  diminished  his  household,  discharged 
the  debts  of  the  state,  encouraged  agri- 
culture, extended  the  hberty  of  commerce, 
undertook  or  assisted  in  the  erection  of 
considerable  buildings,  and,  by  causing 
Italian  operas,  masquerades,  &c.  to  be 
exhibited  gratis,  provided  also  for  the 
amusement  of  the  pubhc.  Yet,  with  tlie 
best  intentions,  he  was  oflen  unsuccessful^ 
This  was  the  case  with  his  plans  for  the 
improvement  of  public  education.  He 
invited  men  of  learning  into  the  country 
at  great  expense,  but,  the  projected  refor- 
mation having  met  with  innumerable 
obstacles,  they  became  a  burthen  to  the 
state.  In  1787,  he  was  obliged  to  place' 
himself  at  the  head  of  a  Prussian  arniy 
for  the  support  of  the  stadtholder  of  Hol- 
land. The  facility  with  which  this  cam- 
paign was  terminated  procured  tlie  duke 
more  reputation  than  he  perhaps  deserved. 
High  expectations  were  entertained  of 
him  when  the  wars  of  the  French  revo-* 
lution  broke  out.  The  duke  received  the 
chief  conunand  of  tlie  Austiian  and  Prus- 


BRUNSWICK. 


299 


sian  anny,  and  issued  at  Coblentz,  July 
15,  1792,  the  famous  manifesto,  drawn 
up  in  a  very  harsh  and  haughty  style  hy 
a  Frenchman,  De  Limon.  It  certainly 
did  more  injury  to  the  allied  forces  than 
a  hostile  army  could  have  done.  It  in- 
flamed the  French  nation  almost  to  fmy 
against  the  insolent  conquerors,  who  in- 
tended "  to  make  every  city,  that  dared  to 
resist,  level  with  the  ground,  and  to  cut 
their  way  to  Paris."  The  emperor  Fran- 
cis approved  it,  and  so  did  the  king  of 
Prussia ;  but  the  duke  considered  the  ex- 
pressions too  strong.  The  severest  pas- 
sages were  expunged ;  but  its  tone  was 
still  v«ry  insolent.  The  duke  designed  to 
press  forwartl  from  Lorraine  to  Paris,  to 
cut  off  its  supplies,  and  thus  to  force  it  to 
surrender  by  famine.  Aug.  23,  1792, 
Longwy  was  taken,  and,  Sept.  2,  Ver- 
dun. But,  in  Champagne,  a  country  of 
itself  unproductive,  the  transjjort  of  pro- 
visions for  the  anny  from  the  frontiei-s 
was  rendered  difficult  by  mountains  and 
forests.  Dumouriez  was  encamped  in 
the  vicinity  of  St.  Menehould,  and  skir- 
mishes took  place  daily ;  but  Dumouriez, 
not  willing  to  hazard  the  fate  of  France, 
and  foreseeing  that  the  GJermans  would 
be  forced  to  retreat  by  want  and  disease, 
avoided  a  decisive  action,  notwithstand- 
ing the  effijrts  of  the  enemy  to  provoke 
liim  to  it.  The  Germans  were,  therefore, 
obliged  to  conclude  an  armistice,  and  to 
evacuate  Champagne.  Custines  took 
Worms  and  Spire  during  this  retreat, 
and,  Oct.  21,  captured  the  fortress  of 
Mentz,  and  soon  afterwards  Frankfort, 
which  latter  city,  however,  was  retaken 
by  the  Prussians  and  Hessians  Dec.  2. 
The  endeavors  of  the  Germans,  therefore, 
were  principally  directed  to  the  recapture 
of  tliose  places.  To  this  end  the  duke,  in 
conjunction  with  the  Austrians,  opened 
the  campaign  on  the  Upper  Rhine  in 
179.3,  took  the  fortress  of  Konigstein 
Rlarch  7,  conquered  Mentz  July  22, 
and  prepared  to  attack  the  strong  fortress 
of  Landau,  then  in  the  power  of  the 
French.  The  French,  on  the  other 
hand,  Sept.  14,  made  a  general  attack 
on  the  duke  and  Wurmser,  from  Stras- 
liurg  to  Saarbriick.  On  that  day,  the 
duke  had  a  sanguinary  engagement  with 
Moreau,  in  the  vicinity  of  Pirmasens,  a 
town  belonging  to  the  landgraviate  of 
Hesse-Darmstadt.  The  French  were 
driven  from  their  camp  near  the  village 
of  Hombach,  as  far  as  to  the  Saar.  A 
montii  later,  the  duke,  havmg  formed  a 
union  with  Wurmser,  succeeded,  Oct. 
13th,  in  Ills  attack  on  the  lines  of  Weis- 


senburg,  and  his  attempt  to  draw  nearer 
to  Landau.  In  order  to  gain  another 
strong  point  of  support,  he  ventured,  on 
the  night  of  Nov.  16,  to  make  an  assaidt 
upon  the  mountain-fortress  of  Bitsch, 
which  is  the  key  of  the  Vosges,  as  the 
roads  from  Landau,  Pirmasens,  Weissen- 
burg  and  Strasburg  unite  at  that  place. 
This  attempt  miscamed.  Between  the 
2Sth  and  tl  le  30th  of  November,  however, 
he  defeated  a  division  of  the  army  of  the 
Moselle,  at  Lantern,  which  was  pressing 
through  the  mountains,  under  the  com- 
mand of  Hoche,  with  the  intention  of  re- 
lieving Landau.  But  the  daily  attacks  of 
Hoche  and  Pichegru,  without  regard  to 
the  sacrifice  of  men,  and  the  successful 
attempt  of  the  latter  to  break  the  Austrian 
lines  near  Froschweiler,  Dec.  22,  forced 
the  Austrians  to  retreat  beyond  the  Rhine, 
and  occasioned  the  retreat  of  the  duke 
also.  As  some  difficidties  had  already 
risen  between  Austria  and  Prussia,  he 
laid  down  the  chief  command  of  the 
army  in  the  beginning  of  the  year  1794. 
IMoliendorf  wa§  his  successor.  The 
duke  continued  to  labor  for  the  welfare 
of  his  country  until  the  fatal  year  180o'. 
Although  he  was  now  of  such  an  age  that 
he  might  have  retired  without  reproach 
from  public  life,  yet  he  assumed  burthens 
beyond  his  powere.  At  the  beguming  of 
the  year  1806,  commissioned  by  the  king 
of  Prussia,  he  made  a  journey  to  Peters- 
burg relative  to  the  war  that  soon  broke 
out  with  France.  He  was  then  jjlaced  at 
the  head  of  the  Prussian  army.  But  his 
physical  strength  was  not  equal  to  his 
moral  energy,  as  was  proved  by  the  bat- 
tles of  Jena  and  Auerstiidt.  (q.  v.)  He 
was  mortally  wounded,  and  closed  his 
life  at  Ottensen,  near  Altona,  Nov.  10, 
1806.  As  a  civil  ruler,  he  was  distin- 
guished for  good  intentions ;  yet  the  want 
of  consistency,  which  is  evident  in  most 
actions  of  his  life,  may  have  been  the 
cause  of  the  many  failures  of  his  benevo- 
lent purposes.  The  duke's  subjects  were 
also  oflended  by  his  foreign  partialities, 
]mrticularly  his  fatal  inclination  for  the 
French  nation,  which  had  been  instilled 
uito  him  by  Frederic  II. 

Brunswick,  Ferdinand,  duke  of,  bom 
at  Brmiswick,  Jan.  11th,  1721,  fourth  son 
of  duke  Ferdinand  Albert,  was  educated 
for  the  niilitaiy  profession.  In  1739,  he 
entered  into  tlie  Prussian  service,  was 
engaged  in  the  Silesian  wars,  and  became 
one  of  the  most  eminent  generals  in  the 
seven  years'  war.  He  commanded  the 
allied  army  in  Westphalia,  where,  always 
opposed  to  superior  forces,  he  displayed 


300 


BRUNSWICK. 


superior  talents.  He  drove  the  French 
from  Lower  Saxony,  Hesse  and  West- 
phalia, and  was  victorious  in  the  two 
great  battles  of  Crefeld  and  Minden. 
(SeeiSei'en  Years'  War.) — After  the  peace, 
he  resigned  his  commission,  on  account 
of  a  misunderstanding  between  him  and 
the  king.  From  that  time  he  hved  at 
BrunsAvick,  the  patron  of  art  and  litera- 
ture. He  died  in  1792. 
,.  Brunswick,  Frederic  Wilham,  duke 
of;  fourth  and  youngest  son  of  duke 
Charles  WiUiam  Ferdinand  of  Bruns- 
wick. He  was  bom  in  1771,  and  receiv- 
ed the  same  education  witli  his  second 
and  third  brothers,  who  were  a  few  years 
older,  till  the  miUtary  career,  to  which  he 
was  destuied,  gave  his  studies  a  particular 
direction.  He  was  loved  by  his  father 
with  great  tenderness,  but  very  strictly 
treated.  In  1786,  he  was  appointed,  by 
the  king  of  Prussia,  successor  of  his  uncle, 
Frederic  Augustus,  duke  of  Oels  and 
Bernstadt  He  then  went  to  Lausanne, 
remained  two  years  in  Switzerland,  and, 
upon  his  return,  was  made  captain  in  a 
Prussian  regiment  of  foot.  During  the 
war  against  France,  in  1792,  and  the  fol- 
lowing year,  he  fought  in  the  Prussian 
armies,  and  was  twice  wounded.  After 
the  peace  of  Bale,  he  received  a  regiment, 
and,  in  1804,  married  the  princess  Maria 
Ehsabetli  Wilhehnma  of  Baden.  The 
offspring  of  this  marriage  were  two  prui- 
cesses,  born  in  1804  and  1806,  who  ai-e 
still  living.  In  1805,  his  uncle  died,  and 
he  becaipe  duke  of  Oels  and  Bemstadt. 
In  1806,  he  took  part  in  the  war  against 
France,  with  all  the  fire  which  the  op- 
pression of  Germany  and  his  father's  un- 
happy fete  had  kindled  in  him.  He  finally 
joined  the  corps  of  Bliicher,  and  was  made 
prisoner  Avith  him  at  Liibeck.  By  the 
death  of  his  eldest  brother,  the  hereditaiy 
prince,  who  died  in  September  of  the 
same  year,  without  leaving  any  children, 
and  by  an  agreement  adjusted  by  his 
father  between  him  and  his  elder  broth- 
ers, who,  on  account  of  their  blindness, 
were  unfit  to  govern,  and  were  unmarri- 
ed, he  would  have  succeeded  his  father  in 
the  government  of  Brunswick,  had  not 
the  peace  of  Tilsit  and  Napoleon's  will 
prevented.  After  that  time,  he  lived  at 
Bruchsal,  where,  in  April,  1808,  his  vpife 
died.  In  1809,  at  the  breaking  out  of  the 
war  between  Austria  and  France,  he  rais- 
ed a  body  of  volunteers  in  Bohemia. 
Schill  had  already  perished  in  Stralsund, 
when  the  duke  made  an  invasion  into 
Saxony.  He  was,  however,  compelled, 
by  the  king  of  WestphaUa,  to  evacuate 


Dresden  and  Leipsic,  with  his  black  hus- 
sars. The  duke,  in  conjunction  with  the 
Austrian  general  Am  Ende,  forced  his 
way  from  Dresden  to  Franconia,  whither 
the  Austrians,  under  Kicnmayer,  had  pen- 
etrated from  Bohemia.  After  the  armis- 
tice of  Znaim  (.Tuly  12),  the  Austrians 
again  evacuated  Dresden,  which  they  had 
occupied  for  the  second  time,  and  retreat- 
ed behind  the  frontiers  of  Bohemia.  But 
the  duke,  renouncing  his  alHance  with 
the  emperor  of  Austria,  advanced  with 
his  corps,  consisting  of  1500  men,  among 
whom  were  700  horse,  from  Altenburg, 
towards  Leipsic.  After  a  shght  skirmish 
with  the  garrison  there,  he  continued  his 
march  to  Halle,  where  he  arrived  July 
27,  and  immediately  pushed  on  to  Hal- 
berstadt,  where  he  airived  July  30. 
The  Westphalian  colonel  Wellingerode, 
with  the  fifth  regiment  of  infantry,  had 
entered  the  place  the  same  moniing. 
Although  this  regiment  made  a  gallant 
resistance,  it  was  ovei-powered,  and  its 
commander  taken  prisoner.  The  duke 
then  proceeded  to  Brunswick,  his  native 
city,  where  he  arrived  July  31,  and  biv- 
ouacked on  the  ramparts.  He  did  not  al- 
low himself  any  rest,  for  he  weis  closely 
pursued  on  all  sides.  The  Westphalian 
general  Reubel  assembled  4000  men  of 
his  division  at  Ohof,  in  the  vicinity  of 
Brunswick  ;  general  Gratien,  with  a  Dutch 
division,  had  set  out  fi*om  Erfurt ;  and  the 
Danish  general  Ewald,  marching  from 
Gliickstadt  into  the  territories  of  Hano- 
ver, crossed  the  Elbe  in  order  to  cover 
that  river.  Aug.  1,  Reubel  met  the  duke 
not  far  from  Brunswick,  near  tlie  village 
of  Oelper,  and  an  action  ensued  (the  11th 
since  he  had  left  Saxony),  in  which  a 
corps  of  4000  men  not  only  retreated  be- 
fore 1500,  but  also  opened  to  tliem  the 
only  way  by  which  they  could  escape. 
Aug.  2,  the  duke  left  Brunswick.  From 
the  road  he  took,  it  was  conjectured  that 
he  would  march  towards  Celle,  whither 
lie  was  pursued,  therefore,  by  the  West- 
phalian troops.  Instead,  however,  of  do- 
ing this,  he  took  his  way  through  Hano- 
ver inmiediately  to  Nienburg,  crossed  the 
Weser,  and,  having  destroyed  the  bridges 
behind  him,  marched  down  the  river. 
He  reached  Hoya  Aug.  4,  and  hastened 
liis  march  upon  the  left  bank  of  the 
Weser,  while  part  of  his  corps,  to  make 
a  demonstration,  turned  towards  Bremen. 
Here  the  black  hussars  entered  on  the 
5th,  and  occupied  the  gates,  but  on  the 
nfext  day  continued  their  march.  Mean- 
time the  duke  advanced  through  the  ter- 
ritory of  Oldenburg.    He  passed  the  night 


BRUNSWICK— BRUSSELS. 


301 


I 


of  the  5th  of  August  at  Dehnenhorst,  and 
appeared  to  be   directing  his  course  to 
East  Friesland,  in  order  to  embark  there. 
But,  contrary  to  expectation,  he  crossed, 
at   Huntebriick,  the   small  river  Hunte, 
which  falls  into  the  Weser,   seized   the 
merchant  ships  which  were  lyuig  at  Els- 
fletli,  principally  unloaded,  embarked  his 
troops  in  the  night  of  the  6th,  leaving  be- 
hind the  horses,  and  i)rocuring,  in  that 
country,  Avhich  is  inhabited  by  seamen, 
the  necessary  sailors  by  force.    On  the 
7th,  in  the  morning,  the   duke  himself, 
having  tlie  English  Hag  hoisted,  set  sail, 
and,  on  the  8th,  landed  at  Heligoland, 
whence  he  sailed,  on  the  11th,  with  his 
corjjs,  for  England.   In  England,  the  duke 
was  received  with  great  distinction.     His 
corps   immediately  entered  the  English 
service,  aiid  was  aftersvards  employed  in 
Portugal   and    Spain.      The    parliament 
granted  him  a  pension  of  £G000,  until  he 
returned    to    his    hereditary  dominions, 
Dec  22,  1813.    He  was  a  prince  of  an 
uncommonly  open  character.     In  his  he- 
reditary states,  lie   acted  with   the   best 
intentions  ;  but  his  frequent  errors  disap- 
pointed the  great  expectations  which  had 
been  formed  of  him,  and  narrow-minded 
counsellors  contributed  to  lead  him  astray. 
He  wished  to  sow  and  reap  at  the  same 
time.    His  mihtary  spirit  and  penetrating 
mind  led  him  to    foresee  new  dangers 
from  the  great  oppressor  of  Europe.     His 
great  preparations  must  be  explained  from 
this  view  of  circumstances  in  1814  and 
1815.     His  finances   were  thrown  into 
great  disorder  by  his  maintaining  so  many 
troops ;  and  even  the  interest  of  the  pub- 
he  debt  was  not  paid.    Thus  he  became 
unpopular  as  the  sovereign  of  a  counti-y 
which   had  been  prosperous  under  his 
father's  sceptre.      The  events   of  1815 
called  him  again  to  arms,  and  he  fell 
June  16,  1815.      (See    Quatrebras,  and 
Ligny.) 

Brunswick,  Louis  Ernest,  duke  of; 
third  son  of  Ferdinand  Albert,  duke  of 
Brunswick-Liineburg ;  bom  in  1718  ;  en- 
tered the  imperial  service  iu  1750 ;  be- 
came field-marshal  of  the  republic  of 
Holland  ;  during  seven  years  from  1759, 
was  captain-general  of  the  United  Prov- 
inces ;  was  regent  during  the  minority  of 
the  stadtholder,  and  had  previously  pre- 
served the  neutrality  of  the  republic  dur- 
ing the  long  war  of  the  neighboring 
powers  from  1754.  After  the  stadtholder 
became  of  age,  B.  was  made  counsellor 
by  tlie  states- general.  Havhig,  however, 
incurred  the  hatred  of  the  people  by  his 
partiahty  for  the  nobility,  and  some  other 
VOL.  II.  26 


errors,  he  was  obliged  to  leave  the  stadt- 
holder in  1772.    He  died  in  1788. 

Broxswick  (M.  J.  Leopold),  prince  of, 
major-general  in  the  Prussian  ser\'ice, 
youngest  son  of  duke  Charles  of  Bruns- 
wick, bom  at  Wolfenbvittel  in  1752,  was 
instructed  by  the  abb6  Jerusalem.  He 
studied  hi  Strasburg  military  science  and 
other  branches  of  knowledge,  travelled 
through  Italy  under  the  care  of  Lessing, 
and  entered  the  Prussian  service,  in  177(i, 
as  commander  of  a  regiment  of  foot,  at 
Frankfort  on  the  Oder.  In  this  city, 
where  he  resided  after  his  return  fi-om 
the  Bavarian  war  of  succession  in  1779, 
he  gained  universal  esteem  by  his  amia- 
ble character,  his  talents,  and  his  zeal  for 
literature.  In  1780,  Fnmkfort  was  pre- 
served, by  his  activity,  from  an  inunda- 
tion which  threatened  to  overthrow  the 
dikes  and  deluge  the  suburbs.  He  dis- 
played the  same  vigilance  on  the  occa- 
sion of  several  conflagrations,  witli  which 
this  city  was  afflicted.  He  visited  the 
poor  in  their  most  miserable  haunts,  and 
his  life  was  devoted  to  works  of  benevo- 
lence. He  fell  a  sacrifice  to  his  humanity 
hi  the  inundation  of  1785,  in  which  he 
was  drowned  while  hastening  to  the  as- 
sistance of  the  suburbs.  The  monuments 
that  have  been  erected  to  him  will  bear 
witness  to  future  generations  of  the  es- 
teem of  his  contemporaries. 

Brush- Wheels.  In  light  machinery, 
wheels  sometimes  turn  each  other  by 
means  of  bristles  or  brushes  fixed  to  their 
ciicun/ference.  They  may,  also,  com- 
municate circular  motion  by  friction  only. 
The  sia-face  brought  m  contact  is  then 
formed  of  the  end  grain  of  wood,  or  is 
covered  with  an  elastic  substance,  and 
the  wheels  are  pressed  together  to  in- 
crease the  friction. 

Brussels,  formerly  the  capital  of  the 
Austrian  Netherlands,  with  75,000  inliab- 
itants,  princijialiy  Catholics,  and,  after 
Amsterdam,  the  second  city  of  the  king- 
dom of  the  Netlierlands,  is  a  handsome 
city  of  South  Brabant.  During  20  years, 
from  1794  to  1814,  it  was  ui  the  posses- 
sion of  the  French,  and  the  chief  town  ui 
the  department  of  the  Dyle.  It  is  now, 
alternately  with  the  Hague,  the  roya!  res- 
idence, and  the  place  of  meeting  of  the 
states-general  of  the  kingdom.  It  is  a 
favorite  resort  of  the  English,  many  of 
whom  have  resided  here  since  the  peace 
of  1814.  The  gloomy  forest  of  Soignies, 
so  memorable  since  the  battle  of  Water- 
loo, lies  on  the  south  and  south-west  of 
the  town.  It  was  formerly  surrounded 
by  a  wall,  which  has  been  demolished, 


90S 


BRUSSELS— BRUTUS. 


and  the  ramparts  laid  out  in  public  walks. 
The  upper  part  of  the  city  is  magnificent. 
The  park  is  a  spacious  square,  laid  out 
with  shaded  walks,  and  surrounded  by 
tlie  palaces,  public  offices  and  principal 
private  houses.  In  the  lower  part,  lying 
on  a  plam  watered  by  the  Senne,  the 
streets  are  narrow  and  crowded,  but  the 
great  market-place  is  very  beautiful. 
This  part  of  the  city  is  intersected  by 
several  canals,  connected  with  the  Senne, 
and  the  great  Scheldt  canal.  The  other 
principal  squares  are  Oorlogo  plaats,  Mi- 
chael's plaats  and  Sands  ])laats.  The 
principal  churches  are  St.  Michael's  and 
tlie  church  of  St.  Gudule.  B.  also  con- 
tains an  academy  of  arts  and  sciences,  a 
foundling  hospital,  and  a  central  school 
with  a  library  of  100,000  volumes,  a  valu- 
able gallery  of  paintings  and  a  cabinet  of 
natural  history.  The  school  of  medicine 
and  that  of  botany  have  also  apartments, 
and  there  is  a  public  botanic  garden. 
The  town  is  ornamented  with  20  public 
fountains, -all  embellished  with  sculpture. 
The  manufactures  of  B.  are  celebrated 
throughout  Europe  and  America,  partic- 
nlarly  its  lace,  camlets  and  carpets ;  tlie 
first  alone  employs  10,000  individuals. 
Its  carnages  surpass  even  those  of  Lon- 
don and  Paris.  The  otlier  articles  made 
here  are  ticking,  various  kinds  of  cotton 
and  woollen  stuffs,  silk  stockings,  gal- 
loons, eaitlienware,  &c.  It  carries  on 
considerable  trade  with  the  interior  of  the 
Netlierlands,  and  also  with  foreign  coun- 
tries, by  means  of  its  canals.  The  prin- 
cipal of  these  Avas  constructed  in  1560 
and  1561,  and  leads  to  Antwerj) :  it  is  110 
feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  The  city 
owes  its  origm  to  St.  Gerj',  who,  in  the 
7th  century,  built  a  chapel  on  an  island 
in  the  Senne,  and  preaclied  to  the  peas- 
ants. As  the  numbers  collected  here  be- 
came great,  it  was  surrounded  with  a  wall 
in  1044,  and  became,  in  process  of  time, 
the  residence  of  the  dukes  of  Brabant, 
and  of  the  Austrian  governors.  It  was 
several  times  captured  by  the  French,  and, 
in  1789 — ^90,  took  the  lead  in  the  troubles 
which  broke  out  in  th.^  Netherlands. 

Brutus,  or  Brute,  in  the  fabulous  his- 
tory of  Britain,  was  the  first  king  of  the 
island,  according  to  Geoffrey  of  jMon- 
mouth.  He  is  said  to  have  been  the  son 
of  Sylvius,  and  grandson  of  Ascanius,  the 
son  of  iEneas,  and  to  have  been  bom  in 
Italy.  He  landed  at  Totness,  in  Devon- 
shire, destroyed  the  giants  who  then  in- 
habited Albion,  and  called  the  island 
fit)m  his  own  name.  At  his  death,  the 
island  was  divided  amon?  his  three  sons : 


Locrine  had  England,  Camber  Wales, 
and  Albanact  Scotland. 

Brutus,  Lucius  Junius,  son  of  Marcus 
Junius  and  the  daughter  of  the  elder 
Tarquin,  saved  his  life  from  the  perse- 
cutions of  Tarquin  tlie  Proud  by  feign- 
ing himself  insane,  on  which  account  he 
received  the  surname  Brutus  (stupid). 
During  a  plague  that  broke  out  at  Rome, 
he  accompanied  the  son  of  Tarquin  to 
the  oracle  in  Delphi.  When  Lucretia, 
the  wife  of  Collatinus,  plunged  a  dagger 
into  her  bosom,  that  she  might  not  out- 
live the  insult  which  she  had  suffered 
from  Sextus,  the  son  of  Tarquin,  B.,  being 
present,  threw  ott'  the  mask.  He  drew 
the  dagger,  all  bloody,  from  the  wound, 
and  swore  vengeance  against  the  Tar- 
quins,  explaining  to  the  astonished  spec- 
tatoi-s  the  reason  of  his  pretended  imbe- 
cility, and  persuading  all  who  were  pres- 
ent to  take  the  same  oath.  The  people 
submitted  to  his  guidance,  and  he  caused 
the  gates  to  be  shut,  the  inhabitants  to  be 
assembled,  and  the  body  to  be  publicly 
exposed.  He  then  urged  the  banishment 
of  the  Tarquins.  After  this  had  been 
resolved  on,  B.  proposed  to  abolish 
the  regal  dignity,  and  introduce  a  free 
government.  It  was  then  determined 
tliat  two  consuls  should  exercise  supreme 
yjower  for  a  year,  and  Junius  Brutus  and 
Tarquinius  fcollatinus  were  chosen  for 
the  first  term.  Tarquin,  who  had  seen 
the  gates  shut  against  him,  and  found 
himself  deserted  by  his  army,  sent  ambas- 
sadoi-s  to  Rome  to  demand  a  restoration 
of  his  private  property,  and,  at  the  same 
time,  to  promise  that  he  would  make  no 
attempt  against  the  republic.  His  request 
was  granted.  The  ambassadors,  however, 
set  on  foot  a  conspiracy,  and  drew  into  it 
many  young  men,  among  whom  were  the 
two  sons  of  B.  and  the  nephews  of  Col- 
latinus. But  a  slave  named  Vindex  dis- 
covered the  plot.  The  crimuials  were 
imprisoned,  and  the  consuls  caused  the 
people  the  next  morning  to  be  called  to 
the  cmnitia.  All  were  deeply  shocked 
to  see  the  sons  of  B.  among  the  prisoner, 
and  their  fadier  on  the  judgment-seat  to 
condemn  them.  Collatinus  wept,  and 
even  the  stem  Valerius  sat  silent.  But 
B.  arose  firmly,  and,  after  tlieir  crime  had 
been  proved  beyond  a  doubt,  ordered  tlje 
lictors  to  execute  the  law.  Neither  the 
entreaties  of  the  people  nor  of  his  sons 
could  alter  his  resolution.  He  witnessed 
the  horrible  spectacle  without  eniotion, 
and  did  not  leave  the  assembly  until  after 
the  execution.  He  was  called  back, 
however,  when  Collatmus  wished  to  save 


BRUTUS— BRUYERE. 


303 


his  guilty  nephews.  The  people  con- 
demned them  all,  and  chose  Valerius 
consul  in  place  of  Collatinus.  In  the 
mean  time,  Tarquin,  supported  by  Por- 
senna,  collected  an  army,  and  marched 
against  Rome.  The  consuls  advanced  to 
meet  him.  B.  led  the  cavalry;  Aruns, 
son  of  Tarquin,  commanded  the  body 
opposed  to  him.  They  pierced  each 
other  with  their  spears  at  the  same  mo- 
ment, and  both  fell,  A.  C.  509.  The  Ro- 
mans came  off  conquerors,  and  B.  was 
buried  with  great  splendor.  The  women 
lamented  him  a  whole  year,  as  the  avenger 
of  the  honor  of  their  sex. 

Brutus,  Marcus  Junius.  This  repub- 
lican resembled  in  spirit,  as  well  as  in 
name,  the  expeller  of  Tarquin.  He  was 
at  first  an  enemy  of  Pompey,  who  had 
slain  his  father  in  Galatia,  but  forgot  his 
private  enmity,  and  was  reconciled  to 
liim,  when  he  undertook  the  defence  of 
freedom.  He  did  not,  however,  assume 
any  public  station,  and,  after  the  unfortu- 
nate battle  of  Pharsalia,  sun-endered  him- 
self to  Caesar,  who  received  bim  with  the 
tenderest  friendship,  as  he  had  always 
loved  him,  and  regarded  him  almost  like 
his  own  son,  because  the  mother  of  Bru- 
tus, sister  of  the  rigid  Cato,  had  been  the 
object  of  his  affection.  In  the  distribu- 
tion of  the  oflices  of  state,  the  dictator 
appointed  B.  to  the  government  of  Mace- 
donia. Notwithstanding  these  benefits, 
B.  was  the  head  of  the  conspiracy  against 
Caesar,  deeming  the  sacrifice  of  private 
friendship  necessary  for  the  welfare  of 
his  country.  He  was  led  into  the  con- 
spiracy by  Cassius,  who,  impelled  by 
hatred  against  Caesar,  as  well  as  by  the 
love  of  freedom,  sought,  at  first,  by  writ- 
ing, and  then  by  means  of  his  wife,  Junia, 
sister  of  B.,  to  gain  his  favor ;  and,  when 
lie  thought  him  prepared  for  the  jiropo- 
sal,  disclosed  to  him,  verbally,  the  plan  of 
a  conspiracy  against  Caesar,  who  was  then 
aiming  at  the  supreme  power.  B.  agreed 
to  the  design,  and  his  influence  led  many 
of  the  most  distinguished  Romans  to  em- 
brace it  also.  Caesar  was  assassinated  in 
the  senate-house.  In  public  speeches,  B. 
explained  the  reasons  of  this  deed,  but 
he  could  not  appease  the  dissatisfaction  of 
the  people,  and  retired,  with  his  party,  to 
the  capitol.  He  soon  after  took  courage, 
when  the  consul  P.  Cornelius  Dolabella, 
and  the  praetor  L.  Cornelius  Cinna,  Cae- 
sar's brother-in-law,  declared  themselves 
in  his  favor.  But  Antony,  whom  B.  had 
generously  spared,  was  reconciled  to  him 
only  in  appearance,  and  obtained  his  leave 
to  read  Caesar's  will  to  the  people.    By 


means  of  this  instrument,  Antony  suc- 
ceeded in  exciting  the  popular  indignation 
against  the  murderers  of  Caesar,  and  tliey 
were  compelled  to  flee  from  Rome.  B. 
went  to  Athens,  and  endeavored  to  form 
a  party  there  among  the  Roman  nobility ; 
he  gained  over,  also,  the  troops  in  Mace- 
donia. He  then  began  to  levy  soldiers 
openly,  which  was  the  easier  for  liim,  as 
the  remainder  of  Pompey's  troops,  since 
the  defeat  of  tlieir  general,  had  been 
roving  about  in  Thessaly.  Hortensius, 
the  governor  of  Macedonia,  aided  him ; 
and  thus  B.,  master  of  all  Greece  and 
Macedonia,  in  a  short  time  stood  at  tlie 
head  of  a  powerful  army.  He  went  now 
to  Asia,  and  joined  Cassius,  whose  efforts 
had  been  equally  successful.  In  Rome, 
on  the  contrary,  the  triumvirs  prevailed. 
All  the  conspirators  had  been  condemned, 
and  the  people  had  taken  up  arms  against 
them,  B.  and  Cassius,  having  with  diffi- 
culty subdued  the  Lycians  and  Rhodians, 
returned  to  Europe  to  oppose  die  triunt- 
viri.  (Plutarch  informs  us,  that  a  spirit 
appeared  to  B.,  on  his  march  from 
Sardis  to  Abydos,  in  Asia  Minor.)  The 
army  ])assed  over  the  Hellespont,  and  19 
legions  and  20,000  cavalry  were  assem- 
bled on  the  p&ans  of  Phihppi,  in  Macedo- 
nia, whither,  also,  the  triumvirs  Antony 
and  Octavianus  marched  with  their  le- 
gions. Although  the  Roman  historians 
do  not  agree  in  their  accounts  of  the  bat- 
tle of  Philippi,  so  much  as  this  appears 
ceitain,  that  Cassius  was  beaten  by  An- 
tony, and  caused  himself  to  be  killed  by 
a  slave  ;  that  B.  fought  with  greater  suc- 
cess against  the  division  of  the  army  com-r 
manded  by  Octavianus,  who  was  hindered 
by  indisposition  from  conducting  the  bat- 
tle in  person  ;  that  B.,  afler  the  engage^ 
ment,  took  possession  of  an  advantageous 
situation,  where  it  was  difficult  for  an 
attack  to  be  made  upon  him  ;  that  he  was 
induced,  by  the  ardor  of  his  soldiers,  to 
renew  the  contest,  and  was  a  second  time 
unsuccessful.  He  was  totally  defeated, 
escaped  with  only  a  few  friends,  passed 
the  night  in  a  cave,  and,  as  he  saw  his 
cause  irretrievably  ruined,  ordered  Strato, 
one  of  his  confidants,  to  kill  him.  Strato 
refused,  a  long  time,  to  perform  the  comr 
mand  ;  but,  seeing  B.  resolved,  he  turned 
away  his  face,  and  held  his  sword,  while 
B.  fell  upon  it.  Thus  died  B.  (A.  C.  42), 
in  the  43d  year  of  his  age. 

Bruykre,  John  de  la,  the  famous  au- 
thor of  the  Characters  and  Manners  of  his 
age,  was  born,  1639,  in  a  village  near 
Dourdan,  not  far  from  Paris.  He  pur- 
chased tlie  place  of  treasurer  at  Caen ; 


304 


BRUYERE— BUBNA. 


but,  a  short  tiine  after,  through  the  influ- 
ence of  Bossuet,  he  was  employed  in  tlie 
education  of  the  duke  of  Burgundy,  with 
a  pension  of  3000  livres,  and  was  attached 
to  his  person  during  tlie  remainder  of  liis 
life.  In  1687,  he  translated  the  Charac- 
ters of  Theophrastus  iuto  French,  with 
much  elegance,  and  accoin})anied  them 
with  a  succession  of  characters,  in  which 
he  represented  tlie  manners  of  his  time 
with  great  accuracy,  and  in  a  style  ep'i- 
granunatical,  ingenious  and  witty.  B. 
often  took  his  characters  from  living  per- 
sons, although  he  denied  it,  and  seems, 
by  this  means,  to  have  gained  many  ene- 
mies. He  was  a  man  of  jjleasant  man- 
ners and  amiable  disposition.  In  1G93, 
he  was  elected  a  member  of  the  French 
academy,  with  some  opposition,  and  died 
in  1096. 

Bruvn,  Corneille  le,  a  painter  and 
traveller,  bom  at  the  Hague  in  1652, 
went,  in  1674,  to  Rome,  where  he  studied 
his  art  for  two  years  and  a  half.  He  then 
followed  his  inclination  for  travelUng,  vis- 
ited Naples,  and  other  cities  of  Italy,  em- 
barked for  Smyrna,  travelled  through 
Asia  Minor,  Egypt,  and  the  islands  of  tlie 
Archipelago,  noting  down  and  drawing 
all  that  he  foimd  worthy  of  his  attention. 
He  afterwards  settled  in  Venice,  and  be- 
came a  disciple  of  Carlo  Lotti.  In  1693, 
he  retumed  to  his  native  country,  and 
published  liis  travels  ui  1698.  The  favor- 
able reception  of  this  work  excited  in  him 
the  desire  to  travel  anew.  He  visited,  in 
1701,  and  the  following  years,  Russia, 
Persia,  India,  Ceylon  and  other  Asiatic 
islands.  In  Russia,  he  i>ainted  Peter  the 
Great,  and  dift'ercnt  princes  of  his  family; 
in  1706,  in  Batavia,  some  of  the  prin- 
cipal men.  In  1708,  lie  returned  to  his 
countiy,  where  he  published  an  account 
of  his  second  journey,  the  value  of  Avhich, 
like  that  of  the  fii-st,  consists  more  in  the 
beauty  and  correctness  of  the  drawings 
than  in  the  trustworthiness  of  the  state- 
ments. During  the  rest  of  his  life,  Le  B. 
was  occupied  exclusively  with  his  art, 
passed  his  time  alternately  at  the  Hague 
and  at  Amsterdam,  and  died  at  Utrecht, 
in  the  house  of  his  friend  and  protector 
van  Mollein. 

Bryant,  Jacob,  a  philologist  and  anti- 
quary, born  at  Plymouth  in  1715,  died,  in 
1804,  at  his  countrj'-seat,  near  Windsor. 
He  studied  at  Eton  and  Cambridge,  be- 
came afterAvarda  tutor  of  the  sons  of  the 
famous  duke  of  Marlborough,  the  eldest 
of  whom  he  also  accompanied  to  the  con- 
tinent as  his  secretary.  After  his  return, 
he  received,  by  the  mfluence  of  his  pa-. 


tron,  a  lucrative  post  in  the  ordnance, 
which  gave  him  leisure  for  his  researches 
into  Biblical,  Roman  and  Grecian  antiqui- 
ties. His  most  important  work  is  the 
New  System  of  Ancient  Mythology, 
which  ajijicared  in  3  vols.  4to.,  1773  to 
1776.  Whatever  may  be  the  ingenuity 
and  the  learning  of  the  author,  it  is  justly 
objected,  that  he  has  taken  conjectures 
for  jiroofs,  and,  in  particular,  that  he  has 
trusted  too  much  to  the  deceptive  conclu- 
sions of  etymology.  He  was  engaged  in 
a  famous  dispute  on  tlie  veracity  of  Ho- 
mer and  the  existence  of  Troy,  in  which 
he  endeavored  to  show,  that  tliere  never 
was  such  a  city  as  Troy,  and  that  the 
whole  expedition  of  the  Greeks  Avas  a 
mere  fiction  of  Homer's.  The  object  of 
one  of  his  earlier  treatises,  which  apfiear- 
ed  in  1767,  is  to  show,  that  the  island  Me- 
lita,  on  which  Paul  was  wrecked,  was  not 
Malta,  but  situated  in  the  Adriatic.  He 
endeavored  to  illustrate  the  Scriptures  by 
exjilanations  drawn  from  Josephus,  from 
Pliilo  the  Jew,  and  from  Justin  Martyr; 
but  in  this,  as  in  all  his  writings,  his 
learning  and  his  ingenuity  are  misled  by 
his  love  of  controversy  and  paradox. 

BuBNA,  count  of,  descended  from  an 
old  family  in  Bohemia,  was,  early  in  hfe, 
the  chamberlain  of  the  emperor  of  Aus- 
tria, aftenvards  entered  the  military  ser- 
vice, and  rose  to  the  rank  of  field-mar- 
shal-lieutenant. At  the  end  of  1812,  he 
was  sent,  by  his  court,  wdth  extraordinary 
commissions,  to  Napoleon,  at  Paris,  and, 
in  May,  1813,  was  sent  again  to  him  at 
Dresden.  In  the  war  of  1813,  he  com- 
manded an  Austrian  division  with  much 
honor,  and,  in  1814,  received  the  chief 
command  of  the  Austrian  army  which 
was  to  pass  through  Geneva  to  the  south 
of  France.  Here  he  showed  as  much 
caution  in  his  movements  as  forbearance 
and  humanity  towards  the  inhabitants. 
He  advanced  upon  Lyons,  which  was  de- 
fended by  marshal  Augereau,  but  was 
unsuccessful  in  his  attacks  ujxin  the  city, 
till  the  coi-j)s  of  Bianchi  and  Hessen-Hom- 
berg  came  to  his  assistance,  upon  which 
the  prince  of  Hessen- Romberg  took  the 
chief  command.  B.  remained  at  Lyons 
till  the  return  of  the  allied  forces,  and 
then  retired  to  Vienna.  After  the  land- 
ing of  Napoleon  in  1815,  he  again  led  a 
corps,  under  Frimont,  against  Lyons,  and 
in  Savoy  opposed  marshal  Suchet,  till 
Paris  was  conquered,  and  the  marshal 
retreated  beyond  Lyons.  He  then  took 
possession  of  Lyons  without  opposition, 
established  a  court-martial  to  punish  the 
disturbers  of  pubUc  order,  and  proceeded 


BUBNA— BUCCANEERS. 


305 


■with  greater  severity  tlian  on  his  former 
campaign.  In  September,  he  marched 
back  to  Austria,  and  received,  for  his  ser- 
vices, valuable  estates  in  Bohemia,  from 
his  emperor.  In  the  insurrection  of  Pied- 
mont (q.  v.),  1821,  the  count  de  B.  receiv- 
ed the  chief  command  of  the  Austrian 
troops  destined  to  restore  the  ancient 
govenmient.  After  the  accomplishment 
of  this  commission,  he  was  appointed 
general  commandant  of  Lombardy.  He 
died  at  Milan,  June  6,  1825,  in  the  5Gtli 
year  of  his  age. 

Buccaneers  ;  a  band  of  English  and 
French  fi-eebooters  in  America,  whose 
exploits  form  one  of  the  most  remarkable 
parts  of  the  history  of  the  17th  century. 
After  the  assassination  of  Henry  IV,  in 
France,  in  IGIO,  several  Frenchmen 
sought  a  residence  on  the  island  of  St. 
Christopher,  one  of  the  Antilles.  Driven 
thence  in  1G30,  some  of  them  fled  to  the 
western  coast  of  St.  Domingo,  others  to 
the  small  island  of  Tortugas,  in  the  vicin- 
ity. Several  Englishmen,  led  by  a  simi- 
lar disposition,  associated  themselves  wth 
the  latter.  Tlie  fugitives  at  St.  Domingo 
employed  themselves  especially  in  the 
chase  of  wild  cattle,  of  which  there  were 
large  herds  on  the  island.  They  sold  tlie 
hides  to  the  mariners  who  landed  on  the 
coast,  and,  because  they  did  not  boil  the 
flesh,  but  roasted  it  before  the  fire,  like 
the  American  savages,  they  were  called 
buccaneers.  Without  a  captain,  without 
laws,  without  the  society  of  women,  these 
huntei-s  lived  in  the  rudest  state  of  nature, 
associating  two  by  two,  and  enjoying  in 
common  all  that  they  had  taken  in  the 
chase  or  acquired  by  robbery.  The 
Spaniards,  who  could  not  conquer  them, 
determined  to  extirpate  all  the  cattle  on 
the  island,  and  thus  obliged  the  bucca- 
neers either  to  cultivate  the  land  as  hus- 
bandmen, or  to  join  the  other  freebooters 
on  the  island  of  Tortugas.  These  bold 
adventurers  attacked,  in  small  numbers, 
and  with  small  means,  but  with  an  intre- 
pidity which  bade  defiance  to  danger,  not 
only  single  merchant  vessels,  but  several 
of  them  together,  and  sometimes  tirmed 
ships.  Their  common  mode  of  attack 
was  by  boarding.  They  directed  their 
efforts  especially  against  the  Spanish 
ships  which  sailed  for  Europe  laden  with 
the  treasures  of  America.  By  the  repeat- 
ed losses  which  they  suffered,  the  Span- 
iards were  at  last  so  discouraged,  that 
they  seldom  offered  a  serious  resistance. 
It  hap])ened  once  that  a  ship  of  the  buc- 
caneers fell  in  with  two  Spanish  galleons, 
each  of  which  had  60  cannon  and  1500 
26* 


men  on  board.    To  escape  was  impossi- 
ble, and  the  pirates  could  not  think  of 
surrender.    Their  captain,  Laurent,  made 
a  short  speech  to  them,  sent  one  of  his 
men  to  the  powder-room  with  orders  to 
set  fire  to  it  upon  the  first  sign  which  he 
should  give  him,  and  then  placed  his 
men  in  order  of  battle  on  each  side.  "We 
must  sail  between  the  enemy's  ships," 
cried  he  to  his  crew,  "and  fire  upon  them 
to  the  right  and  left."    This  manoeuvre 
was  executed  with  extraordinary  rapidity. 
The  fire  of  the  pirate  killed  so  many  peo- 
ple, on  board  both  ships,  that  the  Span- 
iards were  struck  with  a  panic,  and  let 
him  escape.    The   Spanish  commander 
was  afterwards  put  to  death  on  account 
of  the  disgrace  which  he  had  brought 
upon  his  nation.    Their  frequent  losses 
greatly  reduced  the  trade  of  the  Spaniards 
with  America,    The  buccaneers  now  be- 
gan to  land  on  the  coast,  and  to  plunder 
the    cities.      Their  manner  of  dividing 
their  booty  was  remarkable.    Every  one 
who  had  a  share  in  the  expedition  swore 
that  he  had  reserved  nothing  of  the  plun- 
der.   A  false  oath  was  of  extremely  rare 
occurrence,  and  was  punished  by  banish' 
ment  to  an    iminhabited    island.      The 
wounded  first  received  their  share,  which 
was  greater  according  to  the  severity  of 
their  wounds.     The  remainder  was  di- 
vided into  equal  parts,  and  distributed  by 
lot.    The  leader  received  more  than  the 
others  only  when  he  had  particularly  dis- 
tinguished himself.    Those  who  had  per- 
ished in  the  expedition  were  not  forgotten. 
Their  part  was  given  to  their  relations  or 
friends,  and,  in  default  of  them,  to  the 
poor  and  to  the  church.    Religion  was 
strangely  blended  with  their  vices,  and 
they  always  began  their  enterprises  with 
a  prayer.    The  wealth  which  tliey  ac- 
quired was  spent  in  gambling  and  de- 
bauchery, for  it  was  the  principle  of  these 
adventurers  to  enjoy  the  present  and  not 
care  for  the  fiiture.    The  chmate  and 
their  mode  of  fife  gradually  diminished 
their  number,  and  the  vigorous  measures 
of  the  English  and  French  goveniments 
at  last  put  an  end  to  their  outrages,  which 
had,  perhaps,  been  purposely  tolerated. 
From  this   band    of  pirates    arose    the 
French  settlements  on  the  western  half 
of  St.  Domiiigo.    In  the  beginning  of  the 
18th  century,  the  piracies  of  the  bucca- 
neers had  entirely  ceased.    An  account 
of  their  mode  of  hfe,  and  of  many  of  their 
deeds,  is  to  be  found  in  the  lOtli  volume 
of  Raynal's  History  of  the  two   Indies, 
and  in  the  2d  volume  of  Archenholz's 
Historical  Writings. 


306 


BUCENTAUR— BUCHANAN. 


BucENTAUR,  in  mythology  ;  a  monster, 
half  man  and  half  ox  or  ass.  The  splen- 
did galley  in  which  the  doge  of  Venice 
annually  sailed  over  the  Adriatic  on  As- 
cension-Day also  bore  this  name.  Drop- 
ping a  ring  into  the  sea,  he  espoused  it  in 
the  name  of  the  republic,  with  the  words 
Desponsamus  te,  mare,  in  signum  veri  per- 
petnique  dominii.  The  custom  originated 
in  1176,  when  the  doge,  having  refused 
to  deliver  up  the  pope,  who  had  taken 
refuge  in  Venice,  to  the  emperor,  encoun- 
tered and  defeated  the  imperial  fleet 
which  was  sent  to  reduce  the  Venetians. 
BucEPHAius  ;  the  horse  of  Alexander 
the  Great,  which  he  bought  for  13  talents 
(about  10  or  11,000  dollars).  Philonicus, 
a  Thessalian,  offered  to  sell  liim  to  king 
Philip;  but  Pliilip,  who  considered  the 
price  too  great,  commanded  the  unman- 
ageable steed  to  be  led  away,  when  the 
young  Alexander  offered  to  mount  him. 
He  leaped  up,  in  fact,  and,  to  the  aston- 
ishment of  all,  the  horse  obeyed  him, 
and  willingly  submitted  to  his  guidance, 
though  he  had  never  before  obeyed  a 
rider.  Alexander,  from  this  circumstance, 
conceived  such  an  affection  for  him,  that 
he  never  rode  upon  any  other  horse ;  and 
Bucephalus,  also,  when  caparisoned  for 
battle,  endured  no  other  rider.  He  died 
of  a  wound,  and  Alexander  caused  him 
to  be  buried  near  the  Hydaspes,  and  built, 
over  his  grave,  a  city,  which  he  called 
Bucephala. 

BccER,  Martin ;  born,  1491,  at  Schlett- 
stadt,  m  Alsace.  He  died  in  the  office  of 
pmfessor  of  theologj'  at  Cambridge,  1551. 
At  the  time  of  the  refonnation,  he  left  the 
Dominican  order,  and  became  a  convert 
to  Lutheranism.  He  was,  at  first,  preach- 
er at  the  court  of  Frederic,  the  elector 
of  the  Palatinate,  afterwards  in  Strasburg, 
and  at  the  same  time  professor  in  the  uni- 
versity there  for  20  years,  till  king  Ed- 
ward* VI  of  England,  at  the  suggestion 
of  ai-chbishop  Cranmer,  invited  him  to 
Cambridge.  In  1557,  queen  Mary  caus- 
ed his  bones  to  be  burned,  to  show  her 
detestation  of  Protestantism.  The  cardi- 
nal Contarini  called  him  the  most  learned 
divine  among  the  heretics.  He  wrote  a 
commentary  on  the  Psalms,  under  the 
name  of  Aretius  Filinus.  His  first  wife 
had  been  a  nun  in  her  youth.  After  her 
death,  he  married  again. 

Bdch,  Leopold  von ;  bom  in  1777,  in 
Prussia ;  one  of  the  most  distinguished 
geologists  of  Germany.  He  has  studied 
the  structure  of  the  earth,  by  personal  ob- 
servation, for  more  than  30  years,  in  his 
travels  tlirough  all  the  provinces  of  Ger- 


many, through  Scandinavia  to  the  North 
cape,  through  parts  of  Great  Britain, 
Fi-ance,  Italy  and  the  Canaries.  In  the 
possession  of  a  happy  independence,  he 
sets  out  every  spring,  from  Berlin,  where 
he  usually  passes  the  winter,  on  his  sci- 
entific travels.  Simple  in  his  habits,  fru- 
gal, accustomed  to  hardships,  he  travels 
in  the  carriage,  on  horseback,  on  foot,  as 
his  puqwse  requires.  He  was  the  first 
geologist  who  clearly  explained  the  dif- 
ferent volcanic  phenomena,  particularly 
their  effects  on  the  elevation  of  the  sur- 
face and  the  nature  of  the  soil.  He  di- 
vides volcanoes  into  central  volcanoes 
and  volcanic  chains.  The  latter  appear 
to  Imn  to  follow  the  direction  of  great 
clefts  in  the  earth,  which,  in  turn,  corre- 
spond with  the  direction  of  the  primitive 
mountains.  His  central  volcanoes  are, 
Etna,  the  isles  of  Lipari,  Iceland,  the 
Azoi'es,  the  Canaries,  &c.  The  results 
of  his  geological  laboi-s  are  contained  in 
his  Geognostical  Obsenations  on  Travels 
through  Germany  and  Italy  (1802),  and 
his  Physical  Description  of  the  Canaries, 
where  he  lived,  in  1815,  for  several 
months.  He  was  aftenvards  accompa- 
nied by  the  Norwegian  botanist  Chris- 
tian Smith,  who,  some  years  later,  was 
among  the  victims  of  the  unhappy  expe- 
dition of  captain  Tuckey  in  the  Congo 
river.  Buch's  Travels  through  Norway 
and  Lapland  (2  vols.,  Berlin,  1810,  with 
copperplates)  is  one  of  the  best  works  on 
the  structure  of  the  earth  in  the  high 
northern  regions. 

'  Bdchanan,  George,  an  eminent  poet 
and  historian,  and  one  of  the  great  mas- 
ters of  raodei-n  Latinity,  was  bom  in 
Scotland,  in  1506.  His  parents  were  in- 
digent, and  he  owed  his  education  to  an 
uncle,  who  sent  him  to  Paris.  He  af- 
terwards repaired  to  St.  Andrew's.  He 
became  tutor  or  companion  of  the  earl  of 
Cassilis,  with  whom  he  lived  five  years, 
and  obtained  the  notice  of  James  V,  who 
appointed  him  tutor  to  his  natural  son, 
aftenvaixis  tlie  famous  regent,  earl  of 
Murray.  His  satires  against  the  monks 
exposed  him  to  the  vengeance  of  the 
clergy,  and  he  was  imprisoned  for  here- 
sy; but,  contriving  to  escape,  he  with- 
drew to  Bourdeaux,  where  he  taught 
three  years,  and  composed  his  tragedies 
of  Baptistes  and  Jepthes,  and  his  transla- 
tions of  the  Medea  and  Alcesles  of  Eurip- 
ides. In  1543,  he  quitted  Bourdeaux  on 
account  of  the  pestilence,  and  became,  for 
a  while,  domestic  tutor  to  the  celebrated 
Montaigne,  who  records  the  fact  in  his 
essays.    In  1544,  he  went  to  Paiis,  and» 


BUCHANAN— BUCHAREST. 


307 


for  some  time,  taught  in  the  college  of 
Bourbon.    In  1547,  he  accompanied  his 
friend  Govea  to  Portugal.     He  had  not 
been  there  a  year  before  Govea  died,  and, 
the  freedom  of  B.'s  opinions  giving  of- 
fence, he  vv^as  thrown  into  prison,  where 
lie  began  his  translations  of  the  Psalms 
into  Latin  vei-se.    He  obtained  his  liberty 
in  1551,  and  spent  four  years  at  Paris,  as 
tutor  to  the  son  of  the  marehal  de  Brissac. 
In  1560,  he  returned  to  Scotland,  where 
lie  openly  embraced   Protestantism,   yet 
was  well  received  at  court,  and  jissisted 
the  queen  in  her  studies.    He  was  also 
employed  in  regulating  the  univereities, 
and  was  made  principal  of  St.  Leonard's 
college,  St  Andrew's.     He  even  obtained 
a  pension  from  Maiy,  which  did  not  pre- 
vent him  from  connecting  himself  with 
the  party  of  Murray.     Though  a  laynuui, 
he  Avas  made,  in  1567,  moderator  of  the 
general  assembly,  which  appointed  him 
preceptor  to   James  VI,  who   acquired, 
under  his  tuition,  the  scholastic  knowl- 
edge on  which  he  so  much  prided  him- 
self    It  is  said  that  Buchanan,  on  being 
subsequently  told  that  he  had  made  the 
king  a  pedant,  replied,  that "  it  was  the  best 
he  could  mtilie  of  him."    He  next  accom- 
panied MuiTay  to  England,  in  order  to  pre- 
fer charges  against  Mary,  and,  in  1571, 
published  his  Detedio  Marue  Regina,  a 
virulent  attack  ujion  the  chai-acter  and 
conduct  of  that  unhappy  queen  ;  and,  al- 
though his  patron  MuiTay  had  been  assas- 
sinated in   1570,  he  continued  in  favor 
with  the  prevalent  party,  who  made  him 
one  of  the  lords  of  the  council  and  lord 
of  the  privy  seal.     He  likewise  received  a 
pension  of  £100  per  annum  from  queen 
Ehzabeth.     In   1579,  he  published  his 
celebrated  De  Jure  Regni,  a  work  which 
will  ever  rank  him  among  the   spirited 
defenders  of  the  rights  of  the  people  to 
judge  of  the  conduct  of  their  govemoi-s. 
Ho  spent  the  last  12  or  13  yeai-s  of  his 
life  in  composing  his  great  work,  entitled 
Rerum  Scoficantm  Historia,  in  90  books, 
which  was  published  at  Edinburgh,  in 
1582.    He  died  the  same  year,  at  the  age 
of  76,  in  veiy  poor  circumstances ;  and  the 
city  of  Edinburgh  interred  him  at   the 
public  expense. — The  moral  character  of 
B.  has  been  the  subject  of  much  obloquy 
with  his  enemies  ;  and  tlie  charge  of  early 
licentiousness    seems    countenanced   by 
several  of  his  poems.    Conscious  of  his 
great  abilities,  he  was  also  quemlous  and 
discontented  with  his  circumstances,  and 
by  no  means  scrupulous  in  his  attcm])t8 
to  amend  them  ;   added  to  which,   his 
temper  was  harsh  and  unaniiable,  and  his 


conduct,  as  a  party  man,  exceedingly  vir- 
ulent. As  a  writer,  he  has  obtained  high 
applause  from  all  parties ;  and  as  a  Latin 
poet,  in  particular,  he  stands  among  the 
first  of  the  moderns.  His  Psalms  are  in 
all  kinds  of  measure,  and  some  of  them 
are  extremely  beautiful.  As  a  historian, 
he  is  considered  to  have  united  the  beau- 
ties of  Livy  and  Sallust  as  to  style  ;  but 
he  discovered  a  great  lack  of  judgment 
and  investigative  spirit,  taking  up  ail  the 
tales  of  the  chronicles  as  he  found  them, 
and  affording  to  their  legendary  absurdi- 
ties the  currency  of  his  own  eloquent 
embellishment.  On  the  whole,  however, 
B.  may  justly  be  deemed  an  honor  to  his 
country ;  as  a  man  whose  genius  burst 
tlirough  all  disadvantages  to  the  attain- 
ment of  a  wide  and  justly-celebrated  dis- 
tinction. Of  his  difterent  works  in  verse 
and  prose,  vai'ious  editions  have  been 
given  ;  and  a  valuable  edition  of  the  whole 
was  jiublished  at  Edinburgh,  in  2  vols, 
folio,  1714,  and  reprinted  at  Leyden,  in  2 
vols.  4to.,  1725. 

Bucharest  (i.  e.  city  of  joy),  the  chief 
city  of  Walachia,  the  residence  of  the 
hospodar  and  of  a  Greek  bishop,  contains 
10,000  meanly  built  houses,  and  60,000 
inhabitants,  includuig  Greeks,  Jews  and 
Armenians.  The  streets  are  not  paved, 
but  covered  with  logs.  The  Greeks  for- 
merly had  an  academy  here  with  12  in- 
structers,  which,  in  1810,  contained  244 
students.  It  has  declined  since  the  pres- 
ent hospodar  Ghika,  a  native  of  Wala- 
chia, took  possession  of  its  funds  in  1825. 
The  trade  in  wine,  skins,  and  other  pro- 
ducts of  the  country,  is  veiy  brisk.  May 
28,  1812,  a  peace  was  concluded  here 
between  Russia  and  the  Porte. 

Bucharest,  Peace  of,  May  28,  1812,  be- 
tween Russia  and  the  Porte.  In  Novem- 
ber, 1806,  the  emperor  Alexander  took  up 
arms  lor  the  protection  of  Moldavia  and 
Walachia,  and  on  account  of  the  viola- 
tion of  the  free  navigation  of  the  Bospho- 
rus.  He  occupied  Moldavia,  upon  which 
the  Porte  declared  war  against  Russia, 
Jan.  7,  1807.  An  armistice,  however, 
was  agreed  upon  at  Slobosia,  Aug.  24, 
1807,  in  consequence  of  the  peace  of 
Tilsit,  by  which  tlie  Russiiuis  evacuated 
the  principality.  After  the  expiration  of 
the  truce,  in  April,  1808,  it  was  tacitly 
continued ;  but  when  Napoleon,  in  the 
congress  at  Erfurt,  had  agreed  to  the 
union  of  the  two  principalities  with  Rus- 
sia, tlie  Russian  court  opened  a  congress 
to  deliberate  upon  peace  at  Jassy,  in  Feb., 
1809,  and  demanded  the  cession  of  both 
principalities  by  the  Turks,  and  the  re- 


308 


BUCHAREST— BUCHARIA. 


moval  of  the  British  ambassador  from 
Constantinople.  Upon  this,  the  Porte 
broke  off  the  negotiations,  and  in  April, 
1809,  the  war  was  renewed.  TJie  Rus- 
sians advanced  to  Bulgaria,  and,  atler  two 
bloody  campaigns,  remained  masters  of 
the  Danube.  The  Porte  now  offered 
terms  of  peace.  A  congress  was  opened 
at  B.  in  Dec,  1811.  Napoleon  soon  after 
turned  his  arms  against  Russia,  and  con- 
cluded an  alhance  with  Austria,  March 
14,  1812,  by  which  both  powers  guai-an- 
tied  the  integrity  of  the  Porte.  He  also 
did  all  in  his  power  to  induce  the  Porte 
to  continue  the  war.  But  the  interposi- 
tion of  Great  Britain  and  Sweden,  as  well 
as  tlie  concessions  of  Russia,  and  the 
distrust  of  the  Porte  towards  Napoleon, 
brought  to  a  conclusion  the  peace  of  B., 
which  was  signed,  on  the  part  of  the  Rus- 
sians, by  Andi-i  Italinski,  Sabanejeff",  and 
Jos.  Fonton,  May  28.  The  Porte  gave 
up  to  Russia  all  Bessarabia  and  a  third 
of  Moldavia,  with  the  fortresses  of  Choc- 
zim,  Bender,  Ismail  and  Kilia,  so  that  the 
Pruth,  as  far  as  to  its  confluence  with  the 
Danube,  became  the  boundary  between 
the  two  powers,  and  from  thence  the  left 
bank  of  the  Danube  as  far  as  Kilia,  and 
even  to  its  entrance  into  the  Black  sea. 
The  Russians  gave  back  the  remainder 
of  their  conquests.  In  Asia,  the  bounda- 
ries were  established  as  before  the  war. 
The  Porte  granted  the  Servians,  who  had 
fought  for  their  independence  as  allies  of 
the  Russians,  a  full  amnesty,  with  the 
right  of  administering  their  internal  af- 
fairs themselves,  and  of  raising,  in  the  way 
which  they  should  judge  best,  the  small 
tax  which  the  Porte  imposed  upon  them. 
The  Servians,  however,  would  not  accept 
these  conditions,  and  continued  the  con- 
test, but  were  soon  overpowered  by  the 
Turks. 

BucHARiA,  Great  ;  a  country  of  Cen- 
tral Asia,  lying  between  the  parallels  of 
35°  and  44°  N.  lat.,  and  from  60°  to  72° 
E.  Ion.  It  comprehends  the  three  prov- 
'  inces  of  Bucharia  Proper,  Samarcand  and 
Balkh,  corresponding  to  the  country  of 
the  nomade  Scythians,  Sogdiana  and 
Bactriana  of  ancient  geography.  It  forms 
the  south-eastern  part  of  Tartarj',  and, 
being  occupied  chiefly  by  the  Usbeck 
Tartars  (q.  v.),  is  sometimes  called  Us- 
heckistan.  The  original  inhabitants,  or 
Tavjik^,  a  Persian  colony,  are  handsomer 
than  the  Tartare,  and  still  speak  the  Per- 
sian language.  They  live  in  cities,  and 
carry  on  a  trade  with  Russia,  China,  Hin- 
dostan  and  Persia.  There  are  also  many 
Jews  in  the  country.    The  rivers  are  the 


Gihon  or  Oxus,  the  Sir,  or  Jaxartes,  and 
the  Sogd.  The  Bucharians  or  Taujiks 
lead  a  frugal  hfe,  their  food  consisting 
chiefly  of  rice,  wheat,  millet,  and,  above 
all,  fruits,  such  as  melons,  grapes  and  ap- 
ples :  they  are  fond  of  horse-flesh,  but  it  is 
expensive,  and  beef  is  more  used.  Tea  and 
wine,  the  former  flavored  with  anise,  are 
their  principal  drink :  they  intoxicate  them- 
selves with  opium,  and  their  bread  is  not 
fermented.  Besides  these  articles,  which, 
except  tea,  are  produced  in  the  counlrj', 
the  principal  vegetable  productions  are 
the  Judas  tree,  the  rhubarb,  assafoetida, 
&c.  B.  is  supposed  to  be  the  native 
country  of  the  camel,  and  a  large,  shaggy 
variety,  called  luk,  has  the  peculiarity  of 
blowing  a  large  bladder  from  its  mouth 
when  it  utters  a  cry.  Other  varieties  of 
the  camel,  and  dromedaries,  fine  horses, 
and  asses,  of  various  sorts,  abound.  Sheep 
and  cows  are  scarce.  Several  rare  birds 
are  found  here,  particularly  the  tetrao par- 
adoxus. This  bird  resembles  the  par- 
tridge of  the  desert,  except  in  the  structure 
of  its  feet,  which  consist  of  one  large  toe, 
placed  between  two  diminutive  ones,  rest- 
ing on  a  hard  sole,  and  enabling  it  to  run 
with  great  speed  over  the  dry,  gritty  sand. 
The  province  of  Balkh,  which  is  described 
by  geographers  as  forming  a  part  of  B., 
lies  on  the  south  of  the  Oxus,  and  belongs, 
at  present,  to  the  Afghans.  The  two 
provinces  on  the  north  of  that  river  form 
the  Transoxana,  famous  in  Arabian  and 
Tartar  history,  under  the  Arabian  name 
Maweralnahr  (beyond  the  river),  where 
Timur  received  the  homage  of  so  many 
conquered  princes.  His  descendants  were 
driven  out  by  the  Tartars  in  the  15th 
century.  The  government,  as  in  other 
Mohammedan  states,  is  despotic.  The 
population,  extent  and  revenue  of  the 
state  have  not  been  ascertained.  (Evers- 
mann's  Reise  nach  Buchara,  Berlin,  1823 ; 
Elj)hinstone's  Caubid ;  Meyendorf 's  Jour- 
nal (in  French),  Paris,  1826.)  Bucharia, 
or  Bochara,  a  large  and  populous  city,  has 
often  disputed  with  Samarcand  the  title 
of  capital.  Its  population  has  been  stated 
at  from  100,000  to  200,000.  The  streets 
are  so  narrow,  that  a  loaded  camel  fills 
the  space  from  side  to  side.  The  houses 
are  low,  and  built  of  mud  and  brick.  The 
number  of  mosques  is  said  to  be  360,  and 
that  of  medreses,  or  schools,  285.  It  has 
always  been  distinguished  for  the  study 
of  theology  and  Mohammedan  law.  B.  is 
the  commercial  emporium  of  Central  Asia 
for  the  Hindoos,  Afghans,  Persians,  Rus- 
sians, Chinese  and  Arabians.  The  trade 
is  carried  on  by  caravans,  and  there  are 


BUCHARIA— BUCKINGHAM. 


309 


10  large  caravansaries  in  the  city.  The 
caravans  bring  Russian  and  English  manu- 
factures from  the  Russitm  towns,  and  re- 
turn silk,  wool,  Cashmere  shawls,  indigo, 
&c.  About  500  camels  bring  silk  and 
woollen  cloths,  shawls,  &c.  from  Meschid 
and  Herat,  and  Russian  manufactures  are 
carried  back  in  return.  China  ware  and 
tea  from  Cashgar,  and  shawls,  cahcoes, 
muslins,  from  Caubul  and  Cashmere,  are 
the  other  principal  articles  of  import. — A 
description  of  the  city  is  contained  in  the 
work  of  Meyendorf,  above  refeiTed  to, 
who  was  attached  to  tlie  Russian  mission 
to  B.  in  1820. 

Buckaria,  lAttle,  as  it  is  improperly 
called,  lies  east  of  Great  B.,  stretching 
from  73°  to  100°  E.  Ion.,  and  from  38°  to 
44°  N.  lat.  It  is  very  imperfectly  known, 
but  appears  to  be  bounded  on  the  north 
and  east  by  the  Calmuck  country,  on  the 
south  I)y  Thibet,  and  on  the  west  is  sep- 
arated from  Great  Bucharia  by  the  Beloor 
mountains.  It  is  a  very  elevated  country, 
forming  a  portion  of  the  gi-eat  central 
plateau  of  Asia,  which  constitutes  a  sixth 
part  of  the  old  continent,  yet  shrouds  from 
the  curious  philosopher  its  mineral,  ani- 
mal and  vegetable  productions.  The  cli- 
mate is  veiT  rigorous,  owing  to  the  great 
elevation  of  the  country.  It  was  overrim, 
in  1683,  by  the  Calmucks,  who  were  sub- 
dued by  the  Chinese  in  1759.  Little  is 
known  of  the  origin  and  manners  of  the 
native  inhabitants,  who  still  fonn  the 
principal  part  of  the  population.  The  di- 
visions into  provinces  are  very  differently 
stated  by  different  authors.  Cashgar, 
with  a  town  of  the  same  name,  Yarkand, 
also  with  a  town  of  the  same  name,  which, 
by  some,  is  thought  to  be  the  capital  of 
Little  B.,  if,  indeed,  Yarkand  is  not  merely 
another  name  for  Cashgar,  and  the  other 
provinces,  are  little  known.  Both  sexes 
wear  long  drawers,  and  a  garment  reach- 
ing to  the  calf,  bound  round  the  waist  by 
a  girdle.  The  women  dye  their  nails 
with  henna.  The  houses  ai-e  chiefly  of 
stone,  and  furnished  with  articles  of  Chi- 
nese manufacture.  Tea  is  the  general 
bevei-age,  taken,  in  the  manner  of  Central 
Asia,  with  milk,  butter  and  salt 

BucHER,  Anthony  von,  a  well  known 
and  much  esteemed  Catholic  writer 
against  the  Jesuits,  born  in  3Iunich,  Jan. 
8, 174G,  was  educated  in  the  Latin  schools 
of  the  Jesuits,  studied  at  Ingoldstadt,  and 
was  consecrated  priest  in  17G8.  In  his  dif- 
ferent offices  as  a  public  teacher,  he  has 
done  a  great  deal  to  instruct  and  enlighten 
his  country.  His  contributions  to  the 
history  of  the  Jesuits  in  Bavaria  {Beitrdge 


zur  Geschichie  der  JesuUen  in  Baiem)  are 
of  great  historical  value.  His  works  were 
published  in  6  vols.,  Munich,  1819  et 
seq. 

BucHHOLZ,  Paul  Ferdinand  Frederic ; 
bom,  Feb.  5,  1768,  at  Altruppin  (Old 
Ruppin).  At  the  age  of  32,  he  resigned 
the  office  of  teacher  at  Brandenburg,  and 
went  to  Berlin,  where,  for  21  years,  he 
has  been  an  author.  He  is  best  kpovm 
to  foreign  coimtries  as  the  publisher  of 
the  New  Monthly  Journal  for  Germany. 
In  many  of  his  writings,  he  tries  to  prove 
the  existence  of  a  law  of  gravitation  in 
the  moral  as  well  as  the  natural  world. 

Buck  ;  the  male  of  the  fallow  deer, 
also  of  rabbits  and  otlier  animals.  (See 
Deer,  Rabbit,  &c.) 

BucKEBURG.    (See  lAppe.) 

Buckets,  in  water-wheels,  are  a  series 
of  cavities  into  which  the  water  is  deliv- 
ered, on  the  circumference  of  the  wheel 
to  be  set  in  motion.  By  the  revolution 
of  the  wheel,  the  buckets  will  be  alter- 
nately erected  so  as  to  receive  water,  and 
inverted  so  as  to  discharge  it ;  the  loaded 
side  will  descend,  and  present  the  empty 
buckets  m  succession  to  the  current,  and 
thus  keep  up  a  constant  revolution  of  the 
wheel. 

BucKiNCK,  Arnold,  the  first  artist  who 
engraved  geogi-aphical  maps  on  copper. 
He  brought  this  art  to  a  high  degree  of 
perfection.  Schweynheym,  who  had 
learnt  the  secret  of  printing  from  the 
inventors,  Faustus  and  Schoeffer,  wished 
to  publish  an  edition  of  Ptolemy.  Wood 
cuts  were  too  imperfect  for  the  maps 
contained  in  the  expensive  manuscripts 
of  it.  Sweynheym  determined  to  en- 
grave them  on  copper,  and,  for  that  pur- 
pose, associated  himself  wdth  B.  The 
former  died  during  the  progress  of  the 
work.  B.  completed  it.  The  first  edition 
of  Ptolemy  with  maps  (for  the  edition  of 
1468  is  certainly  dated  wrong)  at  length 
appeared  in  folio,  at  Rome,  1478,  and 
concluded  as  follows :  Claudii  Ptolcmcei 
Alexandrini  philosophi  geographiam,  Ar- 
noldus  Buckinck  e  Germania  Roma  tab- 
idis  wneis  in  picturis  formatam  impressit 
sempitemo  ingenii  artificiique  monumento, 
&c.  These  charts  are  also  added  to 
some  Roman  editions  of  Ptolemy  pub- 
lished afterwards. 

Buckingham,  George  Villiers,  duke  of; 
the  unworthy  favorite  of  James  I  and 
Charles  I  of  England;  born,  1592,  at 
Brookesby,  in  Leicestershire,  of  a  family 
which  came  thither,  from  Normandy,  in 
the  time  of  Wilham  the  Conqueror.  In 
his  youth,  he  showed  little  taste  or  little 


810 


BUCKINGHAM. 


aptitude  for  literature.  Nature  bad  lav- 
ishly bestowed  upon  him  beauty,  ease 
and  grace.  By  means  of  these  qualities, 
he  so  effectually  won  the  affections  of 
James  I,  that,  in  less  tlian  two  years,  he 
was  made  a  knight,  a  gentleman  of  the 
bedchamber,  baron,  viscount,  marquis  of 
B.,  lord  high-admiral,  lord  wanlen  of  the 
cinque  ports,  &c.,  and,  at  last,  dispenser 
of  alj  the  honors,  offices,  favors  and  reve- 
nues of  the  three  kingdoms,  according  to 
the  dictates  of  his  ambition,  his  cupidity 
and  his  caprice.  The  nation  was  indig- 
nant at  seeing  merit  undervalued,  the 
people  trampled  upon,  the  nobility  hum- 
bled, the  crowTi  impoverished  and  de- 
graded, to  elevate  and  enrich  a  weak  and 
insolent  favorite.  To  complete  the  cata- 
logue of  his  misdeeds,  B.  became  a  traitor 
in  1623,  the  eighth  year  of  his  favor.  He 
desired  to  remove  the  earl  of  Bristol,  an 
able  and  virtuous  minister,  from  office. 
Bristol  was  then  negotiating  the  marriage 
of  a  Spanish  princess  with  the  prince  of 
Wales,  aflerwards  Charles  I.  The  design 
of  B.  was,  not  only  to  reconcile  to  him- 
self the  prince,  against  whom  he  had 
dared  to  Ufl  his  hand  in  a  fit  of  passion, 
but  also  to  make  him  dependent  upon 
himself,  that  he  might  secure  the  contin- 
uance of  his  power,  in  case  of  the  death 
of  James.  He  therefore  inspired  young 
Charles  with  the  romantic  idea  of  going 
to  Madrid  himself,  and  removing  all  the 
difficulties  of  negotiation  by  his  presence. 
The  king's  consent  to  this  measure  was 
gained  in  an  hour  of  weakness,  and, 
diough  he  was  long  angry,  on  this  ac- 
count, with  B.,  he  soon  after  made  him  a 
duke.  The  event  was  what  James  had 
anticipated.  While  the  young  prince  de- 
lighted the  royal  family  and  the  whole 
nation  by  the  gentleness  and  modesty  of 
his  manners,  B.,  who  accompanied  him, 
ofiended  them  by  his  arrogance  and  li- 
centiousness. He  attained  his  purpose : 
the  negotiation,  which  was  far  advanced 
by  means  of  Bristol,  was  broken  off;  and, 
that  no  one  else  might  aflerwards  com- 
plete it  with  success,  he  indulged  himself 
in  the  grossest  insults  against  the  Spanish 
ministry,  speedily  lefl  the  kingdom  with 
the  prince,  deceived  James  by  false  re- 
ports, and  instigated  the  parliament  to 
declare,  that,  instead  of  fonning  a  connex- 
ion with  Spain,  it  was  necessary  to  make 
war  against  it,  which  was  accordingly 
done  by  James.  The  house  of  commons 
peremptorily  refused  the  requisite  sup- 
plies, although  they  had  consented  to  the 
war.  B.  connected  himself  with  the  Pu- 
ritan party,  and  formed  the  project  of 


abolishing  the  episcopal  dignity,  selling 
the  possessions  of  the  church,  and  con- 
tinuing the  war  with  the  money  raised  in 
this  way.  Thus  the  policy,  the  feelings 
and  conscience  of  James  were  betrayed 
by  his  favorite,  and  in  the  midst  of  these 
disorders  he  died.  He  had  succeeded, 
indeed,  in  concludhig  a  treaty  for  the 
marriage  of  his  son  Avith  Hein-ietta  of 
France ;  but  had  the  grief  of  seeing  an 
English  army,  which  was  intended  to  re- 
cover the  hereditary  dpminions  of  his 
son-in-law,  the  unhappy  elector  palatine 
Frederic  V,  ruined  by  the  mismanagement 
of  B.,  while  a  union  with  Spain  might 
have  effected  a  peaceful  restoration  of  the 
territories.  After  the  death  of  James,  B. 
continued  to  be  the  arbitrary  minister  of 
Charles  I ;  but  the  time  had  now  come 
for  the  fulfilment  of  the  prophecy  of  his 
former  king.  After  having  been  declared 
the  savior  of  the  prince  and  the  nation,  in 
the  house  of  commons  of  the  last  parlia- 
ment, B.  was  declared,  by  the  new  one,  a 
seducer  of  the  king,  a  traitor  to  the  Uberty 
of  his  country,  and  a  pubhc  enemy.  This 
took  place  during  a  war  which  required, 
more  than  ever,  the  fullest  harmony  with 
the  house  of  commons.  Hence  the  dis- 
solution of  two  parhaments,  the  imprison- 
ment of  the  members  who  had  been 
most  distinguished  for  their  zeal,  illegal 
taxes  and  forced  loans,  instead  of  supplies 
granted  by  parliament,  the  arbitrary  im- 
prisonment of  those  who  refused  to  pay 
them ;  in  short,  every  thing  that  could 
conspire  to  bring  a  virtuous  king  to  the 
most  fearful  end.  But  B.,  who  had 
learned,  by  his  disgraceful  attempt  on 
Cadiz,  that  he  was  unequal  to  a  war 
against  Spain,  did  not  hesitate  to  engage 
in  a  war  against  France.  He  had  gone 
to  Paris  to  solemnize,  in  the  name  of  the 
king,  his  marriage  with  the  daughter  of 
Henry  IV.  Here  he  dared  to  raise  his 
eyes  to  the  queen  of  France.  As  this 
princess  dismissed  him  with  indulgence 
rather  than  indignation,  he  desired  to  re- 
turn to  the  French  court  as  Enghsli  am- 
bassador. His  rashness,  however,  did  not 
remain  unobserved  ;  and  Louis  XIII 
wrote  to  him  to  forbid  his  cherishing  the 
thought  of  this  journey.  In  order  to 
avenge  himself  for  tliis  prohibition,  B. 
engaged  virith  the  Protestants  of  Rochelle 
in  a  war  against  France.  This  enterprise, 
and  the  assault  of  the  island  Rhe  (1627), 
was  more  disgracefully  conducted  than 
the  attempt  on  Cadiz.  B.,  at  the  same 
time  minister,  admiral  and  general,  seem- 
ed to  make  it  his  object  to  dishonor  him- 
self in  all  three  capacities.    After  having 


BUCKINGHAM— BUCKLER. 


311 


excited  the  people  of  Rochelle  to  a  sedi- 
tion, only  to  deliver  them  to  the  ven- 
geance of  Richelieu,  and  after  having  sa- 
crificed a  third  of  the  British  army,  he 
returned  to  England,  despised  and  exe- 
crated as  much  by  his  fellow-citizens  as 
by  his  enemies.  Pecuniary  necessity 
compelled  him  to  call  a  new  parliament. 
B.  opened  it  \vitli  the  declaration,  tliat 
the  king  might  have  done  without  it,  and 
that,  if  money  was  refused,  his  majesty 
would  find  other  means  to  supply  his 
wants.  Thus  he  scattered  the  seeds  of 
discord  between  the  king  and  people.  In 
tlie  course  of  the  debates,  he  was  obliged 
to  hear  himself  called  the  autlior  of  the 
public  distress,  while  the  king's  heart  was 
acknowledged  to  be  the  sanctuary  of  all 
the  virtues.  Without  knowing  when  to 
yield  and  when  to  resist,  he  contended 
most  violently  against  the  famous  petition 
of  rights ;  but  he  suddenly  ceased  his  re- 
sistance, when  he  heard  that  an  impeach- 
ment was  preparing  against  him  in  the 
house  of  commons.  The  complaints 
against  him,  however,  continued  ;  but  the 
Louse  of  commons  contented  itself,  in- 
stead of  a  solemn  impeachment,  with  a 
petition,  that  the  king  would  remove  him 
fi-om  his  person  and  his  council,  as  the 
author  of  the  public  calamities.  The 
only  reply  of  the  monarch  was  a  sudden 
dissolution  of  the  parliament.  Charles 
resolved  to  attempt  anew  the  relief  of  the 
Protestants  of  Rochelle.  Count  Denbigh 
was  appointed  to  command  the  expedi- 
tion, but  soon  after  returned  without  ac- 
complishing any  thing,  after  having  dis- 
graced the  banner  of  England  by  his 
inefiiciency.  The  king  now  ordered  B. 
to  put  himself  at  the  head  of  a  new  arma- 
ment, which  was  fitted  out  with  uicredible 
despatch.  The  duke  was  obliged  to  sub- 
mit to  the  command,  and  was  on  the 
point  of  embarking  at  Portsmouth,  when,  in 
Aug.,  1628,  sunounded  liy  courtiers,  guards 
and  soldiers,  he  fell  under  the  dagger  of 
Felton,  a  subaltern  officer. — Thus  died  a 
man,  whose  name  suggests  the  idea  of  the 
most  unlimited  power ;  who  had  braved 
tlie  denunciations  of  the  two  houses  of 
parliament,  the  hatred  of  Richelieu  and 
Olivarez,  and  even  the  displeasure  of  the 
two  kings  in  whose  names  he  ruled.  At 
the  moment  of  his  deatli,  he  had  regained 
tlie  favor  of  his  master  by  the  activity  of 
his  zeal,  and,  confiding  in  the  immense 
resources  with  which  he  was  surrounded, 
was  looking  forward  to  victory. 

Buckingham,  George  Villiers,  duke  of, 
son  of  the  preceding,  was  bom  at  Wal- 
lingford-house,  in  Westminster,  Jan.  30, 


1627.  After  studying  at  Trinity  college, 
Cambridge,  he  travelled  abroad,  and,  on 
his  return  home,  after  the  commencement 
of  the  civil  war,  he  was  presented  to  the 
long  at  Oxford.  He  served  in  the  royal 
army,  under  prince  Rupert  and  lord  Ge- 
rard. His  estate  was  seized  by  the  parlia- 
ment ;  but,  havhig  obtained  the  restoration 
of  it,  he  travelled,  with  his  brother,  into 
France  and  Italy.  In  1648,  he  returned 
to  England,  and  was  with  Charles  II  in 
Scotland,  and  at  the  battle  of  Worcester. 
He  followed  that  prince  abroad,  and 
served,  as  a  volunteer,  in  the  French  ar- 
my in  Flanders.  He  afterwards  returned 
to  England,  and,  in  1657,  married  the 
daughter  of  lord  Fairfax,  by  which  means 
he  repaired  the  ruin  of  his  fortune  in  the 
royal  cause.  He,  however,  preserved  the 
favor  of  Charles  II,  and,  at  the  restora- 
tion, was  made  master  of  the  horse.  He 
also  became  one  of  the  king's  confidential 
ministers,  who  were  designated  by  the 
appellation  of  the  cahal.  His  poUtical 
conduct  was,  like  his  general  behavior, 
characterized  by  unprincipled  levity  and 
imprudence.  In  1666,  he  engaged  in  a 
conspiracy  to  eflfect  a  change  of  the  gov- 
errmient ;  notwithstanding  which,  he  re- 
covered the  favor  of  king  Charles,  which 
he  repeatedly  abused.  The  profligacy 
of  his  private  life  was  notorious.  He  se- 
duced the  countess  of  Shrewsbury,  and 
killed  her  husband  in  a  duel ;  and  he  was 
more  than  suspected  of  having  been  the 
instigator  of  the  infamous  colonel  Blood 
to  his  brutal  outrage  against  tlie  duke  of 
Ormond,  whom  he  attempted,  with  the 
assistance  of  other  rufiians,  to  carry  to 
Tyburn,  and  hang  on  the  common'gal- 
lows.  In  1676,  he  was,  together  with 
the  earls  of  Shaftesburj-  and  Salisburj', 
and  lord  Wharton,  committed  to  the 
Tower  for  a  contempt,  by  order  of  the 
house  of  lords ;  but,  on  petitioning  the 
king,  they  were  released.  After  plotting 
against  the  government  with  the  Dissent- 
ers, and  making  himself  the  object  of 
contempt  to  all  parties,  he  died,  neglected 
and  unregretted,  at  Kirkby  Mooi-side,  in 
Yorkshire,  April  16,  1688.  Pope  (Moral 
Essays,  epistle  3d)  has  strikingly  describ- 
ed his  death.  His  abilities  were  far  su- 
perior to  those  of  his  father ;  and,  among 
his  literary  compositions,  the  comedy  of 
the  Rehearsal  may  be  mentioned  as  a 
work  which  displays  no  common  powers, 
and  which  greatly  contributed  to  the 
correction  of  the  public  taste,  which  had 
been  corrupted  by  Drj'den,  and  otlier 
dramatists  of  the  age. 
Buckler.    (See  Shield,) 


81S 


BUCKLER— BUCKMINSTER. 


BCcKLER,  John,  under  the  name  of 
Schinderhannes,  was  the  leader  of  a  band 
of  robbers,  on  the  banks  of  the  Rhine, 
towards  the  end  of  tlie  last  century. 
Born  of  indigent  parents,  lie  entered  into 
the  service  of  an  executioner.  He  stole 
some  skins  from  his  master,  and  eloped, 
but  was  apprehended,  and  condemned  to 
be  scourged.  This  punishment,  publicly 
inflicted  on  him,  as  he  himself  said,  de- 
termined the  character  of  Ids  future  life. 
Without  knowing  what  to  undertake  at 
tliis  juncture,  he  wandered  about  stealing 
sheep.  He  was  a  second  time  brought 
to  justice,  escaped,  and  connected  him- 
self, at  Fink,  with  Rothbart,  the  leader  of 
a  band  of  robbere.  Being  seized  again, 
he  again  escaped,  and  returned  to  his  old 
acquaintance.  He  was  apprehended  once 
more,  and  escaped  anew.  He  now  re- 
solved upon  highway  robbery,  and  collect- 
ed a  large  band,  which  soon  stiTJck  terror 
into  all  the  surrounding  countiy.  He 
was  not  entirely  destitute  of  good  quali- 
ties. He  often  assisted  the  i)oor,  and 
reheved  the  distresses  of  those  who  were 
severely  treated  by  his  band.  Political 
commotions  drove  him  to  the  right  bank 
of  the  Rhine,  where  he  man-ied  one  Ju- 
liet Blasius.  A  song  which  he  composed 
on  her  was  played  at  all  the  faii-s  and 
religious  festivals  throughout  the  adjacent 
country.  About  this  time,  his  followere 
began  to  rob  houses ;  and  carried  on  their 
lawless  trade  so  publicly,  that  the  Jews, 
who  were  most  annoyed  by  them,  sent 
to  treat  with  B.  At  length  Schinderhan- 
nes was  taken  prisoner,  and  brought  to 
Frankfoit.  He  confessed  immedjately 
his  true  name,  and  a  gi-eat  part  of  his 
crimes.  He  was  then  given  up,  with  his 
comrades,  to  the  tribunal  at  IMentz.  Here 
he  confessed  many  facts,  thinking,  that,  as 
be  had  never  committed  murder,  he  would 
not  be  condemned  to  death.  After  his 
condemnation,  he  still  continued  to  hope 
for  pardon,  and,  till  the  last  moment  of 
his  life,  showed  the  greatest  presence  of 
mind.  He  was  guillotined  Nov.  21, 1803. 
BccKMiNSTER,  Josepli  Stcvcns,  cele- 
brated as  a  pulpit  orator  and  man  of 
lettei's,  was  born  at  Portsmouth,  New 
Hampshire,  May  26,  1784.  His  father 
was  eminent  among  the  clergy  of  that 
state,  and  he  himself  manifested,  in  his 
boyhood,  such  talents  and  dispositions  as 
gave  assurance  of  his  success  in  the  same 
career.  In  1797,  he  entered  Harvard 
college,  Cambridge.  In  the  year  1800, 
he  received  the  honors  of  the  university 
with  the  distinction  due  to  his  uncom- 
mon proficiency  in  the  studies  of  tjie 


institution,  and  to  the  excellence  of  the 
oration  which  he  delivered  on  the  literary 
character  of  different  nations.  After  leav- 
ing college,  he  devoted  himself  for  more 
than  four  years  to  theology  and  general 
literature.  In  Oct.,  1804,  at  Boston,  he 
preached  for  the  first  time,  and,  in  the  fol- 
lowing year,  accepted  an  invitation  from 
a  religious  society  in  that  place,  to  become 
their  minister.  The  fatigue  and  agitation 
which  he  suffered  at  his  ordination  threw 
him  into  a  severe  illness  of  two  months 
duration.  On  his  recovery,  he  devoted 
himself  ardently  to  his  clerical  duties,  but 
his  zeal  aggravated  a  predisposition  to 
epilepsy,  which  had  been  felt  some  years 
before.  The  increase  of  this  dreadful 
disorder  rendered  a  voyage  to  l^^urope 
expedient.  He  embarked  for  England 
in  1806,  remained  for  some  months  in 
that  country,  went  through  Holland  to 
Switzerland,  and  tlience  proceeded  to 
Paris,  where  he  passed  nearlj'  half  a  year. 
After  revisiting  England,  he  returned  to  his 
native  land,  not,  indeed,  cured  of  his  inal- 
adj',  but  generally  more  vigorous  in  con- 
stitution, and  enriched  with  a  large  addi- 
tional store  of  knowledge.  No  American 
of  his  age  had  made  a  more  favorable 
impression  abroad.  His  parishionei-s  wel- 
comed him  back  with  enthusiasm,  and 
he  requited  their  esteem  by  an  admirable 
discharge  of  all  his  duties.  His  sennons 
placed  him  in  the  first  rank  of  popular 
preachers.  He  also  contributed  valuable 
and  beautiful  papei-s  to  the  periodical 
publications  of  the  day,  besides  prepar- 
ing a  number  of  occasional  addi'esses  of 
distinguished  merit.  In  1808,  he  super- 
intended an  American  edition  of  Gries- 
bach's  Greek  Testament,  and  wrote  much 
in  vindication  and  praise  of  this  author's 
erudition,  fidehty  and  accuracy.  In  1810, 
he  digested  a  plan  of  publishing  all  the 
best  modern  versions  of  the  prophetical 
books  of  the  Old  Testament;  but  the 
whole  design  failed  for  want  of  public 
jmtronage.  In  1811,  he  was  appointed 
the  first  lecturer  on  Biblical  criticism  at 
the  univereity  of  Cambridge,  on  the  foun- 
dation established  by  Samuel  Dexter. 
While  he  was  laboriously  preparing  for 
the  execution  of  this  office,  a  violent  fit 
of  epilepsy  at  once  destroyed  his  noble 
and  affluent  intellect,  and  gave  a  shock 
to  his  frame,  which  he  survived  only  a 
few  days.  He  (Ued  June  9,  1812,  at  tlie 
completion  of  his  28th  year. — 3Ir.  Buck- 
minster  possessed  a  fine  face,  an  easy  and 
winning  address,  a  cheerful  temper,  and 
the  power  of  gaining  a  multitude  of  fiiends 
and  admirers.    In  1814,  his  sermons  wer% 


BUCKMINSTER— BUDDHA. 


313 


collected,  and  published  in  an  octavo  vol- 
ume, to  which  is  prefixed  a  well-written 
memoir  of  his  lite  and  character.  These 
remains  have  been  extensively  circulated. 
They  are  highly  valuable  in  every  re- 
spect, and  fitted  to  excite  univei-sal  regret 
at  the  premature  fate  of  the  accomplished 
and  virtuous  author.  A  second  volume 
has  appeared  very  recently  (Boston, 
1829). 

Buckwheat,  or  Brank,  is  a  black  and 
triangular  grain,  produced  by  a  plant  of 
the  persicaria  tribe  (polygonum  fagopy- 
ntm),  with  somewhat  arrow-shaped  leaves, 
and  purplish-white  flowers. — Buckwheat 
was  first  brought  to  Euroj)e  from  the 
northern  parts  of  Asia,  and  first  cultivat- 
ed in  England  about  the  year  IGOO.  The 
flowei-s  ajjpear  about  July,  and  the  seeds 
ripen  in  October ;  and  so  tender  are  the 
plants,  that  a  single  night's  sharp  frost 
will  destroy  a  whole  crop.  As  a  grain, 
buckwheat  has  been  principally  cultivat- 
ed for  oxen,  swhie  and  poultry ;  and, 
although  some  farmers  state,  that  a  single 
bushel  of  it  is  equal  in  quality  to  two 
bushels  of  oats,  othei-s  assert,  that  it  is  a 
very  unprofitable  food.  3Iixed  with  bran, 
chaff  or  grain,  it  is  sometimes  given  to 
horses.  The  flower  of  buckwheat  is  oc- 
casionally used  for  bread,  but  more  fre- 
quently for  the  thin  cakes  called  crum- 
pets.  In  Germany,  it  sei-ves  as  an  ingre- 
dient in  pottage,  puddings,  and  other  food. 
In  Pennsylvania,  it  is,  very  extensively 
iised,  throughout  the  whiter,  in  cakes, 
which  are  cooked  upon  a  griddle.  Beer 
may  be  brewed  from  it ;  and  by  distilla- 
tion it  yields  an  excellent  spirit. — The 
best  mode  of  harvesting  this  grain  is  said 
to  be  by  pulling  it  out  of  the  ground  like 
flax,  stripping  off  the  seeds  with  the  hand, 
and  collecting  these  into  aprons  or  cloths, 
tied  roimd  the  waist. — Buckwheat  is  much 
cultivated  in  the  domains  of  noblemen, 
jiossessed  of  landed  property,  as  a  food 
lor  pheasants.  With  some  farmers,  it  is 
the  practice  to  sow  buckwheat  for  the 
purpose  only  of  ploughing  it  into  the 
ground,  as  a  manure  for  the  land.  Whilst 
green,  it  serves  as  food  for  sheep  and 
oxen ;  and,  mixed  with  other  provender,  it 
may  also  be  given  Avith  advantage  to  horses. 
The  blossoms  may  be  used  for  dyeing  a 
brown  color.  It  is  frequently  cultivated  in 
the  Middle  U.  States  as  food  for  bees,  who 
are  very  fond  of  it,  and  to  whose  honey 
it  imparts  a  flavor  by  no  means  imjileas- 
ant. — The  principal  advantage  of  buck- 
wheat is,  that  it  is  capable  of  being  culti- 
vated upon  land  which  will  produce 
scarcely  any  thing  else,  and  that  its  cul- 

voL.  11.  27 


ture,  comj)ared  with  that  of  other  grain, 
is  attended  with  little  expense. 

Bucolics.  (See  Pastoral  Poetry.) 
BuDA  (in  German,  Ofen)  is  the  Hunga- 
rian name  of  the  capital  of  Hungaiy,  sit- 
uated on  the  west  bank  of  the  Danul>e, 
opposite  Pest.  It  consists  of  the  Up})er 
Town,  which  is  fortified,  and  lies,  with  the 
castle,  on  a  hill ;  of  the  Lower  Town,  or 
Waterstadt,  which  lies  at  the  foot  of  the 
hill,  and  is  connected  with  Pest  by  a 
bridge  of  boats  ;  of  the  Neustifl,  in  which 
is  the  remarkable  Trinity  pillar,  52  feet 
high ;  and  of  the  Taban,  called,  in  Ger- 
man, Raitzenstadt,  from  being  almost  en- 
tirely occupied  by  the  Rascians,  a  Scla- 
vonian  race.  There  are  three  other  parts 
inhabited  by  Gei-mans  and  Hungari- 
ans. The  population  is  28,500,  exclusive 
of  the  court  of  the  palatine,  tlie  officers 
of  government,  the  miUtary  and  the  cler- 
gy. Among  the  public  buildings  are  the 
royal  fortress,  in  which  the  crown  is  kept, 
tlie  arsenal,  the  cannon  foundery,  the  new 
observatory  on  the  Blocksberg.  The 
trade  in  wine,  which  the  environs  pro- 
duce of  an  excellent  quality,  is  the  chief 
occupation  of  the  inhabitants.  There 
are  also  manufactures  of  silk,  leather, 
tobacco,  copper  and  iron.  The  baths 
arc  efficacious  in  palsy,  weakness  of  limbs, 
and  similar  complaints.  The  castle  was 
chosen  as  a  place  of  residence  by  the 
emperor  Louis  I ;  and  king  Matthias  I 
founded  the  library,  wliich  was  destroyed 
by  the  Turks,  in  whose  hands  B.  remaui- 
ed  from  1530  till  1686,  when  it  was  taken 
by  storm  by  the  duke  of  Lorraine.  The 
castle  was  then  destroyed,  but  was  rebuilt 
by  the  empress  Maria  Theresa  for  the 
university,  which  was  removed  from 
Tyrnau  to  Buda  in  1777,  and  which  has 
subsequently  been  removed  to  Pest.  Lon. 
19°  2'  E. ;  lat.  47°  30'  N. ;  distant  120 
miles  S.  E.  from  Vienna. 

Buddha,  the  founder  of  a  very  ancient 
religion,  called  after  him.  His  worship, 
after  the  Bramins  had  put  a  stop  to  it  in 
India,  spread  to  Japan,  Thibet  and  Chi- 
na, where,  as  well  as  in  Ceylon,  it  exists 
at  the  present  day.  Ritter,  in  his  Vor- 
hallen  Europaisaiier  Vblkergeschickten  (In- 
troduction to  the  Histories  of  the  Euro- 
pean Nations),  advances  the  opinion,  that 
the  Buddhists  also  migrated  to  the  N.  W. 
to  the  shores  of  the  Black  sea,  to  Colchis, 
to  the  modem  Mingrelia,  and  thence  to 
Thrace,  where  they  laid  the  foundation 
of  the  civilization  of  the  Pelasgi  and  Hel- 
lenes. Even  in  the  doctrine  of  Asa,  in 
the  extreme  north,  traces  of  Buddhism 
have  been  thought  to  appear.    According 


#1 


BUDDHA— BUDGELL. 


to  Abel  Remusat,  who  cites  the  Japan 
Encyclopedia,  in  the  Journal  des  Savana, 
Jan.  1821,  Biuklha,  whose  historical  name 
was  Tshakia-niuni,  was  bom  under  tlie 
reign  of  Tshao-wnng,  of  the  dynasty  of 
Tsheu,  1029  B.  C,  and  died  under  the 
reign  of  Mou-wang,  950  B.  C.  Before 
his  death,  he  intrusted  liis  disciple  Ma- 
hakaya,  a  Bramin  in  the  kingdom  of 
Makata,  which  lay  in  the  centre  of  India, 
with  his  mysteries.  This  Mahakaya, 
who  lived  under  Hio-wang,  950  B.  C, 
is  the  first  saint  or  patriarch  of  Buddhism, 
which  was  left  by  him  to  his  successor, 
Ananta.  The  Japan  Encyclopedia  enu- 
merates 33  patriarchs,  including  Maha- 
kaya, in  chronological  succession,  each 
of  whom  chose  his  successor,  and  trans- 
mitted to  him  the  secret  doctrine  of 
Tshakia-muni,  who  was  afterwards  wor- 
shipped as  a  god,  under  the  name  of 
Buddha.  Several  of  tliem  died  (or,  to  use 
the  language  of  the  Buddhists,  emigrated) 
voluntarily  in  the  flames.  Among  them, 
Maming,  the  successor  of  Buddha  (by  the 
Chinese  called  Phu-sa;  in  Sanscrit,  Deva- 
Bodhisatua),  who  gave  names  to  the  gods 
of  the  second  class,  was  worshipped  as 
his  son,  bom  from  his  mouth,  because  he 
perfected  the  doctrine  of  Buddha  by  his 
own  pliilosophy,  which  is  a  metaphysical 
allegorical  mjsticism.  His  epoch  must 
be  fixed,  according  to  the  above-men- 
tioned work,  in  332,  under  the  reign  of 
Hian-wang,  618  years  after  the  death 
of  Tshakia-muni.  The  28th  patriarch, 
Bodhidhorma,  was  the  last  who  lived  in 
Hindostan.  He  afterwards  fixed  his  resi- 
dence in  China,  near  the  famous  moun- 
tain Sung.  He  died  A.  D.  495.  The 
secret  of  his  doctrine  was  left  by  him  to 
a  Chinese,  who  was  the  29th  patriarch. 
After  him,  the  above-mentioned  book 
gives  the  names  of  four  Chinese,  who 
succeeded  to  the  same  dignity.  The  last 
of  them  died  A.  D.  713.  Their  history, 
like  that  of  many  other  sauits,  is  mixed 
with  fables :  their  manner  of  hving  was 
the  same  as  what  the  ancients  report  to 
us  of  the  Gymnosophists  and  Samaneans. 
They  devoted  themselves  to  religious 
exercises  and  constant  contemplation, 
and  condemned  themselves  to  the  most 
severe  abstinence ;  nay,  several  of  them, 
as  we  have  mentioned,  sealed  their  belief 
in  the  transmigration  of  souls  with  a  vol- 
untary death.  From  that  Indian  patriar- 
chate originated,  A.  D.  706,  the  sacerdo- 
tal dignity,  which  is  common  in  China, 
and  among  the  Monguls,  with  the  title 
spiritual  prince  of  the  law.  These  priests 
are,  at  the  same  time,  a  sort  of  confessors 


to  the  emperors.  From  this  priesthood 
aftenvards  spnuig  the  hereditaiy  dignity 
of  Grand  Lama,  in  Thibet ;  and,  in  process 
of  time,  the  whole  hiorarchal  system, 
when  the  monastical  hfe  of  the  Buddhists 
required  regular  superioi-s,  or  inferior 
lamas.  Besides  many  other  monuments 
of  the  ancient  worship  of  Buddha,  there 
are  two  particularly  remarkable — the  ruins 
of  the  gigantic  temple  Boro-Budor,  in 
Java,  with  works  of  sculpture ;  and  the  five 
large  subterranean  halls,  called  Pantsh- 
Pandu,  probably  an  old  tem})le  of  the 
Buddhists,  near  the  city  of  Bang,  on  the 
way  from  Guzurat  to  Malwa.  Tradition 
ascribes  these  astonishing  works  of  an- 
cient Indian  architecture  and  sculpture, 
whicii  far  surpass  the  skill  of  the  modern 
Hindoos,  to  the  Pandus,  the  heroes  of 
Indian  mytliology.  An  accurate  descrij)- 
tion  of  these  monuments  is  contained  in- 
the  second  volume  of  the  Transactions  of 
the  learned  society  at  Bombay  (London, 
1819). 

BuDE,  Guillaume ;  more  generally 
known  under  the  Latin  form  BudmiLs; 
one  of  the  greatest  French  scholars  of 
his  time ;  bom  at  Paris  in  1467,  died  in 
1540 ;  was  royal  librarian,  and  master  of 
requetes ;  studied  at  Paris  and  Orleans  at 
first  without  success,  on  account  of  his 
dissipated  life  in  his  early  youth.  Frorn 
his  24th  year,  he  devoted  himself  to  study 
with  the  greatest  zeal,  in  particular  to 
belles-lettres,  to  mathematics,  and  to 
Greek.  Among  his  philosophical,  philo- 
logical and  juridical  works,  his  treatise 
De  Asse  et  Partibus  ejus,  and  his  commen- 
taries on  the  Greek  language,  are  of  the 
greatest  importance.  By  his  influence, 
the  college  royal  de  Fi'ance  was  founded. 
He  enjoyed,  not  only  as  a  scholar,  but 
also  as  a  man  and  citizen,  the  greatest 
esteem.  His  works  appeared  at  Bale, 
1557,  4  vols,  folio. 

BuDESsm.    (See  Bautzen.) 

BuDGELL,  Eustace,  an  ingenious  writer, 
was  born  at  St.  Thomas,  near  Exeter,  about 
1685,  and  educated  at  Christ  church,  Ox- 
ford ;  after  which  he  went  to  London,  and 
was  entered  of  the  Inner  Temple,  where 
his  inclinations  led  him  to  neglect  his  pro- 
fession, and  study  polite  Uterature.  Dur- 
ing his  stay  here,  he  contracted  a  friend- 
ship with  Addison,  who,  in  1717,  when 
principal  secretaiy  of  state  in  England, 
procured  for  B.  the  place  of  accountant 
and  comptroller-general  of  the  revenue 
in  Ireland.  He  lost  these  places  when 
the  duke  of  Bolton  was  appointed  lord- 
lieutenant,  in  1718,  by  a  lampoon  on  his 
grace.     He  then  returned  to  England, 


BUDGELL— BUENOS  AYRES. 


315 


where,  in  1720,  he  lost  £20,000  by  the 
South  sea  bubble.  He  aftenvards  tried 
to  get  into  parliament,  and  spent  £5,000 
more  in  unsuccessful  attempts,  which 
completed  his  ruin.  In  1727,  the  duch- 
ess-dowager of  Marlborough  gave  him 
£10,000  for  the  purpose  of  getting  him  into 
parliament ;  but  his  attempts  were  inef- 
fectual. In  1733,  he  commenced  a 
weekly  paper,  called  the  Bee,  which 
was  veiy  popular.  On  the  death  of  doc- 
tor Tindal,  the  author  of  Christianity  as 
old  as  the  Creation,  £2,000  was  left  to 
B.,  by  his  will.  This  sum  was  so  dis- 
proportionate to  the  testator's  circum- 
stances, and  the  legacy  so  contrary  to  liis 
known  intentions,  that  suspicions  arose 
respecting  the  authenticity  of  the  testa- 
ment ;  and,  upon  its  being  contested  by  his 
nephew,  it  was  set  aside.  The  disgrace 
of  this  affair  had  such  an  effect  upon  this 
unhajjpy  man,  that,  on  May  4th,  1737, 
taking  a  boat  at  Somei*set  stairs,  he  threw 
himself  overboard,    with    stones    in   his 

pocket,  and  immediately  sank. Besides 

the  above-mentioned  works,  he  also  pos- 
sessed a  share  in  the  Craftsman,  wrote 
several  papers  in  the  Guardian,  with  the 
history  of  Cleomenes,  (8vo.,)  and  memoirs 
of  the  hves  of  the  Boyles,  (Svo.) 

BuDGKT,  in  the  parliamentary  language 
in  England,  means  the  minister's  propos- 
ed plan  of  taxation  for  the  ensuing  year; 
and  comprehends  a  general  view  of  the 
national  debt,  income  and  expenditure, 
ways  and  means  of  raising  supplies,  &c., 
with  the  actual  product  of  the  preceding 
budget.  It  is  brought  foi-ward  by  the 
chancellor  of  the  exchequer.  The  term 
has  also  been  introduced  into  France, 
where  the  minister  of  finances  presents 
the  budget  to  the  king  and  chambers. 

BuDWEiss  ;  a  circle  and  city  of  Bohe- 
mia. The  circle  is  separated  from  Austria 
by  high  mountains,  in  which  the  Muldau 
has  its  source :  it  contains  extensive  for- 
ests and  sheep-walks,  and  abounds  in 
game  and  fish.  The  city  of  B.  is  a  min- 
ing town  on  the  Muldau,  with  manufac- 
tures of  saltpetre  and  cloth.  Population 
of  the  circle,  170,000 ;  of  the  citv,  4,600. 
The  latter  hes  in  Ion.  14°  20^  E. ;  lat. 
49°  2'  N. 

BuE-NAVENTURA  ;  a  Settlement,  and 
Spanish  mission,  on  the  coast  of  New 
California.  Lon.  118°  58'  W. ;  lat.  34° 
16'  N.  It  was  founded  in  1782,  and  con- 
tains 950  inhabitants.  It  has  a  tolerably 
good  roadstead,  and  the  soil  and  climate 
are  very  favorable  to  the  production  of 
a  great  variety  of  fi-uits. 

B0ENAVE?fTURA ;  a  seaport  in  Colom- 


bia, on  the  bay  of  Choco,  at  the  mouth 
of  a  river  of  the  same  name ;  90  miles 
W.  N.  W.  Call,  200  W.  by  S.  Santa  F6 
de  Bogota.  It  is  supported  by  the  vessels 
that  touch  at  it ;  the  entrance  is  difficult, 
and  the  climate  unhealthy.  It  is  tlie  port 
of  Santa  F6  de  Bogota,  Popayan  and 
Call.  Lat.  3°  56'  N. ;  lon.  77°  42'  E. 
There  are  many  small  settlements  and 
villages  of  this  name  in  Spanish  America, 

BcEN  Ayre,  or  BoNAiR ;  a  small  island 
near  the  coast  of  South  America,  belong- 
uig  to  the  Dutch,  50  miles  in  circumfer- 
ence, inhabited  chiefly  by  Indians,  with 
a  small  mixture  of  Europeans ;  moun- 
tainous; producing  a  few  cattle,  goats, 
large  quantities  of  poultrj',  and  a  consid- 
erable quantity  of  salt.  It  has  spiings  of 
fresh  water.  On  die  S.  W.  side  is  a  good 
harbor  and  road.  52  miles  E.  CuraQoa. 
Lon.  67°  36'  W. ;  lat.  12°  26'  N. 

BuEjfos  Ayres  ;  an  extensive  country 
of  South  America,  formerly  belonging  to 
Spain,  and  styled  the  mceroycdty  of  La 
Plata,  or  of  Rio  de  la  Plata ;  but  since  the 
declaration  of  independence,  in  1816,  it 
has  assumed  the  name  of  the  United 
Provinces  of  South  America.  It  is  bound- 
ed N.  by  Bolivia,  E.  by  Brazil,  S.  E.  by 
the  Atlantic  ocean,  S.  by  Patagonia,  and 
W.  by  Chili  and  the  Pacific  ocean.  It 
comprehends  most  of  the  valley  or  basin 
of  the  great  river  La  Plata,  and  is  water- 
ed by  the  river  La  Plata,  and  its  tributa- 
ries, the  Parana,  Paraguay,  Uraguay,  Pil- 
comayo  and  Rio  Grande,  and  also  by  the 
Colorado  and  Negro. — The  great  chain 
of  the  Andes  extends  along  the  western 
side,  and  the  western  and  northern  parts 
of  the  comitiy  are  mountainous.  Most 
of  the  other  portions,  which  comprise  the 
gi'eater  part  of  the  whole  country,  consist 
of  one  vast  and  uniform  plain  ;  and  exten- 
sive tracts  which  border  on  the  river  are 
liable  to  inundation.  In  the  southern  di- 
vision are  found  immense  pampas,  or 
plains,  which  extend  into  Patagonia,  and 
are  upwards  of  1200  miles  m  length,  and 
500  in  breadth.  They  are  covered  with 
tall,  waving  grass,  which  affords  pasture 
to  ^•ast  numbers  of  cattle  and  wild  horses, 
and  have  few  interruptions  from  forests 
or  eminences. — The  climate  is  different 
in  diflferent  parts,  but  generally  healthy. 
On  the  plains,  the  atmosphere  is  moist, 
and,  in  summer,  the  heat  is  excessive, 
with  frequent  rains,  accompanied  by  tre- 
mendous thunder  and  lightning. — A  large 
part  of  the  country  has  a  very  fertile  soil, 
adapted  to  the  gi-owth  of  wheat,  maize, 
barley,  tobacco,  sugar,  wine  and  fi-uits; 
but  agriculture  is  much  neglected.    A 


316 


BUENOS  AYRES— BUFFALO. 


great  i)ortJon  of  the  wealth  of  this  coun- 
try consists  in  the  immense  herds  of  cat- 
tle and  horses  which  graze  upon  its 
plains.  The  principal  exports  are  hides, 
tallow,  beef,  gold  and  silver.  It  has  val- 
uable mmes  of  gold,  silver,  cop])er,  lead 
and  tin. — Some  of  the  principal  towns  aie 
Buenos  Ayres,  Monte  Video,  Cordova 
and  Assumption.  (Respecting  the  rela- 
tions of  Buenos  Ayres  and  Brazil,  see 
Brazil.) 

Buenos  Ayres,  or  Nuestra  Senora 
DE  Buenos  Ayres  ;  a  city  of  Soutli 
America,  and  capital  of  the  country  to 
which  it  gives  name,  on  the  S.  W.  side 
of  the  La  Plata,  66  leagues  from  its 
mouth  ;  fii-st  built  in  the  vear  1535.  Lon. 
58°  31'  W. ;  lat.  34°  35'  S.  The  popula- 
tion is  uncertain,  and,  within  a  few  years, 
has  been  variously  stated  at  50,000, 
70,000,  and  100,000.  About  one  Iburih 
of  the  inhabitants  ai"e  whites ;  the  rest  are 
Indians,  Negroes  and  mixed  breeds. 
The  situation  is  agreeable  and  healthy, 
And  the  city  derives  its  name  from  the 
salubrity  of  its  climate.  The  temperature 
is  nearly  the  same  throughout  the  year. 
The  city  is  built  with  great  regularity, 
and  the  principal  streets  are  straight  and 
regular,  and  some  of  them  are  paved. 
They  are  broad,  witli  side-walks,  but, 
from  the  great  scarcity  of  stone,  are  gen- 
erally uupaved  in  the  middle.  The 
houses  are  mostly  built  of  brick  or  chalk, 
with  flat  roofs,  many  of  them  of  two  sto- 
ries, though  the  greater  pait  of  only  one. 
They  are  generally  plaste^d  on  the  out- 
side, but  now  appear  somewhat  shabby. 
The  public  buildings  are  a  palace,  a  royal 
chapel,  a  cathedral,  a  college,  2  hospitals, 
4  monasteries,  2  nunneries,  10  or  15 
churches,  a  public  hbrary  of  nearly  20,000 
volumes,  an  academy,  and  8  pubhc 
schools.  Some  of  these  public  buildings 
are  large  and  splendid. — There  is  no 
harbor  at  Buenos  Ayres,  nor  so  nuich  as 
a  mole  to  facilitate  the  landing  of  boats. 
Ships  can  only  come  within  three 
leagues  of  the  town ;  there  they  unload 
their  goods  into  boats,  which  enter  a  little 
river  named  Rio  Chuelo,  from  whence  the 
merchandise  is  brought  in  carts  to  the 
to^vn,  wliich  is  about  a  quarter  of  a  league 
from  the  landing  places.  The  ships 
which  want  careening,  or  take  laduig  at 
Buenos  Ayres,  go  to  the  bay  of  Baragon, 
a  kind  of  port  about  12  miles  S.  E.  of  the 
town. — The  environs  of  this  city  are  well 
cultivated,  furnishing  all  the  necessaries 
of  life  in  abundance,  except  wine,  which 
is  brought  from  Spain,  or  from  Mendoza. 
— The  inhabitants  have  country-houses 


there,  called  quintas.  Wood  is  very 
dear  at  Buenos  Ayres  and  at  JMonte  Vi- 
deo. In  the  neighborhood  of  these  places 
are  only  some  little  shrubs,  hardly  lit  for 
fuel.  All  timber  for  Iniilding  houses,  and 
constmcting  and  refitting  the  vessels  that 
navigate  in  the  river,  comes  from  Para- 
guay in  rafts. — iVfter  the  province  of 
Buenos  Ayres  withdrew  from  the  gov- 
ernment of  Spain,  the  city  of  B.  was  the 
temporary  seat  of  the  central  government, 
and  the  congress  of  the  United  States  of 
South  America.  In  182G,  it  was  made, 
by  the  congi-ess  of  the  United  Provinces 
of  La  Plata,  the  permanent  seat  of  gov- 
ernment, and  the  capital  of  the  conled- 
eracy.  It  is  also  the  seat  of  a  bishop. 
The  city  has  an  extensive  trade  in  ox- 
hides and  tallow,  which  are  disposed  of^ 
principally,  to  the  British  and  people  of 
the  U.  States.  The  Germans  and  Dutch 
likewise  trade  with  B.  Much  of  the 
commerce  of  Brazil,  ChiU,  Peru  and  Par- 
aguay is  also  carrie<l  on  through  this  city. 
From  300  to  400  foreign  ships  annually 
enter  tliis  port. — The  climate  of  B.  is 
mild.  There  are  verj'  few  days  in  winter 
in  which  water  is  frozen. — In  1806,  B. 
was  conquered  by  an  English  squadron, 
under  the  command  of  admiral  Popham 
and  general  Beresford.  Soon  aft;er,  the 
mhabitauts,  having  recovered  from  their 
terror,  attacked  the  English  by  surprise, 
and  made  a  gi"eat  slaughter  among  Uieni. 
In  the  following  year,  Whitelock  and 
Crawford  came  over  with  reenforcementa. 
They  were  quietly  permitted  to  enter  the 
city,  and  were  then  attacked  with  such 
fury,  that  a  third  part  of  their  number  was 
destroyed,  and  the  remainder  were  glad 
to  conclude  a  truce. 

Buen  Retiro  ;  a  royal  summer-resi- 
dence, on  an  elevated  ground,  near  Ma- 
drid, built,  with  much  splendor,  by  the 
duke  of  Ohvarez,  at  the  beginning  of  the 
17th  century.  It  has  a  theatre,  park,  and 
some  valuable  pictures.  In  1808,  when 
the  French  attacked  Madrid,  Dec.  5,  it 
was  the  centre  of  the  conflict,  and  was 
plimdered.  The  French  afterwards  for- 
tified it,  and  used  it  as  a  citadel. 

Buffalo  ;  a  post-town  of  New  York, 
the  capital  of  Erie  county,  situated  at  the 
easteni  end  of  lake  Erie,  at  the  efflux  of 
Niagara  river,  and  at  the  west  end  of  the 
Erie  canal ;  296  miles  W.  of  Albany,  240 
E.  of  Sandusky.  Population  in  1810, 
1508;  in  1820,  2095;  in  1825,  5140. 
The  village  of  B.  is  veiy  advantageously 
and  finely  situated  on  a  handsome  plain, 
near  the  entrance  of  Buffalo  creek  or 
river  into  lake  Erie,  on  the  channel  of 


BUFFALO— BUFFON. 


317 


communication  between  the  Atlantic 
ocean  and  the  lakes.  It  has  been,  for 
several  years  past,  a  very  flourishing 
place,  and  has  an  extensive  trade.  In 
1813,  this  village,  which  then  contained 
about  100  houses,  was  burnt  by  the  Brit- 
ish, in  retaliation  for  the  burning  of  New- 
ark, in  Upper  Canada,  by  the  Americans. 
— Black  Rock  is  a  considerable  post-vil- 
lage, witliin  the  township  of  B.,  two  miles 
from  the  village  of  B.  It  is  situated  at 
the  ferry  across  the  Niagara  river,  which 
is  here  about  three  quarters  of  a  mile 
wide. 

Buffalo  ;  in  America,  a  name  mis- 
applied to  the  hison.  (q.  v.)  It  properly 
belongs  to  a  species  of  ox  [hos  bubalus), 
found  in  various  paits  of  India.  This 
species,  in  the  wild  state,  lives  in  herds 
of  considerable  numbers,  fi-equenting 
moist  and  marshy  situations.  It  is  natu- 
rally fierce  and  stubborn,  and  is  with 
difficulty  subjugated.  The  bellowing  of 
the  butialo  is  hoarser  than  that  of  the 
conmion  bull.  The  female  begins  to 
breed  at  4  years  of  age,  and  ceases  at  12. 
The  term  of  life  in  this  species  is  from  18 
to  25  yeai-s.  One  variety  of  this  species 
has  horns  of  vast  size  and  length.  This 
is  the  ami  or  aniee.  The  horns  are  turn- 
ed laterally,  and  flattened  in  front.  They 
ai*e  wrinkled  on  the  concave  surface,  4  or 
5  feet  long,  and  8  or  10  from  tip  to  tip. 
The  buftalo  is  7  or  8  feet  long,  by  4  m 
lieight,  and  is  generally  of  a  black  color. 
The  skin  is  covered  by  a  harsh  and  thin^ 
ly-scattered  hair. 

Buffet  ;  anciently,  a  little  apartment, 
separated  from  tlie  rest  of  the  room,  for 
the  disposing  of  china,  glass,  &c.  It  is 
now  a  jjiece  of  furniture  in  the  dining- 
room,  called  also  a  side-board,  for  the  re- 
ception of  the  plate,  glass,  &c.  In  France, 
the  principal  houses  have  a  detaclied 
room,  called  bvffet,  tiecorated  with  pitch- 
ers, vases,  fountains,  &c. 

BuFFON  (George  Louis  Leclerc),  count 
of,  one  of  tlie  most  celebrated  naturalists 
and  authors  of  th&  16th  century,  bom  at 
Montbard,  in  Burgundy,  1707,  received 
from  his  lather,  Benjamin  Leclerc,  coun- 
sellor to  the  jiarUament  of  his  province,  a 
careful  education.  Chance  connected 
him,  at  Dijon,  with  the  young  duke  of 
Kingston,  wliose  tutor,  a  man  of  learning, 
inspired  him  with  a  taste  for  the  sciences. 
They  travelled  together  through  France 
and  Italy,  and  B.  afterwards  visited  Eng- 
land. In  order  to  perfect  himself  in  the 
language  without  neglecthig  the  sciences, 
he  translated  Newton's  Fluxions  and 
Hales's  Vegetable  Statics.  After  some 
27* 


time,  he  published  some  works  of  his 
own,  in  which  he  treated  of  geometry, 
natural  philosophy,  and  rural  economy. 
He  laid  his  researches  on  these  subjects 
before  the  academy  of  sciences,  of  which 
he  became  a  member  in  1733.  The  most 
imponant  were  on  the  construction  of 
mirrore  for  setting  bodies  on  fire  at  a 
great  distance,  as  Archimedes  is  said  to 
have  done,  and  experiments  on  the 
strength  of  difterent  kinds  of  wood,  and 
the  means  of  increasing  it,  particularly  by 
removing  the  bark  of  the  trees  some  time 
before  felling  them.  B.,  in  his  earher 
years,  was  animated  only  by  an  undefined 
love  of  learning  and  fame,  but  his  ap- 
pointment as  intendant  of  the  royal  gar- 
den, in  1736,  gave  liis  mind  a  decided 
turn  towards  that  science  in  which  he  has 
immortalized  himself.  Considering  natu- 
ral histoiy  in  its  whole  extent,  he  found 
no  works  in  this  department  but  spiritless 
compilations  and  diy  lists  of  names. 
There  were  excellent  observations,  in- 
deed, on  single  objects,  but  no  compre- 
hensive work.  Of  such  an  one  he  now 
fonned  the  plan,  aiming  to  unite  the  elo- 
quence of  Pliny  and  the  profound  vie^vs 
of  Aristotle  with  the  exactness  and  the 
details  of  modem  observations.  To  aid 
him  in  this  work,  by  examining  the  nu- 
merous and  often  minute  objects  em- 
braced in  his  plan,  for  which  he  had  not 
the  patience  nor  the  physical  organs  re- 
quisite, he  associated  himself  with  Dau- 
benton,  who  possessed  the  qualities  in 
which  he  was  deficient ;  and,  after  an  as- 
siduous labor  of  10  yeai-s,  the  two  friends 
published  the  three  first  volumes  of  the 
Natural  Histoiy,  and,  between  1749  and 
1767,  12  othei-s,  which  comprehend  the 
theory  of  the  earth,  the  nature  of  animals, 
and  the  history  of  man  and  the  viviparous 
quadrupeds.  The  most  brilhant  parts  of 
them,  the  general  tlieories,  the  descrip- 
tions of  the  characters  of  animals,  and  of 
the  great  natural  phenomena,  are  by  B. 
Daubenton  limited  himself  to  the  de- 
scription of  the  forms  and  the  anatomy 
of  the  animals.  The  nine  foUoAving 
volumes,  which  appeared  from  1770  to 
1783,  contain  the  history  of  birds,  from 
wliich  Daubenton  withdrew  liis  assist- 
ance. The  whole  shape  of  the  work  was 
thus  altered.  Descriptions,  less  detail- 
ed, and  almost  entirely  without  anato- 
my, were  inserted  among  the  historical 
articles,  which,  at  first,  were  composed 
by  Guenau  de  Montbeillard,  and  after- 
wards by  the  abbe  Bexon.  B.  ])ublished 
alone  the  five  volumes  on  minerals,  from 
1783  to  1788,     Of  tiie  seven  supplement- 


ttB 


BUFFON— BUGENHAGEN. 


ary  volumes,  of  which  the  last  did  not 
appear  until  after  his  death,  in  1789,  the 
5th  formed  an  independent  whole,  the 
most  celebrated  of  all  his  works.  It  con- 
tains his  Epochs  of  Nature,  in  which  the 
autlior,  in  a  style  truly  sublime,  and  with 
the  triumphant  power  of  genius,  gives  a 
second  theory  of  the  earth,  very  differ- 
ent from  that  which  he  had  traced  in  the 
first  volumes,  though  he  assumes,  at  the 
commencement,  the  air  of  merely  defend- 
ing and  developuig  the  former.  This 
gi'eat  labor,  with  which  B.  was  occupied 
during  50  years,  is,  however,  but  a  part 
of  the  vast  plan  which  he  had  sketched, 
and  which  has  been  continued  by  Lac6- 
pede,  in  his  histoiy  of  the  different  spe- 
cies of  cetaceous  animals,  reptiles  and 
fishes,  but  has  remained  unexecuted  as 
far  as  regards  the  invertebral  animals  and 
the  plants.  There  is  but  one  opinion  of 
B.  as  an  author.  For  the  elevation  of  his 
views,  for  powerfiil  and  profound  ideas, 
for  the  majesty  of  his  images,  for  noble 
and  dignified  expression,  for  the  lofty 
harmony  of  his  style  in  treating  of  im- 
portant subjects,  he  is,  perhaps,  unrival- 
led. His  pictures  of  the  sublime  scenes 
of  nature  are  strikingly  true,  and  are 
stamped  with  originality.  The  fame  of 
liis  work  was  soon  univereal.  It  excited 
a  general  taste  for  natural  histor}',  and 
gained  for  this  science  the  favor  and 
protection  of  nobles  and  princes.  Louis 
XV  raised  the  author  to  the  dignity  of  a 
count,  and  d'Argivilliers,  in  the  reign  of 
Louis  XVI,  caused  his  statue  to  be  erect- 
ed, during  his  life,  at  the  entiy  of  the  royal 
cabinet  of  natural  curiosities,  with  the  in- 
scription Majestati  natura  par  ingtnium. 
The  opinions  entertained  of  B.  as  a  nat-. 
ural  philosopher,  and  an  observer,  have 
been  more  divided.  Voltaire,  d'Alembert, 
Condorcet,  have  severely  criticised  his 
hypotheses,  and  his  vague  mamier  of 
philosophizing  from  general  views.  But 
although  the  views  of  B.  on  the  theory 
of  the  earth  can  no  longer  be  defended 
in  detail,  he  will  always  have  the  merit 
of  having  made  it  generally  felt,  that  the 
present  state  of  the  earth  is  the  result  of 
a  series  of  changes,  which  it  is  possible  to 
trace,  and  of  having  pointed  out  the  phe- 
nomena which  indicate  the  course  of 
these  changes.  His  theory  of  generation 
has  been  refuted  by  Haller  and  Spallan- 
zani,  and  his  hypotliesis  of  a  certain  inex- 
plicable mechanism  to  account  for  animal 
instinct,  is  not  supported  by  facts ;  but  his 
eloquent  description  of  the  physical  and 
moral  developement  of  man,  as  well  as  his 
ideas  on  the  influence  which  the  delicacy 


and  developement  of  each  organ  exert  on 
the  character  of  different  species  of  ani- 
mals, are  still  of  tlie  highest  interest.  His 
views  of  the  degeneracy  of  animals,  and 
of  the  limits  prescribed  to  each  species 
by  climates,  mountains  and  seas,  are  real 
discoveries,  which  receive  daily  confirma- 
tion, and  furnish  to  travellers  a  basis  for 
their  observations,  which  was  entirely 
wanting  before.  The  most  perfect  part 
of  his  work  is  the  History  of  Quadru- 
peds; the  weakest,  the  Histor}^  of  Miner- 
als, in  which  his  imperfect  acquaintance 
with  chemistry,  and  his  inclination  to  hy- 
pothesis, have  led  him  into  many  eiToi-s- 
His  last  days  were  disturbed  by  the  pain- 
ful disease  of  the  stone,  which  did  not, 
however,  prevent  the  prosecution  of  his 
great  plan.  He  died  at  Paris,  April  IG, 
1788,  at  the  age  of  81  years,  leaving  an 
only  son,  who  perished,  in  the  revolution, 
by  the  guillotine.  B.  was  of  a  noble  fig- 
ure, and  of  great  dignity  of  manners^ 
His  conversation  was  remarkable  for  a 
simplicity  but  little  in  accordance  with 
the  style  of  his  writings.  The  best  edi- 
tion of  his  Natural  History  is  that  pub- 
lished from  1749  to  1788,  in  36  vol- 
umes. 

BuFFONE  {Italian) ;  buffoon  ;  a  comic 
singer  in  the  opera  buffa,  or  the  Itahan 
intermezzo.  The  Italians,  however,  distin- 
guish the  buffo  cantante,  which  requires 
good  singing,  from  the  buffo  comico,  in 
which  there  is  more  acting.  Buffoonery, 
is  the  name  given  to  the  jokes  which  the 
buffoon  introduces.  The  word  is,  no 
doubt,  borrowed  from  the  Low  Latin,  in 
which  the  naine  buffo  (cheeked),  was 
given  to  those  who  appeared  on  the  the- 
atre, with  their  cheeks  puffed  up,  to  re- 
ceive blows  on  them,  and  to  excite  the 
laughter  of  the  spectators.  Hence  buffcu, 
cheeks ;  buffare,  to  puff  up  the  cheeks. 
Afterwards,  the  name  came  to  signify  a 
mimic,  a  jester  in  general. 

BuGENHAGEN,  Joliu,  also  PomieranuSy 
doctor  Pommer,  was  of  great  service  to 
Luther  in  the  reformation.  He  was  bom 
in  1485,  at  Stettin,  and,  in  1505,  was 
made  rector  of  the  school  in  Treptow. 
He  fled  from  his  Cathohc  superiors  to 
Wittenberg,  in  1521,  where  he  was  made, 
in  1522,  professor  of  theology.  Luther 
derived  assistance  from  his  profound  exe- 
getical  learning,  in  preparing  his  transla- 
tion of  the  Bible.  In  1525,  he  gave  oc- 
casion for  the  controversies  about  the 
sacrament,  bj'  a  work  against  Zwinghus, 
on  the  communion.  He  acquired  more 
reputation  by  his  excellent  Interpretatio. 
in  Librum,  Psalmorum  (Nuremberg,  1523), 


BUGENHAGEN— BULGARIANS. 


319 


He  effected  the  union  of  the  Protestant 
free  cities  with  the  Saxons,  and  introduced 
into  Brunswick,  Hamburg,  Liibeck,  Poin- 
erania  and  Denmark,  and  many  other 
places,  the  Lutheran  service  and  chiu'ch 
discipline.  For  the  Lower  Saxons,  he 
translated  the  Bible  into  Low  German 
(Liibeck,  1533).  He  was  a  faithful  friend 
to  Luther,  and  dehvered  his  eulogy.  To- 
gether with  Melancthon,  he  composed  the 
Interim  of  Leipsic.  He  died  in  1558.  He 
WTote  also  a  History  of  Pomerania. 

BcGGE,  Thomas,  born  in  1740,  at  Co- 
penhagen, professor  of  mathematics  and 
astronomy  at  the  university  in  that  city, 
and  in  the  royal  marine,  has  rendered 
much  service  to  astronomy  and  geogra- 
phy by  his  own  observations,  and  by  the 
education  of  young  men,  from  many  of 
whom  we  have  valuable  observations  in 
Norway,  Iceland,  Greenland,  and  several 
parts  of  the  East  and  West  Indies.  He 
caused  more  correct  surveys  to  be  made  in 
Denmark,  for  the  equalization  of  the  land- 
taxes,  and  had  the  principal  part  in  the 
preparation  of  the  excellent  map  of  Den- 
mark. His  works  are,  Elementary  Prin- 
ciples of  spherical  and  theoretical  Astron- 
omy (1796),  Elementaiy  Principles  of 
pure  Mathematics  (Altona,  1797),  Descrip- 
tion of  the  Method  of  3Ieasurement  in  the 
Construction  of  the  Danish  IMaps  and 
Charts.     He  died  in  1815. 

Bugle-Horn.    (See  Horn.) 

BcHRSTo.NE.    (See  (Quartz.) 

BuiLTH ;  a  small  town  of  Wales,  on  the 
Wye,  171  miles  W.  N.  W.  of  London. 
It  was  ])robably  the  Roman  station  Bul- 
Iceum,  and  Roman  relics  are  yet  occasion- 
ally discovered  there.  The  Britons  built 
a  castle  there,  when  driven  from  their 
country  by  the  Saxons,  which  was  occu- 
pied by  the  English  after  the  conquest. 
Llewelljii,  the  last  Welsli  prince,  was 
slain  in  the  neighborhood,  in  an  engage- 
ment between  the  Welsh  and  English. 
Lon.  3°  16'  W.:  laL  52^  8'  N. 

BuiXAAH  PoisT ;  a  ca])e  on  the  west 
coast  of  Ireland,  in  the  count}'  of  Mayo, 
on  the  south  side  of  the  entrance  into 
Newport  bay.  Lon.  9°  45^  W.;  lat.  5-3° 
46'  N. 

BuKHARiA.    (See  Bucharia.) 

BuKowiNA.    (See  Galicia.) 

BuLAC,  or  BouLAc,  in  Eg}'pt ;  the  port 
of  Grand  Cairo,  on  the  Nile,  where  ves- 
sels which  bring  goods  to  that  city  abide ; 
one  mile  W.  of  Cairo.  It  is  a  large, 
irregular  town,  and  contains  a  custom- 
house, magazines,  and  a  large  bazar.  In 
1799,  it  was  almost  destroyed  by  the 
French,    Niebuhr  seems  to  fix  on  tliis 


as  the  site  of  the  ancient  Litopohs.    The 
baths  are  fine. 

BuLAMA  ;  an  island  on  the  west  coast  of 
Africa,  one  of  the  Bissgoes.  It  is  24 
miles  long  and  12  broad,  and  is  situated 
about  two  miles  from  the  mouth  of  the 
Rio  Grande.  It  is  very  fertile,  but  not 
easy  of  access.  The  Bulama  association 
attempted  to  colonize  it,  in  1792,  but  it 
was  soon  abandoned.  Lon.  14°  38'  W. ; 
lat.  11°  N. 

Bulgaria,  European  or  Little,  a  Turk- 
ish province,  which  owes  its  name  to  the 
Asiatic  race  of  Bulgarians  (q.  v.),  who 
overran  it,  was  the  Masia  Inferior  of  the 
Romans.  Its  capital  is  Sophia,  and  it  is 
divided,  by  the  Turks,  who  conquered  it 
in  1392,  into  four  sangiacats,  forming  a 
part  of  the  pachalic  of  Rgmelia.  It  is 
nearly  in  the  form  of  a  triangle,  enclosed 
by  the  Danube  on  the  north,  the  Black 
sea  on  the  east,  the  Balkan  (q.  v.)  or 
mount  Hsemus  on  the  south  and  west.  It 
is  36,870  square  miles  in  extent,  with  a 
population  of  1,800,000  inhabitants,  en- 
gaged in  agi'icultural  labors,  peaceful  and 
industrious,  and  mostly  membei-s  of  the 
Greek  church.  The  whole  province,  ex- 
cept m  die  neighborhood  of  the  Danube 
and  the  Black  sea,  is  rugged  and  moun- 
tainous. From  the  eastern  extremity  of 
the  Balkan,  a  branch  runs  north-easterly, 
nearly  parallel  with  the  Euxine,  and  the 
streams  flow  northerly  and  westerly  to  the 
Danube,  or  south-easterly  to  the  sea.  The 
soil  is  very  productive ;  all  sorts  of  grain 
cattle,  wool,  iron  and  wine  are  raised  in 
abundance,  and  the  province  is  considered 
by  the  Turks  the  granary  of  Constantino- 
ple. About  Philippopoli  are  large  rice 
farms.  A  verj-  fine  wool  is  brought  from 
the  ])astures  near  Nicopoh,  and  silk,  hon- 
ey, wax  and  tobacco  are  important  arti- 
cles of  produce.  Dobrudsha,  the  sandy 
])lain  on  the  Black  sea,  is  famous  for  its 
horses,  which  are  small,  but  strong  and 
well-shaped.  Some  of  the  principal 
towns,  besides  those  already  mentioned, 
are  Silistria,  taken  by  the  Russians,  June 
28,  1829,  216  miles  N.  of  Constantinople, 
Brailow  (q.  v.),  Varna  (q.  v.),  Chumla  or 
Schumla  (q.  v.),  which  have  been  the 
objects  of  violent  contest  between  the 
Russians  and  Turks  in  the  war  now  ex- 
isting between  them. 

Bidganans,  or  Vovlgarians ;  an  ancient 
Turkish  or  Tartar  nation,  which,  in  the 
fourth  century,  was  settled  on  the  Volga. 
The  niins  of  their  former  capital  may  still 
be  seen  in  the  neighborhood  of  Kazan. 
Their  kingdom,  which  occupied  a  part  of 
the  Asiatic  Sarmatia  of  the  Greeks,  is 


390 


BULGARIANS— BULL-DOG. 


called  Great  Bvlgaria,  and  is  now  com- 
prehended in  the  Russian  government  of 
Orenburg.  They  afterwards  removed  to 
the  countries  between  the  Bog  and  tlie 
Danube,  and  called  their  territories  Second 
Bulgaria.  They  passed  the  Danube  in 
539,  made  themselves  masters  of  tlie 
coasts  of  the  Black  sea,  as  fiir  as  mount 
Iloemus,  subdued  the  Sclavonic  tribes  of 
that  region,  and  founded  the  kingdom  of 
Black  Bulgaria.  They  penetrated  Thrace, 
Macedonia  and  Thessaly,  and  their  wai-s 
with  the  Greek  empire  were  very  san- 
guinarj'.  Whole  provinces  were  reduced 
to  deserts,  called  Bulgarian  forests,  and 
the  Greeks,  not  less  barbarous,  put  out 
tlie  eyes  of  15,000  Bulgarian  prisonei-s  in 
one  day.  Their  kingdom,  which  extend- 
ed, in  1010,  over  Macedonia,  Albania  and 
Servia,  was  destroyed  by  the  emperor 
Basil  II,  and  the  dispersed  tribes  took 
refuge  in  Turkey,  in  1185.  Those  who 
remained  in  B.  revolted,  and  formed,  with 
the  Walachians,  a  new  kingdom,  which 
was  sometimes  the  ally  and  sometimes 
tlie  vassal  of  the  Byzantine  empire,  until 
it  was  finally  conquered  by  the  Ottomans, 
in  the  14th  century. 

Bulimia.  The  persons  attacked  by 
this  disorder  are  tormented  with  an  insa- 
tiable hunger.  When  their  stomach  is 
surfeited,  they  are  seen  to  faint,  and  throw 
off  the  food  which  they  have  taken,  half 
digested,  and  with  violent  pain.  It  usual- 
ly appears  as  a  concomitant  of  other  dis- 
eases. It  occurs  during  certain  intemiit- 
tent  fevers,  in  certain  diseases  of  the 
stomach  and  bowels,  particularly  in  such 
as  are  produced  by  the  tape- worm ;  and 
is  also  common  after  fevers,  by  which  the 
strength  of  the  patient  is  exhausted.  In 
this  last  case,  it  arises  from  the  effort  of 
all  parts  of  the  body  to  supply  the  lost 
flesh  and  strength.  In  certain  cases, 
however,  the  extraordinary  desire  for  food 
seems  to  be  caused  by  a  particular  condi- 
tion of  the  stomach,  which  digests  with 
too  gi-eat  rapidity.  This  is  observed 
sometimes  in  women  during  their  preg- 
nancy, in  young  people  who  exercise  too 
yiolently,  and  in  persons  who  take  much 
high-seasoned  and  heating  food.  In  this 
case,  the  desire  is  not  to  be  considered  as 
a  disease,  but  only  as  an  excessive  appetite. 
As  a  disease,  its  consequences  are  dread- 
ful— leanness,  pulmonary  fevers,  con- 
sumption, constipation,  dropsy. 

BuLKH,  or  Balkh.  (See  Afghanis- 
tan^ 

Bulk-Heads  ;  certain  partitions  or 
walls  built  up  in  several  places  of  a  ship 
between  two  decks,  either  lengthwise  or 


across,  to  form  and  separate  the  various 
apartments. 

Bull  ;  the  name  applied  to  the  males 
of  all  the  species  of  ox  {hos,  L.)  (See  Ox.) 

Bull  ;  an  instrument,  ordinance  or  de- 
cree of  the  pope,  treating  of  matters  of 
faith  or  the  affairs  of  the  church,  written  on 
parchment,  and  provided  with  a  lead  seal. 
The  word  was  originally  the  name  of  the 
seal  itself  Tlie  papal  bulls  are  commonly 
designated  by  the  words  with  which  they 
begin ;  e.  g.,  the  bulls  In  cana  Domini, 
Cum  inter,  Unigtnitus,  Ascendente,  &c.  A 
collection  of  bulls  is  called  huUary.  Cer- 
tain ordinances  of  the  Gcniian  emperors 
arc  also  called  bulls.  The  golden  bidl, 
emphatically  so  called,  from  the  seal  at- 
tached to  it  being  in  a  gold  box,  is  that 
fundamental  law  of  the  German  empire 
enacted  by  the  emperor  Charles  IV,  in 
two  diets,  held  in  succession,  in  1356,  at 
Nuremberg  and  at  Metz,  with  the  assist- 
ance of  the  electors,  and,  in  part,  with  the 
assent  of  the  empire.  The  chief  design 
of  the  golden  bull  was  to  fix,with  certain- 
ty, the  manner  of  electing  the  emperor, 
and  whatever  was  connected  with  it.  An- 
other object  was  to  check  the  lawless 
violence  of  the  times,  which  was  not, 
however,  then  effected.  (For  an  account 
of  the  particular  bulls  of  importance,  see 
the  separate  articles.) 

Bull-Baiting  ;  the  barbarous  and  un- 
manly sport  of  setting  dogs  on  a  bull,  who 
is  tied  to  a  stake,  with  the  points  of  his 
bonis  muffled,  and  torn  to  death  lor  the 
amusement  of  the  spectators.  Beai-s  and 
badgers  are  baited,  even  at  the  present 
day,  in  the  cock-pits  in  London,  and 
dog-fights  also  are  exhibited  in  the  same 
places. 

Bull-Dog;  a  variety  of  the  common 
dog,  called,  liy  naturalists,  cani?  molossv^, 
remarkable  for  its  short,  broad  muzzle, 
and  the  projection  of  its  lower  jaw,  which 
causes  the  lower  front  teeth  to  protrude 
beyond  the  upper.  The  condyles  of  the  jaw 
are  ])laced  above  the  line  of  the  upper 
grinding  teeth.  The  head  is  massive  and 
broad,  and  the  frontal  sinuses  large.  The 
lips  are  thick  and  pendulous ;  the  ears 
pendant  at  the  extremity ;  the  neck  robust 
and  short ;  the  body  long  and  stout,  and 
the  legs  short  and  thick.  The  bull-dog  is 
a  slow-motioned,  ferocious  animal,  better 
suited  for  savage  combat,  than  for  any 
purpose  requiring  activity  and  intelligence. 
For  this  reason,  he  is  generally  employed 
to  guard  houses,  especially  by  the  butch- 
ers, tanners,  &c.,  and  this  office  he  per- 
forms with  great  fidelity.  The  butchers 
use  bull-dogs  in  catching  and  throwing 


BULL-DOG— BULL-FIGHTS. 


321 


down  cattle;  and  it  is  surprising  to  see 
the  apparent  ease  with  which  the  dog 
will  seize  an  ox  by  the  nose,  and  hold 
him  perfectly  still,  or  throw  him  on  his 
side,  at  his  master's  command.  In  fight- 
ing with  other  dogs,  or  in  attacking  ani- 
mals capable  of  exciting  their  fury,  bull- 
dogs display  the  most  ferocious  and 
indomitable  spirit.  It  is  stated,  in  the 
Sporting  Calendar,  that  they  have  suffered 
their  limbs  to  be  cut  off,  while  thus  enga- 
ged, without  relinquishing  their  hold  on 
the  enemy.  They  become  very  vicious, 
and  sometimes  extremely  dangerous,  as 
tliey  advance  in  years,  inflicting  dreadful 
bites  for  the  shglitest  provocation.  Indeed, 
at  no  period  of  their  lives,  will  bull-dogs 
allow  even  their  masters  to  take  hberties 
Avith  them. 

BuLLE.v,  Anne.    (See  Boleyn.) 

BULLERS    OF    BCCHAN,    Or   BoiLERS  OF 

B. ;  a  large  oval  cavity  in  the  rocks  on  the 
coast  of  Aberdeenshire,  150  feet  deep. 
Boats  enter  under  a  natural  arch,  near 
which  is  a  large  rock,  se])arated  by  a  deep 
chasm  from  the  land.  Through  an  ap- 
erture, in  the  middle  of  this  rock,  the 
waves  rush  with  a  tremendous  noise. 

Bulletin  [French ;  diminutive  of  bid- 
la)  ;  an  official  report,  giving  an  account 
of  the  actual  condition  of  some  important 
affair ;  thus  the  bulletin  of  die  army,  of  his 
majesty's  health,  &c.  It  has  acquired 
great  celebrity  by  the  briUiant  despatches 
issued  from  the  French  head-quartei-s, 
under  tliis  name,  during  the  imperial 
domination.  All  Europe  and  America 
echoed  with  their  accents  of  blood  and 
victory,  vmtil  the  29th  bulletin  of  the  grand 
army  announced  that  the  tide  was  rolled 
back,  and  that  Paris  was  to  share  the  fate 
of  the  other  capitals  of  Europe. 

Bulletin  UiMversel  des  Sciences  et 
DE  l'Industrie,  le,  js  divided  into  eight 
sections,  of  each  of  which  a  number  is 
issued  monthly.  It  is  pubUshed  at  Paris, 
by  the  French  society  for  the  promotion 
of  useful  knowledge,  under  the  general 
direction  of  the  baron  Ferussac,  assisted 
by  eight  editors,  one  for  each  section. 
These  divisions  are — 1.  mathematical, 
physical  and  cliemical  sciences ;  2.  nat- 
ural liistory  and  geology;  3.  the  medi- 
cal sciences;  4.  agriculture,  horticulture, 
fishing  and  hunting;  5.  technology;  6. 
geograi)hy,  statistics,  political  economy, 
voyages  and  travels;  7.  philology,  anti- 
quities and  history;  8.  miUtary.  (See 
Periodicals.) 

Bull-Fights  are  among  the  favorite  di- 
versions of  the  Spaniards,  who,  like  all  the 
nations  of  the  south  of  Europe,  are  pas- 


sionately fond  of  public  combats,  and  ex- 
hibitions of  strength  and  agility.  The  ex- 
communications of  the  popes  have  not 
been  sufficient  to  induce  them  to  abandon 
this  amusement.  Charles  IV  abolished  it ; 
but  it  was  revived  again  by  Joseph.  The 
assailants  are  seldom  killed  in  these  sports. 
The  splendid  bull-fights  formerly  exhibited 
by  the  king  on  festival  days  were  very  cost- 
ly. The  Spaniards  disting\nsh  the  torioj 
in  which  the  bull  is  killed,  from  the  corrida 
de  novillos,  where  he  has  his  homs  tipped 
with  leaden  balls  {novillo  emholado),  and  is 
only  iiritated.  Bull-fights,  in  the  capital, 
and  in  all  the  larger  cities  of  Spain,  are 
got  up  by  private  persons,  or  for  the  ben- 
efit of  some  public  institution.  They  are 
exhibited  at  Madrid  twice  a  week  through 
the  summer  regularly,  for  the  benefit  of 
the  general  hospital.  The  uicome  from 
such  a  spectacle  is  commonly  about  2000 
dollai-s,  and  the  ouday,  which  goes  prin- 
cipally to  the  combatants,  who  have  their 
fixed  wages,  about  1000.  The  bull-fights 
are  held,  at  Matlrid,  in  the  Colisto  de  los 
Toros,  an  amphitheatre  having  circular 
seats,  rising  one  above  another,  and  a  row 
of  boxes  over  them.  All  the  spectators 
are  dressed  in  their  best.  The  comba- 
tants, who  make  bull-fighting  their  profes- 
sion, march  into  the  arena  in  procession, 
with  some  magistrate  at  their  head.  They 
are  of  various  kinds — the  picadores,  com- 
batants on  horseback,  in  the  old  Spanish 
knightly  garb ;  the  banderiUeros,  comba- 
tants on  foot,  in  short,  variegated  frocks, 
with  banners ;  and,  lastly,  the  matador 
(the  killer).  As  soon  as  the  corregidor 
gives  the  signal,  the  bull  is  loosed  from 
the  stall.  The  picadores,  who  have  sta- 
tioned themselves  near  him,  commence 
the  attack.  Sometimes  a  horse  is  wound- 
ed, and  the  rider  is  obliged  to  run  for  his 
hfe.  A  peculiar  kind  of  foot-combatants, 
chulii^,  assist  the  horsemen,  by  drawing 
the  attention  of  the  bull  with  their  banners; 
and,  in  case  of  danger,  tliey  save  them- 
selves by  leaping  over  the  wooden  fence, 
which  suiTOunds  the  arena.  The  bande- 
nlleros  then  come  into  play.  They  try 
to  fiisten  on  the  bull  their  banderillas — 
hollow  tubes  filled  with  powder,  having 
strips  of  paper  wound  round  them,  and 
small  hooks  at  the  ends.  If  they  succeed, 
the  squibs  which  are  attached  to  them  are 
discharged,  and  the  bull  races  madly  about 
the  arena.  The  matador  now  comes  in 
gravely,  with  a  naked  sword,  and  aims  a 
fatal  blow  at  the  animal.  If  it  is  effectual, 
the  slaughtered  bull  is  dragged  away,  and 
another  is  let  out  from  the  stall.  If  a  bull 
is  too  inactive,  the  dogs  are  set  upon  him; 


BULL-FIGHTS— BULOW. 


if  he  is  too  violent,  several  horses  are  often 
killed.  The  bull  is  more  furious  in  pro- 
portion as  the  heat  of  the  weather  is 
greater.  Burlesque  scenes  accompany 
the  spectacle :  apes  are  trained  to  spring 
upon  the  neck  of  the  bull,  without  his 
being  able  to  reach  them.  Men  of  straw 
are  set  up  before  him,  upon  which  he 
exhausts  his  strength.  Some  of  the  foot 
combatants,  likewise,  di-ess  tliemselves 
grotesquely,  to  irritate  the  bull,  and  amuse 
the  spectators.  (See  Doblado's  Letters 
Jrom  Spain,  and  A  Year  in  Spain,  by  a 
young  American  (Boston,  1829). 

Bullfinch  {loxia  pyrrhula;  L.);  a 
well-known  European  bird,  which  has  a 
short,  rounded,  robust  bill,  a  black  cap, 
and  plumage  on  the  back  of  an  ash  or 
dai-k  blue  gray  color:  the  inferior  parts 
of  the  body  are  reddish.  The  female  is 
of  a  grayish  red  beneath.  The  bullfinch 
builds  its  nest  in  hedges,  and  various  trees, 
and  feeds  chiefly  on  different  seeds  and 
buds  of  fruit-trees,  for  which  its  strong, 
thick  bill  is  well  adapted.  The  bullfinch 
is  remarkable  for  the  facility  with  which 
it  is  tamed  and  taught  to  sing,  or  even  to 
articulate  words.  Its  natural  tones  are 
sofl,  and,  when  taught  to  repeat  tunes,  by 
a  bird  organ,  nothing  can  be  imagined 
more  dehghtfuUy  sweet  and  clear  than  its 
piping.  In  captivity,  it  appears  to  be 
rather  a  dull  and  quiet  bird,  though  it 
displays  much  attachment  to  its  feeder, 
showing  evident  marks  of  pleasure  at  his 
approach,  and  singing  at  his  bidding. 
Bullfinches  thus  taught  are  sold  at  high 
prices,  as  much  as  $20  or  S30  being  de- 
manded for  a  single  bird.  There  are  spe- 
cies of  finch  found  in  America,  which 
might,  vdthout  much  difficuUy,  be  taught 
to  perform  as  well. 

Bullfrog.  (See  JFVog-.) 
Bull,  John.  (See  John  Bull.) 
Bullion  is  uncoined  gold  or  silver,  in 
bars,  plate,  or  other  masses.  The  word 
bullion  was  of  frequent  use  in  the  pro- 
ceedings respecting  the  bank  of  England 
(see  Bank),  from  1797,  when  the  order  of 
council  was  issued,  that  the  bank  should 
discontinue  the  redemption  of  its  notes 
by  the  payment  of  specie,  to  1823,  when 
specie  payments  were  resumed ;  for,  by  a 
previous  law,  the  bank  was  authorized  to 
pay  its  notes  in  uncoined  silver  or  gold, 
according  to  its  weight  and  fineness.  The 
investigations  of  the  bullion  committees, 
and  the  various  speculations  on  the  sub- 
ject of  bullion,  related  to  the  supply  of 
gold  and  silver,  whether  coined  or  not, 
as  the  basis  of  the  circulating  medium. 
(See  Currency.) 


Bullock.    (See  Ox.) 

Bullock's  Museum,  Piccadilly,  Lon- 
don ;  a  private  establishment  for  the  de- 
posit of  collections  of  all  sorts,  particularly 
of  natural  history  and  ethnography.  The 
following  not  veiy  scientific  classification 
of  the  curiosities  there  is  given  in  the  Pic- 
ture of  London :  curiosities  from  the  south 
seas,  from  America,  from  Africa;  works 
of  art,  natural  history,  specimens  of  quad- 
rupeds stuffed,  birds,  reptiles,  insects,  fish, 
pi-oductions  of  the  sea,  irdnerals,  miscella- 
nea, halls  of  arms.  This  museum  is  open 
for  the  inspection  of  the  curious  every 
week-day  (admittance,  one  shilling),  and 
continual  additions  are  made  to  it.  Here 
Belzoni  deposited  his  Egyptian  collec- 
tions. 

BuLLRusH.    (See  Scirpus.) 

Bull's  Bay,  or  Baboul  Bat;  a  well- 
known  bay  in  Newfoundland,  a  little  to 
the  north  of  St.  John's  harbor,  on  tlic  east 
side  of  the  island.  Lon.  52°  2(y  W. ;  lat. 
47°  25'  N. 

BuLMER,  William ;  next  to  Bensley,  the 
most  distinguished  printer  in  England. 
One  of  the  first  productions  of  his  press 
was  sm  edition  of  Persius,  1790,  4to. 
Among  his  masterpieces  are  the  splen- 
did editions  of  Shakspeare  (1792—1801, 
9  vols.,  folio),  from  which  his  establish- 
ment was  called  the  Shakspeare  press; 
and  of  Milton  (1794—97,  3  vols.,  folio). 
He  is  a  particular  favorite  of  the  fancy 
booksellers  in  England  (hence  he  has 
most  of  the  printing  for  the  Roxburgh 
club),  and  is  supported  almost  solely  by 
them.  The  unprejudiced  will,  however, 
not  put  him  above  Bensley.  The  produc- 
tions of  his  press,  particulariy  the  works 
of  Dibdin,  are  disfigured  by  errors  more 
than  is  allowable  in  an  artist  who  aspires 
to  tread  in  the  steps  of  Didot  and  Bodoni. 

BuLOW,  Frederic  WilUam,  count  von 
Dennewitz,  royal  Prussian  general  of 
infantry,  knight  of  several  military  orders, 
&c.,  famous  for  his  victories  in  the  last 
French  and  Gennan  war,  was  bom  in 
1755,  on  his  father's  estate,  Falkenburg,  in 
Altmark.  In  his  14th  year,  he  entered 
the  Prussian  army,  and,  in  1793,  was  ap- 
pointed governor  of  prince  Louis  Ferdi- 
nand of  Prussia.  In  this  capacity,  he 
served  with  distinction  in  the  campaign 
on  the  Rhine.  In  1795,  his  charge  of  the 
prince  ended,  and  he  received  a  battalion. 
In  the  war  of  1806,  he  was  a  lieutenant- 
colonel  at  the  siege  of  Thorn,  and  distin- 
guished himself  in  various  battles.  In 
1808,  he  was  made  major-general  and 
general  of  brigade.  When  the  war  against 
France  broke  out  in  1813,  he  fought  the 


BULOW— BUNYAN. 


323 


first  successful  battle,  at  Mockem,  April 
5 ;  May  2,  took  Halle,  and  protected  Ber- 
lin from  the  danger  which  threatened  it, 
by  his  victorj'  at  Luckau,  June  4.  After 
the  armistice,  he  conunanded  the  third 
division  of  the  army,  under  the  crown- 
prince  of  Sweden,  and  saved  Berlin  a 
second  time  by  the  memorable  victory  of 
Grosbeeren,  Aug.  23.  He  reheved  the 
same  city  a  third  time,  by  the  great  vic- 
tory at  Dennewitz.  (q.  v.)  For  this  ser- 
vice, the  king  made  him  one  of  the  few 
grand  knights  of  tlie  iron  cross,  and,  after 
the  end  of  the  campaign,  bestowed  on 
him  the  title  count  Billow  of  Dennewitz, 
and  made  the  same  hereditary  in  his  fam- 
ily. At  tlie  storming  of  Leipsic,  Oct.  19, 
he  took  an  important  part.  He  distin- 
guished himself  equally  in  WestpliaUa, 
Holland,  Belgium,  on  the  Rhine,  at  Laon, 
and  took  Soissons  and  Lafere.  After 
the  peace,  he  was  commander-in-chief  in 
East  Pnissia,  and  Lithuania.  At  the 
opening  of  the  campaign  of  1815,  he  re- 
ceived the  chief  conunand  of  the  fourth 
division  of  the  army,  with  which  he  con- 
tributed so  essentially  to  the  victory  of 
Waterloo,  that  the  king  gave  him  tlie 
command  of  the  loth  regiment  of  the 
line,  which  was  to  bear,  in  fiiture,  tlie 
name  of  the  regiment  of  Billow  von  Den- 
newitz. Jan.  11,  1816,  he  resumed  the 
chief  command  in  Konigsberg,  in  Prussia, 
and  died  there,  Feb.  25,  1816.  B.  was 
highly  esteemed,  both  as  a  citizen  and  as 
a  man.  He  had  learned  the  art  of  war,  in 
early  youth,  scientifically,  and  continued 
the  same  study  with  unremitting  dili- 
gence, throughout  his  mihtary  course.  He 
was  also  devoted  to  literature  and  the  fine 
arts.  Music  especially  attracted  him,  and 
he  composed  many  motets,  a  mass,  and 
the  51st  and  100th  psalms. 

Biitow,  Henrj'  von,  bom  at  Falkenberg, 
in  Brandenberg,  1770,  studied  in  the  mili- 
tary academy  at  Berlin,  and  afterwards 
entered  die  Prussian  service.  But  he  soon 
retired,  and  occupied  himself  with  the 
study  of  Polybius,  Tacitus,  and  J.  J.  Rous- 
seau, and  then  served  for  a  short  period  in 
the  Netherlands.  He  afterwards  under- 
took to  establish  a  theatre,  but  immediately 
abandoned  his  project,  and  visited  the  U. 
States ;  from  whence  lie  returned  poor  in 
purse,  but  rich  in  experience,  and  became 
an  author.  His  first  work  was  on  the  Art 
of  War,  in  which  he  displayed  uncommon 
talents.  He  wrote  a  book  on  Money, 
translated  the  Travels  of  Mungo  Park,  and 
published,  in  1801,  his  History  of  the 
Campaign  of  1800.  In  1804,  he  wrote 
Jjehrsatze  des  neuem  Krieges  (Theory  of 


modem  Warfare),  and  several  other  mili- 
tary works,  among  which  is  Tactics  of  the 
Moderns  as  they  should  be.  In  the  for- 
mer, he  pomts  out  the  distinction  between 
strategy  and  tactics,  and  makes  the  trian- 
gle the  basis  of  all  military  operations. 
This  principle  of  his  was  opposed  by 
Jomini,  and  other  French  writers.  His 
history  of  the  war  of  1805  occasioned  his 
imprisonment  in  Prussia,  at  the  request 
of  the  Russian  and  Austrian  courts.  He 
died  in  1807,  of  a  nervous  fever,  in  the 
prison  of  Riga.  He  was  a  follower  of 
Swedenborg. 

Bulwark.    (See  Bastion.) 

Bdm-Boat;  a  small  boat  used  to  sell 
vegetables,  &c.,  to  ships  lying  at  a  distance 
from  shore. 

BujfDELCUXD ;  a  district  of  Allaliabad, 
lying  between  24°  and  26°  N.  lat.  The 
country  is  mountainous  and  stony,  and 
produces  all  kinds  of  fruit.  It  was  ceded 
by  the  IMalirattas  to  the  British  in  1804, 
by  whom  it  was  annexed  to  the  prov- 
ince of  Benares.  It  is  famous  for  the  dia- 
monds of  Paunah.  Square  miles,  11,000. 
Cliief  towns,  Banda,  which  is  the  resi- 
dence of  the  ofiicers  of  government ;  Cal- 
linger,  &c. 

Bungalow  ;  an  East  Indian  term  for  a 
house  \vith  a  thatched  roof 

BuNGO ;  a  kingdom  in  Japan,  and  one 
of  the  most  considerable  in  the  island  of 
Bungo,  or  Ximo.  The  capital  is  Fumay. 
The  king  of  Bungo  was  baptized  by  the 
name  of  Francis  Civan,  and  sent  a  solemn 
embassy  to  pope  Gregory  XIII,  in  the 
year  1582.     Lon.  132°  E.;  lat.  32°  40^  N. 

Bunk  is  a  word  used,  in  die  U.  States, 
to  signify  a  case  or  cabui  of  boards  for  a 
bed.  Thus,  in  the  army,  the  soldier's 
birth  is  called  his  bunk. 

Bunker  Hill.    (See  Charlestovm.) 

Bunt  ;  the  middle  part  or  cavity  of  the 
principal  square-sails,  as  the  main-sail, 
fore-sail,  &c.  If  one  of  them  be  supposed 
to  be  divided  into  four  equal  parts,  from 
one  side  to  the  other,  the  two  middle  di- 
visions, which  comprehend  half  of  the 
sail,  form  the  limits  of  the  bunt. 

Bunting;  a  thin  woollen  stuff",  of  which 
the  coloi-s  and  signals  of  a  ship  ai"e  usually 
formed. 

Bunyan,  John,  was  the  son  of  a  tinker, 
and  was  born  at  the  village  of  Elston, 
near  Bedford,  in  1628.  He  followed  his 
father's  employment,  and,  for  some  time, 
led  a  wandering,  dissi})ated  life.  Daring 
the  civil  war,  he  served  as  a  soldier  in  the 
army  of  the  parliament ;  and  the  danger 
to  which  he  was  then  exposed  probably 
brought  him  to  reflection,  in  consequence 


•M 


BUNYAN— BURCKHARD. 


of  which  his  conduct  became  reformed, 
and  his  mind  impressed  with  a  deej)  sense 
of  the  truth  and  importance  of  rehgion. 
He  joined  a  society  of  Anabaptists  at  Bed- 
ford, and  at  length  undertook  the  office 
of  a  pubHc  teacher  among  them.  Acting 
in  defiance  of  the  severe  laws  enacted 
against  dissidents  from  the  established 
church,  soon  after  the  restoration,  B.  in- 
curred the  sentence  of  transportation ; 
which  was  not  executed,  as  he  was  de- 
tained in  prison  more  than  twelve  years, 
and  at  last  literated  through  the  charitable 
interposition  of  doctor  Barlow,  bishop  of 
Lincoln.  To  this  confincnient  he  owes 
his  literary  fame  ;  for,  in  the  solitude  of 
his  cell,  his  ardent  imagination,  brooding 
over  the  mysteries  of  Cliristianity,  the 
miraculous  nai-ratives  of  the  sacred  Scrip- 
ture, and  the  visions  of  Jewish  prophets, 
gave  birth  to  that  admired  religious  alle- 
gory, the  Pilgrim's  Progress — a  work 
wliich,  like  Robinson  Crusoe,  has  remain- 
ed unrivalled  amidst  a  host  of  imitators. 
His  Holy  War  made  by  Shaddai  upon 
Diabolus,  his  other  religious  parables,  and 
his  devotional  tracts,  which  are  numerous, 
are  now  deserv'edly  consigned  to  oblivion. 
There  is  a  curious  piece  of  auto-biogra- 
phy of  B.  extant,  entitled,  Grace  abound- 
ing to  the  Chief  of  Sinnei-s.  On  obtaining 
his  liberty,  B.  resumed  his  functions  as  a 
minister  at  Bedford,  and  became  extreme- 
ly popular.  He  died  during  a  visit  to 
London,  in  1688. 

Buonaparte.    (See  Bonaparte.) 
BuoNAROTTi,  Michelagnolo.     (See  j3n- 
gdo.) 

Buoy  ;  any  floating  body  employed  to 
point  out  the  particular  situation  of  any 
thuig  under  water,  as  of  a  ship's  anchor, 
a  shoal,  &c. — The  can  buoy  is  of  a  coni- 
cal form,  and  painted  with  some  conspic- 
uous color;  it  is  used  for  pointing  out 
shoals,  sand-banks,  &c. — The  cask  buoy 
is  in  the  form  of  a  cask ;  the  larger  are 
employed  for  mooring,  and  are  called 
mooring  buoys  ;  the  smaller  for  cables, 
and  are  known  as  cable  buoys.  The 
buoy-rope  fastens  the  buoy  to  the  anchor, 
and  should  be  about  as  long  as  the  depth 
of  the  water  where  the  anchor  lies ;  it 
should  also  be  strong  enough  to  draw  up 
the  anchor  in  case  the  cable  should  break. 
— The  life  or  safety  buoy  is  intended  to 
keep  a  person  afloat  till  he  can  be  taken 
from  the  water.  It  should  be  suspended 
from  the  stem  of  the  ship,  and  let  go  as 
soon  as  any  person  falls  overboard.  A 
light  may  be  attached  to  it,  both  to  indi- 
cate its  position  to  the  individual  in  dan- 
ger, and  to  direct  the  course  of  the  boat 


sent  to  relieve  him,  if  the  accident  hap- 
pens by  night. 

BcRATS.    (See  Buriais.) 

BuRCHiELLO,  Domenico  ;  one  of  the 
most  eccentric  of  poets.  Of  the  circum- 
stances of  his  Ufe  we  know  but  little.  He 
hved,  at  the  beginning  of  the  15th  centu- 
ry, at  Florence,  where  he  was  probably 
born.  He  was  the  son  of  a  barber  named 
Giovanni,  and  was  called,  originally,  only 
Domenico.  He  assumed  the  name  of  B. 
afterwards,  for  reasons  that  cannot  be 
assigned.  His  fame  began  about  1425. 
He  was  first  registered  as  a  barber  in 
1432.  Some  writers  have  reproached  him 
for  shameful  vices,  and  represented  him 
as  a  low  buffoon,  who  did  every  thing  for 
money.  Others  have  defended  him.  His 
shop  was  so  famous,  that  learned  and  un- 
learned, high  and  low,  assembled  there 
every  day,  and  Cosmo  the  Great  caused 
it  to  be  painted  on  one  of  the  arches  of 
his  gallery.  It  appears  here  divided  into 
two  portions  ;  in  one,  B.  is  acting  the 
part  of  a  barber ;  in  the  other,  that  of  a 
musician  and  poet.  The  portrait  of  B. 
himself  is  painted  over  his  shop.  It  is 
extremely  difficult  to  decide  upon  the  ab- 
solute value  of  his  satires,  as  the  local  and 
personal  allusions  in  them  are  obscure. 
They  were  composed  for  his  contempo- 
raries, with  a  studied  obscurity  and  ex- 
travagance of  expression.  His  style  is, 
nevertheless,  pure  and  elegant.  His  bur- 
lesque sonnets  are  enigmas,  of  which  we 
have  no  intelhgible  explanation,  notwith- 
standing what  i)oni  has  done.  The  nar- 
rative and  descriptive  parts  are  very  easy 
to  be  understood  ;  but  the  wit  they  con- 
tain is,  for  the  most  part,  so  coarse,  that 
the  satire  fails  of  producing  its  effect. 
They  are,  on  the  whole,  lively,  but  licen- 
tious. The  best  editions  of  his  sonnets 
are  those  of  Florence,  1568,  and  of  Lon- 
don, 1757. 

BuRCKHARD,  Johu  Louis,  born  in  1784, 
celebrated  for  his  travels  to  Nubia,  was 
descended  from  a  respectable  family  in 
Bale.  As  he  was  unwilling  to  enter  into 
the  service  of  his  country,  at  that  time 
oppressed  by  France,  afler  having  com- 
pleted his  studies  at  Leipsic  and  Gottin- 
gen,  he  went  to  London,  in  1806,  where 
the  African  association  wished  to  make  a 
new  attempt  to  explore  Africa,  from  the 
north  to  the  interior,  in  the  way  already 
trodden  by  Homemann,  They  received 
B.'s  proposal  to  imdertake  this  journey  in 
1808.  B.  now  studied  the  manners  of 
the  East,  and  the  Arabian  language,  in 
their  purest  school,  at  Aleppo.  He  re- 
mained two  years  and  a  half  in  Syria, 


BURCKHARD— BURDETT. 


325 


visited  Palmyra,  Damascus,  Lebanon  and 
other  regions ;  after  which  he  went  to 
Cairo,  in  order  to  proceed  witli  a  caravan, 
through  the  northern  part  of  Africa,  to 
Fezzan.  In  1812,  he  performed  a  jour- 
ney up  the  Nile,  almost  to  Dongola ;  and 
afterwards,  in  the  cliaracter  of  a  poor 
trader,  and  a  Turk  of  Syria,  proceeded 
through  the  deseits  of  Nubia  (where 
Bruce  had  travelled  before  him),  under 
great  hardships,  to  Berbera  and  Shendy, 
as  far  as  Suakem  on  the  Red  sea,  whence 
lie  passed  through  Jidda  to  Mecca.  He 
Avas  now  so  well  initiated  into  the  lan- 
guage and  manners  of  the  Arabians,  that, 
when  a  doubt  arose  concerning  his  Islam- 
ism,  after  having  passed  an  examination 
in  the  theoretical  and  practical  parts  of 
the  Mohammedan  faith,  he  was  acknowl- 
edged, by  two  learned  jurists,  not  only  a 
very  faithful,  but  a  very  learned  Mussul- 
man. In  1815,  he  returned  to  CEiiro,  and 
afterwards  visited  Sinai.  Just  before  the 
arrival  of  the  long-expected  caravan,  he 
died  at  Cairo,  April  15,  1817.  The  Mo- 
hammedans performed  his  obsequies  with 
the  greatest  splendor.  He  had  previously 
sent  home  all  his  journals.  His  last 
thoughts  were  devoted  to  his  mother. 
B.  was  the  first  modern  traveller  who 
succeeded  in  penetrating  to  Shendy,  in 
the  interior  of  Soudan,  the  Meroe  of  an- 
tiquity (still,  as  it  was  3000  years  ago,  the 
depot  of  trade  for  Eastern  Africa),  and  in 
furnishing  exact  information  of  theslave- 
trade  in  that  quarter.  He  found  articles 
of  European  fabric,  such  as  the  Zellingeu 
sword-blades,  at  the  great  fair  of  Shendy. 
His  Travels  in  Nubia,  in  1815,  were  pub- 
lished in  London  (1819)  by  the  Afi-ican 
association,  with  his  researches  into  the 
interior  of  Africa. 

BcRCKHARDT,  John  Charles;  member 
of  the  royal  French  academy  of  sciences, 
one  of  the  first  astronomical  calculators 
in  Europe,  born  at  Leipsic,  April  30, 
1773,  applied  himself  to  mathematics,  and 
acquired  a  fondness  for  astronomy  from 
the  study  of  the  works  of  Lalande.  He 
applied  himself  particularly  to  the  calcu- 
lation of  solar  echpses,  and  the  occultation 
of  certain  stars,  for  the  determination  of 
geographical  longitudes.  He  made  him- 
self master,  at  the  same  time,  of  nearly  all 
the  European  languages.  Professor  Hin- 
denburg  induced  him  to  write  a  Latin 
treatise  on  the  combinatory  analytic  meth- 
od (Leipsic,  1794),  and  recommended  him 
to  baron  von  Zach,  with  whom  he  studied 
practical  astronomy  at  his  ohsenatory  on 
the  Seeberg  near  Gotha,  and  whom  he 
assisted,  from  1795  to  1797,  in  observing 

VOL.  II.  28 


the  right  ascension  of  the  stars.  Von 
Zach  recommended  hun  to  Lalande,  at 
Paris,  who  received  him  at  his  house, 
Dec.  15,  1797.  Here  he  distuiguished 
liimself  by  the  calculation  of  the  orbits  of 
comets,  participated  in  all  the  labors  of 
Lalande,  and  those  of  his  nephew,  Le- 
francjois  Lalande,  took  an  active  part  in 
the  observatory  of  the  ecole  militaire,  and 
translated  the  two  first  volumes  of  La- 
j)lace's  Mecanique  Celeste  into  German 
(Berlin,  1800).  Being  appointed  adjunct 
astronomer  by  the  board  of  longitude,  he 
received  letters  of  naturalization  as  a 
French  citizen,  Dec.  20,  1799.  His  im- 
portant treatise  on  the  comet  of  1770, 
wliich  had  not  been  visible  for  nearly  30 
years,  although,  according  to  the  calcu- 
lations of  its  orbit,  it  should  have  re- 
turned every  five  or  six,  was  rewarded 
with  a  gold  medal,  by  the  institute,  in 
1800.  This  treatise,  which  proposed 
some  improvements  in  doctor  Olbers' 
mode  of  calculation,  is  contained  in  the 
Mem.  de  VInstitvt,  1806.  During  this 
year,  he  was  made  a  member  of  the  de- 
partment of  physical  and  mathematical 
sciences  in  the  academy ;  in  1818,  was 
made  a  member  of  tlie  board  of  longitude, 
and,  after  Lalande's  death,  astronomer  in 
the  observatory  of  the  military  school. 
In  1814  and  1816,  he  published  in  French, 
at  Paris,  Tables  to  assist  in  Astronomical 
Calculations.  He  also  wrote  some  ti'ea- 
tises  in  von  Zach's  Geographical  Epheme- 
rides.  His  labors  in  the  board  of  longi- 
tude were  particularly  valuable.  He  died 
in  1825. 

Burden,  or  Burthen  ;  1.  the  con- 
tents of  a  ship ;  the  quantity  or  number 
of  tons  which  a  vessel  will  carry ;  2.  the 
part  of  a  song  which  is  repeated  at  every 
verse  or  stanza,  is  called  the  burden  ofikt 
song,  from  the  French  bourdon,  drone  or 
base,  because  they  are  both  characterized 
by  an  unchangeable  tone,  and  bear  upon 
the  ear  with  a  similar  monotony. 

BuRDETT,  sir  Francis,  baronet,  mem- 
ber of  the  British  parliament,  in  which  he 
has  long  held  a  conspicuous  place  in  the 
opposition,  is  descended  from  an  ancient 
ajid  opulent  family,  and  was  educated  at 
Westminster.  He  entered  on  his  parlia- 
mentary career  in  1796,  when  he  was 
chosen  member  from  Boroughbridge.  He 
soon  distinguished  himself  as  an  ardent 
and  enhghtened  friend  of  reform,  and 
the  steady  opposer  of  the  arbiti-ary  meas- 
ures of  the  ministry,  the  suspension  of  the 
habeas  coqjus  act,  the  sedition  bills,  and 
the  policy  towards  Ireland.  In  1802,  he 
was  returned  member  for  Middlesex.    In 


326 


BURDETT— BURGER. 


1804,  he  was  wounded  in  a  duel  with  Mr, 
Paull,  which  arose  from  political  causes. 
After  the  death  of  Pitt,  he  voted  with  the 
Fox  ministry,  and,  in  1807,  was  elected  to 
parliament  from  Westminster.  In  1810, 
having  addressed  a  letter  to  his  constitu- 
ents, in  wliich  he  accused  the  house  of 
commons  of  a  usurjiation  of  power  in 
committing  to  ])rison  the  author  of  a  pub- 
lication dei-ogatory  to  the  dignity  and 
privileges  of  the  house,  a  writ  was  issued 
against  him,  ordering  that  he  should  be 
committed  to  the  Tower.  Tlie  execution 
of  tlie  writ  was  resisted,  during  three 
days,  by  crowds  which  surroimded  his 
house.  Several  riots  took  place  ;  but  he 
was  finally  arrested,  and  conducted  to  the 
Tower,  where  he  remained  till  the  pro- 
rogation of  parliament.  He  has  since 
continued  a  vigilant  and  bold  opponent 
of  corruption  and  oppression  on  the  part 
of  the  ministry.  In  1815,  he  presented  a 
petition  of  the  city  of  Westminster,  in  fa- 
vor of  peace  and  parliamentary  reform, 
with  a  speech,  in  which  he  advocated  a 
peace  with  Napoleon,  accused  the  minis- 
ters of  a  violation  of  treaties,  by  which,  he 
said,  they  had  effected  the  downfall  of  the 
emperor,  and  placed  the  Bourbons,  a 
name  synonymous  with  falsehood,  on  the 
throne  of  France. 

Bureau  ;  a  writing-table  ;  afterwards 
used  to  signify  the  chamber  of  an  officer 
of  government,  and  the  body  of  subordi- 
nate officers  who  labor  under  the  direc- 
tion of  a  chief. — Bureau  system,  or  bu- 
reaucracy, is  a  term  often  applied  to  those 
governments  in  which  the  business  of 
administration  is  carried  on  in  depart- 
ments, each  under  the  control  of  a  chief; 
and  is  opposed  to  those  in  which  the  offi- 
cers of  government  have  a  coordinate 
authority.  Sometimes  a  mixture  of  the 
two  systems  is  found.  Tlius  the  business 
of  the  executive  branch  of  government 
may  be  carried  on  by  bureaus,  while  the 
administration  of  justice  is  in  the  hands 
of  coordinate  judges. — The  bureau  des 
longitudes,  in  France,  corresponding  to 
the  Enghsh  hoard  of  longitude,  is  charged 
with  the  pubHcation  of  astronomical  and 
meteorological  observations,  the  correc- 
Uon  of  the  astronomical  tables,  and  the 
publication  of  the  Connaissance  des  Temps, 
an  astronomical  and  nautical  almanac. 
(See  Mmanac.)  According  to  the  parlia- 
mentary usage  of  France,  at  the  opening 
of  each  session,  the  chamber  of  deputies 
is  divided  into  nine  bureaus,  composed  of 
an  equal  number  of  deputies,  designated 
by  lot.  Each  bureau  appoints  its  own 
president,  and  discusses  all  matters  refer- 


red to  it  by  the  chamber  separately.  A 
reporter  is  appointed  by  each  bureau,  and, 
after  the  discussion  by  bureaus,  the  nine 
reporters  meet,  discuss  the  subject,  and 
appoint  one  of  their  number  to  report  to 
the  whole  chamber,  where  the  final  dis- 
cussion and  decision  of  the  subject  takes 
place.  (See  Riglement  pour  la  Chambre 
des  Deputes,  Paris,  1827,  chap,  v.) 

Burg,  John  Tobias  ;  an  astronomer, 
born,  1766,  in  Treves ;  resolved,  when 
young,  to  become  a  mechanic,  for  the 
purj)ose  of  supporting  his  father,  but  was 
prevented  by  his  teacher,  who  perceived 
his  great  talents  ;  studied  mathematics 
and  astronomy  under  Triesnecker ;  was, 
in  1791,  professor  of  natural  philosophy 
in  Clagenfurt,  and,  in  1792,  adjunct  as- 
tronomer at  the  imperial  observatory.  He 
has  distinguished  himself  by  his  theory 
of  the  motion  of  the  moon.  The  national 
institute  proposed,  as  a  prize  question,  in 
1798,  the  determination,  by  at  least  500 
accurate  obsersatious,  the  epochs  of  the 
mean  distance  of  the  apogee  of  the 
moon  and  of  her  ascending  node.  The 
committee  who  examined  the  calcula- 
tions of  the  competitors  found  .those  of 
B.  and  of  Alexander  Bouvard  both  so 
excellent,  that  they  determined  to  divide 
the  prize  between  them  ;  but  the  consul 
Bonaparte  doubled  the  prize,  assigning 
one  to  each.  B.'s  tables  of  the  moon,  ac- 
cording to  the  theory  of  Laplace,  were 
published  in  1806,  by  the  national  insti- 
tute. 

Burgas,  or  Bourgas  ;  a  trading  town 
of  European  Turkey  on  the  Black  sea,  in 
the  government  of  Roumelia.  The  bay 
on  which  it  stands  is  of  sufficient  depth 
for  large  vessels,  and  the  exports  are 
grain,  iron,  butter,  wine,  and  also  woollen 
goods  for  Constantmople.  Lon.  27°  29' 
E. ;  lat.  42°  31'  N. 

Burger,  Godfrey  Augustus,  bom  Jan, 
1,  1748,  at  Wolmerswende,  near  Halber- 
stadt,  where  his  father  was  a  preacher, 
died  June  18, 1794,  at  Gottingen.  Before 
his  10th  year,  he  learned  nothing  but 
reading  and  writing,  but  showed  a  great 
predilection  for  solitary  and  gloomy 
places,  and  began  early  to  make  verses, 
with  no  other  model  than  that  afforded 
by  hymn  books.  He  learned  Latin  with 
difficulty.  In  1764,  he  studied  theology 
at  the  university  in  Halle,  and,  in  1768, 
he  went  to  Gottingen,  in  order  to  ex- 
change theology  for  law,  but  soon  formed 
connexions  here  equally  disadvantageous 
to  his  studies  and  his  morals,  so  that  his 
grandfather,  who  had  hitherto  maintained 
him,  withdrew  his  support   fi-om  him. 


BURGER— BURGLARY. 


327 


The  friendship  of  several  distinguished 
young  men  at  the  university  was  now  of 
great  service  to  liim.  In  union  with  his 
friends,  he  studied  the  ancient  classics 
and  tlie  best  works  in  French,  Itahan, 
Sj)auish  and  English,  particularly  Shak- 
K|>eaie,  and  the  old  English  and  Scotch 
ballads.  Percy's  Relics  was  his  constant 
companion.  His  poems  soon  attracted 
attention.  In  1772,  he  obtained,  by  the 
influence  of  Boie,  the  small  otEce  of 
baily  in  Alten-Gleichen,  and,  by  a  recon- 
ciliation with  his  grandfather,  a  sum  for 
the  payjuent  of  his  debts,  which  he  un- 
fortuniuely  lost,  and,  during  the  rest  of  his 
life,  was  involved  in  pecuniary  difficulties. 
In  1774,  he  married  the  daughter  of  a 
neighboring  baily,  named  Leouhardt,  but 
liis  marriage  was  unfortunate.  He  con- 
ceived a  violent  passion  for  the  sister  of 
Lis  wife,  and  married  her,  izi  1784,  soon 
after  his  first  wife's  death.  She  also,  his 
celebrated  Molly,  died  in  the  first  year  of 
their  marriage.  At  the  same  time,  he  lost 
his  little  property  by  imprudent  manage- 
ment, and  was  obliged,  by  intrigues,  to 
resign  his  place.  He  was  made  professor 
extraordinary  in  Gottingen,  but  received 
no  salary,  and  this  favorite  poet  of  the 
nation  was  obliged  to  gain  a  living  for 
himself  and  his  children  by  poorly-reward- 
ed translations  for  booksellere.  A  third 
marriage,  in  1790,  with  a  young  lady  of 
Suabia,  who  had  publicly  oflTered  him  her 
hand  in  a  poem,  completed  his  misfor- 
tunes ;  he  was  divorced  from  her  two 
yeai-s  afterwards.  The  government  of 
Ilaziover  afforded  him  some  assistance 
shortly  before  his  death,  which  took  place 
in  June,  1794,  and  was  occasioned  by  a 
complaint  of  the  lungs, — In  the  midst  of 
these  misfortunes  and  obstacles,  it  is 
astonishing  how  much  he  did.  He  has 
left  us  songs,  odes,  elegies,  ballads,  narra- 
tive poems  and  epigrams.  In  none  of 
these  departments  does  he  hold  a  low 
rank ;  in  some,  the  public  voice  has 
placed  him  ,in  the  first.  Schiller  criti- 
cised him  very  severely  ;  he  denied  him 
the  i)ower  of  idealizing,  and  reproached 
his  muse  as  being  of  too  sensual  a  char- 
acter. The  judgment  of  A.  W.  Schlegel 
seems  more  just:  he  says,  "B,  is  a  poet 
of  a  more  peculiar  than  comprehensive 
imagination ;  of  more  honest  and  plain 
than  delicate  feelings ;  his  execution  is 
more  remarkable  than  his  conception  ;  lie 
is  more  at  home  in  ballads  and  simple 
songs  than  in  the  higher  lyrical  poetry ; 
yet,  in  some  of  his  productions,  he  ap- 
pears as  a  true  poet  of  the  people,  and  his 
stjle,  with  some  faults,  is  clear,  vigorous. 


fresh,  and  sometimes  tender."  The  first 
collection  of  his  poems  appeared  in  Got- 
tingen, 1778.  His  poetical  works  have 
been  published  several  times  by  K.  Rein- 
hard  ;  last  in  Berlin,  1823 — 25,  8  vols. ;  so 
also  his  Lehrbuch  dtr  MsthttiJc  (Compen- 
dium of  Esthetics),  Berlin,  1825,  and  his 
Lehrbuch  des  Deutschen  Styls  (Manual  of 
German  Style),  Berlm,  1826. 

Burgess,  in  England ;  the  holder  of  a 
tenement  in  a  borough :  in  a  parliament- 
ary sense,  the  representative  of  a  borough- 
The  latter  must  have  a  clear  estate  to  the 
value  of  £300  per  annum.  The  bur- 
gesses in  parliament  bear  a  quadruple 
proportion  to  the  members  for  counties ; 
the  former  being  (from  England  alone) 
339,  the  latter,  80.  The  whole  number 
of  the  former,  from  the  three  kingdoms, 
is  396 ;  of  the  latter,  186.  Before  the 
North  American  revolution,  the  popular 
branch  of  the  legislature  in  Virginia  was 
called  the  house  of  burgesses :  it  is  now 
called  the  house  of  delegates. 

Burghers.    (See  Seceders.) 

Burglary  (supposed  to  be  derived 
from  tlie  German  burg,  a  house,  and 
larron,  a  thief,  from  the  Latin  latro)  is 
defined  to  be  a  breaking  and  entering  the 
memsion-house  of  another,  in  the  night, 
with  intent  to  commit  some  felony  within 
the  same,  whether  such  felonious  intent 
be  executed  or  not.  This  is  the  modem 
signification  of  the  term,  which  formerly 
apphed,  also,  to  the  breaking  into  a 
church,  fort  or  town ;  and  the  breaking 
into  a  church  is  said,  by  sir  William 
Blackstone  (4  Com.  224),  to  be,  undoubt- 
edly, burglary.  Both  breaking  and  en- 
tering are  considered  necessary  to  consti- 
tute the  offence.  The  opening  a  door  or 
window,  picking  a  lock,  or  unlocking  it 
with  a  key,  raising  a  latch,  or  loosing  any 
fastenings,  constitutes  a  breaking.  Like- 
wise, knocking  at  the  door,  and,  on  its 
being  opened,  rushing  in,  has  been  so 
considered.  So,  if  a  lodger  in  the  same 
house  open  and  enter  another's  room  ;  or 
if  a  servant  conspire  with  a  robber  and 
let  him  into  the  house,  it  will  be  such  a 
breaking  of  a  house,  as,  if  done  with  in* 
tent  to  commit  a  felonj',  will  be  burglary. 
The  breaking  and  entering  must,  how- 
ever, be  in  the  night,  to  make  it  burglary ; 
and,  according  to  lord  Hale's  opinion 
(1  P.  C.  550),  if  there  be  enough  of  day- 
light in  the  evening  twiUght  or  dawn  for 
discerning  a  man's  face,  it  will  not  be 
burglary.  But  this  does  not  extend  to 
moonlight,  since  such  a  construction 
would  secure  impunity  to  many  burgla- 
ries.   The  breaking  open  of  a  bani,  shop, 


338 


BURGLARY— BURGOYNE. 


shed,  or  other  building,  is  not  burglary, 
unless  it  be  appurtenant  to  a  dwelling- 
house.  A  chamber  in  a  college,  or  in  the 
London  inns  of  court,  is,  for  this  purpose, 
considered  to  be  a  mansion-house.  The 
more  usual  punishment  of  burglary  has 
heretofore  been  death.  Li  the  U.  States, 
there  is  some  diversity  of  punishment  for 
this  offence,  the  penalty  being  death  in 
some  states,  and  imprisonment  for  life  or 
years  in  others.  In  Maine,  for  the  ])rin- 
cijjal  and  accessary  before  the  fact,  where 
the  criminal  entei-s  a  dwelling-house  by 
night,  with  a  deadly  weapon,  it  is  death. 
In  New  Hampshire,  the  offence,  accord- 
ing to  the  common  definition,  is  punished 
by  imprisonment  and  hard  labor  for  life. 
In  Vermont,  the  punishment  is  imprison- 
ment in  the  state  prison  for  a  term  not 
exceeding  15  years,  or  a  fine  not  exceed- 
ing 1000  dollars ;  in  Massachusetts,  im- 
prisonment for  life  of  the  principal  and 
accessary  before  the  fact,  in  case  of  being 
armed  with  a  deadly  weapon  ;  in  Rhode 
Island,  death ;  in  Connecticut,  imprison- 
ment in  the  state  prison  not  exceeding  8 
years ;  in  New  York,  a  fine,  and  impris- 
onment with  hard  labor  not  exceeding  10 
years;  in  Pennsylvania,  for  the  first  of- 
fence, imprisonment  not  exceeding  10 
years ;  for  the  second,  not  exceeding  15 ; 
in  Maryland,  restoration  of  property,  and 
imprisonment  not  less  than  2  nor  ex- 
ceeding 10  years ;  in  Virginia,  restora- 
tion of  property,  and  unprisonment  not 
less  than  5  nor  more  than  10  years  ;  and 
in  Louisiana,  imprisonment  not  less  than 
10  nor  more  tlian  15  years;  and  the  code 
of  this  state  makes  the  crime  the  same 
where  the  culprit  conceals  himself  in  the 
house  during  the  day,  until  night,  as 
where  he  breaks  into  it  during  the  night. 
The  British  statute  7  &  8  Geo.  IV,  c.  29, 
makes  the  punishment  death;  and  this 
statute,  pursuing  that  of  12  Anne,  c.  7, 
makes  the  committing  a  felony  in  a  house, 
and  breaking  out  of  it  by  night,  burglary. 
This  statute  of  Geo.  IV  also  alters  the 
definition  of  the  crime,  by  substituting 
dwelling  for  mansion-house.  [The  Amer- 
ican statutes  generally  adopt  this  descrip- 
tion.] It  also  defines  what  shall  be  con- 
sidered as  part  of  the  house,  saying,  that 
no  building  within  the  same  curtilage,  and 
occupied  with  the  dwelling-house,  shall 
be  deemed  a  part  of  it  for  this  purpose, 
"unless  there  shall  be  a  communication" 
with  the  house  "  by  means  of  a  covered 
and  enclosed  passage."  This  provision 
clears  up  a  doubt  that  had  hung  over  the 
former  law.  This  act  also  provides  (s.  12), 
that,  "  if  any  person  shall  break  and  eiaier 


a  house  and  steal,"  &c.,  or  shall  steal  any 
property  in  any  dwelling-house,  any  per- 
son therein  being  put  in  /ear,"  or  "  shall 
steal  to  the  value  of  £5,"  he  shall  suffer 
death  ;  and  it  does  not  appear,  by  Mr. ' 
Collier's  edition  of  the  criminal  statutes, 
1828,  that  any  distinction  is  made,  in  this 
section,  Jis  to  the  offence  being  by  day  or 
night.  This  crime  is  punishable,  under 
the  French  code  (Penal,  lib.  3,  tit.  2,  c.  2, 
s.  1,  No.  381,  383),  either  by  death  or  by 
hard  labor  for  life,  according  to  the  cir- 
cumstances of  aggravation. 

Burgomaster  ;  the  name  of  the  chief 
magistrates  of  large  towns  in  the  Neth- 
erlands and  Germany.  Their  num- 
ber and  term  of  office  are  different  in 
different  places.  They  are  sometimes 
chosen  for  life,  sometimes  for  a  fixed  pe- 
riod. They  preside  in  the  municipal 
counsels,  &c.  The  same  officer,  in 
France,  is  called  maire ;  in  England  and 
the  cities  of  North  America,  mayor. 

Burgos  ;  a  city  of  S])ain,  the  capital 
of  Old  Castile,  and  once  the  residence  of 
its  kings.  It  stands  on  the  declivity  of  a 
hill,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Arlanzon. 
The  streets  are  narrow  and  dark.  It  con- 
tains a  college,  numerous  churches  and 
convents,  and  a  population  of  about 
10,000.  The  cathedral,  one  of  the  most 
beautiful  Gothic  structures  in  Spain,  was 
built  in  the  13th  century,  and,  as  well  as 
some  of  the  other  churches,  contains 
splendid  mausoleums.  It  is  so  large, 
that  service  can  be  performed  in  eight 
chapels  at  once,  without  confusion.  The 
wool  of  Old  Castile  passes  principally 
through  B.,  and  it  has  some  woollen 
manufactures.  It  was  captured  by  the 
English  in  1813.  Lat.  42°  21'  N. ;  Ion. 
2°40' W. 

BuRGOYNE,  John ;  an  English  general 
officer  and  dramatist.  He  was  the  natu- 
ral son  of  lord  Bingly,  and  entered  early 
into  the  army.  In  1762,  he  commanded 
a  force  sent  into  Portugal  for  the  defence 
of  that  kingdom  against  the  Spaniards. 
He  also  distinguished  himself,  in  the 
American  war,  by  the  taking  of  Tieonde- 
roga,  but  was,  at  last,  obUged  to  surren- 
der, with  his  army,  to  general  Gates,  at 
Saratoga.  He  was  elected  into  parlia- 
ment for  Preston,  in  Lancashire,  but,  re- 
fusing to  return  to  America,  pursuant  to 
his  convention,  was  dismissed  the  service. 
He  published  some  pamphlets  in  defence 
of  his  conduct,  and  is  the  author  of  three 
dramas, — the  Maid  of  the  Oaks,  Bon  Ton, 
and  the  Heiress, — all  in  the  line  of  what 
is  usually  called  genteel  comedy,  of  which 
they  form  light  and  pleasing  specimens. 


BURGUETTA— BURGUNDIANS. 


329 


BcRGCETTA,  or  Elburguetta  ;  a  town 
of  Spain,  in  the  valley  of  Ron<jeval,  where 
the  rear-guard  of  Charlemagne's  army 
was  defeated  by  the  Saracens,  and  the  fa- 
mous Roland  slain,  A.  D.  778 ;  24  miles 
*N.  E.  of  Pampeluna. 

BuRGu.vDiANS.  The  Burgundians  (call- 
ed, by  the  ancients,  Burgundi,  Burgimdi- 
onts,  Burngundi,  Bugantce,  Bunticca,  and 
sometimes  Urugimdtj,  one  of  the  princi- 
pal branches  of  the  Vandals,  can  l)e  traced 
back  to  the  country  between  the  Oder 
and  the  Vistula,  in  what  is  now  the  New 
Mark,  and  the  southern  part  of  West 
Prussia.  They  were  distinguished  from 
the  other  Germans  by  living  together  in 
villages,  burgen  (whence,  perhaps,  they 
received  the  name  of  Burgundians).  The 
others  lived  separately,  and  led  a  more 
wandering  life.  This  is  probably  the  rea- 
son \vhy  they  retained  possession  of  their 
country  much  longer  than  the  neighbor- 
ing Goths  and  Vandals,  till,  at  length, 
they  were  no  longer  able  to  withstand  the 
Gepidse,  who  pressed  in  upon  them  from 
the  mouths  of  the  Vistula.  In  conse- 
quence of  the  loss  of  a  great  battle  with 
the  Gepidse,  they  emigrated  to  Germany, 
where  they  advanced  to  the  region  of  the 
Upper  Rliine,  and  settled  near  the  AUe- 
inanni.  From  them  they  took  a  consid- 
erable tract  of  countiy,  and  Hved  in  al- 
most continual  war  with  them.  In  the 
beginning  of  the  5th  century,  with  other 
German  nations,  they  passed  over  into 
Gaul.  After  a  long  struggle,  and  many 
losses,  they  succeeded  in  obtaining  pos- 
session of  the  south-eastern  part  of  this 
country  by  a  contract  with  the  Romans. 
A  {)art  of  Switzerland,  Savoy,  Dauphiny, 
Lionnais  and  Franche-Comte  belonged  to 
their  now  kingdom,  which,  even  in  the 
year  470,  was  known  by  the  name  of 
Burgundy.  The  seat  of  government 
seems  to  have  been  sometimes  Lyons, 
and  sometimes  Geneva. — By  their  old 
constitution,  they  had  kings,  called  hendi- 
nos,  whom  they  chose  and  dei)0sed  at 
their  pleasure.  If  any  great  calamity  be- 
fell them,  as  a  failure  of  the  crops,  a  pesti- 
lence, or  a  defeat,  the  king  was  made  re- 
sponsible for  it,  and  his  throne  was  given  to 
another,  under  whom  they  hoped  for  better 
times.  Before  their  conversion  to  Chris- 
tianity (which  happened  after  their  settle- 
ment in  Gaul),  they  had  a  high-priest, 
called  sinestus,  whose  person  was  sacred, 
and  whose  ofHce  was  for  life.  The  trial 
by  combat  even  then  existed  among  them, 
and  was  regarded  as  an  appeal  to  the 
judgment  of  God.  Continually  endeav- 
oring to  extend  their  limits,  they  became 
28* 


engaged  in  a  war  with  the  Franks,  by 
whom  they  were  finally  wholly  subdued, 
imder  the  son  of  Clovis,  after  Clovis  him- 
self had  taken  Lyons.    They  still  pre- 
served their  constitution,  laws  and  cus- 
toms for  a  time.    But   the   dignity  of 
king  was  soon  abolished,  and,  under  the 
Carlovingians,  the  kingdom  was  divided 
into  provinces,  which,  from  time  to  time, 
shook  oft"  their   dependence.     In    879, 
Boson,  count  of  Autun,   brother-in-law 
of  king  Charles  the  Bald,  and  duke  of 
Milan,  with  the  assent  of  the  Burgundian 
nobles,  succeeded   in   establishing  again 
the  royal  dignity  in  this  kingdom.    He 
styled  himself  king  of  Provence,    His  res- 
idence was  at  Aries,  and  hence  is  derived 
the  name  kingdom  of  Aries.     He  was  de- 
prived of  several  provinces  by  Louis  and 
Carloman ;  but  his  son  Louis  added  to 
his  hereditary  possessions  the  country  ly- 
ing beyond  the  Jura,  and  thus  established 
the  kingdom  of  Burgundy,  Cis-Jurana,  or 
Lower  Burgundy,  which  included  a  part 
of  Provence,  with  Aries,  Dauphiny,  Li- 
onnais,  Savoy,  and  a  part  of  Franche- 
Comt6.    A  second  kingdom  of  Burgundy 
arose  when  the   Guelph    Rodolph  von 
Strettlingen  (duke  of   Swiss    Lorraine) 
gained  possession  of  the  rest  of  Lorraine, 
namely,   Switzerland    beyond   the  river 
Reuss,  the  Valais,  and  a  part  of  Savoy, 
and,  in  short,  all  the  provinces  between 
the  Jura  and  the  Pennine  Alps,  and  caus- 
ed himself,  in  883,  to  be  crowned  king 
of  Upper  Burgundy    [regnum  Burgun- 
dicum  Transjuranum).    Both  Burgundian 
kingdoms  were  united  about  the   year 
930,  and,  after  the  race  of  Rodolph  be- 
came extinct  (1032)  were  incorporated 
with  Germany,  under  the  emperor  Con- 
rad II.     But  a  third  state,  which  had  its 
origin  about  the  same  time  with  Upper 
Burgundy,  consisting,  principally,  of  the 
French  province  Bourgogne  {Burgundy, 
properly  so  called),  and  the  founder  of 
which  is  said  to    have    been    Richard, 
brother  of  Boson  (first  king  of  Lower 
Burgundy),  maintained  its  independence. 
From     Ijudegardis,     granddaughter    of 
Richard,  and  her  husband,  Otho,  a  broth- 
er of  Hugh  Capet,  sprang  the  ancient 
dukes  of  Burgundy  (Bourgogne).    They 
became  extinct,  in  1361,  with  the  death 
of  duke  Philip,  and  Burgundy  was  im- 
mediately united,  by  king  John  of  France, 
with  the  French  crown,  partly  as  a  fief 
of  the  kingdom,  and  partly  because  his 
mother  was  sister  of  the  grandfather  of 
the  last  duke.     The  dignity  of  duke  of 
Burgundy  was  restored  in  136-3,  by  his 
grant  of  those  domains,  under  the  title  of 


330 


BURGUNDIANS. 


a  dukedom,  as  an  appanage  to  his  young- 
est and  favorite  son,  Pliilip  the  Bold. 
Philip  was  the  founder  of  the  new  line  of 
the  dukes  of  Burgundy.  In  13()8,  he  mar- 
ried Margaret,  the  widow  of  the  last  duke 
PhiUp  of  the  old  hne,  only  daugliier  and 
heiress  of  Louis  III,  count  of  Flanders, 
whereby  he  greatly  augmented  his  pos- 
sessions. At  that  time,  Flanders,  Mech- 
lin, Antwerp  and  Franche-Conit6  fell  to 
Iwm.  In  1402,  he  was  made  regent  of 
France,  on  account  of  the  sickness  of 
Charles  VI.  Louis,  duke  of  Orleans, 
brother  of  the  king,  being  obliged  to 
yield  to  him  this  dignity,  conceived  a  bit- 
ter hatred  against  him.  This  was  the 
occasion  of  the  famous  division  of  the 
French  into  the  Orleans  and  Burgundian 
parties.  In  1404,  Philip  died,  and  was 
succeeded  by  his  son,  John  the  Fearless. 
Orleans  now  became  regent  of  France. 
But  both  cousins  remained  bitter  enemies, 
till,  under  the  walls  of  MontfauQon,  at  the 
commencement  of  a  civil  war  (1405),  they 
embmced  each  other  in  the  sight  of  the 
whole  army,  and,  as  a  pledge  of  entire 
reconciliation,  slept  in  the  same  bed  the 
following  night.  Nevertheless,  Orleans 
WEis  assassinated  in  the  street  in  1407,  and 
duke  John  of  Burgundy  declared  him- 
self the  author  of  the  deed,  which  was 
the  melancholy  cause  of  the  greatest  dis- 
turbances in  Paris.  Indeed,  John  obtain- 
ed a  letter  of  pardon  from  the  king ;  but 
justice  overtook  him  as  he  was  about  to 
repeat  the  farce  of  a  public  reconciliation 
with  the  dauphin,  on  the  bridge  of  Mon- 
tereau.  While  the  firet  words  of  saluta- 
tion were  passing  between  them,  he  was 
stabbed  by  the  companions  of  the  dauphin 
( 1419).  His  son  and  successor,  Philip,  sur- 
named  the  Good  (previously  count  of  Char- 
olais),  in  the  peace  which  was  concluded 
between  England and^France  and  Burgun- 
dy (1420),  succeeded 'in  effecting  the  ex- 
clusion of  the  dauphin,  as  a  punishment 
for  the  murder  of  duke  John.  In  the 
reign  of  Philip  happened  his  memorable 
dispute  with  Jacqueline  of  Brabant,  and 
her  second  husband,  the  duke  of  Glouces- 
ter, which  was  settled  by  a  treaty,  by  virtue 
of  which  Philip  was  to  become  the  heir 
of  Jacqueline  (if  she  died  childless),  and 
she  was  not  to  marry  without  his  consent. 
But  Jacqueline  violated  this  last  stipula- 
tion (1430),  and  Philip  took  possession  of 
her  territories,  Hainault,  Holland  and 
Zealand,  setting  aside  a  small  portion  for 
her  maintenance.  The  year  before,  Phil- 
ip had  purchased  Namur,  and,  in  1431, 
Brabant  and  Limburg  reverted  to  him, 
when  the  line  of  Anthony  of  Burgundy, 


second  son  of  duke  Philip  the  Bold,  be- 
came extinct.  In  the  peace  with  France 
(Arras,  1435),  it  was  stipulated  that  king 
Charles  VII  should  sue  for  pardon  on  ac- 
count of  the  murder  of  John,  and  tha^ 
Philip  should  receive  from  France  the 
valuable  districts  of  Macon,  St.  Gengou, 
Auxerre  and  Bar  sur  le  Seine  for  himself 
and  his  lawful  male  and  female  heirs; 
Peronne,  Mondidier  and  Roye  for  his 
lawful  male  heirs ;  and,  further,  St.  Quen- 
tin,  Corby,  Amiens,  Abbeville,  Ponthieu, 
Dourlens,  St.  Riquier,  Crevecoeur,  Ar- 
leiix  and  Mortagne,  and  the  county  of 
Boulogne,  for  himself  and  his  heirs.  To 
these  important  possessions  he  added 
also,  in  1441,  the  duchy  of  Luxemburg, 
In  1430,  Philip  had  contracted  a  third  mar- 
riage, as  his  two  former  wives  had  borne 
him  no  children.  On  his  marriage  with 
Isabella  (Elisabeth),  daughter  of  king 
John  of  Portugal,  at  Bruges  (q.  v.),  in 
Flandei-s,  he  founded  the  order  of  the 
golden  fleece.  Three  sons  sprung  from 
tliis  marriage,  of  whom  the  two  first  soon 
died.  The  third,  Charles  count  Char- 
olais,  afler  the  death  of  Philip  (at  Bruges, 
July  16th,  1467),  became  duke  of  Bur- 
gundy. (See  Charles  the  Bold.)  He  ac- 
quired Gueldres  in  1475,  and  lefl  behind 
him,  in  1477,  a  daughter,  Maria,  the  sole 
heiress  of  his  states.  Seven  princes  were 
her  suitoi-s,  among  whom  were  the  dau- 
phin of  France  and  Maximilian  of  Aus- 
tria. The  last  obtained  her  hand  and 
the  dukedom  (the  Netherlands  and  Upper 
Burgundy).  The  king  of  France  receiv- 
ed, of  the  Burgundian  territory,  nothing 
except  the  cities  in  Picardy  and  the  duke- 
dom of  Bourgogne,  which  he  assumed  as 
being  a  male  fief.  Maria  died  in  her  25th 
year,  in  consequence  of  a  fall,  leaving 
three  children,  Philip,  Margaret  and 
Francis  (who  died  soon  afier).  The  Bur- 
gundian provinces  would  not  all  recog- 
nise Maximilian  as  the  guardian  of  his 
children.  He  betrothed  his  daughter  to 
the  dauphin,  Charles,  with  the  county  of 
Artois  and  Burgundy,  together  with  the 
Maconnais,  Auxerrois,  Salins  and  Bar  sur 
le  Seine,  as  her  dowiy.  But  his  object, 
which  was  wholly  to  pacify  the  provinces, 
was  not  attained.  The  people  of  Flan- 
dei*s  were  particularly  obstinate,  and  they 
went  so  far  that  Maximilian,  two  years 
after  his  election  as  king  of  the  Romans 
(1488),  was  retained  a  prisoner  at  Bruges 
for  more  than  three  months.  Finally,  the 
people  of  Flanders  acknowledged  him  as 
guardian  of  his  son  Philip,  and  regent  of 
the  government.  Burgundy  was,  as  we 
have  seen  above,  separated  into  two  parts 


BURGUNDIANS— BURGUNDY  WINES. 


331 


—Burgundy  Proper,  and  Upper  Burgundy 
or  Franche-Coniie,  The  former  was 
transferred  from  Spain  to  France  in  the 
ladies^  peace,  so  called,  of  Canibray,  1529. 
(See  Francis  I.)  The  latter  Louis  XIV 
conquered,  and  retained  at  the  peace  of 
Ninieguen.  Since  that  time,  the  Bur- 
gundies have  never  been  separated  from 
France.  (See  JVetherlands,  Kingdom  of.) 
The  baron  Barante,  peer  of  France,  pub- 
lished at  Paris,  in  1824,  in  10  volumes,  a 
Histoire  des  Dues  de  Bourgogne  de  la 
Maison  de  VaLois  (1364—1477). 

Burgundy  (called,  also,  Burgundy 
Proper,  or  Lower  Burgundy) ;  formerly  a 
province  in  the  east  of  France,  lying  on 
the  west  of  Franche-Comt6,  and  on  the 
south  of  Champagne.  It  was  divided  in- 
to the  duchy  of  B.  and  four  counties.  It 
now  forms  tlie  four  departments  of  Yonne, 
Cote-d'Or,  Saone-et-Loire  and  Ain,  con- 
taining, according  to  official  tables  for 
1827, 1,. 570,463  iidiabitants.  It  is  watered 
by  a  number  of  navigable  rivers.  The 
central  canal  joins  the  Loire  with  the 
Saone  ;  that  of  B.  will  connect  the  Seine 
and  the  Rhone ;  and  that  of  Monsieur 
will  unite  the  Saone  with  the  Rhine.  B. 
is  one  of  the  most  productive  provinces 
in  France.  The  plains  are  rich  in  arable 
land,  the  sides  of  the  hills  are  covered 
with  vineyards  and  fruit-trees,  while  the 
summits  abound  in  pastures,  wood  and 
game.  The  ])riucipal  ])roduct  is  wine. 
(See  Burgwuly  Wines.)  Iron  ore  and  oth- 
er minerals  are  found  in  the  mountains. 
(See  Burgundians.) 

BuRGU.NDY,  circle  of;  one  of  the  10  cir- 
cles of  the  German  empire,  as  divided  by 
IVIaximilian  in  1512.  At  first  it  compris- 
ed the  Franche-Comte  and  the  17  prov- 
inces of  the  Netherlands.  The  7  Dutch 
provinces  having  declared  themselves  in- 
dependent, and  the  Franche-Comte  being 
conquered  by  France,  the  Spanish  or  Aus- 
trian Netherlands  alone  composed  the 
circle. 

Burgundy,  Louis,  duke  of,  was  bom  at 
Versailles,  in  1682.  His  parents  were  the 
dauphin,  son  of  Louis  XIV,  and  the 
princess  Anne  of  Bavaria.  In  his  early 
childhood,  he  was  stubl)oni,  irascible,  ob- 
stinate, passionately  fond  of  every  kind  of 
pleasure,  and  inclined  to  cruelty,  severe 
in  his  satire,  attacking  with  great  penetra- 
tion the  follies  of  those  about  him.  The 
education  of  the  prince  was  intrusted,  in 
the  seventh  year  of  his  age,  to  Fenelon, 
Fieury,  and  Beauvilliers.  They  succeed- 
ed in  gaining  his  affection,  and  in  giving 
him  a  ri^ht  turn  of  mind.  Fi'om  this  al- 
teration m  his  character,  he  became  amia- 


ble, humane  and  modest,  and  faithful  in 
the  discharge  of  his  duties.  In  1697,  he 
married  the  intelligent  and  amiable  prin- 
cess Adelaide  of  Savoy,  who  was  the  or- 
nament of  her  court,  and  was  beloved  by 
her  husband  with  the  tenderest  affection. 
In  1699,  Louis  XIV  ordered  an  encamp- 
ment at  Compiegne  for  the  instruction  of 
his  grandson,  to  whom,  in  1702,  he  gave 
the  command  of  the  army  in  Flanders, 
under  the  direction  of  marshal  Boufflers. 
In  a  battle  between  the  cavalry,  near  Ni- 
meguen,  he  showed  determination  and 
courage.  Afterwards,  under  the  most 
difficult  circumstances,  he  was  appointed 
commander-in-chief  of  all  the  forces  in 
Flanders,  but  with  instructions  which 
made  him  dependent  on  the  duke  of  Ven- 
dome ;  Marlborough  and  prince  Eugene 
having  command  of  the  opposing  army. 
The  dlfFerences  which  arose  between  the 
prince  and  Vendome  drew  after  them  the 
most  disastrous  consequences.  All  France 
accused  the  prince  as  the  author  of  these 
misfortunes,  censuring  his  timid  charac- 
ter and  his  reUgious  scruples.  He,  how- 
ever, appears  to  have  succeeded  in  justify- 
ing his  conduct  in  the  eyes  of  the  king. 
Vendome,  on  the  contrary,  who  had  be- 
haved very  insolently  towards  the  heir  to 
the  throne,  fell  into  disgrace,  but  was  fa- 
vored by  the  opposition  party.  In  1711, 
the  duke  of  Burgundy  became  dauphin, 
by  the  death  of  his  father,  and  now  be- 
gan to  attract  the  attention  of  the  court, 
and  the  confidence  of  his  sovereign,  who 
appointed  him  a  counsellor  of  state. 
France  expected,  from  the  virtues  and  ex- 
cellent intentions  of  this  prince,  to  enjoy 
a  long  and  general  rest  from  her  troubles; 
but  he  was  suddenly  taken  away,  Feb. 
18,  1712,  by  a  disease  to  which  his  wife 
and  eldest  son  had  already  fallen  victims, 
the  one  6,  the  other  20  days  before.  In 
less  than  one  year,  France  had  seen  three 
dauphins;  and  the  fourth,  the  youngest 
son  of  the  duke  of  Burgundy,  and  the 
only  heir  to  the  throne,  afterwai'ds  Louis 
XV,  was  also  in  a  dangerous  situation. 
The  pubUc  voice  loudly  accused  the  duke 
of  Orleans,  aftei-wards  regent,  as  the  cause 
of  these  misfortunes,  of  which,  however, 
Louis  XIV  himself  declared  him  innocent. 
Burgundy  Wines  are  produced  in  the 
former  provinces  of  Upper  and  Lower 
Burgundy  (q.  v.),  in  a  soil  of  a  light-black 
or  red  loam,  mixed  with  the  debris  of  the 
calcarious  rock  on  which  it  reposes.  In 
richness  of  flavor  and  perfume,  and  all 
the  more  delicate  qualities  of  the  juice  of 
the  grape,  they  are  infeiior  to  none  in  the 
world.    It  is  to  the  great  skill  with  which 


3m 


BURGUNDY  WINES— BURI ATS. 


the  cultivation  of  the  vine  and  the  fer- 
mentation of  the  liquor  are  managed,  that 
they  owe  those  generous  quahties,  which 
gave  to  the  dukes  of  Burgundy  the  title 
of  princes  des  bon  vins,  and  which,  as  Pe- 
trarch more  than  hints,  contributed  not  a 
little  to  prolong  the  stay  of  their  holiness- 
es  at  Avignon.    They  are  remarkable  for 
their  spirituosity  and    powerful    aroma, 
and   are,   therefore,   more   heating    than 
some  other  wines  which   contain  more 
alcohol.     The  exhilaration  they  produce 
is,  however,  more  innocent  than  that  re- 
sulting from  heavier  wines.    The  finer 
wines  of  Burgundy  do  not  bear  removal 
except  in  bottles ;  and,  as  they  are  not  ])ro- 
duced  in  great  abimdance,they  are  rarely, 
if  ever,  met  with  in  foreign  countries.     It 
is  the  inferior  growths  which  are  sold 
under  that  name.    The  Burgimdy  wines 
are  generally  exported  between  January 
and  May,  chiefly  in  double  casks.     They 
keep  only  four  or  five  years,  and  are  very 
apt  to  acquire  a  bitter  taste,  which  Chap- 
tal  attributes  to  the  developement  of  the 
'  acerb  {)rinciple,  and  Henderson  to  that  of 
citric  ether.     It  may  sometimes  be  par- 
tially removed  by  new  sulphuring  and 
fining.     The  most  numerous  are  the  red 
wines  of  Burgundy.    The  finest  growths 
of  these  are    the  Roman6e-Conty,  the 
Chambertin  (the  favorite  of  Louis  XIV 
and  Napoleon),    the     Closbougeot,    the 
Richebourg,  the  Romance  de  St.  Vivant, 
&c.     They  are  distinguished  for  their 
beautiful  color,  and  exquisite  flavor  and 
aroma,  combinmg  more  than  any  other 
wines  lightness  and  delicacy  with  rich- 
ness and  fulness  of  body.     Of  the  second 
class  are  the  vins  de  prinuur,  of  which 
the  A'^olnay  and  Pomard  are  the  best ; 
those  of  Beaime,  distinguished  above  all 
by  their  pure  flavor,  and  formerly  consid- 
ered the  most  choice  of  the  Burgundy 
wines ;  the  Macon  wines,  remarkable  for 
their  strength  and  durability ;  those  of 
Tonnerre  and  Auxerre,  &c.     The  white 
wines  of  Burgundy  are  less  numerous, 
h>it  not  inferior  hi   aroma    and    flavor. 
The  famous  Montrachet  is  equal  to  the 
finer  red  wines,  and  is  distinguished  for 
its  agreeable  nutty  flavor.    Of  the  second 
class  are  the  Goutte  d'or,  so  called  from 
the  splendor  of  its  tint ;  La  Perriere,  &c. 
(See  Jullien's  Classification  des  Vins,  and 
Henderson's  Ancient  and  Modem  Wines.) 
Burial.     Great  care  should  be  taken 
not  to  bury  the  body  too  soon  after  death. 
The  ancient  nations  endeavored  to  satisfy 
themselves,   by    many   precautions,   that 
death  had  really  taken  place.    The  an- 
cient Egyptians  embalmed  their  dead  ;  the 


Romans  cut  off  one  of  their  fingers,  be- 
fore they  burnt  them  ;  other  nations  re- 
peatedly washed  and  anointed  them.  In- 
terments should  never  be  allowed  before 
the  most  undoubted  symptoms  of  putre- 
faction have  taken  place.  We  should 
wait  at  least  three  days  in  winter,  and  two 
whole  days  in  summer,  unless  the  hot 
weather  requires  a  quicker  interment. 
It  would  be  well  to  introduce  the  custom 
of  exposing  tlie  coi-pse  to  the  inspection 
of  a  person  regularly  instructed  for  this 
purpose,  who  should  carefully  and  re- 
peatedly examine  it,  and  none  should  be 
interred  without  the  certificate  of  this  in- 
spector. In  many  cases,  it  is  troublesome, 
and  even  dangerous,  to  keep  the  body 
long,  as  in  case  of  contagious  diseases,  or 
of  want  of  room.  In  many  places,  to  ob- 
viate this  inconvenience,  houses  are  erect- 
ed, where  the  corpse  is  brought  a  few 
lioure  after  the  decease.  (See  Trance ; 
also  Bnrying-Places  and  Sepulture). 

BuRiATs,  BuRATS,  or  BuRATTi.  This 
nomadic  Tartar  nation  consists  of  77  tribes. 
They  submitted  to  the  Russian  sceptre  in 
1644,  and  form  the  second  principal 
branch  of  the  Calmucs.  They  rove 
about  in  the  southern  part  of  the  govern- 
ment of  Irkutsk.  Their  number  is  up- 
wards of  100,000.  They  can  furnish  .32,000 
archers,  and  choose  their  own  princes  and 
elders.  Their  choice  is  confirmed,  how- 
ever, by  the  government  of  Irkutsk. 
They  support  themselves  by  their  flocks, 
by  hunting,  and  the  mechanical  arts,  par- 
ticularly the  forging  of  iron.  Their  dress 
is  leather  bordered  with  ftir.  The  B. 
protect  their  huts,  which  are  hexagonal 
or  octagonal,  from  heat  and  cold  by  cov- 
ering them  with  leather.  These  huts 
they  call  juries.  The  religion  of  this 
people  is  paitly  Lamaism  and  partly 
Shamanism.  They  call  their  supreme 
God  Octorgon  Burcfian,  or  Ti7}giri  Bur- 
chan  (God  of  heaven).  The  j)lanets  are 
inferior  gods ;  and  the  chief  of  the  evil 
spirits  is  called  Ockodol.  The  idols  of 
Lamaism,  like  those  of  Shamanism,  are 
sometimes  painted  on  cloth,  and  some- 
times made  of  wood,  metal,  felt  and 
sheep-skin.  The  smoke  of  the  juries 
makes  the  idols,  disgusting  in  themselves, 
still  more  disgusting.  The  worshippers 
of  the  Grand  Lama  have  this  peculiarity, 
that  male  forms  are  the  basis  of  their 
idols.  As  the  female  sex  in  this  nation  is 
considered  luiclean,  they  may  not  ap- 
proach the  place  where  the  household 
gods  are  arranged.  The  male  B.  always 
bum  incense,  to  purify  any  place  where  a 
woman  has  been  sitting,  before  they  sit 


BURIATS— BURKE. 


333 


there  themselves.  The  poor  B.  soine- 
thnes  go  over  to  the  Greek  church,  but 
continue  to  use  their  old  ceremonies  in 
reference  to  their  new  objects  of  worship. 
Their  number,  in  1783,  was  estimated  at 
49,764  males,  and  47,932  females. 

Burin,  or  Graver  ;  an  instrument  of 
tempered  steel,  used  for  engraving  on 
copper.  It  is  of  a  prismatic  form,  having 
one  end  attached  to  a  short  wooden  han- 
dle, and  tlie  other  ground  oft'  obUquely, 
so  as  to  produce  a  sharp  point.  In  work- 
ing, the  burin  is  held  in  the  palm  of  the 
hand,  and  pushed  forward  so  as  to  cut  a 
portion  of  the  copper.  The  expressions 
hrilliant  burin,  soft  burin,  are  used  to 
characterize  the  manner  of  a  master. 
(See  Engramng.) 

BuRKARD,  VValdis,a  fabulist  of  the  16th 
century,  was  born  at  Allendorf,  on  the 
Werra.  In  his  earlier  years,  he  was  a 
monk.  After  having  travelled  over  Eu- 
rope, he  became  a  zealous  Protestant,  and 
died,  in  1555,  in  the  office  of  preacher  at 
Abterode.  His  ^sop,  in  rhyme,  contains 
400  fables  and  amusing  stories,  partly 
from  iEsop  and  other  fabulists  and  nov- 
elists, partly  original.  They  are  writ- 
ten in  a  strain  of  happy  humor  and  well- 
directed  satire,  and  in  an  easy  and  often 
peculiar  style.  Eschenburg  published  a 
collection  of  them  in  1776. 

Burke,  Edmund,  a  writer,  orator  and 
statesman  of  great  eminence,  was  born  in 
Dublin,  Jan.  1,  1730.  His  father  was  an 
attorney  of  reputation,  and  he  received 
his  education  under  Abi-aham  Shackle- 
ton,  a  Quaker,  at  Ballitore.  In  1744,  he 
was  entered  at  Trinity  college,  Dublin,  as 
pensioner,  where  he  chiefly  occupied 
himself  with  a  plan  of  study  of  his  own, 
the  principal  objects  of  which  were  the 
classics,  logic,  metaphysics,  morals,  history, 
rhetoric,  and  composition.  He  left  Trinity 
college,  after  taking  a  bachelor's  degree, 
hi  1749;  and  not  much  is  recorded  of  this 
period  of  his  life,  except  that  he  made  an 
unsuccessful  application  for  the  professor- 
ship of  logic  at  Glasgow.  At  this  period, 
he  had  planned  a  refutation  of  the  meta- 
physical theories  of  Berkeley  and  Hume. 
In  1750,  he  first  entered  the  great  the- 
atre of  London,  as  a  law  student  at 
the  Temple,  where  he  soon  became  the 
admiration  of  his  intimates,  for  the  bril- 
liancy of  his  parts,  and  the  variety  of 
his  acquisitions.  Applying  more  to  lit- 
erature than  to  law,  he  supported  him- 
self by  his  pen,  and,  by  intense  occu- 
pation, brought  himself  into  a  state  of 
ill  health.  This  illness,  by  making  him 
a  guest  to  doctor  Nugent,  an  eminent 


physician,  led  to  his  marriage  with  that 
gentleman's  daughter.  In  1756,  he  pub- 
lished, without  a  name,  his  first  avowed 
work,  entitled  a  Vindication  of  Natural 
Society,  in  a  Letter  to  Lord  ****,  by  a  no- 
ble Lord.  This  work  exhibited  so  com- 
plete an  imitation,  although  ironical,  of 
the  style  of  Bolingbroke,  that  many  per- 
sons were  deceived  by  it,  not  perceiving 
B.'s  intention  to  prove  that  the  same  ar- 
guments with  which  that  nobleman  had 
attacked  religion,  might  be  applied  against 
all  civil  and  political  institutions  whatever. 
In  the  same  year,  he  j)ublished  his  Essay 
on  the  Subhme  and  Beautiful.  The  ele- 
gance of  its  language,  and  the  spirit  of 
philosophical  investigation  displayed  in 
it,  introduced  the  author  to  tlie  best  lite- 
rary acquaintances.  In  1758,  he  suggest- 
ed to  Dodsley  the  plan  of  the  Annual 
Register,  and  took  upon  himself  the  com- 
position of  the  historical  part,  which  he 
continued  for  a  number  of  years.  He 
was  thus  gradually  forming  himself  for  a 
statesman.  His  political  career  may  be 
said  to  have  commenced  in  1761,  when 
he  went  to  Ireland  as  confidential  friend 
to  Wilham  Gerard  Hamilton,  then  secre- 
tai-y  to  the  lord  lieutenant,  lord  Halifax. 
For  his  services  in  this  unofiicial  capacity, 
he  was  rewarded  with  a  pension  of  £.300 
per  annum,  on  the  Irish  establishment. 
On  his  return,  in  1765,  he  was  introduced 
to  the  marquis  of  Rockingham,  then  first 
lord  of  the  treasury,  who  made  him  his 
private  secretary  ;  and,  through  the  same 
interest,  he  became  M.  P.  for  the  borough 
of  Wendover.  The  marquis  also  made 
him  a  nominal  loan,  but  real  gift,  of  a 
large  sum,  which  placed  him  in  easy  cir- 
cumstances, and  enabled  him  to  purchase 
his  elegant  seat  near  Beaconsfield.  His  first 
speech  in  parliament  was  on  the  Gren- 
ville  stamp  act ;  and  it  was  at  his  advice, 
that  the  Rockingham  administration  took 
the  middle  and  undecided  course  of  re- 
pealing the  act,  and  passing  a  law  declar- 
atory of  the  right  of  Great  Britain  to  tax 
America.  This  ministry  was  soon  dis- 
solved, to  make  room  for  a  new  cabinet, 
under  Mr.  Pitt.  B.  concluded  his  official 
labors  by  his  pamphlet,  entitled  Short 
Account  of  a  late  short  Administration. 
In  the  proceedings  against  Wilkes,  he 
joined  the  remonstrants  against  the  vio- 
lation of  the  rights  of  election,  and,  in 
1770,  published  his  Thoughts  on  the 
Causes  of  the  {)resent  Discontents,  the 
sentiments  of  which  are  consistent  with 
his  future  doctrines  and  conduct  He 
opposed  the  ministerial  measures  antece- 
dent and  consequent  to  the  American 


334 


BURKE. 


war ;  and  the  whole  powers  of  his  elo- 
quence were  exerted,  first  to  prevent,  and 
then  to  heal,  the  fatal  breach  between  the 
mother  country  and  her  colonies.      In 
1774,  he  was  chosen  member  for  Bristol ; 
and  it  is  to  his  credit  that  he  subsequently 
ventured  to  give  offence  to  his  Bristol 
friends,  by  his  support  of  the  Irish  peti- 
tions for  free  trade,  and  for  moderating 
the   penal  statutes   against    the  Roman 
Catholics.    He  soon,  however,  recovered 
all  the  ground  thus  lost  by  his  famous 
reform  bill,  which  he  unsuccessfully  ad- 
vocated with  an  extraordinary  union  of 
wit,  humor,  and  financial  detail.     In  1783, 
lord  North's  ministry  was  dissolved  ;  and, 
on  the  return  of  the  marquis  of  Rocking- 
iiam  and  his  party  to  power,  B.  obtained 
the  lucrative  post  of  paymaster-general 
of  the  forces,  and  a  seat  at  the  council 
board.     He  also  embraced  the  auspicious 
opportunity  to  re-introduce  his  reform 
bill,  which  passed,  but  not  without  con- 
siderable modifications.    On  the  death  of 
the  marquis  of  Rockingham,  and  the  suc- 
cession of  lord  Shelburn,  B.  resigned,  and 
joined  the  coalition :    the  India  bill  form- 
ed the  ostensible  cause  for  dismissing  this 
ill-judged  combination;  and  Mr.  Pitt  suc- 
ceeded to  the  helm,  and  dissolved  the 
parliament.      The    next    great    political 
event  of  his  hfe  was  his  share  in  the 
prosecution  of  Mr.  Hastings,  which  trial, 
indeed,  originated  with  him.    The  Report 
of  the  Committee  on  the  Trial  of  W. 
Hastings,  1794,  was  by  B.     His  conduct 
in  this  affair  gained  him  Mttle  in  the  pub- 
lic estimation,  except  increased  fame  as 
an  orator.     On  the  setthng  of  the  regency, 
in  1788,  he  argued  against  the  principle 
of  the  ministers,  that  the  regency  was 
elective,  and  not  hereditary.      The  last 
great  act  of  his  political  life  was,  the  part 
he  took  in  the  French  revolution.    He 
early  manifested  his  dishke  to  it,  emd,  in 
1790,  loudly  condemned  the  principles 
and  conduct  of  the  revolutionists.     His 
famous  Reflections  on  the  Revolution  in 
France  appeared  in  the  following  Octo- 
ber ;  and  no  work  ever  attracted  more 
attention,  or  produced  more  effect.     It 
exhibits  both  the  merits  and  defects  of 
the  writer,  and  contains  much  justness  of 
argument,  profundity  of  observation,  and 
beauty  of  style  ;  but  it  is  equally  obvious 
that  he  commits  the  very  fault  which  he 
intended  to  reprobate,  in  his  Vindication 
of  Natural  Society,  by  making  his  argu- 
ments applicable  to  the  defence  of  all 
establishments,  however  tyrannical,  and 
censure  of  every  popular  struggle  for  lib- 
erty, whatever  the  oppression.      It  had 


an  unprecedented  sale,  and  obtained  un- 
bounded praise  from  all  who  trembled 
for  establishments,  or  were  alarmed  at 
the  odious  character  which  the  French 
revolution  was  beginning  to  assume.     On 
the  other  hand,  it  met  with  severe  and 
formidable   critics    and   opponents,   and, 
among  other  things,  produced  the  cele- 
brated Rights  of  Man,  of  Thomas  Paine. 
B.  followed  up  this  attack  with  a  Letter 
to  a  Member  of  the  National  Assembly 
(1791);  an  Appeal  from  the  New  to  the 
Old  Whigs;  Letter  to  a  noble  Lord  on 
the  Subject  in  Discussion  with  the  Duke 
of  Bedford  (1796) ;    Letters  on  a  Regi- 
cide  Peace,  &c.      In  all  these  produc- 
tions, he  displayed  unabated  powers  of 
mind.     In  1792,  lie  published  a  Letter  to 
Sir  Hercules  Langrishe,  on  the  Propriety 
of  admitting    Roman    Catholics    to   the 
Elective  Franchise,  and,  in  1794,  with- 
drew from  parliament,  and  was  succeed- 
ed in  the  representation  of  Malton  by  his 
only  son,  whose  death  soon  after  hasten- 
ed the  decline  of  nature  which  he  was 
beginning  to  experience.    Decay,  by  grad- 
ual approaches,  terminated  his  life   on 
July  8,  1797,  in  the  68th  year  of  his  age. 
He  preserved  his  senses  to  the  last ;  and,  ti 
few  hours  before  he  died,  he  had  read  to 
him  Addison's  paper  in  the  Spectator,  on 
the  immortality  of  the  soul.    Amiable  in 
private  life,  and  exemplary  in  Ijis  domes- 
tic and  social  relations,  he  was  greatly 
beloved  by  his  friends.     His  conversation 
was  dehghtful  and  instructive.    He  was 
exceedingly    charitable    and    beneficent, 
and  founded  a  school  for  the  children  of 
French  emigrants,  the  permanent  support 
of  which  formed  one  of  his  latest  cares. 
His  public  character  will  be  best  collected 
from  a  study  of  his  political  career,  and 
his  powers  of  mind  from  his  publications. 
His  oratory  was  preeminently  that  of  a 
full  mind,  which  makes  excursions  to  a 
vast  variety  of  subjects,  connected  by  the 
slightest  and  most  evanescent  associations, 
and  that  in  a  diction  as  rich  and  varied  as 
the  matter.    In  delivery,  however,  the 
effect  of  his  speeches  was  by  no  means 
proportioned    to    their    absolute    merit ; 
their  length,  their  copiousness,  abundance 
ofoniament,  and  wide  field  of  specula- 
tion, producing  impatience  in  men  of 
business  absorbed  in  the  particular  sub- 
ject of  debate  ;  added  to  which,  his  man- 
ner was  indifferent,  his  voice  harsh,  and 
his    action,    though    forcible,    inelegant. 
On  the  whole,  though  the  greatest  genius, 
he  was  by  no  means  the  most  effective 
orator,  in  the  house  of  commons.    The 
entire  works  of  this  great  man  have  beeit 


BURKE— BURMANN. 


335 


published  by  his  executors,  in  5  vols.,  4to., 
and  10vols.,8vo.  (See  Mevwir  of  Burke, 
by  J.  Prior,  2d  edition,  2  vols.,  London, 
1826.) 

Burleigh,  Lord.    (See  Cecil.) 

Burlesque  signifies  the  low  comic 
arising  from  a  ludicrous  mixture  of  things 
high  and  low.  High  thoughts,  for  in- 
stance, are  clothed  in  low  expressions,  or 
noble  subjects  described  in  a  familiar 
manner,  or  vice  versa.  The  burlesque 
style  allows  of  the  mixture  of  foreign  and 
domestic  words,  the  introduction  of  pro- 
vincialisms, colloquial  phrases,  &c.  Its 
object  may  be,  simply,  to  excite  laughter, 
or  to  provoke  derision  and  ridicule. 

Burletta;  a  light,  comic  species  of 
musical  drama,  which  derives  its  name 
from  the  Itahan  burlare,  to  jest.  It  origi- 
nated in  Italy,  fi-om  whence  it  passed  to 
the  Transalpine  countries. 

Burlington;  a  post-town  of  Vermont, 
and  capital  of  Chittenden  county,  situated 
on  a  bay,  to  which  it  gives  name,  on  the 
south  side  of  the  entrance  of  Onion  river 
into  lake  Champlain  ;  38  miles  W.  by  N. 
of  MontpeUer,  100  S.  of  Montreal.  Lat. 
44°  27'  N. ;  Ion.  73°  15'  W.  Population 
in  1820,  2,111.  B.  is  the  most  considera- 
ble commercial  town  in  Vermont.  Its 
trade  is  principally  with  the  city  of  New 
York,  with  which  it  has  a  water  commu- 
nication by  means  of  lake  Champlain, 
the  Champlain  canal,  and  the  river  Hud- 
son. The  village  is  very  finely  situated, 
lying  in  the  form  of  a  parallelogram,  with 
its  shortest  side  on  the  lake,  and  extend- 
ing back,  up  a  gradual  ascent,  to  the  dis- 
tance of  a  mile  from  the  water.  It  con- 
tains a  court-house,  a  jail,  a  bank,  3  houses 
of  public  worship,  an  academy,  and  a 
univershy. — The  university  of  Vermont 
was  incoiporated  and  established  at  B. 
in  1791,  but  it  did  not  go  into  operation 
till  1800.  It  is  finely  situated  on  the  east 
.side  of  the  village,  a  mile  distant  from 
lake  Champlain,  on  gi-ound  elevated  245 
feet  above  the  surface  of  the  water,  and 
commands  an  extensive  and  delightful 
prospect,  embracing  a  vicAV  of  the  lake, 
with  the  high  mountains  beyond  on  the 
west,  and  the  Green  mountains  on  the 
east.  A  large  college  edifice  of  brick, 
which  was  completed  in  1801,  was  con- 
sumed by  fire  in  1824 ;  since  which  time 
three  brick  edifices  have  been  erected,  two 
of  them  containing  rooms  for  students, 
the  other  containing  a  chapel,  and  other 
public  rooms.  The  university  posses- 
ses considerable  endowments,  consisting 
chiefly  of  lands;  but  the  number  of  stu- 
dents has  never  been  large.     Its  officers 


are,  a  president,  a  professor  of  mathemat- 
ics and  natural  philosophy,  a  professor  of 
the  learned  languages,  a  tutor,  and  four 
medical  professors. 

BuRMAN  Empire.  [Bee  Birman Empire.) 
BuRMANN ;  the  name  of  a  family  of 
learned  men,  originally  from  Cologne — 
Francis  B.,  bom  in  1G32,  was  professor  at 
Leyden  and  Utrecht,  where  he  died  in 
1769,  and  author  of  several  theological 
writings. — His  son  Peter,  bom  at  Utrecht, 
in  1668,  studied  there  and  at  Leyden .  He 
became  doctor  of  law  in  1688.  After  trav- 
elling in  Germany  and  Switzerland,  he 
began  the  practice  of  the  law,  without, 
however,  deserting  the  study  of  the  an- 
cients, as  is  proved  by  his  treatise  De 
Vectigalibus  Pop.  Rom.  In  1696,  he  was 
made  professor  of  history  and  rhetoric  at 
the  university  of  Utrecht.  At  a  later  pe- 
riod, he  became  professor  of  the  Greek 
language  and  politics.  From  this  time, 
he  published,  annually,  either  some  classic 
author,  with  notes,  or  masterly  Latin 
verses,  or  some  pamphlet  against  his  ad- 
versaries, of  whom  he  had  made  many 
by  his  intolerant  vehemence.  His  edi- 
tions of  the  classics  are  not  so  much  dis- 
tinguished for  taste,  as  for  leaming  and 
accuracy.  He  became  professor  of  elo- 
quence, history,  and  the  Greek  language, 
in  Leyden,  1715,  and  died  in  1741.  His 
younger  brother,  Francis,  died  in  1719, 
while  professor  of  theology  at  Utrecht, 
and  was  the  author  of  several  theological 
writings.  He  left  four  sons,  distinguish- 
ed likewise  as  scholars. — John,  born  in 
1706,  died  1780,  at  Amsterdam,  was  a 
physician,  and  professor  of  botany.  Lin- 
naeus makes  honorable  mention  of  his 
writings. — Peter,  born  in  1713,  devoted 
himself,  like  his  uncle,  to  philological 
pursuits.  In  1734,  he  was  made  doctor 
of  law  at  Utrecht.  In  the  following  year, 
he  became  professor  of  eloquence  and 
history  at  the  univei*sity  of  Franeker. 
In  1742,  he  went  to  Amsterdam,  as  pro- 
fessor of  history  and  ancient  languages, 
where  he  became,  in  succession,  professor 
of  poetry,  librarian,  and  inspector  of  the 
gymnasium.  Like  his  uncle,  he  has  jmb- 
lished  many  good  editions,  particularly 
of  the  Latin  classics ;  like  him,  he  was 
distinguished  by  learning,  by  his  talent 
for  Latin  poetry,  and  by  his  hasty  dispo- 
sition. He  died  in  1778. — Nicolaus  Lau- 
rentius  B.  succeeded,  in  1781,  his  fa- 
ther, John  B.,  as  professor  of  botany, 
for  which  science  he  did  much  by  his 
own  writings,  and  by  aiding  the  un- 
dertakings of  others.  In  paiticular,  he 
encouraged  Thunberg  to  visit  the  cape 


336 


BURMANN— BURNET. 


of  Good  Hope  and  Japan.    He  died  in 
1793. 

BuRMANN,  Gottlob  William,  originally 
Bormann,  bom  in  1737,  at  Lauban,  in 
Upper  Lusatia,  resided  in  Berlin  in  great 
poverty.  He  was  small  of  figure,  meagre, 
lame  and  deformed,  but  was  endowed 
with  sensibility  for  every  thing  sublime 
and  Iwautiful. — He  was  highly  eccentric. 
His  jK»ems  were  irregular,  and  deficient 
in  taste  and  finish.  His  merits  were  ob- 
scured by  his  singularities,  and  his  vigo- 
rous mind  was  forgotten  before  he  died. 
He  had  a  rare  talent  of  improvisation. 
Struck  with  palsy,  he  passed  the  last  ten 
years  of  his  hfe  in  great  misery.  His 
most  celebrated  works  are  his  fables, 
songs,  and  his  poems  without  the  letter  r. 
He  died  in  1805. 

BcRMHAN.  (See  Birman  Einpirt.) 
BuR>'ET,  Gilbert,  was  bom  at  Edin- 
burgh, in  1643,  and,  having  studied  at  Ab- 
erdeen, he  travelled  into  Holland  in  1664. 
On  his  return,  he  was  made  fellow  of  the 
royal  society,  in  London,  and  ordained 
at  Edinburgh  in  1665.  In  1669,  he  was 
made  professor  of  divinity  at  Glasgow, 
where  he  published  his  Conference  be- 
tween a  Conformist  and  a  Nonconform- 
ist ;  also.  Memoirs  of  the  Duke  of  Hamil- 
ton ;  and  was  offered  a  Scottish  bishopric, 
which  he  refiised.  His  Vindication  of  the 
Church  and  State  of  Scotland,  so  inconsist- 
ent with  the  general  tenor  of  his  conduct 
and  o{)inions,  was  much  approved  at 
court,  and  a  bishopric  was  again  offered 
him,  and  refused.  In  1673,  he  was  made 
chaplain  in  ordinary  to  the  king ;  and 
was  in  high  credit,  both  with  Charles 
and  the  duke  of  York.  In  consequence 
of  the  machinations  in  favor  of  popery, 
he  inclined  to  the  opposition  party  in  the 
Scottish  parliament,  and  afterwards  re- 
moved to  London,  where  he  was  coldly 
received  by  the  king,  and  stnick  out  of 
Ijis  list  of  court  chaplains.  The  nation 
being  alarmed  on  account  of  the  prog- 
ress of  popery,  B.  undertook  a  Histoiy 
of  the  Reformation  in  England.  He  gave 
a  first  volume  to  the  public  in  1679,  when 
the  afiair  of  the  popish  plot  was  in  agita- 
tion. It  procured  for  the  author  the  un- 
precedented honor  of  thanks  from  botli 
houses  of  parhament.  The  second  volume 
appeared  in  1681 ;  the  third,  which  was 
supplementary,  in  1714.  This  is  esteem- 
ed the  most  valuable  of  his  writings. 
The  high  character  of  B.  as  a  divine 
caused  him  to  be  sent  for  by  the  witty 
and  profligate  earl  of  Rochester,  when, 
exhausted  by  a  course  of  libertinism^he 
»vas  sinking  into  the  grave,  at  the  eai-ly 


age  of  33.  The  result  of  his  conferences 
with  the  dying  nobleman  he  gave  to  the 
world  in  his  celebrated  Account  of  the 
Life  and  Death  of  the  Earl  of  Rochester. 
About  this  time,  he  wrote  a  letter  to  the 
king,  censuring  his  public  mis-govern- 
ment and  private  vices.  His  connexion 
with  the  opposition  party  was  now  very 
intimate,  and  he  attended  lord  Russel  to 
the  scaffold,  whose  speech  there  it  is 
thought  that  he  penned.  He  published, 
during  this  period,  several  works  in  favor 
of  Uberty  and  Protestantism,  and  wrote 
the  lives  of  bishop  Bedell  and  sir  Mat- 
thew Hale.  On  the  accession  of  James 
II,  he  made  a  tour  in  France  and  Italy, 
of  which  he  pubUshed  an  account  in  let- 
ters addressed  to  Mr.  Boyle.  At  the  close 
of  his  travels,  he  was  invited  to  the  Hague 
by  the  prince  and  princess  of  Orange,  and 
had  a  great  share  in  the  councils  relative 
to  England.  James  caused  a  prosecution 
for  high  treason  to  be  commenced  against 
him  in  England,  and  demanded  his  per- 
son from  the  states,  who  refused  to  de- 
liver him  up.  In  the  revolution,  he  took 
an  active  part,  accompanying  the  prince 
of  Orange  to  England  as  chaplain,  and 
was  rewarded  for  his  services  wth  the 
bishopric  of  Sarum.  On  taking  his  seat 
in  the  house  of  lords,  he  displayed  his 
usual  moderation  in  regard  to  the  non- 
juring  clergy  and  dissenters.  As  a  prel- 
ate, bishop  B.  distuiguished  himself  by 
fervor,  assiduity  and  charity.  In  1699, 
he  published  his  Exposition  of  the  Thir- 
ty-nine Articles.  The  scheme  for  the 
augmentation  of  poor  hvings  out  of  the 
first  fruits  and  tenths  due  to  the  crown 
originated  with  B.  He  died  in  March, 
1715,  in  the  seventy-second  year  of  his 
age,  leaving  behind  him  his  well-known 
History  of  his  oAvn  Times,  with  an  Ac- 
count of  his  Life  (2  vols,  fol.,  1723—1724). 
He  merits  the  praise  of  depth,  vigor,  and 
variety  of  knowledge,  but  was  hasty  and 
rough  in  his  composition.  He  was  ar- 
dent, active  and  open,  benevolent,  liberal 
and  disinterested ;  but  vain,  self-important 
and  garrulous.  He  was  the  author  of 
numerous  works  besides  those  mentioned. 
William,  his  eldest  son,  originally  bred 
to  the  law,  became  governor,  first  of  New 
York  and  New  Jersey,  and  subsequently 
of  Massachusetts  and  New  Hampshire. 

BcRXET,  Thomas,  a  learned  divine 
and  philosopher,  was  bom  at  Croft,  in 
Yorkshire,  about  1635,  educated  under 
doctor  Ralph  Cudworth,  at  Cambridge, 
and  aftervvards  travelled  as  tutor  to  seve- 
ral young  noblemen.  In  1681,  he  made 
himself  known  by  his  TtUwris  sacra  The' 


BURNET— BURNEY. 


337 


oria,  which  he  subsequently  translated 
into  English.  After  the  revolution  of 
1688,  B.  was  appohited  chaplain  in  or- 
dinary and  clerk  of  the  closet  to  king 
William.  In  1692,  he  published  his  Ar- 
cJuEohgia  Philosophica,  sive  Dodrina  an- 
tiqua  de  Renim  Originibtts.  The  free- 
dom of  opinion  displayed  in  this  work 
led  to  the  removal  of  the  author  from  the 
clerkship  of  the  royal  closet.  He  died  in 
September,  1715,  and  Avas  inten-ed  in  the 
charter-house  chapel.  Two  posthumous 
works  of  this  author  appeai*ed  in  1727 — 
a  treatise  De  Fide  et  Officiis  Christiano- 
rum;  and  another,  De  Statu  Mortuorum 
et  Resurgentium.  All  the  works  of 
B.  exhibit  him  as  an  ingenious  specula- 
tor, rather  than  as  a  patient  and  sober 
inquirer  concerning  the  moral  and  natu- 
ral ])henomena  of  which  he  treats.  His 
great  work,  the  Theorv'  of  the  Earth,  is 
one  of  the  many  systems  of  cosmogony, 
in  which  Christian  philosophei-s  have  at- 
temyrted  to  reconcile  the  ftfosaic  account 
of  the  creation,  paradise,  and  the  deluge, 
with  the  traditions  of  the  ancients,  and 
the  i)rinciples  of  modem  science.  His 
speculations  are  recommended  by  sub- 
limity of  desci-iption  and  eloquence  of 
style.  In  his  Archaologia  Philosophica, 
the  doctor  has  combatted  the  literal  inter- 
pretation of  the  hisloiy  of  the  fall  of  man ; 
and,  to  expose  its  improbability,  he  has 
introduced  an  imaginarj'^  dialogue  be- 
tween Eve  and  the  serpent,  which,  as 
coming  from  the  pen  of  a  divhie,  is  sin- 
gular enough.  It  is  only  to  be  found  in 
the  fii-st  edition  of  the  work. 

Burnett,  James ;  better  known  by  his 
official  title  of  lord  Monboddo,  as  judge 
of  the  court  of  session  in  Scotland.  He 
was  boiTi,  in  1714,  at  the  family  seat  of 
j\ronl)oddo,  in  Kincardineshire.  After 
studying  at  Aberdeen,  he  went  to  tlie 
univei-sitj'  of  Groningen,  whence  he  re- 
turned in  1738,  and  commenced  practice 
as  an  advocate  at  the  Scottish  bar.  In 
1767,  he  was  raised  to  the  bench  on  the 
decease  of  his  relative,  lord  IMiltown.  He 
distinguished  himself  by  his  writings  as  a 
metaphysician,  having  published  a  Dis- 
sertation on  the  Origin  and  Progiess  of 
Language  (1774-1792,  6  vols.,  Svo.);  and 
Ancient  Metaphysics  (1778,  &c.,  6  vols., 
4to.)  Lord  Mon'boddo  was  an  enthusias- 
tic admirer  of  ancient  literature,  and  es- 
pecially of  the  works  of  Plato,  and  other 
Grecian  philosophers.  His  works  con- 
tain many  interesting  observations,  but 
also  exhibit  some  strange  and  paradoxical 
opinions.  Thus  he  seriously  advocates 
tlie  existence  of  satATS  and  mermaids; 

VOL.  II.  29 


and  has  advanced  some  whimsical  specu- 
lations relative  to  a  supposed  affinity  be- 
tAveen  the  human  race  and  the  monkey 
tribe,  which  exposed  hun  to  a  good  deal 
of  ridicule  on  the  firet  publication  of  his 
theories.  Both  his  official  and  his  pri- 
vate character  were  extremely  respecta- 
ble ;  and  he  was,  notwithstanding  his  ec- 
centricities, a  man  of  considerable  learning 
and  abiUty.  He  died,  in  consequence  of 
a  paralytic  stroke,  at  Edinburgh,  May 
26,  1799. 

BuRNEY,  Charles,  a  celebrated  com- 
poser and  writer  on  music,  bom  at 
Shrewsbury,  in  1726,  began  his  studies 
at  Chester,  under  the  organist  of  the  cathe- 
dral there,  continued  them  at  Shrews- 
burj',  under  the  direction  of  his  half- 
brother,  Bumey,  and  completed  them  in 
London,  between  1744  and  1747,  under 
doctor  Ame.  In  the  latter  year  appeared 
his  first  comijositions.  His  musical  pieces 
Alfred,  and  Queen  INIab,  composed  in 
1749,  made  him  known.  In  1751,  he 
obtained  the  place  of  organist  at  Lynn 
Regis,  in  Norfolk.  Here  he  commenced 
his  General  History  of  Music,  and  deter- 
mined to  visit  all  the  institutions  in  Eu- 
rope, at  which  he  could  obtain  important 
infonnation  for  his  woi-k.  In  1760,  he 
returned  to  London,  at  the  request  of  the 
duke  of  York,  where  his  compositions, 
and  the  musical  skill  of  his  eldest  daugh- 
ter, then  eight  yeai's  of  age,  excited  ad- 
miration. In  1769,  tlie  university  of  0.x- 
ford  bestowed  on  him  the  honorary  de- 
gree of  doctor  of  music.  In  1770,  he 
visited  France  and  Italy,  and,  two  years 
afterwards,  the  Netherlands  and  Germa- 
ny, for  the  sake  of  liis  great  work.  He 
pubUshed  an  account  of  both  tours.  After 
his  second  return,  he  became  a  fellow  of 
the  royal  society.  In  1776  appeared  the 
1st  volume  of  his  General  History  of 
Music  from  tlie  earliest  Ages  to  the  pres- 
ent Period  (4to.);  the  2d  in  1779,  and 
the  3d  and  4th  in  1789.  He  is  the  author 
also  of  several  other  valuable  works, 
among  which  are  tlie  3Iemoir  of  Handel, 
and  several  musical  compositions.  He 
died  in  April,  1814,  in  the  office  of  organ- 
ist at  Chelsea  college.  He  wrote  most 
of  the  musical  articles  in  Rees'  Cyclo- 
pjedia.  B.  had  a  numerous  family,  seve- 
ral members  of  which  have  highly  distin- 
guished themselves.  His  second  daugh- 
ter, Francisca  d'Arblay,  is  the  authoress 
of  the  well-known  novels  Evelina,  Ce- 
ciUa,  and  Camilla. 

BuRXEY,  Charles ;  second  son  of  the 
historian  of  music  ;  a  classical  scholar  and 
critic  of  high  reputation.     He  was  born 


338 


BURNEY— BURNING-GLASS. 


at  Lynn,  in  Norfolk,  in  1757,  and  receiv- 
ed his  education  at  the  charter-house 
Bchool,  and  the  univereities  of  Cambridge 
and  Aberdeen ;  distinguished  himself 
as  a  writer  in  the  Monthly  Review,  to 
which  he  contributed  many  articles  on 
classical  literature ;  subsequently  entered 
into  holy  orders,  and  obtained  some 
preferment  in  the  church.  He  died  in 
December,  1817  ;  and  his  valuable  collec- 
tion of  books,  many  of  them  enriched  with 
manuscript  notes,  was  purchased  by  par- 
liament for  the  Bi-itish  museum.  B.  pub- 
lished an  appendix  to  Scapula's  Greek 
Lexicon  from  the  MSS.  of  doctor  Askew ; 
a  valuable  edition  of  the  choral  odes  of 
^schylus,  the  Greek  tragedian  ;  the 
Greek  Lexicon  of  Philemon  ;  remarks  on 
the  Greek  verses  of  Milton ;  an  abridge- 
ment of  Pearson's  exposition  of  the  creed ; 
and  a  sennon  preached  ht  St.  Paul's: 
besides  which  he  printed,  for  private  dis- 
tribution, a  small  impression  of  the  Latin 
epistles  of  doctor  Bentley  and  other 
learned  scholars. 

Burning-Glass  ;  a  lens  which  unites 
the  rays  of  light  that  fall  upon  it  in  so 
narrow  a  space  as  to  cause  them  to  kin- 
dle any  combustible  matter  coming  in 
their  way,  like  fire.  The  same  name  has 
been  sometimes  given,  though  improp- 
erly, to  the  buniing-minx)r.  {See  the  next 
article.)  The  lenses  commonly  used  as 
burning-glasses  are  convex  on  both  sides ; 
these  bring  the  rays  upon  a  point  with  the 
greatest  force,  because  of  the  shortness 
of  their  focal  distance.  The  eifects  of  a 
burning-glass  are  more  powerful  ui  pro- 
portion as  its  surface  is  greater,  and  its 
focus  smaller.  That  such  a  glass  may 
produce  its  greatest  effect,  it  is  necessary 
that  the  rays  of  the  sun  should  fall  upon 
it  in  a  perpendicular  direction,  which  is 
tlie  case  when  the  image  of  the  sun,  that 
appears  at  the  moment  of  burning,  is  cir- 
cular. If  a  second  lens,  of  a  smaller  focal 
distance,  is  placed  between  the  first  and 
its  focus,  so  as  to  intercept  the  rays  which 
pass  through  the  first,  they  are  still  more 
condensed,  and  united  in  a  still  naiTower 
compass,  so  that  the  effect  is  greatly  aug- 
mented. The  Greeks  and  Romans  seem 
to  have  been  acquainted  with  burning- 
glasses,  or,  at  least,  with  a  kind  of  trans- 
parent stones  similar  to  them.  They 
became  more  known  in  the  13th  century. 
At  the  close  of  the  17th,  von  Tschimhau- 
sen  caused  the  largest  burning-glasses, 
consisting  of  one  piece,  that  are  known, 
to  be  poUshed  with  incredible  pains. 
Two  of  them,  still  in  Paris,  are  33  inches 
in    diameter,    and   the    weight    of  one 


amounts  to  160  pounds.  Both  glasses 
produce  an  effect  equal  to  that  of  the 
most  intense  fire.  They  kindle  wood 
which  is  both  hard  and  wet  in  a  mo- 
ment, and  make  cold  water,  in  small  ves- 
sels, boil  in  an  instant ;  metals,  placed 
upon  a  i)late  of  china,  are  melted  and 
vitrified  by  them ;  tiles,  slates,  and  simi- 
lar objects,  become  instantly  red-hot,  and 
vitrified.  As  Tschimhausen's  glasses, 
however,  are  not  perfectly  clear,  and  the 
effect  is  thus  considerably  lessened,  Bris- 
6on  and  Lavoisier  undertook,  in  1774,  Co 
put  together  two  lenses,  resembling  those 
used  for  watch  glasses,  filling  up  the 
space  between  them  with  a  transjjarent 
fluid.  In  this  manner,  veins  and  impuri- 
ties may  be  avoided,  at  less  expense. 
They  succeeded  in  making  a  burning- 
glass  of  4  feet  in  diameter,  the  greatest 
thickness  of  which,  in  the  centre,  amount- 
ed to  8  inches,  and  which,  of  itself,  had  a 
much  greater  power  than  the  glasses  of 
Tschirnhausen,  in  connexion  witli  a 
smaller  lens,  or  collective  glass,  but  pro- 
duced an  extraordinary  effect  if  joined 
to  a  collective  glass. — The  experiments 
made  by  means  of  large  burning-glasses 
are  important  in  chemistry  and  physic* 
The  power  of  a  burning-glass,  however, 
is  almost  four  times  less  than  that  of  a 
burning  mirror,  or  reflector  (q.  v.),  of  equal 
extent  and  equal  curvature.  This  reflects 
more  light  than  the  glass  allows  to  pass 
through  it ;  has  a  smaller  focal  distance, 
and  is  free  from  the  dissipation  of  the 
rays,  which  takes  place  in  the  burning- 
glass,  since  it  reflects  them  all  nearly  to 
one  point,  while  the  burning-glass  refi-acts 
them  to  different  points.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  burning-glass  is  much  more 
convenient,  on  account  of  the  place  of  its 
focus,  which  is  behind  the  glass.  The 
burning  point  (focus)  is  an  image  of  the 
sun;  its  diameter  is  equal  to  the  108th 
part  of  the  focal  distance,  and  its  cen- 
tre is  the  ybcits,  properly  so  called.  In  the 
higher  branches  of  geometry  and  conic 
sections,  the  foci  are  points  in  the  parab- 
ola, ellipsis,  and  hyperbola,  where  the 
rays,  reflected  from  all  parts  of  these 
curves,  meet.  Several  accidents  in  mod- 
em times  have  shown,  that  conflagrations 
may  be  caused  by  convex  window-glasses 
or  water-bottles,  &c.,  which  have  the 
fonn  of  burning-glasses,  if  the  rays  of  the 
sun  are  concentrated  by  them  upon  com- 
bustible substances  lying  within  their 
reach.  Since  the  casting  and  polishing 
of  large  lenses  are  attended  with  great  dif- 
ficulties, Buffon's  i)lan  of  casting  them  in' 
pieces,  or  zones,  and  afterwards  putting 


BURNING-GLASS— BURNS. 


339 


them  together,  has  lately  been  practised. 
Lenses  of  this  last  kind  have  been  inge- 
niously applied,  by  Becquey,  for  augment- 
ing tlie  light  on  light-houses,  according 
to  the  suggestion  of  Fresnel.  (See  Pha- 
ros.) For  the  history  of  burning  instru- 
ments, see  the  article  Burning  Mirrors. 

Burning  Mirrors,  or  Reflectors  ; 
mirrors,  the  smoothly  polished  surface  of 
which  reflects  the  rays  of  the  sun  that 
fall  upon  it  in  such  a  direction,  that  they 
unite  at  some  distance  from  the  miiTor, 
in  a  more  limited  space,  and  act  upon 
substances  within  this  space  like  the 
most  powerful  fire.  Concave  min-ors 
cause  the  rays  that  fall  upon  them  in  a 
direction  pai-aliel  to  their  axes  to  con- 
verge. Spherical  mirrors  of  this  kind 
are  the  most  common ;  but  parabolic  ones 
ai-e  also  used ;  and  even  plane  min-ors  may 
be  employed  hke  concave  ones,  if  several 
of  them  are  combined  in  a  proper  man- 
ner. In  order  that  a  burning  mirror 
should  produce  its  whole  effect,  its  axis 
must  be  directed  exactly  towards  the  cen- 
tre of  the  sun's  disk.  This  is  the  case  if 
the  light,  intercepted  by  a  plane,  perpen- 
dicular to  the  axis  of  the  mirror,  at  its 
focal  distance,  forms  a  circle.  The  focus 
then  hes  in  a  straight  line  between  the 
sun  and  the  mirror.  The  ancients  were 
acquainted  with  such  mirrors,  as  is  mani- 
fest from  several  of  theh  writings  still 
extant  It  is  impossible,  from  the  na- 
ture of  things,  that  Archimedes,  during 
tlie  siege  of  Syracuse  by  Marcellus,  should 
have  set  on  fire  the  fleet  of  the  latter  by 
means  of  concave  mirrors:  it  would  be 
more  credible,  that  it  had  been  effected 
by  a  combination  of  plane  mirrors.  Va- 
rious experiments  have  shown,  that  great 
effects  may  be  produced,  at  a  consider- 
able distance,  by  the  latter  instrument. 
Kircher  placed  five  plane  mirrors,  of  an 
equal  size,  in  such  a  position  as  to  reflect 
the  rays  upon  a  spot  one  hundred  feet 
distant,  and  thereby  produced  a  great 
heat.  BufFon,  in  1747,  effected  a  combi- 
nation of  168  plane  mirrors,  each  of  which 
was  6  inches  broad,  and  8  long.  With 
40  of  these  mirrors,  he  set  on  fire,  almost 
instantaneously,  a  board  of  beech  wood, 
covered  with  tar,  at  a  distance  of  66  feet; 
and,  with  128  mirroi-s,  a  board  of  pine 
wood,  likewise  covered  with  tar,  at  a  dis- 
tance of  150  feet.  With  45  minors,  he 
melted  a  tin  bottle,  at  a  distance  of  20 
feet,  and,  with  117  mirrors,  small  pieces 
of  money.  He  afterwards  burned  wood 
with  this  machine,  at  the  distance  of  200 
feet,  melted  tin  at  the  distance  of  150, 
lead. at  the  distance  of  130,  and  silver  at 


the  distance  of  60  feet.  During  the  last 
centuiy,  several  large  min-ors  were  made 
in  Italy,  two  of  which  are  still  in  Paris 
and  Cassel.  Von  Tschinihausen  also 
manufactured  one  in  1687,  3  Leipsic  ells 
(about  5i  English  feet)  in  diameter,  and 
the  focal  distance  of  which  was  2  ells 
(3j7,y  English  feet).*  It  consists  of  a  thin 
plate  of  copper,  highly  polished,  and  is 
now  in  the  mathematical  hall  in  Dresden. 
This  mirror  sets  wood  on  fire,  makes 
water  boil,  melts  tin  three  inches  thick,  as 
well  as  lead,  vitrifies  bricks,  bones,  &c. 
Besides  metals,  wood,  pasteboard,  glass, 
and  other  materials,  serve  for  burning 
miiTors,  if  their  sm-face  be  pohshei 
Burning  mirrors  have  of  late  been  used 
as  reflectors  (q.  v.),  to  throw  fight  at  a 
great  distance,  and  may  be  very  usefully 
employed  in  light-houses.  If,  for  in- 
stance, a  lamp  is  placed  in  tlie  focus  of  a 
parabolic  mirror,  the  rays  of  light  which 
fall  on  it  are  all  reflected  in  a  direction 
parallel  to  the  axis;  thus  tlie  reflectors 
of  Lenoir  appear  like  stars  of  the  first 
magnitude  at  the  distance  of  80,000  feet. 
(For  further  information  on  burning- 
glasses  and  burning  min-ors,  see  Priestley's 
History  and  present  State  of  Optics ;  and 
the  5th  vol.  of  the  new  edition  of  Gehler's 
Physikalisches  Lexicon,  Leips.  1825). 
Burning  of  houses.  (See  Arson.) 
Burnisher  is  a  blunt,  smooth  tool,  used 
for  smoothing  and  polishing  a  rough  sur- 
face by  pressure,  and  not  by  removing 
any  part  of  the  body.  Other  processes 
of  pohshing  detach  the  httle  asperities. 
Agates,  tempered  steel,  and  dogs'-teeth, 
are  used  for  burnishing.  It  is  one  of 
the  most  expeditious  methods  of  polish- 
ing, and  one  wliich  gives  the  highest  lus- 
tre. The  burnishers  used  by  engravers 
are  formed  to  burnish  with  one  end,  and 
to  erase  blemishes  with  the  other. 

Burns,  Robert ;  a  celebrated  Scottish 
poet,  whose  history  affords  a  memorable 
example  of  the  miseries  arising  from  the 
possession  of  extraordinary  talents,  unac- 
companied by  habits  of  prudence  and 
self-control.  He  was  the  son  of  William 
Bumes  or  Burns,  a  gardener  and  small 
farmer,  near  the  town  of  Ayr,  and  was 
bom  January  25,  1759.  He  was  brought 
up  to  rustic  labor ;  but  his  education  was 
not  neglected,  as  he  was,  at  an  early  age, 
instructed  in  English  grammar,  by  Mr. 
Murdoch,  (who  died  not  long  since  in  Lon- 
don), to  which  he  added  an  acquaintance 
with  the  French  language  and  practical 
mathematics.    Smitten  with  a  passion  for 

•  Another  account  ffives  diameter,  ^  French 
feet,  focal  distance,  12  feet. 


340 


BURNS. 


reading,  he  devoted  every  moment  he 
could  spare  to  the  perusal  of  such  books 
as  fell  ui  his  way,  and,  among  them,  meet- 
ing widi  the  works  of  some  of  tlie  best 
English  poets,  he  was  enabled  to  culti- 
vate and  improve  a  taste  for  poetiy  and 
romantic  fiction ;  which  was,  perha])s, 
first  inspired  by  the  chimney-corner  tales 
of  an  old  woman  in  his  fatlier's  family, 
whose  memoiy  was  plentifully  stored 
with  adventures  of  fairies,  witches,  war- 
locks, ghosts  and  gobUns,  which  she  re- 
ligiously believed,  and  therefore  detailed 
with  the  most  impressive  efiect  to  her 
admiring  auditors.  Bums's  first  poetical 
eftusions  Avere  prompted  by  love,  a  pas- 
sion of  which  he  was  pecuharly  suscep- 
tible. Having  begun,  he  continued  to 
make  verses,  which  attracted  the  notice 
of  his  neighboi-s,  and  gained  him  consider- 
able reputation.  His  company  was  con- 
sequently much  sought — a  circumstance 
which  led  him  to  an  indulgence  in  hab- 
its of  dissipation,  and  a  disgust  at  the 
plebeian  occupation  to  which  he  seemed 
destmed  by  fortune.  He  then  engaged 
in  busmess  as  a  flax-dresser,  in  the  town 
of  Irvine ;  but  liis  premises  were  destroyed 
by  fire,  and  he  was  obUged  to  relinquish 
the  undertaking.  His  father  dying,  he 
took  a  small  fann  m  conjunction  witli  a 
yomiger  brother;  and  this  scheme  also 
proved  unsuccessful.  In  the  mean  time, 
he  had  formed  a  connexion  with  a  young 
woman,  whom,  on  her  becoming  preg- 
nant, he  would  have  married;  but  his 
ruined  circumstances  induced  her  fi-iends 
to  object  to  it.  Thus  unsuccessful  at 
home,  he  engaged  himself  as  assistant 
overseer  to  a  jilantation  in  Jamaica.  To 
obtain  the  funds  necessary  for  the  voyage, 
he  was  induced  to  publish,  by  subscrip- 
tion, a  volume  of  his  poetical  eflFusions. 
It  was  accorduigly  printed  at  Klmar- 
nock  in  1786,  and  Burns,  having  derived 
from  the  publication  the  assistance  he 
expected,  was  about  to  set  sail  from  his 
native  land,  when  his  purpose  was  pre- 
vented by  the  communication  of  a  letter 
fi-om  doctor  Blacklock  to  a  friend  of  the 
AjTshire  poet,  recommending  that  he 
should  visit  Edinburgh,  in  order  to  take 
advantage  of  the  general  admiration  his 
poems  had  excited,  and  publish  a  new 
edition  of  them.  This  advice  was  eagerly 
adopted,  and  tlie  result  exceeded  his  most 
sanguine  expectations.  After  remainmg 
more  than  a  year  in  the  Scottish  metrop- 
olis, admired,  flattered  and  caressed  by 
persons  of  eminence  for  their  rank,  for- 
tune or  talents,  he  retired  to  the  country 
with  the  sum  of  £500,  which  he  had  re- 


alized by  tlie  second  pubhcation  of  his 
poems.  A  part  of  this  sum  he  advanced 
to  his  brotlier,  and,  with  the  remainder, 
took  a  considerable  farm  near  Dumfries, 
and  at  the  same  time  procured  the  ofiice 
of  an  exciseman.  He  also  now  complet- 
ed his  matrimonial  engagement  with  the 
female  to  whom  he  had  been  contracted. 
His  convivial  habits  ere  long  prevented 
him  fi-om  paying  a  proper  attention  to  his 
farm ;  and,  after  a  trial  of  three  yeai-s  and 
a  half,  he  found  himself  obliged  to  resign 
his  lease,  and  remove  to  the  town  of 
Dumfries,  to  follow  his  employment  as 
an  exciseman.  He  continued  to  exercise 
his  pen,  particularly  in  the  composition 
of  a  number  of  beautiful  songs,  adapted 
to  old  Scottish  tunes,  for  a  periodical 
work,  published  at  Edinburgh.  His  dis- 
position to  intemperate  indulgence  was 
too  deeply  rooted  to  be  overcome ;  and, 
in  spite  of  the  remonstrances  of  his  fi-iends, 
and  his  own  acknowledged  conviction  of 
the  folly  of  his  conduct,  he  persisted  in 
the  use  of  inebriating  liquors  till  he  had 
ruhied  his  constitution,  and  brought  on 
a  disease,  which  occasioned  his  death, 
July  21,  1796.  The  poems  of  B.  are 
none  of  them  of  any  great  length,  nor  do 
tliey  appertain  to  the  higher  kinds  of  po- 
etical composition.  It  appears,  indeed, 
from  his  correspondence,  that  he  at  one 
time  meditated  an  epic  or  dramatic  ef- 
fort, but  the  mode  of  spending  his  time, 
to  wliich  he  had  become  habituated,  ut- 
terly prevented  the  necessary  application. 
Whatever  he  has  done,  however,  he  has 
done  well.  His  songs,  his  tales,  and  his 
poetical  epistles,  display  pathos,  humor,  a 
vigor  of  sentiment,  and  a  purity  and  ele- 
gance of  style,  which,  in  spite  of  their 
being  clothed  in  what  may  be  termed  a 
provincial  dialect,  will  not  only  ensure  a 
pennanent  fame  to  their  author,  but  ad- 
vance him  high  in  the  records  of  native 
genius.  His  prose  compositions,  which 
consist  entirely  of  private  letters,  never 
intended  for  the  press,  are  altogether  as 
extraordinaiy  productions  as  his  poems ; 
and  those  literary  men  who  were  ac- 
quainted witli  him  have  asserted,  that 
his  conversation  was  not  less  calculated 
to  leave  a  powerful  impression  of  the  ex- 
tent and  accuracy  of  his  knowledge  and 
observation,  and  the  strength  and  vivacity 
of  his  genius.  He  left  a  wife  and  four 
children  unprovided  for ;  but  his  fi-iends 
raised  a  subscription  for  their  support; 
and  an  edition  of  the  works  of  Bums,  in 
4  vols.  8vo.,  w^as  published  for  their  ben- 
efit, in  1800,  with  a  hfe  of  the  author,  by 
doctor  Carrie,  of  laverpooU 


BURRAMPOOTER— BURTON-UPON-TRENT. 


dii 


Bttrrampooter,  or  Bramapootra,  is 
the  largest  river  in  India.    Its  sources,  not 

i^et  explored,  seem  to  be  situated  near 
ake  Manasarovara,  in  Thibet,  near  those 
of  the  Indus.  In  Thibet,  it  is  called  the 
Sanpoo,  flows  by  Lassa,  the  residence 
of  the  Grand  Lama,  and,  after  being  lost 
to  European  knowledge,  re-appears  in 
Assam.  In  its  rise  and  fall,  its  periods 
coincide  nearly  with  those  of  the  Ganges. 
Its  navigation  is  rendered  difficult  by 
shifting  sand-banks,  and  trunks  of  trees 
sticking  in  its  bed.  After  entering  Ben- 
gal, it  joins  the  Ganges,  at  Luckipoor, 
where  the  united  rivers  form  a  wide  gulf, 
communicating  with  the  sea  of  Bengal. 
The  course  of  the  B.  is  estimated  at  about 
1650  miles.  Rising  from  oj)posite  sides 
of  the  same  moimtains,  and  separating  to 
a  distance  of  1200  miles,  the  B.  and  the 
Ganges  are  destined  to  mingle  their  wa- 
tere  again  in  the  same  channel. 

BoRRiLi,  James,  a  distinguished  senator 
of  the  U.  States,  was  born  in  Providence, 
Rhode  Island,  April  25,  1772.  He  re- 
ceived his  education  at  the  college  in  Provi- 
dence, now  Brown  university,  and  was 
graduated  in  Sept.  1788.  He  then  pursu- 
ed the  study  of  the  law,  and  was  admitted 
to  practise  in  the  supreme  court  of  the 
state  before  he  reached  his  majority.  In 
a  few  years,  he  stood  at  the  head  of  his 
j)rofession  in  Rhode  Island.  In  October, 
1797,  he  was  elected,  by  the  general  as- 
sembly, attorney-general  of  the  state,  and 
aimually  after,  by  the  people,  for  seven- 
teen successive  elections.  The  decay  of 
his  health,  and  other  causes,  induced  him 
to  resign  that  oflice  in  May,  1813.  In 
1816,  lie  was  appointed,  by  the  general 
assembly,  chief  justice  of  the  supreme 
court,  having  been,  for  several  years  pre- 
vious, speaker  of  the  house  of  represen- 
tatives of  Rhode  Island.  In  the  next 
year,  he  was  placed  in  the  senate  of  the 
U.  States,  of  which  he  remained  a  highly 
esteemed  member  until  the  period  of  his 
decease,  December  25,  1820. 

Bursa,  a  city  of  Natolia,  in  Asiatic 
Turkey,  with  a  population  of  about  60,000 
Turks,  Greeks,  Annenians  and  Jews, 
engaged  in  commerce,  and  the  manufac- 
ture of  satins,  silk  stuffs,  carpets,  gauze, 
&c.  The  bazars  are  filled  with  mer- 
chandise, and  the  caravans,  j^assing  from 
Aleppo  and  Smyrna  to  Constantinople, 
promote  its  commerce.  It  contains  140 
mosques,  two  of  which  are  magnificent, 
and  is  adorned  Avith  an  immense  number 
of  fountains.  It  is  one  of  the  most  beau- 
tiful cities  in  the  empire,  situated  in  a 
fertile  and  finely-wooded  plahi,  which  is 
29* 


enclosed  by  the  ridges  of  Olympus,  and 
abounds  in  hot  springs.  The  castle, 
which  is  about  a  mile  m  circumference, 
is  supposed  to  be  the  Prusa  of  the  an- 
cients, built,  according  to  Phny  (v.  22),  by 
Hannibal.  In  the  14th  century,  it  was 
taken  by  the  Turks,  and  became  the  cap- 
ital of  the  Ottoman  empire  previous  to 
the  capture  of  Constantinople.  Its  port 
is  Montagna,  or  Mondania,  on  the  sea  of 
Marmora,  75  miles  S.  W.  of  Constantino- 
ple.    Lon.  29°  12'  E. ;  lat.  40=  11'  N. 

BuRscHErf ;  the  name  given  to  one 
another  by  the  students  at  the  German 
universities.  It  is  derived  from  hiirsales 
or  buraani,  the  name  which  the  students 
bore  in  the  middle  ages,  fi-om  the  build- 
higs  [bursce)  in  which  they  lived  in 
common.    (See  Univtrsities.) 

Burton,  Robert ;  a  writer  of  the  17th 
centuiy.  He  was  born  at  Lindlcy,  in 
Leicestershire,  1576,  educated  at  Oxford, 
embraced  the  ecclesiastical  profession,  and 
became  rector  of  Segrave,  in  Leicester- 
shire. His  learning,  which  was  various 
and  extensive,  is  copiously  displayed  in 
the  Anatomy  of  Melancholy,  by  Democ- 
ritus  Junior,  first  published  in  1621,  and 
repeatedly  reprinted.  B.  died  in  1640, 
and  was  buried  at  Christ  church,  with 
the  following  epitaph,  said  to  have  been 
his  own  composition : 

Faucis  notus,  paucioribus  ignotus. 
Hie  jacet  Democritus  Junior ; 
Cui  vitam  jiariter  et  mortem 
Dedit  Meliciicholui. 

He  was  a  man  of  integrity  and  benevo- 
lence, but  subject  to  strange  fits  of  hypo- 
chondriac melancholy,  which  rendered 
his  conduct  flighty  and  inconsistent. 
Sometimes  be  was  an  agreeable  and 
Kvely  companion,  delighting  those  around 
him  with  perpetual  sallies  of  wit  and  hu- 
mor ;  while,  at  other  times,  devoured  with 
spleen  and  ennuiy  he  sought  relief  by 
listening  to  the  jests  of  the  bargemen  on 
the  river  near  Oxfovtl.  He  is  reported 
also  to  have  undertaken  the  composition 
of  his  Anatomy  of  JMelancholy  with  a 
view  to  the  dissipation  of  his  morbid  feel- 
ings. Among  those  who  have  been  most 
deeply  indebted  to  B.  is  the  facetious 
author  of  Tristram  Shandy ;  who  has, 
however,  been  perhaj)s  too  harshly  cen- 
sured for  a  fault  which  eveiy  man  of 
genei-al  and  extensive  reading  knows 
to  be  common  to  almost  all  great  writ- 
ers. 

Bcrtox-upon-Tre>t  ;  a  town  of  Eng- 
land, on  the  north  bank  of  the  Trent, 
which  is  here  crossed  by  a  fine  old  brid^ 


343 


BURTON-UPON-TRENT— BURYING-PLACEa 


of  36  arches.  B.  is  a  borough,  and  the 
inliabitants  have  tlie  privilege  of  exemp- 
tion from  county  juries.  It  is  mentioned 
eariy  in  Saxon  histoiy,  and  suffered  much 
in  tlie  civil  wars.  It  is  chiefly  celebrated 
for  its  excellent  ale,  of  which  vast  quanti- 
ties are  made,  both  for  home  consujnp- 
tion  and  exportation.  Contrary  to  com- 
mon usage,  the  brewers,  in  preparing  it, 
employ  hard  instead  of  soil  water.  (See 
Brewing.)  Population,  in  1821,  G700. 
Lon.  1°  36'  W. ;  lat.  52°  50'  N. 

Burt  St.  Edmu>'d's  :  a  town  in  Suf- 
folk, England,  formerly  surrounded  with 
walls.  It  contains  two  fine  churches, 
with  numerous  monuments,  and,  before 
the  reformation,  had  five  hospitals.  Of 
many  benevolent  institutions,  the  ])rinci- 
pal  is  a  free  school  founded  by  Edward 
VI.  It  is  one  of  the  greatest  corn  mar- 
kets in  the  kingdom,  and  its  great  fair,  in 
October,  which  lasts  three  weeks,  is  at- 
tended by  the  nobility  and  gentrj^  of  the 
neighborhood.  The  town  is  a  borough, 
returning  two  representatives.  It  is  an 
ancient  place,  and  is  supposed  to  have  de- 
rived its  name  from  St.  Edmund,  a  king 
of  the  East  Angles,  who  was  buried  here. 
The  barons,  in  John's  reign,  met  here, 
and  formed  a  league  against  him.  B.  has 
been  the  seat  of  two  parliaments,  and  con- 
tains the  remains  of  an  abbey,  the  most 
wealthy  and  magnificent  in  Britain,  "with 
gates  of  brass,  towers  and  high  walls,  so 
that  one  might  think  the  monastery  alone 
a  city."  Barren  women,  desirous  of  off- 
spring, offered  a  white  bull  at  the  shrine 
of  St.  Edmund's.  72  miles  N.  N.  E.  of 
London.     Lat.  52°  5(y  N. 

Burting-Places.  The  custom  of  bu- 
rying the  dead  in  public  places  prevailed 
among  the  most  ancient  nations.  The 
Romans  had  this  custom  in  the  earliest 
times.  Afterwards,  in  the  flourishing  pe- 
riods of  the  republic,  they  burnt  their 
dead,  and  only  buried  the  ashes,  collected 
in  urns  (jfrwffi).  The  ancient  Germans 
buried  their  dead  in  the  groves  consecra- 
ted by  their  priests.  With  tlie  introduc- 
tion of  the  Christian  religion,  consecrated 
places  were  appropriated  for  the  purpose 
of  general  burial ;  and  it  was  regarded  as 
ignominious  not  to  be  buried  m  conse- 
crated earth.  The  deprivation  of  the 
rites  of  burial  was,  therefore,  part  of  the 
punishment  of  exconmninicalion.  The 
Romans  Avere  accustomed  to  provide 
their  sepulchres  at  least  with  a  stone, 
upon  which  W6is  inscribed  the  name  of 
the  deceased,  and  the  wish.  May  he  rest 
in  peace  {Sit  illi  terra  levis,  that  is.  May 
the  earth  rest  Ughtly  upon  him  J.  This  cus- 


tom was  presented  by  the  Christians,  The 
sepulchres  in  churches  originate  fi-om  an 
inclination,  common  to  men  of  all  times 
and  nations,  to  honor  their  relations,  even 
in  the  grave.  The  Egjptians,  Greeks 
and  Romans  erected  over  the  graves  of 
men  of  rank,  or  persons  othervvisc  re- 
markable, pyramids,  mausolea  or  temjiles. 
After  the  introduction  of  Christianity, 
Uttle  churches,  called  chapels,  were  erect- 
ed over  the  dead.  The  early  Christian 
martyrs  were  Ijuricd  in  caverns,  which, 
by  degrees,  were  enlarged  to  spacious  sul>- 
terranean  vaults,  and  called  chambers  of 
repose.  In  the  sequel,  others  considered 
themselves  happy  if  their  bones  were  al- 
lowed to  repose  near  the  ashes  of  a  mar- 
tyr. The  sepulchres  of  the  martyrs  were, 
on  this  account,  distinguished  by  a  white 
altar  over  them.  When  the  Christians 
were  allowed  the  public  exercise  of  their 
rehgion,  they  erected  churches,  and 
the  heathen  temples  became  places  of 
Christian  worship.  As  early  as  the  4th 
century,  they  built  churches  over  the  sep- 
ulchres of  the  holy  maityi-s  ;  and,  in  the 
belief  that  a  place  was  sanctified  by  their 
ashes,  they  anxiously  sought  out,  on  the 
erection  of  new  churches  in  cities,  or  the 
transformation  of  heathen  temples  into 
Christian  churches,  the  remains  (relics) 
of  the  maityrs,  and  buried  them  under 
the  altar  of  the  new  church,  to  communi- 
cate to  it  a  character  of  greater  sanctity. 
It  gradually  came  to  be  universally  con- 
sidered, among  the  Christians,  a  privilege 
to  be  buried  in  the  neighborhood  of  a 
saint.  The  emperor  Constantine,  who 
died  in  3^37,  was  the  fii-st  person  that  we 
know  of,  who  ordered  his  sepulchre  to  be 
erected  in  a  church.  This  was  done  in 
the  church  of  the  apostles  at  Constanti- 
nople, of  which  he  was  the  founder,  and 
therefore,  probably,  considered  himself  as 
peculiarly  entitled  to  this  privilege.  He 
was  soon  imitated  by  the  bishops,  and,  in 
the  sequel,  all  those  who  had  enriched 
the  church  were  distinguished  by  this 
honor.  The  emperors  Theodosius  and 
Justinian,  indeed,  forbade  the  erection  of 
sepulchres  in  churches,  but  in  vain.  Leo 
the  Philosopher  again  permitted  them  to 
every  body.  It  is  only  in  later  times  that 
men  have  become  convinced  how  injuri- 
ous it  is  to  the  health  of  the  living  to  re- 
main, for  a  long  time,  m  the  vicinity  of 
tlie  dead ;  particularly  if  the  corpses  re- 
main standing  in  simple  cofiins,  and  are 
not  placed  deep  in  the  earth,  as  is  com- 
monly the  case  in  the  sepulchral  vaults 
of  cluirches.  From  these  the  effluvia  of 
putrefaction    escape   easily,  and  diffuse 


BURYING-PLACES— BUSCHING. 


343 


themselves  in  the  air.  On  the  occa- 
sion of  opening  such  sepulchral  vaults, 
those  who  stood  near  them  have  some- 
times fallen  dead  on  the  spot,  and  no 
one  could  venture  into  the  church,  for  a 
long  time  after,  without  exposing  himself 
to  dangerous  consequences.  At  present, 
the  hurying  in  chiu-ches  is  ahnost  eveij- 
where  suppressed,  or,  at  least,  permitted 
only  imder  certain  restrictions.  Even  in 
Naples  and  Rome,  the  general  practice  of 
erecting  sepulchres  m  churches  was  for- 
hidden  in  1809,  and  the  foundation  of 
burial-places  without  the  city  was  provid- 
ed for.  The  custom  of  the  communities 
of  Moravian  Brothei-s,  who  form  their 
burial-places  into  gardens,  is  worthy  of 
imitation.  Several  Cathohc  church-yards 
ui  Germany  are  also  distinguished  by 
their  pleasing  aspect ;  for  instance,  one  in 
IMiinicli,  where  every  grave  is  covered 
wiUi  a  bed  of  flowers,  which  the  relations 
of  the  deceased  water  from  a  fountain 
dug  for  the  purpose.  The  Quakers,  it  is 
well  known,  erect  no  tomb-stones.  The 
beautiful  name  of  the  German  Moravian 
Brothers,  friedhof,  or  Jield  of  peace,  is  be- 
coming more  and  more  common  in  Ger- 
many. The  celebrated  buiying-place  of 
Pere  la  Chaise,  near  Paris,  is  one  of  the 
most  beautiful  and  interesting  spots  in 
the  world. 

BusAco ;  a  convent  in  Portugal,  in  the 
province  of  Beira.  The  monks  are  Car- 
melites, and  the  prospect  from  the  sum- 
mit of  the  Sierra  de  Busaco  is  one  of  the 
finest  in  Portugal.  It  is  memorable  for 
the  battle,  Sept.  27,  1810,  between  Mas- 
sena  and  lord  Wellington,  who,  on  a  re- 
treat before  the  superior  forces  of  the 
former,  availed  himself  of  the  favorable 
position  of  the  Sierra  for  checking  the 
pursuit.  Two  attacks,  one  on  tlie  right 
wing,  consisting  of  British,  and  tlie  other 
on  the  left,  composed  chiefly  of  Portu- 
guese, were  repulsed ;  but,  Massena  having 
detached  a  force  to  march  round  the 
mountain,  and  cut  off  the  British  troops 
from  Coimbra,  Wellington  retreated  to- 
wards that  city,  and  afterwards  to  tlie 
lines  of  Torres  Vedras.  (q.  v.) 

BusBECQ,  or  BusBEQuic's,  Augier 
Ghislen ;  the  natural  son  of  a  noblemim ; 
bom  in  1522,  at  Comines,  in  Flanders; 
legitimated  by  Charles  V.  After  having 
studied  in  the  most  celebrated  universities 
of  Flandei-s,  France  and  Italy,  he  accom- 
panied Peter  Lassa,  ambassador  of  Fer- 
duiand,  king  of  the  Romans,  to  England. 
In  the  next  year  (1555),  that  prince 
made  him  his  ambassador  to  Sohman  II. 
His  first  negotiation  was  not  very  suc- 


cessful. He  obtained  only  an  armistice 
for  six  months,  and  a  letter,  which  he  de- 
livered immediately  to  Ferdinand.  He 
then  returned  to  his  post,  and  this  time 
his  negotiations  were  completely  suc- 
cessful. After  seven  years,  he  returned 
home,  and  was  made  tutor  of  the  sons  of 
Maximihan  II.  When  this  prince  be- 
came emperor,  B.  was  sent  to  accompany 
the  archcluchess  Elizabeth  (who  was  to 
be  married  to  Charles  IX)  on  her  journey 
to  France.  B.  remained  there  in  the 
chai'acter  of  steward  with  Elizabeth,  and, 
when  she  left  France,  after  the  death  of 
her  husband,  he  continued  there  as  am- 
bassador of  Rodolph  II.  In  1592,  he  set 
out  on  his  return  to  Flanders,  and  was 
attacked,  on  tlie  way,  by  a  party  of  the 
Leaguei"s.  As  soon  as  they  had  seen 
his  passports,  they  permitted  him  to  con- 
tinue his  jouniey  imniolested,  from  re- 
spect to  his  character  of  an  ambassador ; 
but  the  terror  which  he  had  suft'ered 
threw  him  into  a  violent  fever,  of  which 
he  died  several  days  afterwards.  We 
have  remaining  two  important  works 
of  his  : — 1.  Legationis  Turcica;  Epistolm 
quatuor,  in  which  tlie  j)olicy,  the  power 
and  the  weakness  of  the  Porte  are  so 
profoundly  and  clearly  explained,  that, 
even  at  present,  uiformation  may  be 
drawn  fi'oni  them ;  and,  2.  Epistolce  ad 
Rudolphum  II,  Imp.  e  Gallia  scripUe  {edi- 
tcB  a  Homcaert),  a  veiy  important  work 
for  the  history  of  those  times.  His  style 
is  pure,  elegant  and  simple.  Dtu'ing  his 
stay  hi  Turkey,  he  collected  Greek  iiv 
scriptions,  which  he  communicated  to 
Andreas  Schott,  Justus  Lipsius  and  Gru- 
ter.  We  are  indebted  to  him  for  a  copy 
of  tlie  celebrated  monunientum  Ancyranum, 
which  he  had  transcribed  and  brought  Xor 
Europe.  More  tlian  a  hundred  Greek 
manuscripts,  which  he  had  collected,  were 
presented  by  hun  to  the  libi-ary  of  Vienna- 
Bi;scHi-NG,  Anthony  Frederic ;  born, 
1724,  in  Stadthagen,  in  Li|)pe ;  studied 
theology  in  Halle,  in  1744,  wiiere  he 
found  a  friend  and  protector  in  Bauni- 
garten.  On  his  travels,  as  tutor  of  tlie 
young  count  of  Lynar,  he  becauie  con- 
vinced of  the  defects  of  existing  geo- 
graphical treatises,  and  resolved  to  Avrite 
a  new  one,  which  he  began,  on  his  return 
to  Germany  (1752),  by  pul)lishing  a  short 
Description  of  Sleswic  and  Holstein,  as  a 
specimen.  In  1754,  he  was  made  pro- 
fessor of  philosophy  in  Gottingen.  In 
1755,  he  married  Christiana  Diltey,  a  lady 
who  was  remarkable  as  a  member  of  the 
Gottingen  learned  society.  Notwith- 
standing some  difliciUties  about  his  hete- 


344 


BUSCHING— BUSHMEN. 


rodox  opinions,  he  received  an  invitation 
to  become  pastor  in  a  Lutheran  church 
at  Petersburg.  In  1766,  he  was  made 
director  of  the  united  gymnasiums  of 
Berlin  and  of  the  suburb  Koln,  and  dis- 
charged his  duties  vv^ith  great  dihgencc. 
He  died  in  1793.  He  is  chiefly  distin- 
guished as  a  geograj)her.  Before  his 
great  work,  AUgemeine  Erdbesckreibung, 
which  he  began  to  pubHsh  in  1754,  in 
separate  vokunes,  and  wliich,  though  not 
entirely  completed  by  the  author,  passed 
through  eigiit  legal  editions  during  his 
life,  neither  the  Germans  nor  any  other 
nation  had  a  thoroughly  scientific  geo- 
graphical work. 

BusEMBAUM,  Hermann,  a  Jesuit,  fa- 
mous for  his  Medulla  TheologicB  moralis, 
ex  variis  probatisque  Audonbus  concin- 
nata,  bom  at  Nottelen,  in  Westphalia, 
1600,  rector  of  the  Jesuits'  colleges  at 
Hildesheim  and  Miinster,  died  in  1668. 
His  work  was  much  used  in  the  semina- 
ries' of  the  Jesuits,  and  had  passed  through 
50  editions,  when  father  Lacroix  publish- 
ed it,  increased  from  a  single  duodecimo 
to  two  folios  by  his  own  commentaries 
and  the  additions  of  father  Collendall.  It 
was  published  at  Lyons,  in  1729,  with 
further  additions  by  father  Montausan. 
The  latter  edition  was  reprinted,  in  1758, 
at  Cologne.  It  was  now  found  to  con- 
tain princij)les  concerning  homicide  and 
regicide,  which  appeared  the  more  repre- 
hensible on  account  of  the  recent  attempt 
on  the  life  of  Louis  XV,  by  Damiens. 
The  parliament  of  Toulouse  caused  the 
work  to  be  publicly  bunit,  and  summon- 
ed the  superiors  of  the  Jesuits  to  appear 
at  their  bar  for  trial.  They  disavowed 
the  doctrines  of  the  book,  declared  them- 
selves ignorant  of  the  author,  and  denied 
that  any  Jesuit  had  any  share  in  it. 
The  parliament  of  Paris  was  satisfied 
with  condemning  the  book.  Against  both 
these  sentences,  father  Zacharia,  an  Ital- 
ian Jesuit,  with  the  permission  of  his  su- 
I)eriors,  stepped  forward  as  the  defender 
of  B.  and  Lacroix  ;  but  his  defence  was 
condemned  by  the  parliament  of  Paris. 
B.  vrv^  also  the  author  of  Liliunt  inter 
Spinas,  de  Virginibus  Deo  devotis  eique  in 
SoEctUo  inservientibus. 

Bushel  ;  an  English  dry  measure, 
containing  8  gallons  or  4  pecks.  It  is 
also  used  in  the  North  American  U.  States. 
The  standard  English  bushel  (12  Henry 
VII)  contains  8  gallons  of  wheat,  each  of 
8  pounds  troy,  each  of  12  ounces,  each 
of  20  pennyweights,  each  of  .32  corns  of 
wheat  that  giew  in  the  middle  of  the  ear. 
In  1696j  a  duty  being  laid  upon  malt,  it 


became  necessary  to  ascertain  the  exact 
contents  of  the  Winchester  bushel,  as  thai 
of  Henry  VII  was  called.  It  was  found 
that  the  capacity  was  2151.7  cubic  inches 
of  pure  water,  equivalent  to  1131  oz.,  13 
dwts.  troy.  (See  J.  Q.  Adams's  Report 
upon  Weights  and  Measures,  Washington, 
1821.)  The  capacity  of  the  Imperial 
bushel,  prescribed  by  the  act  of  uniformi- 
ty (5  Geo.  IV,  c.  74),  which  took  effect 
Jan.  1,  1826,  is,  for  coal,  potatoes,  fruits, 
and  other  goods  sold  by  heaped  measure, 
2815  cubic  inches,  the  goods  to  be  heaped 
up  in  the  form  of  a  cone,  to  a  height 
above  the  rim  of  the  measure  of  at  least 
three  fourths  of  its  depth.  The  imperial 
bushel  for  all  liquids,  and  for  corn  and 
other  dry  goods  not  heaped,  contains 
2218.20  cubic  inches,  and  holds  80  lbs. 
avoirdupois  of  pure  water. 

BusHiRE,  or  Abushehr  ;  the  principal 
seaport  of  Persia,  situated  on  the  Persian 
gulf,  with  5000  inhabitants.  The  princi- 
pal ex])0rts  are  carpets,  wine  of  Shiraz, 
rose-water,  drugs,  i)earls  and  cotton. 
The  EngUsh  East  India  company  have  a 
factory  here.  Lon.  50°  43'  E. ;  lat.  28° 
59' N. 

Bushmen,  or  Boshmen  ;  the  common 
name  of  that  wild  race  of  people,  who 
dwell  in  the  western  part  of  South  Africa, 
in  the  immense  plains  bordering  on  the 
north  side  of  the  colony  of  the  cape  of 
Good  Hope,  and  are  lost  in  the  unknown 
regions  of  the  interior.  Janssens,  former- 
ly Dutch  governor  at  the  cape,  gives  the 
following  account  of  them : — The  Bush- 
men are  a  wild,  rude,  cruel  and  miserable 
people.  So  far  from  forming  a  nation, 
they  do  not  even  form  societies.  They 
Kve  together  in  single  families,  and  unite 
in  great  numijers  only  for  defence  or  for 
pillage.  They  do  not  cultivate  the  lantl, 
and  have  no  domestic  animals  except  the 
dog.  Their  usual  food  is  locusts.  They 
endure  hunger  for  a  long  time,  but  m- 
demnify  themselves  by  their  voracity  if 
they  are  so  fortunate  as  to  kill  any  wild 
game,  or  steal  an  ox  or  a  sheep.  They 
are  entirely  destitute  of  huts  and  house- 
hold furniture.  The  scorching  heaven  is 
their  tent,  and  the  hot  sand  their  bed. 
Their  weapons  consist  of  a  small  bow 
and  poisoired  arrows,  which  they  shoot, 
with  astonishing  accuracy,  to  a  great  dis- 
tance. Their  language  is  exceedingly 
poor.  It  consists  of  a  certain  rattling 
with  the  tongue,  and  harsh,  gurgling 
tones,  for  which  we  have  no  letters. 
They  are,  for  the  most  part,  of  low  stat- 
ure ;  their  skin  is  of  a  dark-yellow :  and 
their  bairj  which  resembles  wool ^  is  tv/ist- 


BUSHDMEN— BUSTARD. 


345 


ed  together  in  small  tufts.    (See  Hotten- 
tots,) 

BusHWANAS,  or  BosHUAjfAS,  or  Bet- 
JOCANAS ;  an  African  people,  occupying 
the  countiy  lying  between  20°  and  25° 
S.  latitude,  divided  into  several  tribes. 
Though  under  the  government  of  sepa- 
rate chiefs,  who  are  often  at  war  with 
each  other,  these  tribes  are  united  by  lan- 
guage, manners  and  customs.  Less  tall 
than  tlie  Caffres,  and  as  well  proportion- 
ed, their  form  is  even  more  elegant. 
Their  skin  is  of  a  brown  tint,  lietween  the 
shining  black  of  the  Negro  and  the  yellow 
color  of  the  Hottentots.  They  surpass 
the  Caffres  in  civilization  and  the  arts  of 
life.  Some  of  their  towns  are  considera- 
ble. Kurechanee  was  visited  by  Camp- 
bell in  1821,  who  estimated  the  popula- 
tion at  10,000.  Inoculation  for  the  small- 
pox is  practised  there.  Old  and  New 
Leetakoo  contain  each  4000  inhabitants. 
The  Bushwanas  are  inquisitive  and  intel- 
ligent ;  without  any  settled  occupation, 
yet  always  active.  Tlieir  principal  food 
is  the  curds  of  milk  and  the  produce  of 
the  chase  :  they  rarely  kill  cattle,  and  have 
an  invincible  aversion  to  fish.  The  ashes 
in  which  their  meat  is  cooked  serve 
them  for  salt.  Their  clothes  are  made 
of  the  skins  of  animals :  the  women  cover 
the  breast,  and  leave  the  belly  exposed. 
Their  ornaments  are  rings  and  bracelets 
of  ivory  and  brass.  Their  houses  are 
hght,  clean,  airy,  and  generally  of  a  cir- 
cular form.  They  are  very  skilful  in 
tempering  iron,  and  making  their  arms, 
which  consist  of  a  hassagay  (javelin),  a 
shield  and  a  club.  Polygamy  is  estab- 
lished among  them ;  a  young  man  buys  a 
wife  for  10  or  12  oxen :  her  first  business 
is  to  build  a  house,  for  which  she  fells  the 
necessary  quantity  of  wood.  The  erec- 
tion of  the  stable,  the  cultivation  of  the 
fields,  and  all  the  household  work,  falls  to 
her.  As  soon  as  he  can  afford  it,  the 
Bushwana  buys  a  second  -wife,  who,  in 
like  manner,  must  build  a  house  and  sta- 
ble, and  cultivate  a  piece  of  ground. 
Honesty,  loyalty  and  courage  are  the 
liighest  virtues,  in  their  estimation.  They 
have  an  idea  of  a  soul,  and  believe  in  an 
invisible  Lord  of  nature,  the  sovereign 
Dispenser  of  good  and  evil,  whom  they 
call  Mourimo.  Their  princijial  ceremo- 
nies are  circumcision  and  the  blessmg 
of  cattle.  They  divide  the  year  into  13 
lunar  months,  and  distinguish  the  planets 
from  the  fixed  stars.  Christianity  has 
been  introduced  among  them  by  mission- 
aries, and  with  it  some  degree  of  civiliza- 
tion. 


Buskin  (in  Greek  and  Latin,  cothur- 
nus) ;  a  kind  of  high  shoe  worn  upon  the 
stage,  by  the  ancient  actors  of  tragedy,  in 
order  to  give  them  a  more  heroic  appear- 
ance. It  was  introduced  by  Sophocles, 
and,  from  this  use,  the  word  is  figiu'atively 
employed,  by  the  classic  authors,  for 
tragedy  itself  (Juvenal,  xv.  29),  or  for  a 
lofty  and  elevated  style  {grande  mimus 
Cecropio  coikurno,  Hor.  Od.  ii.  1,  12). 
The  buskin  was  also  worn,  by  both  sexes, 
particularly  by  the  ladies,  for  ornament 
(.Tuv.  vi.  505).  The  Melpomene  in  the 
Villa  Borghese  has  the  buskin.  Hnntera 
and  soldiers  used  a  difiei'ent  kmd,  re- 
sembhng  the  half-boot. 

BcsT  (Italian,  it  husto,  from  the  Latin 
bustum),  in  sculj)ture  ;  the  representation 
of  that  portion  of  the  human  figure,  which 
comprises  the  head  and  the  upper  part  of 
the  body.  Busts  are  of  different  extent : 
1.  such  as  consist  of  the  head,  the  upper 
part  of  the  neck,  and  the  upper  part  of 
the  shoulders ;  2.  heads  with  the  upi)er 
part  of  the  chest,  to  the  end  of  the  breast- 
bone [hists  properly  so  called);  and,  3. 
heads  ^vith  the  whole  chest  to  the  middle 
of  the  body,  often  to  the  hips.  Between 
the  bust  and  its  pedestal  is  sometimes  a 
column,  or  a  square  prop ;  such  a  bust  is 
called  Herme.  The  figure  is  sometimes 
in  relief  The  origin  of  the  bust  may  be 
derived  from  the  Herme,  and  from  the 
custom  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans  to 
decorate  their  shields  with  portraits,  and 
their  vestibules  with  the  images  of  their 
ancestoi-s.  Busts  were  afterwards  used 
for  the  images  of  their  gods,  as  beuig  less 
expensive.  The  greater  part  have  been 
found  in  Rome  and  Italy.  Some  remarkable 
ones  have  been  obtauied  from  Herculane- 
um,  in  bronze.  'The  chief  difficulty  in  the 
execution  of  busts  arises  from  this  cii'cum- 
stance,  that  we  are  accustomed  to  estimate 
the  size  of  the  head  by  compaiing  it 
with  the  whole  body.  In  a  bust,  tliere- 
fore,  tlie  head  appears  disproportion- 
ately large,  and  the  artist  is  obliged  to 
yield,  in  some  measure,  to  this  ocular 
deception,  by  lesseiung  its  natural  pro- 
portion. 

Bustard  ;  the  trivial  name  of  a  species 
of  wader  belonging  to  the  genus  otis,  L., 
and  to  the  family  pressirostres,  C.  The 
great  bustard  {otis  tarda,  L.)  is  the  largest 
of  European  land-birds,  the  male  weigh- 
ing, on  an  average,  25  pounds.  It  is  four 
feet  in  length,  and  measures  nine  feet 
from  tip  to  tip  of  the  wings.  The  head 
and  neck  are  ash-colored,  and  there  is  a 
tuft  of  feathers  about  five  inches  long  on 
each  ade  of  the  lower  mandible.    The 


346 


BUSTARD— BUTE. 


back  is  transversely  barred  with  black  and 
bright  ferruginous  colors,  and  the  prima- 
ries are  black.  The  tail  consists  of  20 
feathers,  broadly  barred  ■vvith  red  and 
black.  The  belly  is  white,  the  legs  dusky, 
naked,  and  without  a  hind  toe.  The 
female  is  but  half  the  size  of  the  male, 
and  has  the  crown  of  the  head  of  a  deep 
orange  color,  traversed  by  red  lines ;  the 
remainder  of  the  head  is  brown.  She 
otherwise  resembles  the  male,  except  that 
tlie  color  of  her  plumage  is  less  bright. 
This  species  is  found  in  most  of  the  open 
and  level  countries  of  the  south  and  east 
of  England,  where  they  are  occasionally 
seen,  in  autumn,  in  flocks  of  50  and  up- 
wards. They  are  very  shy  and  vigilant, 
and  by  no  means  easy  to  shoot.  They 
run  with  great  speed,  and  aid  their  course 
with  their  wings,  like  the  ostrich.  Al- 
though they  rise  on  the  wing  with  tliffi- 
culty,  they  are  said  to  fly  many  miles 
without  resting.  They  feed  on  grain, 
seeds,  worms,  &c.,  and  lay  two  eggs,  as 
large  as  those  of  a  goose :  these  are  of  a 
pale  ohve  tint,  with  dark  spots.  The  nest 
is  merely  a  hole  scraped  in  the  earth. 
They  do  not  wander  far  from  their  accus- 
tomed haunts,  seldom  going  to  a  greater 
distance  than  20  or  30  miles.  Their  flesh 
is  considered  fine  eating. 

Butchers  have  been  much  the  same 
in  all  ages  and  countries,  and  we  know 
not  of  any  great  improvements  that  mod- 
em art  or  science  has  introduced  into 
the  practice  of  slaughtering  animals.  The 
ancient  Scythians,  and  their  Tartar  de- 
scendants, seem  to  be  peculiar  in  their 
taste  for  horse-flesh.  The  Romans  appear 
to  have  loved  beef,  and  veal,  and  mutton, 
as  well  as  the  modem  Europeans  and 
their  American  descendants :  cara  omnioy 
is  the  complaint  of  the  old  comic  vsriter, 
agninam  caram,  caram  bubulam,  vitidi- 
nam,  porcinam,  omnia  cara.  In  Paris,  the 
butcheries,  formerly  receptacles  of  fildi, 
and  injurious  to  health,  were  remov- 
ed by  Napoleon,  in  1809,  to  the  outskirts 
of  the  city.  They  are  called  abattoirs 
{aiattre,  to  fell),  and  consist  of  spacious 
buildings  for  the  reception  of  the  cattle, 
preparing  the  tripe,  tallow,  &c,  and  reser- 
voirs of  water  for  the  service  of  the  estab- 
lishments. Of  these  there  are  five,  in 
which  are  slaughtered  annually  75,000 
black  cattle,  wit£  a  proportionate  number 
of  sheep,  &c.  The  larger  anunals  are 
felled  by  a  blow  on  the  head,  and  the  ju- 
gular vein  is  immediately  separated  with  a 
knife.  The  flesh  is  then  bloum  (gonfti), 
by  injecting  air  into  the  vessels  through  a 
bellows,  which  gives  it  a  plump  appear- 


ance. Every  part  of  the  animal — bones, 
horns,  hoofs,  blood,  intestines,  hide,  tal- 
low— is  used  for  the  fabrication  of  glue, 
jelly,  Prussian  blue,  sal-ammoniac,  &c. 
In  London,  the  carcass  butchers  kill  the 
meat,  and  sell  it  out  in  great  quantities ; 
the  retail  butchers  sell  it  out  to  the  con- 
sumers. The  average  number  of  oxen 
sold  at  Smithfield  annually  is  156,000; 
sheep  and  lambs,  1,500,000 ;  calves,  22,000 ; 
hogs,  20,000.  The  Jews  in  London  have 
their  own  butchers,  who  are  licensed  by 
the  rabbis.  They  cut  the  throats  of  the 
animals,  never  knocking  them  down,  ac- 
cording to  the  usual  practice.  In  some 
countries,  the  method  of  slaughtering  cat- 
tle by  penetrating  tlie  spinal  marrow  is 
practised. 

Bute  ;  a  small  island  of  Scotland,  lying 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Clyde,  with  an  area 
of  29,000  acres,  belonging  principally  to 
the  marquis  of  Bute.  The  climate  is 
moist  and  mild.  The  herring  fishery  is  a 
profitable  employment.  The  only  to^vn 
is  Rothesay,  the  ruins  of  the  cjistle  of 
which,  fonnerly  inhabited  by  the  Scottish 
monarchs,  still  remain.  It  gave  the  title 
of  duke  of  Rothesay  to  the  heir  apparent 
of  Scotland.  The  title  is  now  transfeired 
to  the  prince  of  Wales. 

Bute  (John  Stuart)  earl  of;  a  British 
statesman,  bom  in  the  beginning  of  the 
18th  century,  m  Scotland.  His  ancestors 
had  been  elevated  to  the  peerage  in  1703, 
and  were  connected  with  the  old  kings 
of  Scotland.  In  his  youth,  B.  seemed 
devoted  to  pleasure,  and  little  inchned  to 
engage  in  pohtics ;  nevertheless,  m  1737, 
afl;er  the  death  of  a  Scottish  peer,  he  was 
chosen  to  fill  his  seat  in  parliament.  In 
consequence  of  his  opposition  to  the 
measures  of  the  ministry,  he  was  left;  out 
when  a  new  parliament  was  convened, 
in  1741.  Offended  by  this  neglect,  B.  re- 
tired to  his  estates,  and  lived  there,  wholly 
secluded,  till  the  landing  of  the  Pretender 
in  Scotland,  1745,  induced  him  to  go  to 
London,  and  oflTer  his  services  to  the 
government.  Notwithstanding  this  man- 
ifestation of  zeal,  he  would  not  have  been 
brought  forward  again,  if  he  had  not  at- 
tracted the  notice  of  the  prince  of  Wales, 
at  an  exhibition  of  private  theatricals,  in 
consequence  of  which  he  was  invited  to 
the  court.  Here  he  soon  gained  influence, 
and  succeeded  in  making  himself  indis- 
pensable to  the  prince.  At  his  death,  in 
1751,  he  was  appointed,  by  the  widowed 
princess,  chamberlain  to  her  son,  and  was 
intrusted  by  her  with  his  education.  B. 
never  lost  sight  of  his  pupil,  and  possessed 
80  much  more  influence  with  the  princess 


BUTE— BUTLER, 


347 


of  Wales  than  her  son's  particular  tutors, 
the  earl  of  Harcourt  and  the  bishop  of 
Norwich,  that  they  resigned  their  offices. 
Lord  Waldegrave  and  the  bishop  of  Lin- 
coln, who  were  chosen  in  their  stead, 
opposed  him  unsuccessfully.  George  II 
died  Oct.  25,  1760,  and,  two  days  after, 
B.  was  appointed  member  of  the  privy 
council.  In  March,  1761,  the  parliament 
was  dissolved.  B.  was  made  secretary  of 
state,  in  the  place  of  lord  Holderness,  and 
appointed  Charles  Jenkinson,  afterwards 
lord  Hawkesbury  and  earl  of  Liverpool, 
his  under-secretary.  Legge,  chancellor  of 
tlie  exchequer,  was  removed.  Pitt  (the 
great  Chatham),  who  saAV  his  influence  in 
the  new  council  annihilated,  gave  in  his 
resignation  the  same  year.  This  event 
made  an  unfavorable  unpression  on  the 
nation ;  but  B.,  possessing  the  unbounded 
confidence  of  his  king,  stood  at  tlie  head 
of  the  state.  Soon  after,  he  removed  the 
old  duke  of  Newcastle,  then  first  lord  of 
the  treasury,  and  the  only  one  of  the  for- 
mer ministry  remaining  in  ofiice,  and  im- 
mediately took  this  important  post  upon 
himselfj  receiving,  at  the  same  time,  the 
order  of  the  garter.  After  a  severe  con- 
test in  parUament,  he  concluded  a  peace 
witli  Fi-ance.  The  terms  for  England 
were  perhaps  not  disproportionate  to  the 
successes  obtained  during  the  war;  but  it 
was  disgraceful  that  the  king  of  Prussia, 
in  violation  of  former  treaties,  should  have 
been  left  to  his  fate.  B.  was  obUged  to 
hear  the  most  bitter  reproaches ;  yet  he 
succeeded  in  winning  the  popular  favor, 
and  eveiy  thing  seemed  to  promise  the 
power  of  the  minister  a  long  continuance. 
He  had  rendered  the  whigs  objects  of 
suspicion  to  the  king,  and  excluded  them 
from  the  administration ;  on  the  contrary, 
he  favored  the  tories,  even  tlie  former 
Jacobites,  and  thus  surrounded  the  king 
witli  persons  whose  principles  coincided 
with  his  o^vni,  especially  with  his  Scotch 
countrymen.  TJie  people  murmured,  and 
numberless  pamphlets  attacked  the  min- 
ister with  bitterness,  who  was  slowly 
gaining  the  confidence  of  the  public,  when 
new  causes  of  dissatisfaction  produced  a 
great  irritation  against  liim.  To  discharge 
the  debt  contracted  by  the  war,  he  was 
obliged  to  negotiate  a  loan,  the  interest  of 
which  was  to  be  paid  by  a  tax  on  cider, 
peiTy,  &c.  In  spite  of  the  opposition,  the 
bill  passed  both  houses.  The  city  of 
London  in  vain  petitioned  the  king  to 
refuse  his  consent  The  influence  of  B. 
seemed  unbounded,  when  it  was  made 
known,  contrary  to  expectation,  that  he 
had  resigned  his  office  as  prime  minister, 


and  was,  in  future,  to  live  as  a  private 
man.  G«orge  GrenviUe  succeeded  him 
in  the  ministry.  B.  soon  perceived  the 
weakness  of  the  administration,  and  en- 
deavored to  unite  himself  with  Pitt.  The 
plan  failed,  and  the  exasperation  of  the 
people  was  redoubled.  B.  was  still  con- 
sidered as  the  soul  of  the  royal  resolutions, 
and  particularly  as  the  author  of  the 
stamp  act,  which  kindled  the  first  flame 
of  discord  between  Great  Britain  and  the 
North  American  colonies.  Certain  it  is, 
that  his  friends  spoke  zealously  against  its 
repeal.  Those  ministers  who  did  not 
support  B.'s  views  were  removed.  His 
adherents,  who  called  themselves  friends 
of  the  king,  formed  a  powerful  party. 
They  were  stigmatized  wth  the  old  name 
of  cabal,  and  were  denounced  as  the  au- 
thors of  all  the  present  evils.  In  1766,  B. 
declared,  in  the  house  of  lords,  that  he 
had  wholly  withdrawn  from  public  busi- 
ness, and  no  longer  saw  the  king ;  still  it 
was  not  doubted  that  his  great  influence 
continued.  On  the  death  of  the  princess 
of  Wales,  1772,  he  seems  first  to  have 
given  ujj  all  participation  in  the  affaii-s  of 
government.  The  public  liatred  towards 
him  ceased,  and  he  was  forgotten.  He 
spent  his  last  years  on  his  estate.  A  cost- 
ly botanical  garden,  a  Mbraiy  of  30,000 
volumes,  excellent  astronomical,  philo- 
sophical and  mathematical  instruments, 
afforded  him  occupation.  His  favorite 
study  was  botany,  with  which  he  was  in- 
timately acquainted.  For  the  queen  of 
England,  he  A^TOte  the  Botanical  Register, 
which  contained  all  the  different  kinds  of 
plants  in  Great  Britain  (9  vols.,  4to.). 
This  work  is  remaikable,  both  for  its  ^ 
splendor,  in  which  it  excels  all  former 
botanical  works,  and  for  its  rarity.  Only 
12  copies  were  printed,  at  an  expense  of 
more  than  £10,000  sterling.  B.  died  in 
1792.  He  had  niore  pretension  than  abil- 
ity. By  engaging  in  politics,  for  which  he 
had  neitlier  talent  nor  knowledge,  he  lost 
his  own  quiet,  and  his  imprudent  meas- 
ures brought  trouble  and  confusion  on  the 
nation.  He  was  reproached  with  haugh- 
tiness ;  but  this  was  the  fault  of  a  noble 
sjiirit ;  and  he  steadily  refused,  during  his 
ministrj',  to  employ  venal  writers.  Dis- 
ti'ustful  and  reserved,  he  has  been  describ- 
ed as  harsh,  imperious  and  obstinate ;  yet 
he  was  generally  irresolute,  and  even 
timid.  His  morals  were  irreproachable. 
In  private  life,  he  displayed  an  amiable 
simplicity. 

Butler,  James,  duke  of  Ormond ;  an 
eminent  statesman  in  the  reigns  of  Charles 
I  and  II.    He  was  bom  at  London ;  sue- 


348 


BUTLER. 


ceeded  his  grandfather,  in  1632,  and,  al- 
though all  his  connexions  were  Catholics, 
his  wardship  being  claimed  by  James  I, 
he  was  brought  up  a  member  of  the 
church  of  England,  to  Avhich  he  ever  after 
constantly  adhered.  When  Strafford  be- 
came lord-lieutenant  of  Ireland,  B.  was 
made  commander  of  the  army,  which 
consisting  of  only  3000  men,  he  could  do 
little  more  than  keep  the  enemy  in  check, 
and  was  obliged  to  agree  to  a  cessation  of 
liostilities;  after  which,  having  been  cre- 
ated a  marquis,  he  was  appointed  lord- 
lieutenant.  On  the  ruin  of  the  royal  cause, 
he  retired  to  France.  After  the  execution 
of  Charles,  he  returned  to  Ireland,  with  a 
view  of  raising  the  people ;  but,  on  the 
landing  of  Cromwell,  he  again  returned 
to  France.  While  abroad,  he  exerted 
liimself  to  further  the  restoration  of 
Charles  ;  and,  when  that  event  was 
brought  about  by  IMonk,  returned  with  the 
king.  Before  the  coronation,  he  was  cre- 
ated duke,  and  assisted  at  that  ceremo- 
ny as  lord  high  steward  of  England.  In 
1662,  he  was  again  appointed  lord-lieu- 
tenant of  Ireland,  which  country  he  re- 
stored to  comparative  tranquiUity,  and 
was  an  active  benefactor  to  it,  by  encour- 
aging various  improvements,  particularly 
the  growth  of  flax  and  manufacture  of 
linen.  On  tlie  exile  of  lord  Clarendon, 
his  attachment  to  that  nobleman  involved 
B.  in  much  of  tlie  odium  attached  to 
him,  and  although,  on  his  recall  from  Ire- 
land, nothing,  on  the  most  rigorous  inqui- 
ry, could  be  proved  against  him,  he  was 
removed  by  the  machinations  of  Bucking- 
ham. In  1670,  a  desperate  design  was 
formed  by  the  noted  colonel  Blood,  whom 
he  had  imprisoned  in  Ireland,  to  seize 
his  person,  and  hang  hiui  at  Tyburn. 
The  project  succeeded  so  ikr,  that  he  was 
one  nigiit  forcibly  taken  out  of  his  coach 
in  St.  James's  street,  placed  behind  a 
horseman,  and  carried  some  distance ;  but 
at  length  he  direw  the  man  and  himself 
from  the  horee  by  his  personal  exertions, 
and  obtained  assistance  before  he  could 
be  replaced.  The  king  sent  lord  Arling- 
ton to  request  the  duke  to  forgive  the 
insult ;  who  calmly  replied,  that,  "  ff 
his  majesty  could  pardon  Blood  for  liis 
attempt  to  steal  the  crown,  he  might  easi- 
ly pardon  that  upon  his  hfe;"  adding, 
that  "  he  would  obey  the  king,  without 
inquiring  his  reason."  For  six  years,  he 
was  deprived  of  court  favor,  but  at  length 
was  agaui  appointed  lord-lieutenant  of 
Ireland,  which  place  he  held  during  the 
remainder  of  the  reign  of  Charles ;  but 
soon  after  resigned,  his   principles  not 


suiting  the  pohcy  of  James.  He  died  at 
his  seat  in  Dorsetshire,  in  1688,  leaving 
beliind  him  the  character  of  a  man  who 
united  the  courtier  and  the  man  of  honor 
and  integrity  better  than  any  nobleman  of 
the  time. 

Butler,  Joseph ;  an  English  prelate  of 
distinguished  eminence  as  a  writer  on 
ethics  and  theology.  He  was  bom  in 
1692,  at  Wantage,  in  Berkshire,  where  his 
father  was  a  shojikeeper,  and  a  Presbyte- 
rian dissenter.  After  some  previous  edu- 
cation at  a  grammar-school,  he  was  sent 
to  an  academy  at  Tewkesburj-,  witli  a 
view  to  ordination  as  a  minister  among 
the  dissenters.  While  occupied  by  his 
studies,  he  gave  a  proof  of  his  talents  by 
some  acute  and  ingenious  remarks  on 
doctor  Samuel  Clarke's  Demonstration  of 
the  Being  and  Attributes  of  Grod,  in  pri- 
vate letters  addressed  to  the  author.  He 
likewise  paid  particular  attention  to  the 
points  of  controversy  between  die  mem- 
bers of  the  established  church  and  the 
dissenters,  the  result  of  which  was  a  de- 
termination to  be  no  longer  a  nonconform- 
ist ;  and  he  therefore  removed  to  Oxford, 
in  1714.  Having  taken  orders,  he  Avas, 
in  1718,  appointed  preacher  at  the  Rolls 
chapel,  and,  in  1736,  he  was  appointed 
clerk  of  the  closet  to  the  queen.  The 
same  year,  he  published  liis  celebrated 
work,  the  Analogy  of  ReUgion,  Natural 
and  Revealed,  to  the  Constitution  and 
Coui-se  of  Nature.  In  1738,  doctor  B. 
was  promoted  to  the  bishopric  of  Bristol, 
on  the  recommendation  of  queen  Caro- 
line; and,  in  1750,  obtained  his  highest 
preferment — the  bishopric  of  Durham. 
He  died  in  1752,  and  was  inteired  in  Bristol 
cathedral.  A  charge,  delivered  to  the 
clergy  of  the  diocese  of  Durham,  on  the 
subject  of  external  rehgion,  together  with 
die  circumstance  of  his  setting  up  a  mar- 
ble cross  in  his  chapel  at  Bristol,  gave 
rise  to  suspicions  that  he  was  inclined  to 
the  principles  of  poperj-;  and,  after  his 
death,  a  report  was  spread  that  he  had 
died  in  the  CathoUc  faith ;  but  this  story 
was  sadsfactorily  contradicted  by  arch- 
bishop Seeker. 

BcTLER,  Samuel,  a  celebrated  English 
poet,  was  the  son  of  a  farmer  in  Strens- 
ham,  in  Worcestei-shire,  where  he  was 
bom  in  1612,  and  educated  at  Cambridge. 
He  resided  some  time  with  sir  Samuel 
Luke,  a  commander  under  Cromwell.  In 
this  situation,  B.  acquired  the  materials 
for  his  Hudibras,  by  a  study  of  those 
around  him,  and  particularly  of  sir  Sam- 
uel himself,  a  caricature  of  whom  consti- 
tuted the   celebrated    knight   Hudibras. 


BUTLER— BUTTMANN. 


349 


The  first  part  of  Hudibras  was  published 
in  1603,  and  was  brouglit  into  the  notice 
of  the  court  by  the  well-knowu  earl  of 
Dorset.     It  inimecFiately  became  highly 
popular   with    the    prevailing    jjaity    in 
churcli  and  state,  and  served  as  a  jEreneral 
source  of  quotation;  the  king  himself  per- 
petually answering  his  courtiere  out  of 
Hudiltras.     Celebrated  as  it  rendered  its 
author,  it  did  nothing  towards  extricating 
liiui  from  indigence.     All  the  bounty  of 
Charles  was  a  gratuity,  said  to  amount  to 
£300.     Thus  unpatronised,  btit  respected 
for  his  integrity,  and  beloved  for  his  social 
qualities,  he  died  in  1680,  and  was  buried 
in  St.  Paul's  church,  Coveut  garden,  at 
the  expense  of  his  friend  Mr.  Longueville, 
of  the  Temple.     A  monument  was,  40 
years  after,  erected  to  iiis  memory  in 
Westminster  abbey,  by  alderman  Barber, 
the  printer,  lest,  as  the  inscription  ob- 
serves, lie  cut  vivo  deerant  fere  omnia,  de- 
esset  ttiam  mortuo  tumulus  (he  who,  when 
living,  wanted  every  thing,  should,  when 
dead,  also  want  a  tomb).     Of  Hudibras  it 
is  scarcely  necessary  to  observe,  tiiat,  both 
in  its  style  and  matter,  it  is  one  of  the 
most  original  works  that  was  ever  -ivritten, 
and  that  it  exhibits  the  faculty  especially 
denominated  toit,  meaning  the  power  of 
rapid  illustration  by  remote  contingent 
resemblances,  to  a  most  remarkable  de- 
gree.   Possessed  of  much  wit,  of  great 
knowledge  of  life,  and  extensive  learning, 
B.  united  in  himself  all  the  requisites  for 
his  very  peculiar  undertaking.    As  a  work 
intended  to  ridicule  the  Puritans,  the  at- 
traction of  Hudibras  was  great,  but  tem- 
porary.    As  applicable  to  classes  of  char- 
acter which  exist  for  ever,  its  satire  always 
will  be  relished.     Fanaticism,  hypocrisy, 
and  time-serving  venality,  are  of  all  ages. 
Its  diction,  though  coarse  and  neghgent,  is 
adapted  for  the  conveyance  of  the  odd 
and  whimsical  notions  and  associations 
with  which  the  work  abounds.     In  fact, 
the  originality  of  B.,  as  to  matter,  elicited 
equal  originality  in  its  delivery.     In  1759, 
appeared  the  Genuine  Remains,  in  Prose 
and  Verse,  of  Mr.  Butler,  from  the  origi- 
nal Manuscripts,  formerly  in  the  Posses- 
sion of  W.  Longueville,  Esquire  (2  vols., 
8vo.). 

Butter;  an  oily  substance,  produced 
from  the  milk  of  kine.  Cream  is  composed 
of  an  oily  substance,  a  caseous  matter,  and 
serum  or  whey.  If  it  be  agiUited  about 
aa  hour  in  a  churn,  a  separation  of 
these  parts  takes  place,  and  a  solid,  called 
butter,  and  a  liquid,  called  butter-milk,  con- 
sisting of  the  whey  and  the  caseous  mat- 
ter, are  the  products.    The  proportions 

VOL.  II.  30 


of  these  products,  in  100  parts  of  cream, 
are, 

Butter, 4.5 

Cheese, 3.5 

Whey, 92.0 

100.0 

Chemical  analysis  gives  stearino,  elaine, 
and  a  small  quantity  of  acid  and  coloring 
matter,  as  the  component  paits  of  butter. 
Beckmann  (History  of  Inventions,  372) 
comes  to  the  conclusion  that  butter  is  not  ot 
Grecian  nor  of  Roman  invention ;  but  that 
the  Greeks  received  it  fi-om  the  Scythians, 
Thrucians  and  Phrj'gians,  and  that  the 
Romans  derived  it  from  the  people  of 
German j^,  and  used  it  as  a  medicine,  rather 
than  as  a  culinary  luxury.  In  warm  coun- 
tries, the  place  of  butter  is  still,  for  the 
most  part,  supphed  by  oil.  In  Italy,  Spain, 
Portugal,  and  the  south  of  France,  it  is 
to  be  purchased  in  the  apothecaries'  shops. 
The  difficulty  of  keejjing  it  any  length 
of  time  is,  indeed,  an  effectual  barrier 
to  its  general  use.  The  ancients  appear 
to  have  been  wholly  deficient  in  the  art 
of  giving  it  consistency.  The  European 
countries,  in  which  oil  or  butter  is  used, 
says  Malte-Brun  {Geog.,  Hv.  xcv),  may  be 
separated  by  a  line  extending  along  the 
Pyrenees,  the  Cevennes,  tlie  Alps  and 
mount  Hsemus.  To  the  north,  the  pas- 
turage is  better;  cattle  abound,  and  the 
food  is  chiefly  derived  from  them.  The 
oUve-gi-oves  to  the  south  supersede  the 
use  of  butter  by  that  of  oil.  The  butter, 
beer,  and  animal  food,  of  the  north  of  Eu- 
rope, give  way  to  oil,  wine  and  bread,  in 
the  warmer  regions.  The  word  chameah, 
translated  butter,  in  the  English  version  of 
the  Bible,  means  some  liquid  preparation 
of  milk  or  cream.  It  was  in  general  use 
among  the  Celts: — Spuma  id  est  ladis^ 
concretiorque  quam  quod  serum  vocatur, 
barbararum  gentium  laidissimus  cibus. 
[Pliny,  ix,  41,  and  xxviii,  9.)  The  Hindoos 
make  use  of  ghee,  which  means  butter 
clarified  by  boiling.  They  boil  the  milk 
two  or  three  hours,  which,  when  cool,  is 
fermented  with  curdled  milk,  left  to  sour, 
churned,  and,  when  it  is  sufficiently  ran- 
cid, is  boiled,  and  mixed  with  salt,  or 
betel-leaf,  and  ruddle,  to  improve  its  taste 
and  color. 

Butterfly.    (See  Papilio.) 

BuTTMANN,  Philip  Charles ;  born  at 
Frankfort,  in  17G4 ;  studied  at  Gottingen  ; 
Wcis  tutor  of  the  princes  of  Dessau ;  and, 
in  1800,  professor  of  the  gymnasium  of 
Joachimsthal ;  at  present,  second  librarian 
and  member  of  the  academy  of  sciences 
in  Berhn.    (See  Lowe's  Autobiography  of 


350 


BUTTMANN— BUXHOWDEN. 


learned  Men  in  Berlin  (Selbstbiographie 
V071  Bert.  Gelehrten),  1807,  3d  iiiiinber.) 
B.  is  one  of  the  most  distinguished  philol- 
ogists of  the  present  time,  uniting  with 
comprehensive  learning,  penetration,  per- 
spicuity and  conciseness  of  style.  His 
grammatical  writings  are  known  and  used 
in  all  the  best  schools.  The  first  edition 
of  his  abridged  Greek  Grammar  appeared 
at  Berlin  (1792),  the  seventi),in  1824;  the 
tenth  edition  of  the  larger  Grammar  was 
published  in  1822 ;  an  English  translation 
of  the  School  Grammar,  by  Everett,  ap- 
peared in  1822  (Boston,  N.  E.),2ded.,  182G; 
reprinted  in  England,  >\-ith  the  name  of 
the  American  translator  struck  out.  This 
work  owes  its  popularity  to  the  philosoph- 
ical clearness,  order  and  unity  with  which 
the  elements  of  the  language  are  illustrat- 
ed and  combined.  The  philosophical 
treasures,  which  were  excluded  by  the 
limits  of  a  school  book,  are  deposited  in 
two  other  works ;  his  LexUogus,  particu- 
larly intended  for  the  explanation  of  Ho- 
mer and  Hesiod  (1st  vol.,  Berlin,  1818, 
and  2ded.,  1825);  and  his  Complete  Greek 
Grammar  (BerUn,  1819—1825).  He  was 
also  actively  engaged  in  editing  the  clas- 
sics, and  in  many  works  on  tlie  mythologi- 
cal periods  of  antiquity.  They  are  spirit- 
ed and  elegant. 

Bottoms  are  of  almost  all  forms  and 
materials — wood,  horn,  bone,  ivory,  steel, 
copper,  silver,  similor,  &c.  The  tailor 
covers  them  with  stuffs,  and  the  female 
artisan  envelopes  them  with  a  texture  of 
thread,  silk,  cotton  and  gold  or  silver 
thread.  The  non-metallic  buttons,  called 
also  moulds,  are  made  of  the  substances 
first  mentioned,  by  sawing  tliem  into 
little  slips,  of  the  thickness  of  the  button 
to  be  made,  which  are  then  cut  into  the 
form  required,  by  an  instrument  adapted 
to  the  purpose.  Metallic  buttons  are  cast 
in  moulds,  or  cut  by  a  fly-press.  Any 
figure  or  inscription  may  be  impressed  on 
them  at  the  same  time  that  they  are  cut. 
The  little  wire  ring,  by  which  they  are 
attached  to  a  garment,  is  called  shank,  atid 
is  soldered  separately  on  each  button. 
The  details  of  smoothing,  polishing,  boil- 
ing, &c.,  would  occupy  too  much  room. 
The  face  of  the  button  is  generally  plated 
or  gilt.  Doctor  Church,  an  American, 
obtained  a  patent,  in  England  (1829),  for 
an  improved  manufacture  of  buttons  with 
a  metalUc  shank,  the  face  being  either  of 
polished  metal,  or  covered  with  any 
fabric.  The  various  operations  of  shaping 
the  discs,  forming  the  shanks,  cutting  the 
cloth,  and  covering  the  faces  of  the  but- 
tons, are  all  effected  by  one  revolving  shafl. 


Buttresses,  in  Gothic  architecture, 
are  lateral  projections  on  the  outside  of 
the  walls  of  an  edifice,  extending  from 
the  top  to  the  bottom,  at  the  corners  and 
between  the  windows.  They  are  neces- 
sary to  support  the  walls,  and  prevent 
them  from  s])reading  under  the  weight  of 
tlie  roof. 

BuTTURA,  Antonio ;  an  Italian  poet, 
born  at  Verona,  1771.  When  the  com- 
bined A  ustrian  and  Russian  armies  over- 
tln-ew  the  young  Italian  republics  in  1799, 
B.  took  refuge  in  France.  At  this  time, 
he  was  known  in  his  owTi  countrj'  by 
some  pleasing  sonnets,  and  an  Italian 
translation  of  Arnault's  tragedy  of  the 
Venetians.  In  Paris,  he  translated  Boi- 
]eau^s  Art  Poetique  into  Itahan  verse,  with 
a  strict  adherence  to  the  ideas  of  the 
original.  The  attempt  was  the  more  dif^ 
ficult,  as  Boileau  bad  so  harshly  censured 
the  master- work  of  Tasso.  Nevertheless, 
the  translation  met  with  approbation  in 
Italy.  This  approbation  of  the  public 
induced  liim  to  translate,  also,  Racine's 
Iphigenie  en  Aulide  into  Italian  verse.  In 
1811,  he  printed  a  volume  of  poems, 
mostly  odes,  full  of  enthusiasm  for  France. 
His  Essay  on  the  History  of  Venice,  in 
Italian  prose,  received  the  highest  appro- 
bation in  Italy  and  France,  as  likewise 
did  his  Tableau  de  la,  Litteratwe  Italicnne, 
which  is  merely  an  introduction  to  hia 
lectures  at  the  Alhenee,  in  Paris. 

BoxHowDEN,  Frederic  William,  count 
of;  descended  from  an  ancient  Livonian 
family ;  bom  on  the  isle  of  Moen,  near 
Osel;  was  educated  at  St.  Petersburg,  and 
engaged  in  the  war  against  the  Turks  in 
1769,  and  for  some  time  subsequent.  In 
1783,  he  was  made  colonel,  owing  his 
promotion  chiefly  to  his  marriage  with 
Natalia  Alexijeff,  1777.  In  1790,  he  de- 
feated the  Swedish  generals  Hamilton 
and  Meyerfeld,  and  rescued  Fredericks- 
ham  and  Viborg.  In  Poland,  he  com- 
manded a  Russian  division  in  1792  and 
1794.  At  the  storming  of  Praga,  he  re- 
strained, as  far  as  he  was  able,  the  fury  of 
the  soldiers.  Suwaroff  intrusted  him 
with  tlie  command  of  Warsaw  and  the 
administration  of  Poland.  His  modera- 
tion and  disinterestedness  gained  him  the 
esteem  of  the  Poles.  While  military  gov- 
ernor in  Petersburg,  he  fell  into  disgrace 
under  the  emperor  Paul.  Alexander 
made  him  inspector  of  the  troops  in  Li- 
A'onia,  Esthonia  and  Courland,  vni\\  the 
dignity  of  governor-general.  In  1805,  he 
commanded  the  left  wing  at  Austerlitz, 
which  advanced,  whilst  the  centre  and 
the  right  whig  were  beaten.    In  1806,  he 


BUXHOWDEN— BUYUKDERE. 


351 


commanded  50,000  Russians,  and  with- 
stood the  French  in  the  eastern  part  of 
Prussia.  Aftei*  the  defeat  of  Pultusk,  he 
was  unjustly  superseded  by  count  Ben- 
nigseji.  After  the  battles  of  Eylau  and 
Friedland,  he  was  aiiain  made  com- 
mander-in-chief. In  1808,  with  18,000 
Russians,  he  conquered  Finland,  obliged 
Sweaborg  to  capitulate,  and  terminated 
the  war  at  Tornea.  In  1809,  he  resigned 
on  account  of  his  liealth,  and  died  in 
1811. 

BuxTox ;  a  market-town  in  the  county 
of  Derby,  England,  situated  in  a  valley, 
celebrated  for  its  mineral  waters.  The 
springs  discharge  (30  gallons  a  minute : 
the  temperature  of  the  water  is  8'2°.  It 
is  colorless,  and  devoid  of  taste  or  smell. 
It  contains  calcarious  earth,  vitriolic  sele- 
nite  and  sea-salt,  and  is  an  active  remedy 
in  nephritic  and  bilious  comj)laints.  It  is 
used  both  externally  and  internally.  The 
Crescent  is  an  extensive  edifice,  divided 
into  three  hotels,  and  a  private  lodging- 
house.  The  lowest  story  forms  a  colon- 
nade, extending  the  whole  length  of  the 
front,  the  span  of  which  is  257  teet.  The 
season  for  the  Buxton  watei-s  is  from 
June  to  the  end  of  October.  It  was 
known  to  the  Romans;  and  the  unfortu- 
nate Mary  Stuart,  while  in  captivity,  re- 
sided some  time  at  tlie  HalL  She  letl  it 
vvitli  the  farewell, 

Bu-xtona, 
Forte  mihi  poslhac  non  adeunda,  vale ! 

B.  is  159  miles  X.  X.  W.  of  London. 

Buxton,  Jedediah,  an  extraordinary 
calculator,  was  born  in  Eberton,  in  Derby- 
shire. His  education  was  wholly  neglect- 
ed :  he  was  never  taught  to  read  or  write : 
and  how  he  first  learned  the  proportions 
of  numbers,  their  powers  and  denomina- 
tions, he  never  could  remember.  His 
power  of  abstraction  was  so  great,  that  no 
noise  whatever  could  disturb  him;  and, 
when  asked  any  question,  he  would  reply, 
nnd  immediately  return  to  his  calculation, 
without  the  least  confusion.  He  was 
once  asked  this  question : — In  a  body, 
whose  three  sides  are  23,145,789  yards, 
5,642,7:32  yards,  and  54,9l55  yai'ds,  how 
many  cubical  eighths  of  an  inch  ?  He  im- 
mediately set  to  work,  though  in  the  midst 
of  a  hundred  lalwrers,  and,  in  about  five 
}ioui-s,  prodticed  the  exact  answer.  His 
application  to  figures  prevented  his  mak- 
ing the  smallest  i)rogress  in  any  other 
branch  of  knowledge;  and,  on  other  sub- 
jects, his  ideas  were  as  confined  as  those 
of  a  child.  In  1754,  he  walked  to  Lon- 
don, and  was  introduced  to  the  royal  soci- 
ety.   He  was  also  taken  to  see  Richard 


III,  at  Drury  lane,  where,  instead  of  pay- 
ing attention  to  the  entertainment,  he  waa 
engaged  in  counting  how  many  words 
Gari'ick  uttei-ed,  and  the  steps  of  the 
dancers.  He  died  at  about  70  years  of 
age. 

BuxTORF,  John,  an  eminent  Cahinistic 
divine,  was  born  in  15G4,  at  Camen,  in 
AVestphalia.  Being  very  learned  in  He- 
brew and  Chaldaic,  in  the  acquirement  of 
which  he  obtained  the  assistance  of  many 
learned  Jews,  he  was  engaged,  by  the 
magistrates  of  Basil,  in  the  professoi-ship 
of  those  languages,  which  he  taught  with 
great  success.  He  died  at  Basil,  in  1G29. 
His  works  are.  Lexicon  Chaldaicum  ThuL- 
mudicum  et  Rabbinicum ;  Thesaurus  LAri' 
giite  Hcbraicce ;  Hebrew  Bible,  with  the 
Rabbinical  and  Chaldaic  Paraphrases,  the 
Massora,  &c. ;  Hebrew  and  Chaldaic  Dic- 
tionary ;  Hebrew  Grammar ;  Synagoga 
Judaica,  a  Collection  of  Modes  and  Cere- 
monies ;  Bibliotheca  Rabbinica ;  Institidxo 
Epistolaris  Hebraica;  Concordantice  He- 
braicce,  &.c.  &c. 

BuxTORF,  John,  son  of  the  preceding, 
was  boni  at  Basil,  in  1599,  and  was  made 
professor  of  the  Oriental  languages  there. 
He  published  a  Chaldaic  and  Syriac  Lex- 
icon ;  Tradatus  dt  Pundorum  Vocalium  et 
Accentuum  in  Ldbris  veteris  Testamenti  He- 
braicis  Origine,  Antiquitate  et  Audoritate ; 
and  Anti-critica,  seu  Vindicim  Veriiatis  He- 
braica ;  in  the  two  last  of  which  he  de- 
fended his  father's  opinions  concerning 
the  Hebrew  vowel  points.  He  was  also 
the  author  of  Dissertations  on  the  Old  and 
New  Testament ;  Florilegium  Hebraicum ; 
Exercitationes  Philologico-criticx,  &c.  He 
died  at  Basil,  in  1664.  There  were  two 
other  Buxtorfs — John  James,  and  John — 
relations  of  the  former,  who  both  were 
professors  in  the  same  chair  at  Basil,  and 
both  writers  on  Hebrew  literature. 

BuYUKDERE  (i,  c.,  great  valley,  from 
buyuk,  great,  and  dere,  valley) ;  a  charm- 
ing little  town  on  the  western  side  of  the 
Bosphorus,  not  far  from  Constantinople 
and  the  Black  sea,  so  called  from  the 
great  valley  in  which  it  lies,  whence  also 
the  stream  passing  through  it  is  called  B. 
The  valley,  as  well  as  the  river,  is  called 
BaOuKoXjiof,  i,  e.,  the  deep-bosomed.  It  was 
formerly  called  the  fair  land  {xaU;  aypoi). 
This  splendid  walk  is  now  called  the 
meadows  (Libadia,  la  prairie).  In  the 
lower  part  of  this  meadow  is  one  of  the 
most  splendid  groups  of  trees  on  the  Bos- 
phorus, consisting  of  seven  plane-trees, 
which  are  called,  together,  Jedi  Kardasch, 
i.  e.,  the  seven  brothers.  According  to  a 
tradition  not  well  substantiated,  Godfrey 


352 


BUYUKDERE— BUZZARD. 


of  Bouillon  encamped  in  these  meadows, 
in  1096,  with  an  ariny  of  crusailers.  The 
place  consists  of  the  lower  and  the  iij)i)er 
town.  In  the  former  are  the  houses  of 
the  Greeks,  Armenians,  and  some  Turks. 
In  the  upper  part  are  the  summer-houses 
and  gardens  of  the  European  ambassa- 
dors, besides  which,  many  also  have 
houses  in  Belgrade.  Among  these  houses, 
the  most  splendid  is  the  palace  of  the 
Russian  ambassador,  with  its  gardens. 
This  and  several  otlier  palaces  lie  to- 
gether on  the  beautiful  quay,  which  is 
one  of  the  most  frequented  walks  of  the 
people  of  B.  A  long  and  handsome 
street,  running  through  the  place,  con- 
sists of  two  rows  of  houses,  built,  for  the 
most  part,  in  the  European  fashion. 
Foreigners  often  pass  the  winter  here, 
on  account  of  the  beauty  of  the  country. 
B.  is  also  the  general  resort  of  the  higher 
classes,  if  a  contagious  disease  prevails  in 
Constantinople,  Galata  or  Pera,  as  well 
as  when  an  msurrection  of  the  people  is 
apprehended.  (See  Frankland's  Journey 
to  and  from  Constantinople,  London,  1829.) 
Buzzard  [vultur  aura,  Wils. ;  catharles 
aura,  Illig. ;  commonly  called  turkey- 
buzzard,  or  turkey-vulture).  This  bird  is 
found  over  a  vast  extent  of  tenitory  on 
the  American  continent,  in  the  West  India 
islands,  and  in  the  southern  parts  of  Eu- 
jpope  and  Asia.  In  the  U.  States,  they  are 
most  numerous  in  the  southern  parts,  and 
appear  in  the  Northern  States  only  during 
the  summer. — The  turkey-buzzard  is  a 
perfectly  hamiless  creature,  and  derives 
its  food  exclusively  from  the  i)utrid  car- 
casses which  ai'e  to  be  found  within  its 
range.  It  is,  therefore,  seldom  disturbed 
by  man,  and  does  not  exhibit  much  timid- 
ity, though  by  no  means  m  the  habit  of 
frequenting  the  immediate  vicinity  of  hu- 
man dwellings,  like  its  allied  species,  the 
black  vulture,  or  carrion  crow  of  the 
south.  The  turkey-buzzard  is  gregari- 
ous, and  flocks  of  considerable  size  are 
always  found  to  feed  and  roost  together. 
For  the  latter  purpose,  they  generally 
choose  the  hmbs  of  dead  trees,  upon 
which  they  may  be  seen  sitting,  with  both 
wings  outspread,  in  the  morning,  as  .if  for 
the  purjiose  of  giving  the  fresh  air  free 
access  to  their  bodies. — When  their  fa- 
vorite carrion  is  to  be  obtained,  they  are 
very  voracious,  gorging  themselves  until 
actually  unable  to  contain  more,  and  even, 
for  a  time,  rendering  themselves  unable 
to  fly.  Under  such  circumstances,  it  is 
unadvisable  to  approach  them,  as  they 
are  sure  to  be  revenged  upon  their  dis- 
turbers by  vomiting  over  them  a  torrent 


of  horribly  disgusting  filth.  Tliis  is  the 
only  mode  in  which  they  attempt  to  de- 
fend themselves ;  and  they  especially  re- 
sort to  it  when  any  one  interferes  with 
their  nests. — The  turkey-buzzard  flies  in 
a  very  beautiful  manner,  rarely  flapping 
the  wings,  except  in  rising  from  the 
earth,  but  saihng  and  dipping  in  beautiful 
curved  lines,  traversing  a  vast  space  with 
wonderful  celerity  and  ease,  or  soaring  to 
the  higlier  regions  of  the  atmosphere, 
until  entirely  lost  to  sight.  Like  all  the 
birds  of  their  class,  the  buzzards  possess 
strong  powei-s  of  vision ;  but  the  sense  of 
smelling  is  that  by  which  they  are  princi- 
])a!ly  guided  to  their  food.  This  they  are 
caj)able  of  thus  discovering  from  im- 
mense distances,  and  the  most  striking 
facts  illustrative  of  the  acuteness  of  their 
olfactory  organs  are  on  record.  Notwith- 
standing these,  and  the  obvious  evidence 
afforded  by  the  structure  of  their  smelling 
apparatus,  n  recent  wTiter  has  undertaken 
to  assert  that  they  are  possessed  of  little 
or  no  power  of  smelling. — The  places 
chosen  by  the  turkey-buzzard  for  laying 
are  generally  in  remote  and  solitary 
swamps,  or  dense  forests,  where  a  hollov/ 
stump  or  rotten  log  serves  for  a  nest. 
The  eggs  are  from  two  to  four,  of  a  dull- 
white  or  cream  color,  splashed  with 
chocolate  and  black,  the  patches  of  this 
being  largest  and  thickest  towards  the 
larger  end.  The  egg  resembles  that  of  a 
goose,  but  is  blunter  at  the  small  end :  it 
is  two  inches  and  three  fourths  long  by 
two  broad.  The  young  are  covered  by  a 
whitish  down,  somewhat  similar  to  that 
upon  a  young  gosling. — Some  years  since, 
we  obtained  a  young  buzzard  while  still 
covered  with  long,  Avhite  down,  with  the 
exception  of  the  wings,  Avbich  were  partly 
feathered.  It  was  unable  to  fly,  and  had 
advanced  to  a  party  of  wood-cuttere, 
while  at  work,  having  apparently  wan- 
dered too  far  from  the  nest  to  retrace  its 
steps.  As  it  seemed  hungry,  one  of  them 
gave  it  some  meat,  which  it  gi-eedily 
swallowed,  and  after\vards  remained  with 
them  until  they  returned  home,  and 
brought  it  with  them.  -This  young  buz- 
zard speedily  became  domesticated,  and 
as  importunately  demanded  food  as  any 
of  the  regular  tenants  of  the  poultry-yard. 
It  ate  all  sorts  of  meat  and  garbage,  uni- 
formly preferring  the  most  filtliy.  As  it 
acquired  full  plumage,  it  began  to  kill  and 
devour  the  young  ducks  and  chickens, 
placing  one  foot  upon  the  victim,  and 
leisurely  tearing  it  to  pieces  with  the  bill. 
As  this  buzzard  learned  to  fly,  he  fre- 
quently made  excursions,  and  returned  to 


BUZZARD— BYLES. 


353 


roost  upon  a  kitchen  chimney.  At  length 
he  one  day  joined  a  flock  which  was 
soaring  over  his  residence,  and  never 
after  retunied. — The  turkey-buzzard  is 
two  feet  and  a  half  long,  and  his  Avings 
are  six  feet  two  inches  from  tip  to  tip. 
The  head  a;id  neck,  for  an  inch  and  a 
half  below  tlie  ears,  are  furnished  with  a 
reddish,  wrinkled  slcin,  beset  with  short, 
black  liairs,  which  also  cover  the  bill,  as 
far  as  the  anterior  angle  of  the  nostrils, 
which  are  oval.  The  plumage  is  black, 
the  neck  feathered  equally  all  round,  and 
the  wings  not  reaching  beyond  the  tail. 
The  tail  is  rounded.  There  is  no  obvi- 
ous difference  between  the  male  and  fe- 
male. 

Buzzard's  Bat  ;  a  bay  on  the  south 
coast  of  Massachusetts,  ojiposite  Barnsta- 
ble bay.  It  runs  up  between  Seakonnet 
point  on  the  Avest,  and  Chatahunk,  one 
of  the  Elizabeth  islands,  on  the  east;  is  35 
or  40  miles  long,  and  7  wide.  It  ap- 
proaches Avithin  3^  miles  of  Barnstable 
bay.  It  lias  been  contemplated  to  unite 
these  bays  by  a  canal.  Lon.  70°  33'  to 
71°  m  W. ;  lat.  41°  25'  to  41°  42'  N. 

By-Law  is  a  particidar  law  made  by  a 
corporation,  or  by  any  other  distinct  por- 
tion of  the  communitj'^,  for  the  regulation 
of  the  affairs  of  its  raembei"s  in  such  of 
tlieir  relations  as  are  not  reached  by  the 
general  law  of  the  land.  Such  private 
laws  may  legally  be  made  by  all  incor^ 
porated  bodies,  as  civic  corporations,  trad-^ 
jng  companies,  &c,,  and  even  bytliebody 
of  the  uihabitauts  of  a  town  or  parish, 
provided  they  ujvolve  the  infraction  of 
no  public  laws,  but  are  merely  calculated 
to  supply  their  want  of  a])plication  in  the 
Ijaificjijar  instance.  These  j)rivate  laws 
are  binding  only  on  the  members  of  the 
body  for  which  they  arc  framed,  and  will 
not  he  recognised  as  valid  unless  they . 
ajipear  to  be  intended  for  the  general 
good  of  that  body,  and  not  for  the  jnere 
furtherance  of  private  or  personal  inter- 
ests. 

Btles,  doctor  Rlather,  was  born  in 
Boston  in  1706,  and  educated  at  Cam^ 
bridge.  After  comj)leting  his  studies  in 
theolog}%  he  was  ordained  the  first  pastor 
of  the  church  in  Hollis  street,  Boston,  B. 
contril)uted  many  essays  to  the  New  Eng- 
land Weekly  Journal,  and  several  occa- 
sional poems,  some  of  v»'hich  were  coir 
lected  in  a  volume.  He  corresponded 
with  Pojje,  Lansdowne  and  Watts.  In 
1776,  his  connexion  with  his  congregation 
was  dissolved,  on  account  of  his  toryism, 
for  any  disaffection  to  the  cause  of  the 
colonies  could  no  longer  be  tolerated.  Iq 
30* 


1777,  he  was  denounced,  in  town-meeting, 
as  an  enemy  to  his  countrj'^,  and  after» 
wards  was  tried  before  a  special  court. 
The  charges  against  him  were,  that  he 
remamed  in  the  toAvn  during  the  siege, 
that  he  prayed  for  the  king,  and  received 
the  visits  of  the  British  officers.  He  was 
sentenced  to  confinement,  with  his  fem- 
ily,  on  board  a  guard-ship,  and  to  be  sent 
to  England  with  them.  On  being  brought 
before  the  board  of  war,  he  was  treat- 
ed with  respect,  and  was  ordered  to  be 
confined  to  his  own  house  for  a  short 
time.  He  possessed,  in  a  remarkable  de^ 
gree,  a  ready  and  powerful  wit,  which  he 
sometimes  exerted  where  good  nature 
woidd  have  refrained,  and  left;  a  lasting 
sting  by  a  transient  jest.  He  exhibited 
tliis  love  of  ridicule  in  various  ways.  On 
one  occasion,  when  sentenced,  under  sns^ 
picion  of  tor}'i5m,  to  be  confined  to  his 
own  house,  with  a  sentinel  over  him,  he 
persuaded  this  sentinel  to  go  on  an  eirand 
for  him,  promising  to  take  his  place, 
The  sentinel  consented  to  the  arrange- 
ment, and,  to  the  great  amusement  of  all 
who  passed,  B,  was  seen  very  gravely 
marching  before  his  own  door,  the  mus^ 
ket  on  his  shoulder,  keeping  guard  over 
himself.  Duruig  his  confinement  in  his 
own  house,  a  guard  was  placed  over  him, 
and  then  removed.  On  some  further  com- 
plaint, a  sentinel  was  again  placed  over 
him.  He  was  soon  freed,  and  no  further 
noticed.  In  speaking  of  these  transacT 
tions,  he  said,  ^'lie  had  been  guarded, 
reguarded,  and  disregarded."  Directly 
opposite  to  his  house  there  was  a  very 
bad  slough  in  wet  weather.  It  happened 
one  day,  tliat  two  of  the  selectrmen,  who 
had  the  care  of  the  streets,  stuck  fast  in 
this  hole,  and  were  obliged  to  get  out  in 
the  mud  to  extricate  their  vehicle.  B. 
came  out,  and,  making  them  a  respectful 
bow,  said  : — "  Gentlemen,  I  have  often 
complained  to  you  of  this  nuisance,  with- 
out any  attention  behig  paid  to  it,  and  I 
an^  very  glad  to  see  you  stirring  in  this 
matter  now."  A  ship  from  London 
brought  out  300  street  lamps  for  the  town 
of  Boston.  It  chanced  that,  on  the  same 
day,  a  female  neighbor,  who  was  a  tiew 
light,  with  a  Aveak  mind  and  a  Avhining 
manner,  called  to  see  him.  Wishing  to 
get  rid  of  the  visitor,  he  soon  asked,  with 
a  tone  calculated  to  excite  curiosity,  if 
she  had  heard  the  ncAvs.  "  O,  no  !  dear 
doctor,  what  news  ?"  "  Why,  300  neio 
lighis  have  come  over  in  the  ship  that 
arrived  this  morning  from  London,  and 
the  selectrmen  have  Avisely  ordered  them 
to  be  put  in  irons  immediately."     His 


3S4 


BYLES— BYRON. 


visitor  at  once  hurried  away,  in  great 
anxiety,  to  make  further  inquiries.  B. 
hved  in  retirement  the  last  12  years  of 
Ills  Ufe,  and  died  July  5,  1788,  at  the  age 
of  82. 

Byjvo,  John,  sen-ed  under  his  father, 
ad?«iral  George  B.,  and  hy  his  merits,  as 
well  as  the  influence  of  his  naTne,  was 
raised  to  the  rank  of  admiral.  His  at- 
tempts to  relieve  fort  St.  Philip,  in  Minor- 
ca, when  hlockaded  hy  a  French  fleet 
under  La  Galissonierc,  proved  abortive ; 
and  his  hesitation  in  engaging  the  enemy, 
when  a  bold  attack  might  have  perhaps 
gained  him  the  victoiy,  excited  the  clamor 
of  the  nation  against  him.  The  ministry, 
who  wislied  to  avert  the  public  odium 
from  their  unsuccessful  measures,  beheld 
with  seeming  satisfaction  the  unpopulari- 
ty of  B. ;  and,  when  he  was  condenmed 
by  a  court  martial,  they  suflfered  him, 
though  recommended  to  mercy,  to  be 
sacriticed  to  the  general  indignation,  and 
he  was  shot  at  Portsmouth,  3Iarch  14, 
1757,  meetuig  his  death  witli  calm  res- 
ignation. 

Bynkershoeck, Cornelius  van;  aDutch 
lawyer,  bom  at  Middleburg  in  1675.  He 
studied  at  the  university  of  Franeker, 
and,  aft^er  practising  as  a  bannster  at  the 
Hague,  became  professor  of  law  at  Ley- 
den,  and  president  of  the  council  of  Hol- 
land. He  died  in  1743.  B.  was  one  of 
the  most  learned  among  modem  civilians. 
His  works  were  published  at  Geneva  in 
1761,  and  at  Leyden  in  1766.  They  are 
written  in  Latin ;  and  his  treatise  De 
Foro  Legatonim  compettrde  was  trans- 
lated, by  BarbejTac,  into  French,  under 
the  title  of  Du  Juge  competent  des  Amhas- 
sadeurs,  1728, 4to.  B.  edited  a  periodical 
publication,  called  T/ie  J^ew  Mercurij  of 
Vie  Hague,  which  was  suppressed,  owing 
to  the  otfence  taken  at  tlie  strain  of  satire 
which  it  exhibited. 

Byro>"  (Georg«  Gordon)  lord,  an  Eng- 
lish peer  and  poet  of  elevated  genius,  was 
born  at  Dover,  Jan.  22,  1788.  He  was 
the  grandson  of  admiral  John  B.  (q.  v.), 
and  succeeded  his  great  uncle,  William 
lord  B.,  while  at  school,  in  1 798.  His 
father  was  the  admiral's  only  son,  captain 
John  B.  of  the  guards,  notorious  for  his 
gallanti'ies  and  reckless  dissipation.  By 
the  eccentricity  and  misconduct  of  the  old 
lord  B.,  and  of  the  captaiit  his  nephew, 
the  reputation  of  the  family  of  B.,  so 
ancient  and  honorable  in  English  historj', 
had  been  considerably  tai'nished.  The 
former  was  tried  by  his  peers  for  killing 
his  relation,  Mr,  Chaworth,  in  a  combat 
with  swords,  atler  a  tavern  dispute,  under 


circumstances  so  equivocal,  that  he  was 
indicted  for  murder,  and  only  saved  from 
the  penalty  attendant  on  manslaughter  by 
pleading  his  peerage — an  escape  which 
did  not  prevent  him  from  being  consigTied, 
by  public  opinion,  to  a  life  of  sechisiou 
and  obscurity.     Captain  B.,  the  poet's  fa- 
ther, was  so  dissipated,  that  he  olnained 
the  name  of  the  mad  Jack  Byron.     He  was 
one  of  the  handsomest  men  of  his  day, 
but  so  immersed  in  all  the  fashionable 
vices,  that,  at  length,  to  be  seen  in  his 
company  was  deemed  discreditable.     In 
his  27th  year,  he  seduced  Amelia,  mar- 
chioness of  Carmarthen,  daughter  of  the 
earl  of  Holderaesse,  to  whom,  on  a  di- 
vorce following,  he  was  united  in  mar- 
riage.   This  ceremony  the  ill-fated  lady 
did   not   survive   more   than   two  years, 
when  he  took,  for  a  second  wife,  Jliss 
Gordon,  whose  fortune  he  quickly  dissi- 
pated, leaving  her  a  destitute  widow,  in 
1791,  with  a  son,  the  celebrated  subject 
of  this  article,  then  only  three  years  of 
age.     Previously  to  the  death  of  her  hus- 
band, having  been  deserted  by  him,  Mi-s. 
B.  retired,  Avith  her  infant  son,  to  Aber- 
deen, where  she  lived  m  narrow  circum- 
stances and  gi'eat  seclusion.    The  singular 
circumstan(!;es  attendant  upon  the  early 
childhood  of  B.   seem  to  have  operated 
very  materially  in  the  formation  of  his 
veiy  striking  character.    Until  seven  years 
of  age,  the  care  of  his  education  rested 
solely  on  his  mother,  to  whose  excusable, 
but  injudicious  indulgence,  some  of  the 
waywardness,  by  which  it  was  subse- 
quently marked,  was,  even  by  himselfl 
attributed.    Being  then  of  a  weakly  con- 
stimtiou,   tJiat  disadvantage,  addeil  to  a 
slight  malconformation  in  one  of  his  feet, 
naturally  rendered  him  an  object  of  pe- 
culiar solicitude;  and,  to   invigorate  his 
constitution,  he  was  not  sent  to  school, 
but  allowed  to  brace  his  limbs  upon  the 
mountains  in  the  neighborhood  ;  where 
he  early  acquired  fissociations,  and  en- 
countered a  mass  of  legendary  lore,  which 
indisputably  nurtured  his  poetical  tenden- 
cies.   At  the  age  of  seven,  he  was  sent  to 
the  grammar-school  at  Aberdeen,  wliere 
he  was  more  distinguished  for  great  occa- 
sional exertions,  in  order  to  make  up  for 
the  inters-als  of  absence,  rendered  neces- 
sarj"^  by  his  delicacy  of  health,  than  by 
liis  general  application.     In  all  boyish 
sports,  however,  the  ardor  of  his  temper- 
ament enabled  him  to  surmount  his  natu- 
ral disadvantages.     In  1798,  the  death  of 
his  great  uncle,  without  issue,  gave  him 
the  titles  and  estates  of  the  family  ;   ou 
which,  being  then  ten  years  of  age,  he 


BYRON. 


353 


was  removed  from  the  immediate  care  of 
his  mother,  and  placed  imder  the  guardi- 
anship of  the  earl  of  Carlisle,  who  had 
man-ied  the  sister  of  the  late  lord  B.,  a 
lady  of  considerable  poetical  abilities.  On 
this  change,  the  youthful  lord  was  placed 
at  Harrow,  where  he  distinguished  him- 
self more  by  his  love  of  manly  sports, 
and  by  his  undaunted  spirit,  than  liy  at- 
tention to  his  studies,  or  submission  to 
school  discipline  ;  but,  although,  in  a  sub- 
sequent part  of  his  life,  he  indulged  in 
so?ne  animadversion  upon  the  tendency 
of  the  system  in  public  schools,  he  always 
cherished  an  affectionate  remembrance 
of  Harrow,  and  of  its  master,  doctor 
Drury.  While  yet  at  school,  he  fell 
deeply  in  love  with  Miss  Chaworth,  the 
daughter  and  heu-ess  of  the  gentleman 
who  had  fallen  by  the  hand  of  his  great 
uncle,  whom  he  met  with  on  his  oc- 
casional visits  to  Newstead.  This  lady, 
to  whom  he  very  beautifully  alludes  in  a 
well-kno^vll  poetical  Dream,  although 
8ome  interviews  and  billets  seem  to  have 
passed  between  them,  ultimately  married 
another  and  more  mature  suitor.  This 
disappointment  exceedingly  wounded 
the  ardent  spirit  of  the  youthful  lover. 
When  between  16  and  17,  he  was  entered 
of  Trinity  college,  Cambridge ;  and  here, 
as  at  Harrow,  his  dislike  of  discipline 
drew  ujron  him  much  unavoidable  re- 
buke, which  he  repaid  with  sarcasm  and 
satire  ;  and,  among  other  practical  jokes, 
kept  a  bear,  which,  he  observed,  he  was 
training  up  for  a  degree.  At  19,  he  quit- 
ted the  university,  and  took  up  his  resi- 
dence at  the  family  seat  of  Newstead 
abbey,  where  he  employed  himself  chiefly 
in  amusement,  and  especially  in  aquatic 
sports  and  swimming.  In  1807,  while 
still  at  Newstead,  he  arranged  his  early 
productions,  which  he  caused  to  be  print- 
ed at  Newark,  under  the  title  of  Hours  of 
Idleness,  by  George  Gordon  Lord  Byron, 
a  Minor.  These  poems,  although  exhib- 
iting some  indication  of  the  future  ])oet, 
also  betrayed  several  marks  of  juvenility 
and  imitation,  which  induced  the  Edin- 
burgh reviewers  to  indulge  in  a  cele- 
brated attack,  much  less  disdnguished  for 
wit  or  acumen,  than  for  unreasonable 
causticity  and  ill-nature.  The  ridicule 
produced  by  this  critique  roused  the  an- 
ger of  the  poet,  who  took  revenge  in  his 
celebrated  satire  of  English  Bards  and 
Scotch  Reviewers.  The  spirit  of  resent- 
ment is  seldom  very  just;  and  the  anger, 
rather  than  the  judgment  of  B.,  guided 
his  pen  on  this  occasion.  It  happened, 
too,   singularly  enough,  that,  owing  to 


party  and  other  predilections,  a  number 
of  the  persons  satirized  in  this  poem,  no 
long  time  after,  were  numbered  among 
the  friends  of  the  author ;  for  which  rea- 
son, after  it  had  passed  through  4  editions, 
he  suppressed  it.  It  is  unj)leasant  to  re- 
late, that,  about  this  time,  B.  gave  into  a 
career  of  dissipation,  too  prevalent  among 
the  youthful  [jossessoi-s  of  rank  and  for- 
tune, when  altogether  uncontrolled.  Thus 
his  fortune  became  deeply  involved  be- 
fore he  had  attained  legal  maturity,  and 
his  constitution  much  impaired  by  the 
excesses  in  which  he  spent  it.  This, 
however,  was  not  a  course  to  last ;  and, 
in  the  year  1809,  he  determined  to  trav- 
el. Accordingly,  in  company  with  his 
fellow  collegian,  John  Cam  Hobhouse, 
Esq.,  he  embarked  at  Falmouth  for  Lis- 
bon, and  proceeded  through  the  southern 
provinces  of  Spain  to  the  Mediterranean. 
His  subsequent  peregrinations  in  Greece, 
Turkey,  &c.,  need  not  be  detailed  here, 
having  been  rendered  so  famous  by  his 
fine  poem  of  Childe  Harold's  Pilgrimage. 
He  returned  home  in  June,  1811,  after  an 
absence  of  two  years,  and  had  not  long 
an-ived,  before  he  was  summoned  to 
Newstead,  in  consequence  of  the  danger- 
ous illness  of  his  mother,  who  breathed 
her  last  before  he  coidd  reach  her.  In 
1812,  he  gave  to  the  world  the  two  first 
cantos  of  Childe  Harold's  Pilgrimage. 
This  assumption  of  the  character  of  a 
wayward  libertine,  satiated,  by  an  over 
cultivation  of  pleasure,  into  misanthropy, 
tedium  and  listlessness,  and  that  in  such 
a  manner,  that  the  apjilication  would 
necessarily  be  made  to  himself,  afforded 
proof  both  of  the  perverted  feeling  and  of 
the  originality  of  B.  There  was,  how- 
ever, a  boldness  in  the  repulsive  personi- 
fication, and  a  force  and  an  energy  in  the 
mode  of  supporting  it,  so  indicative  of 
great  powers,  that  it  at  once  produced  its 
impression.  Eulogy  now  flowed  in  from 
all  quarters.  Even  the  readers  who  dis- 
a])proved  the  misanthropy  and  sombre 
views  of  human  nature,  displayed  in  this 
extraordinary  production,  confessed  its 
genius.  Thus  the  feelings  of  admiration 
became  general,  and,  the  strong  current 
of  fasliion  turning  directly  in  his  favor, 
his  acquaintance  was  widely,  not  to  say 
universally,  courted  ;  and  his  first  entry 
on  the  stage  of  public  life  may  be  dated 
from  this  era.  Nor  were  the  manners, 
pei-son  and  conversation  of  B.  of  a  nature 
to  dissipate  the  charm  with  which  his 
talents  had  invested  him.  Although  easy 
and  affable  in  his  general  manners,  the 
latent  reserve  of  conscious  genius  was 


356 


BYRON. 


always  observable ;  added  to  which,  the 
associations  connected  with  his  identifi- 
cation with  his  own  Childe  Harold  ex- 
cited a  mysterious  and  indefinable  curios- 
ity. Even  his  physiognomy  was  emi- 
nently calculated  to  keep  up  the  interest 
which  he  otherwise  inspired ;  the  pre- 
dominating exj)ression  of  his  fine  features 
being  that  of  deep  and  habitual  thought, 
althougli,  when  engaged  in  mteresting 
discussion,  they  as  forcibly  exhibited 
gayety,  indignation  and  satire.  Thus,  in 
the  imitative  world  of  fashion,  the  enthu- 
siastic looked  on  him  to  admire,  the  seri- 
ous to  admonish,  and  the  soft  with  a 
desire  to  console.  Tlie  latter  sym{)athy 
lie  excited  too  powerfully  in  certain 
quarters,  and  a  couree  of  noxious  intrigue 
^vas  the  consequence.  It  is  more  gratify- 
ing to  obsei-ve,  that,  in  the  midst  of  all 
this  license,  he  was  capable  of  delicate 
and  generous  actions,  of  which  a  number 
of  well  authenticated  instances  are  on 
record.  The  quick  and  scrutinizing 
glance  which  he  had  cast  on  Eastern 
character  and  manners  was  now  mani- 
fested in  the  Giaour,  the  Bride  of  Aby- 
dos,  the  Corsair  (the  copyright  of  which, 
as  well  as  that  of  Childe  Harold,  he  gave 
to  Mr.  Dallas),  Lara,  and  the  Siege  of 
Corinth,  which  followed  one  another  in 
quick  succession.  For  parliamentary  du- 
ties he  seems  to  have  had  a  decided 
distaste ;  and  it  was  not  until  his  return 
from  the  continent,  that  he  ventured  to 
speak.  He  made  nis  maiden  speech  in 
February,  1812,  from  the  opposition  bencJi, 
against  the  frame-work  bill,  and  was  ar- 
gumentative and  lively,  if  not  very  origi- 
nal. Having  now  become  a  character 
whose  support  might  be  of  considerable 
consequence,  he  was  congratulated  ac- 
conJingly.  Another  time,  he  addressed 
tJie  house  in  support  of  Catholic  emanci- 
j)ation,  and  a  third  and  hist  time  on  pre- 
senting a  petition  from  major  Cartwright. 
On  the  2d  of  January,  liil5,  he  married 
Anna  Isabella,  only  daughter  of  sir  Ralph 
fllilbanke  Noel,  baronet,  to  whom  he  had 
])roposed  himself  a  year  before,  and  been 
rejected.  The  fortune  received  with  his 
lady  was  not  large,  and,  his  own  having 
been  previously  mucli  entliralled,  the 
i-eckless  system  of  splendor  which  suc- 
ceeded the  marriage  could  not  be  long 
maintained  ;  and,  alter  enduring  consider- 
able embarrassments,  it  was  finally  settled, 
that  lady  B.,  who  had  presented  his  lord- 
ship with  a  daughter  on  the  10th  of 
December,  should  pay  her  father  a  visit, 
until  better  arrangements  could  be  made. 
From  this .  visit  lady  B,   ultimately  re- 


fused to  return,  and  a  formal  separation 
ensued.  This  rupture  produced  a  con- 
siderable sensation  in  the  world  of  fashion^ 
and  the  most  contradictory  rumors  pre- 
vailed, in  the  midst  of  which  B.  left 
England,  witli  an  expressed  resolution 
never  to  return.  He  crossed  over  to 
France,  through  which  he  passed  rapidly 
to  Brussels,  taking,  on  his  way,  a  survey 
of  tiie  field  of  Waterloo.  He  then  visited 
the  banks  of  the  Rhine,  Switzerland,  and 
the  north  of  Italy,  and,  for  some  time, 
took  up  his  abode  at  Venice.  Here  he 
was  joined  by  Mr.  Hobhouse,  who  accom- 
panied him  on  a  visit  to  Rome,  where  he 
completed  his  third  canto  of  Childe  Har- 
old. Not  long  after  appeared  tlie  Pris- 
oner of  Chillon,  a  Dream,  and  other 
Poems;  and,  in  1817,  Manfred,  a  tragedy, 
and  the  Lament  of  Tasso.  In  one  of  his 
excursions  fi'om  Italy,  he  resided,  for 
some  time,  at  Abydos,  and  thence  pro- 
ceeded to  Tenedos  and  the  island  of  Scio, 
where  he  likewise  staid  three  months; 
during  which  time  he  visitecl  every  clas- 
sical scene,  and  frequently  slept  in  the 
])easants'  cottages,  to  whom  his  liberality 
made  him  a  welcome  guest.  He  also 
visited  several  other  islands,  and  at  length 
rcj)aired  to  Athens,  where  he  sketched 
many  of  the  scenes  of  the  fourth  and  last 
canto  of  Childe  Harold,  which  poem  was 
published  in  1818,  and  sustained  the  high 
reputation  of  the  author.  In  the  same 
year  appeared  the  jeu  (Vespnt  of  Beppo, 
in  the  mixed  and  pointed  maimer  of  the 
Italian  style  of  poetical  humor,  and  mark- 
ed by  a  tone  of  loose  morality,  which 
ripened  into  licentiousness  in  Don  Juan. 
In  1819  was  published  the  romantic  tale 
of  Mazeppa,  and  the  same  year  was 
marked  by  the  commencement  of  Don 
Juan,  which  his  bookseller,  Mr.  Murray, 
dechned  openly  to  publish.  Of  this  cel- 
ebrated production,  it  is  as  vain  to  deny 
the  profligacy  as  the  genius.  In  1820 
was  published  IMarino  Faiiero,  Doge  of 
Venice,  a  tragedy,  written  with  an  avow- 
ed attention  to  the  ex{)Ioded  system  of 
the  dramatic  unities,  which  loo  frequently 
subtracts  from  the  interest  all  that  it  gives 
to  more  cold  and  classical  qualities ;  nor 
did  this  eflbrt  of  B.'s  prove  an  exception. 
The  next  year,  he  addressed  a  letter  to 
Mr.  VV.  Lisle  Bowles,  in  defence  of  the 
poetical  character  of  Pope,  which  had 
been  rated  veiy  low  in  that  writer's  life 
of  him.  This  disj)ute  arose  out  of  a  dis- 
position, in  certain  critics,  to  ground  ])oet- 
ical  character  exclusively  on  a  tendency 
to  deal  with  the  primaiy  associations  con- 
nected with  natural  objects  and  afiections, 


BYRON. 


357 


rather  than  on  the  more  complex  and 
factitious  combinations  produced  by  art 
and  cultivation.    Tliis  school  not  unfre- 
quently  pushes  its  theory  to  an  extreme, 
as  in  the  case  of  Pope,  wliom  B.,  on  the 
other  hand,  may  have  somewhat  hyper- 
bohcally  exalted.     In  the  same  year  ap- 
peared the  drama  of  Sardanapalus,  indis- 
putably the  finest  of  his  tragic  offspring ; 
the  Two  Foscari,  a  tragedy  ;  and  Cain,  a 
mystery.    The   last  is  a  production  of 
much  power,  but  mai'ked  by  the  same 
raslmess  of  speculation  and  recklessness 
of  moral  effect,  which  disfigui-e  many  of 
tlie  author's  productions. — \Vhen  B.  quit- 
ted Venice,  after  visiting  several  parts  of 
the  Italian  dominions  of  Austria,  he  set- 
tled at  Pisa  ;  where  he  became  connected 
with  the  Gamba  family,  in  whose  behalf 
he  endured  some  inconvenience,  which 
ended  in  the  banishment  of  the  counts 
Gamba,  and  the  open  residence  of  tiie 
countess  with  B.     In  1822,  in  conjimction 
with  Mr.  Leigh  Hiuit,  who,  on  invitation, 
had  become   his   guest,  and  I\Ir.  Percy 
Bysshe  Shelly,  the  periodical  pubhcation 
called     the    Inheral    was     commenced, 
which,  principally  owing  to  the  unhappy 
fate  of  j\Ir.  Shelly  (who  pei-ished  by  the 
upsetting  of  a  boat  in  the  Mediterranean), 
extended  only  to  four  numbers.     In  this 
work  fii-st  appeared  the  Vision  of  Judg- 
ment, caused  by  the  singularly  ill-judged 
performajice,  under  the  same  title,  of  Mr. 
Southey.    The  publisher  was  prosecuted, 
and  fined  £100.    Heaven  and  Earth,  a 
mystery,  also  first  appeared  in  the  Lib- 
eral.     It  is  founded  on    the    supposed 
intercourse    between     angels    and     tlie 
daughters  of  earth  before  the  flood,  and 
possesses  great  force  and  beauty.     The 
later  cantos  of  Don  Juan,  with  AVerner,  a 
ti'agedy,  and  the  Deformed  Transformed, 
a  fragment,  bring  up  the  rear  of  B.'s 
performances.    In  the  autumn  of  1822, 
he  quitted  Paris,  and  wintered  at  Genoa, 
and  nov/  began  to  indulge  those  feelings, 
hi  regard  to  the  eflbrts  of  the  Greeks  to 
throw  off  the  Mohammedan  yoke,  which 
determined  him   to   lend   them  the  aid 
of  his  person,  purse  and  influence.     It 
would  also  a])pcar,  by  some  noble  verses 
which  have  been  j)rinted  since  his  death, 
that  a  secret  consciousness  of  his  cai'eer 
of  action  having  too  long  been  unworthy 
of  him,  induced  him  to  seek  a  nobler  spe- 
cies of  distinction  than  one  of  mere  self- 
engrossment  and  successful  gallantry.     It 
is  unnecessary  to  dwell  upon  the  general 
tendency  of  powerful  minds,  at  a  particu- 
lar stage  of  existence,  to  bi-eak  from  the 
enthralments  of  pleasure  and  the  senses, 


because  it  has  been  the  great  theme  of 
allegoiy  ever  since  allegory  was  invent- 
ed. In  addition  to  being  satiated  with 
the  usual  enjoyments  of  a  dissipated  man 
of  rank,  and  disgusted  with  the  sameness 
of  connnon-place  life,  many  circumstances 
contributed  to  render  B.  an  enthusiast  for 
Greece.  In  conmion  with  many  more, 
the  associations  connected  with  its  illus- 
trious history  doubtless  served  to  stimu- 
late his  concern  for  its  modern  degrada- 
tion ;  but  in  him  these  feehngs  were 
quickened  by  an  acquaintance  with  its 
grand  and  beatitiful  scenery,  its  various 
races  of  wild  and  picturescjue  maimei's, 
and  by  the  personal  interest  which  he  had 
alreaily  excited  there.  Whatever  may 
have  been  the  exact  combination  of  mo- 
tive, in  August,  1823,  he  embarked,  ac- 
cotnpanied  by  five  or  six  friends,  in  an 
English  vessel,  which  he  had  hired  for 
the  purpose,  and  airived  at  the  com- 
mencement of  the  third  campaign.  He 
established  himself  some  time  in  Cepha- 
lonia,  and  despatched  his  friends,  Messrs. 
Trelawney  and  Hamilton  Brown,  with  a 
letter  to  the  Greek  government.  The 
result  of  their  information  induced  him 
to  advance  £12,000  for  the  reUef  of  Mis- 
solunghi.  The  dissensions  among  the 
Greeks  gave  him  great  pain,  and  involved 
him  in  considerable  difficulties.  At  length 
he  sailed  from  Argostoli  with  two  Ionian 
vessels,  and,  taking  considerable  specie  on 
board,  proceeded  to  Missohmghi,  where, 
after  considerable  hazard  and  danger,  and 
the  loss  of  one  of  his  vessels,  he  finally 
arrived,  and  was  received  with  every 
mark  of  honor  Grecian  gratitude  could 
devise.  His  influence  was  immediately 
salutary  in  the  mitigation  of  the  ferocity 
with  which  the  war  was  waged  on  the 
])art  of  the  Greeks  ;  but  it  was  much 
more  difficult  to  produce  union  among 
their  leadei-s.  He  immediately  began  to 
form  a  brigade  of  Sidiotes,  500  of  whom 
were  taken  into  his  ])ay,  with  a  view  to 
an  expedition  against  Lepanto  ;  but  such 
was  the  disorderly  anrl  unsettled  temper 
of  these  troops,  that  he  was  obliged  to 
postpone  it.  This  unexpected  disappoint- 
ment preyed  on  his  spirits,  and,  Feb.  15, 
he  was  attacked  with  a  severe  fit  of  epi- 
lepsy. He  had,  subsequently,  other  at- 
tacks, but  at  length  the  violence  of  the 
disorder  began  to  yield  to  the  skill  of  his 
physician,  and  he  was  recommended  to 
remove,  for  a  while,  from  the  flat,  marshy 
ajid  unheaUhy  site  of  Missohmghi,  to 
Zante.  This  step,  with  his  usual  tenaci- 
ty, he  refused  to  talie,  "I  cannot  quit 
Greece  (he  wrote  to  a  friend)  while  there 


358 


BYRON 


is  a  chance  of  my  being  even  of  (sup- 
posed) utility.  There  is  a  stake  worth 
millions  such  as  I  am,  and  while  I  can 
stand  at  all,  I  must  stand  by  the  cause. 
While  I  say  this,  I  am  aware  of  the  diffi- 
culties, dissensions  and  defects  of  the 
Greeks  themselves ;  but  allowance  must 
be  made  for  them  by  all  reasonable  peo- 
ple." On  the  expedition  against  Lepanto 
Ijeiug  given  up,  other  projects  were  pro- 
posed with  reference  both  to  miUtarj'  oj)- 
erations  and  to  congresses  for  uniting 
Eastern  and  Western  Greece ;  but,  un- 
happily, the  fotal  moment  was  at  hand 
which  was  to  deprive  the  Greek  cause  of 
its  firm  and  energetic  friend.  On  the  9th 
of  April,  B.,  while  riding  out,  got  ex- 
tremely wet ;  and,  scarcely  recovered 
from  the  effects  of  his  former  disorder,  a 
fever  ensued,  which,  it  is  thought,  might 
have  yielded  to  copious  bleeding  in  the 
first  instance,  but  which,  owing  either  to 
his  own  objection  or  the  inaccurate  opin- 
ion of  the  physician  of  the  nature  of  the 
disease,  was  destined  to  prove  fatal  on  the 
evening  of  the  19th  of  April,  1824.  During 
his  illness,  some  fine  traits  of  humanity 
and  feeling  for  his  attendants  were  exhib- 
ited by  B.,  and  nearly  his  last  words,  pre- 
vious to  sinking  into  the  lethargy  which 
ended  in  death,  were,  "My  wife,  my 
child,  my  sister! — ^you  know  all — ^j'ou 
must  say  all."  His  utterance  then  failed 
bim,  as  it  had  pre\'iously  done  in  refer- 
ring to  the  same  near  connexions.  Thus, 
ill  his  37th  year,  prematurely  died  this 
extraordinary  genius,  to  the  deep  afllic- 
tion  of  the  people  whose  cause  he  had 
espoused,  who  decreed  every  possible 
public  testimony  of  their  sorrow.  Nor 
was  his  death  a  subject  of  less  regret  to 
many,  who  looked  for  a  noble  recom- 
pense, in  tlie  maturity  of  his  life,  for  the 
faults  of  its  commencement  and  preced- 
ing progress.  ]Many  of  liis  errors  were 
evidently  the  result  of  a  too  early  release 
from  all  discipline  and  control,  and  the 
neglect  which  family  circumstances  had 
tlirown  round  him.  In  other  respects, 
tlie  vices  and  failings  of  B.,  undeniable,  it 
is  true,  were  mucli  magnified  by  tlie  pe- 
culiarity of  his  genius  and  character, 
whicJi  attracted  an  intensity  of  obser\'a- 
tion  to  all  M'hich  concenied  him.  The 
disposition  of  the  public  at  once  to  ad- 
mire and  condemn,  accompanied  as  it 
was  with  an  involuntary  tendency  to  con- 
found tJie  character  of  the  poet  with  some 
of  the  most  romantic  creations  of  liis 
imagination,  however  it  might  annoy  him 
iji  the  first  instance,  in  the  sequel  too  ob- 
vioualy  nurtured  a  degree  of  personal 


vanity,  which  formed  one  of  the  greatest 
weaknesses  of  his  character.  Common- 
place censure  produces  little  effect  when 
coupled  with  great  admiration,  and  still 
less  is  effected  by  the  virulence  of  party 
attack,  or  by  direct  personal  hostility. 
The  morals  of  B.,  on  the  score  of  gal- 
lantrj',  his  carelessness  of  female  reputa- 
tion, and  hasty  and  vindictive  spirit  of  re- 
sentment, arc  altogether  indefensible  ;  but 
it  is  certain  that  they  were  mixed  up  with 
great  humanity,  benevolence  and  gen- 
erosity. It  was  evident,  too,  from  his 
death,  and  many  other  circimistances, 
that,  whatever  his  pride  and  resentment 
at  being  so  decisively  abandoned,  he  nur- 
tured the  natural  feelings  of  a  husband 
and  father  deep  in  his  bosom.  In  respect 
to  several  disputed  points  of  his  conduct, 
the  Memoirs,  by  himself  (which  he  gave 
to  Mr.  JMoore  to  raise  a  loan  fi"om  Mr- 
Murray,  the  bookseller,  and  which  that 
gentleman,  at  the  instance  of  his  family, 
thought  proper  to  destroy),  would,  doubt- 
less, have  given  much  information  to  the 
world.  As  it  is,  certain  journals  of  visit- 
ors, and  of  temporary  companions,  pro- 
fessing to  record  his  conversation,  but 
poorly  supply  their  place.  The  body  of 
B.  was  brought  to  England,  and  laid  in 
state  in  London.  It  was  subsequently 
interred  near  his  own  seat  of  Newstead 
abbey,  where  a  plain  marble  slab  merely 
records  his  name  and  title,  date  of  death, 
and  age.  Besides  his  only  legitimate 
child  and  heiress,  B.  left  another  daugh- 
ter in  Italy,  to  whom  he  bequeathed 
£5000,  on  the  condition  of  her  not  mar- 
rying an  Englishman.  The  successor  to 
his  estate  and  title  was  his  cousin,  captain 
George  Anson  Byron,  of  the  royal  navy. 

Byron,  John,  an  English  commodore, 
bom  in  the  year  172.3,  embarked,  at  the 
age  of  17,  in  one  of  the  ships  of  lord  An- 
son, which  was  fitted  out  for  a  voyage 
round  the  world,  but  was  wrecked  on  the 
coast  of  the  Pacific,  north  of  the  straits  of 
Magellan.  B.,  with  some  of  his  unfortu- 
nate companions,  wits  conducted,  by  the 
Indians,  to  Chili,  and  remained  there  till 
1744,  when  he  embarked  on  board  a  ship 
of  St.  Malo,  and,  in  1745,  returned  to 
Europe.  In  1758,  he  commanded  three 
ships  of  the  line,  and  distinguished  him^ 
self  in  the  Avar  against  France.  George 
III,  who  wished  to  explore  the  part  of  tlie 
Atlantic  ocean  between  the  cape  of  Good 
Hope  and  the  southern  part  of  America, 
gave  B.  the  command  of  a  frigate,  with 
which  he  set  sail,  June,  1764,  having  un- 
der his  order  the  fi-igate  Taniar.  Both 
ships  touched  at  Madeu-a  and  the  Cap© 


BYRON— BYZANTINE  EMPIRE. 


359 


Verd  islands,  aiid  proceeded  thence  to  the 
Rio  Janeiro,  opposite  the  city  of  that 
name.  B.  then  sailed  to  the  southern 
part  of  the  Atlantic  ocean,  and,  after  hav- 
ing searched  in  vain  for  Pepys'  islands, 
he  visited  the  Falkland  islands,  and,  pass- 
ing through  the  straits  of  Magellan,  con- 
tinued his  voyage  in  the  South  sea.  Here 
he  fell  in  with  Bougainville,  who  was  en- 
gaged in  founding  a  colony  in  the  Falk- 
land islands.  B.  directed  his  coui-se 
northward  to  the  island  of  Masafuero ; 
then,  sailing  westward,  he  passed  the  Dan- 
gerous Archipelago,  lying  on  the  east  of 
tlie  Society  islands,  and  discovered  the 
isles  of  Disappointment  and  King  George's 
islands.  Thence  he  directed  his  course 
north-west,  and  discovered  the  islands  call- 
ed Danger  and  Byron's  island  ;  sailed  by 
the  Carohnas  into  the  Chinese  sea; 
thence  proceeding  southerly,  he  passed 
tin'ough  the  straits  of  Banca  to  Batavia ; 
from  whence  he  set  sail  at  the  close  of 
tlie  year  1765,  and,  in  May,  1766,  arrived 
in  England.  Although  B.'s  voyage  was 
not  fruitful  in  discoveries,  it  still  deserves 
an  honorable  place  in  the  histoiy  of 
voyages  round  the  world,  since  he  was 
tlie  tixst  of  those  renowned  circumnavi- 
gators of  the  globe,  including  Wallis,  Car- 
teret and  Cook,  whose  entei-prises  were 
not  barely  mercantile,  but  Avere  directed 
to  scientilic  objects. 

Byron's  Island  ;  a  small  island  in  the 
Pacific,  about  12  miles  in  length,  abound- 
ing in  cocoa-trees.  It  was  discovered  by 
commodore  Byron  (q.  v.)  in  1765.  Lon. 
173°  16'  E. ;  lat.  1°  18'  S. 

Byssus  (gossypion  and  xi/lon),  cotton, 
was  brought  from  India  about  the  time 
of  Herodotus,  and  still  earlier  from  Egypt. 
In  this  latter  country,  it  was  used  in  em- 
bahning,  and  the  mummies  are  still  found 
wrapped  in  it.  As  an  article  of  dress,  it 
was  worn  only  by  the  rich.  Dives,  in 
Christ's  parable  {Luke  xvi,  19),  was  cloth- 
ed in  byssus,  and  it  is  mentioned  among 
the  riches  of  fallen  Babylon  {Rev.  xviii, 
12).  Byssus  was  formerly  erroneously 
considered  as  a  fine  kind  of  linen.  The 
fine  stuff  manufactured  from  tlie  byssus 
is  called,  more  particularly,  sindon.  Fos- 
ter derives  the  word  byssus  from  the 
Coptic.  Byssus  was  also  used  by  the  an- 
cients, and  is  still  used,  to  signify  the  hair 
or  thread-like  substance  (called  heard), 
with  which  the  different  kinds  of  sea- 
muscles  fasten  themselves  to  the  rocks. 
The  pimia  marina,  particularly,  is  distm- 
guished  by  the  length  and  the  silky  fine- 
ness of  its  beard,  from  which  very  durable 
cloths,  gloves  and  stockings  are  still  man- 


ufactured in  Sicily  and  Calabria.    (See 
Foster  De  Bysso  Antiquorum,  1776.) 

Byzantine  Empire.  The  Byzantine 
or  Eastern  Roman  Empire  comprehend- 
ed, at  fii-st,  in  Asia,  tlie  country  on  this 
side  of  the  Euphrates,  the  coasts  of  the 
Black  sea,  and  Asia  Minor;  in  Africa, 
Egyjn  ;  and  in  Europe,  all  the  countries 
from  the  Hellespont  to  the  Adriatic  and 
the  Danube.  This  sui-vived  the  Western 
Empire  1000  years,  and  was  even  increjis- 
ed  by  tlie  addition  of  Italy  and  the  coasts 
of  the  Mechterranean.  It  commenced  in 
395,  when  Theodosius  divided  the  Ro- 
man empire  between  his  two  sons,  Area- 
dius  and  Honorius.  The  Eastern  Em- 
j)ire  fell  to  the  elder,  Arcadius,  through 
whose  weakness  it  suffered  many  misfor- 
tunes. During  his  minority,  Rufinus  was 
his  guardian  and  minister,  between  whom 
and  Stilicho,  the  minister  of  the  Western 
Empire,  a  fierce  rivalry  existed.  The 
Goths  laid  waste  Greece.  Eutropius,  the 
successor,  and  Gainas,  the  murderer,  of 
Rufinus,  were  ruined  by  their  own  crimes 
(399).  The  latter  lost  his  hfe  in  a  civil 
war  excited  by  him  (400).  Arcadius  and 
his  empire  were  now  ruled  by  his  jiroud 
and  covetous  wife,  Eudoxia,  till  her  death 
(404).  The  Isaurians  and  the  Huns 
wasted  the  provinces  of  Asia  and  the 
country  along  the  Danube.  Theodosius 
the  Younger  succeeded  his  father  (406), 
under  the  guardianship  of  his  sister  Pul- 
cheria.  Naturally  of  an  inferior  mind, 
his  education  had  made  him  entirely  im- 
becile and  unfit  for  self-command.  Pul- 
clieria,  who  bore  the  title  oi  Augusta,  ad- 
ministered the  kingdom  ably.  Of  the 
Western  Empire,  which  had  been  ceded 
to  Valentinian,  Theodosius  retained  West 
Illyria  (423).  The  Greeks  fought  with 
success  against  the  king  of  the  Persians, 
Varanes.  The  kingdom  of  Armenia, 
thrown  into  confusion  by  internal  dissen- 
sions, and  claimed,  at  the  same  time,  by 
the  Romans  and  the  Persians,  became 
now  an  apple  of  contention  between  the 
two  nations  (440).  Attila  laid  waste  the 
dominions  of  Theodosius,  and  obliged 
him  to  pay  tribute  (448).  After  the  death 
of  her  brother,  Pulcheria  was  acknowl- 
edged empress  (450).  She  was  the  first 
female  who  attained  this  dignity.  She 
gave  her  hand  to  the  senator  3Iarcian,  and 
raised  him  to  the  throne.  His  wisdom 
and  valor  averted  the  attacks  of  the  Huns 
from  the  frontiers,  but  he  did  not  support 
the  Western  Empire,  in  its  wars  against 
the  Huns  and  the  Vandals,  with  sufficient 
energy.  He  afforded  shelter  to  a  part  of 
the  Germans  and  Sarmatiaus,  who  were 


360 


BYZANTINE  EMPIRE. 


driven  to  the  Roman  frontiers  by  the  in- 
cursions  of  the   Iluns.     Pulcheria  died 
before  him,  in  453.     Leo  I  (457),  a  prince 
praised   by   contemporaiy   authoi-s,    was 
chosen  successor  of  Marcian.     His  expe- 
ditions against  the  Vandals  (467)  were  un- 
successfiil.   His  gi-andson  Leo  would  have 
succeeded  him,  but  died  a  minor  short- 
ly after  him,   having  named  his  father, 
Zeno,  liis  colleague  (474).     The  govern- 
ment  of  this   weak   emperor,  who  was 
hated  by  his  subjects,  was  disturbed  by 
rebellions  and  internal  disorders-  of  the 
empire.     The    Goths    depopulated    the 
provinces  till  their  king  Theodoric  turned 
his  arms  against  Italy  (489).     Ariadne, 
widow  of  Zeno,  raised  the  mmister  Anas- 
tasius,  whom  she  married,  to  the  throne 
(491).     The  nation,  once  excited  to  dis- 
contents and  tumults,  could  not  be  entire- 
ly appeased  by  the   alleviation  of  their 
burdens  and  by  wise  decrees.    The  forces 
of  the  empu-e,  being  thus  weakened,  could 
not  offer  an  effectual   resistance   to   the 
Persians  and  the  barbarians  along  the 
Danube.     To  prevent  their  incursions  in- 
to the  peninsula  of  Constantinoj)le,  Anas- 
tasius  built  the  long  wall,  as  it  is  called. 
After  the  death  of  Anastasius,  the  soldiers 
proclaimed  Justin  emperor  (518).    Not- 
withstanding his  low  biith,  he  maintained 
possession  of  the  throne.    Religious  per- 
secutions, which  he  undertook  at  the  in- 
stigation of  the  clergy,  and  various  crimes, 
into  which  he  was  seduced  by  his  nephew 
Justinian,  disgi-ace  his  reign.    After  his 
early  death,  in  521,  he  was  succeeded  by 
the    same  Justinian   (q.  v.),  to    whom, 
though  he  deserves  not  the  name  of  the 
Great,  many  virtues  of  a  ruler  cannot  be 
denied.    He  was  renowned  as  a  legisla- 
tor, and  his  reign  was  distinguished  by 
the  victories  of  his  general  Belisarius ;  but 
how  unable  he  was  to  revive  the  strength 
of  his  empire,  was  proved  by  its  i-apid  de- 
cay after  his  death.    Justin  II,  his  succes- 
sor (565),  was  an  avaricious,  cruel,  weak 
prince,  governed  by  his  wife.    The  Lom- 
bards tore  from  him  part  of  Italy  (568). 
His  war  with  Persia,  for  the  possession 
of  Armenia  (570),  was  unsuccessful ;  the 
Avari  plundered  the  provinces  on  the 
Danube,  and  the  violence  of  his  grief  at 
these  misfortunes  deprived  him  of  reason. 
Tiberius,  his  minister,  a  man  of  merit, 
was  declared  Caesar,  and  the  general  Jus- 
tinian conducted  the  war  against  Pei-sia 
with  success.    The   Greeks  now  allied 
themselves,  for  the  first  time,  with  the 
Turks.    Against  his  successor,  Tiberius 
II  (578),  the  empress  Sophia  and  the  gen- 
eral Justinian  conspired  in  vain.    From 


the  Avari  the  emperor  purchased  peace  ; 
from  the  Pei-sians  it  was  extorted  by  liia 
general  Mauritius  or  Maurice  (582).    This 
commander  Tiberius  declared  Csesar  in 
the  same  year.    Mauritius,  under  other 
circumstances,  would  have  made  an  ex- 
cellent monarch,  but,  for  the  times,  he 
wanted  prudence    and    resolution.     He 
was  indebted  for  the  tranquillity  of  the 
eastern  frontiers  to  the  gratitude  of  king 
Chosroes  II,  whom,  in  591,  he  restored 
to  the  throne,  from  which  he  had  been 
deposed  by  his  suVyects.    Nevertheless, 
the  war  agauist  the  Avari  was  unsuccess- 
ful, through  the  en'ors  of  Commentiolus. 
The  army  was  discontented,  and  was  ir- 
ritated, now  by  untimely  severity  and 
parsimony,  and  noAv  by  timid  indulgence. 
They  finally  proclaimed  Phocas,  one  of 
their   officers,   emperor.     Mauritius  was 
tiiken  in  his  flight,  and  put  to  death  (602). 
The  vices  of  Phocas,  and  his  incajjicity  for 
government,  produced  the  greatest  disor- 
der in  the  empire.    Heraclius,  son  of  the 
governor  of  Africa,  took  up  arms,  conquer- 
ed Constantinople,  and  caused  Phocas  to 
be  executed  (610).   He  distinguished  him- 
self only  in  the  short  period  of  the  Persian 
war.     During  the  first  12  yeare  of  his 
reign,  the  Avari,  and  other  nations  of  the 
Danube,  plundered  the  European  prov- 
inces, and  the   Persians  conquered  the 
coasts  of  Syria  and  Egj'pt.    Having  final- 
ly succeeded  in  pacifying  the  Avari,  he 
marched  against  the  Persians  (622),  and 
defeated  them ;  but,  during  this  time,  the 
Avari,  who  had  renewed  the  war,  made 
an  unsuccessful  attack  on  Constantinople, 
in  626.    Taking  advantage  of  an  insur- 
rection of  the  subjects  of  Chosroes,  he 
penetrated  into  the  centre  of  Persia.    By 
the  peace  concluded  with  Siroes  (628),  he 
recovered  the  lost  provinces  and  the  lioly 
cross.     But  the  Arabians,  who,  mean- 
while, had  become  powerful  under  ]Mo- 
hammed    and    the    caliphs,    conquered 
Phoenicia,  the  counti'ies  on  the  Euphra- 
tes, Judea,  Syria  and  all  Egjpt  (631 — 641 ). 
Among  his  descendants  there  was  not 
one  -able  prince.    He  was  succeeded  by 
his  son  Constantine  III,  probably  in  con- 
jimction  with  his  step-brother  Heracleo- 
nas  (641).    The  former  soon  died,  and 
the  latter  lost  his  crown  in  a  rebellion, 
and  was  mutilated.     Afler  him,  Constans, 
son  of  Constantine,  obtained  the  throne 
(642j.    His  sanguinary  spirit  of  persecu- 
tion, and  the  murder  of  his  brother  Theo- 
dosius  (650),  made  him  odious  to  the  nation. 
The  Arabians,  pursuing  their  conquests, 
took  from  him  part  of  Africa,  Cyprus  and 
Rhodes,  and  defeated  him  even  at  sea 


BYZANTINE  EMPIRE. 


361 


(653).  Internal  disturbances  obliged  him 
to  malce  peace.  After  this,  he  left  Con- 
stantinople (G59),  and,  in  the  followng 
year,  carried  on  an  unsuccessfiil  war 
against  the  Lombards  in  Italy,  in  which 
he  lost  his  life,  at  Syracuse  (660).  Con- 
stantine  IV,  Pogonatus,  son  of  Constans, 
vanquished  his  Syracusan  competitor, 
Mezizius,  and,  in  the  beginning  of  his 
reign,  shared  the  government  with  his 
brothers  Tiberius  and  Heraclius,  The 
Arabians  inundated  aU  Africa  and  Sici- 
ly, penetrated  througli  Asia  Minor  uito 
Thrace,  and  attacked  Constantinople,  for 
several  successive  years,  l)y  sea  (669). 
Nevertheless,  he  made  peace  with  them 
on  favorable  terms.  But,  on  the  other 
hand,  the  Bulgarians  obliged  him  to  pay 
a  tribute  (680).  Justinian  II,  his  son  and 
successor,  weakened  the  power  of  the 
Maronites  (685),  but  fought  without  suc- 
cess against  the  Bulgarians  (688)  and 
against  the  Arabians  (692).  Leonitius 
dethroned  this  cruel  prince,  had  him  mu- 
tilated and  sent  to  the  Tauric  Chersonese 
(695).  Leonitius  was  dethroned  by  Ap- 
simar,  or  Tiberius  III  (698),  who  was 
himself  dethroned  by  Trebelius,  king  of 
the  Bulgarians,  who  restored  Justinian  to 
the  throne  (705) ;  but  Philipjjicus  Barda- 
nes  rebelled  anew  against  him.  With 
Justinian  II  the  race  of  Heraclius  was 
extinguished.  The  only  care  of  Philip- 
picus  was  the  spreading  of  monotheism, 
whilst  tlie  Arabians  wasted  Asia  Minor 
and  Thrace.  In  opposition  to  this  prince, 
who  was  univei'sally  hated,  the  different 
armies  proclaimed  tlieir  leaders  emperors, 
among  wiiom  Leo  the  Isaurian  obtained 
tlie  superiority  (71.3 — 714).  Leo  repelled 
the  Arabians  from  Constantinople,  wliich 
they  had  attacked  for  almost  two  yeare, 
and  suppressed  the  rebellion  excited  by 
Basihus  and  the  former  emperor  Anasta- 
sius.  From  726,  the  abolition  of  the  wor- 
ship of  images  absorbed  his  attention,  and 
tlie  Italian  provinces  were  allowed  to  be- 
come a  prey  to  the  Lombards,  while  the 
Arabians  plundered  the  eastern  provinces. 
After  his  death  (741),  his  son  Constantine 
V  ascended  the  throne — a  courageous, 
active  and  noble  prince.  He  vanquished 
his  rel)ellious  brother-in-law  Artabasdus, 
wrested  from  the  Arabians  part  of  Syria 
and  Armenia,  and  overcame,  at  last,  the 
Bulgarians,  against  whom  he  had  been 
long  unsuccessful.  He  died  (775),  and 
was  succeeded  by  his  son  Leo  III,  who 
fought  successfidly  against  the  Arabians, 
and  this  latter  by  his  son  Constantine  VI 
(780),  whose  imperious  mother,  Irene,  his 
guardian  and  associate  in  the  government, 

VOL.   II.  31 


raised  a  powerful  party  by  the  restoration 
of  the  worship  of  images.  He  endeavor- 
ed, in  vain,  to  free  himself  from  depend- 
ence on  her  and  her  favorite,  Stauratius, 
and  died  in  796,  after  having  had  his  eyes 
put  out.  The  war  against  the  Arabians 
and  Bulgarians  was  long  continued  ; 
against  the  first  it  was  unsuccessful. 
The  design  of  the  empress  to  marry 
Charlemagne  excited  the  discontent  of 
the  patricians,  who  placed  one  of  their 
own  order,  Nicephorus,  upon  the  throne 
(802).  Irene  died  in  a  monaster^^  Ni- 
cephorus became  tributarj'  to  the  Arabi- 
ans, and  fell  in  the  war  against  the  Bul- 
garians (811).  Stauratius,  his  son,  was 
deprived  of  the  crown  by  Michael  I,  and 
he,  in  tuni,  by  Leo  IV  (813).  Leo  was 
dethroned  and  put  to  death  by  Michael  II 
(826).  During  the  reign  of  the  latter,  the 
Arabians  conquered  Sicily,  Lower  Italy, 
Crete  and  other  countries.  He  prohibit- 
ed the  worship  of  images;  as  did  also  his 
son  Theophilus.  Theodora,  guardian  of 
his  son  Michael  III,  put  a  stop  to  the  dis- 
pute about  images  (841).  During  a  ci-uel 
jjersecution  of  the  3Ianicha3ans,  the  Ara- 
bians devastated  the  Asiatic  jjrovinces. 
The  dissolute  and  extravagant  Michael 
confined  his  mother  in  a  monasterj'.  The 
government  was  administered,  in  his 
name,  by  Bardas,  his  uncle,  and,  after 
the  death  of  Bardas,  by  Basil,  who  was 
put  to  death  by  Michael  (867).  Basil  I, 
who  came  to  the  throne  in  867,  was  not 
altogether  a  contemptible  monarch.  He 
died  886.  The  reign  of  his  learned  son, 
Leo  V,  was  not  very  happy.  He  died 
911.  His  son,  Constantine  X'ill,  Porphy- 
rogenitus,  a  minor  wlien  he  succeeded 
his  father,  was  placed  under  the  guar- 
dianship of  his  colleague,  Alexander,  and, 
after  Alexander's  death,  in  912,  under 
that  of  his  mother,  Zoe.  Romanus  La- 
kopenus,  his  general,  obliged  him,  in  919, 
to  share  the  throne  with  him  and  his 
children.  Constantine  subsequently  took 
sole  possession  of  it  again,  and  reigned 
mildly,  i)ut  weakly.  His  son  Romanus 
II  succeeded  him  in  959,  and  fought  suc- 
cessfully against  the  Arabians.  To  hini 
succeeded,  in  963,  his  general  Nicephorus, 
who  was  put  to  death  by  his  own  general, 
John  Zimisces  (970),  who  carried  on  a 
successful  war  against  the  Russians.  Ba- 
sil II,  son  of  Romanus,  succeeded  this 
good  prince.  He  vanquished  tlie  Bulga- 
rians and  the  Arabians.  His  brother, 
Constantine  IX  (1025),  was  not  equal  to 
him.  Romanus  III  became  emperor 
(1028)  by  a  marriage  with  Zoe,  daughter 
of  Constantine.    This  dissolute  but  able 


362 


BYZANTINE  EMPIRE. 


princess  caused  her  husband  to  be  exe- 
cuted, and  successively  raised  to  the 
throne  Michael  IV  (10a4),  Michael  V 
(1041)  and  Constantine  X  (1042).  Rus- 
sians and  Arabians  meanwhile  devastated 
the  empire.  Her  sister  Theodora  suc- 
ceeded her  on  the  throne  (1053).  Her 
successor,  Michael  VI  (lOoG),  was  de- 
tlu-oned  by  Isaac  Comneuus  in  1057,  who 
became  a  monk  (1059).  His  successor, 
Constantine  XI,  Ducas,  fought  success- 
fully against  the  Uzes.  Eudocia,  his 
wife,  guardian  of  his  sons,  Michael,  An- 
droiiicus  and  Constantine,  was  intrusted 
with  the  administration  (1067),  mairied 
Romanus  IV,  and  brought  him  tlie  crown. 
He  carried  on  an  unsuccessful  war  against 
the  Turks,  who  kept  him  for  some  time 
prisoner.  Michael  VII,  son  of  Constan- 
tine, deprived  him  of  the  throne  (1071). 
Michael  was  dethroned  by  Nicephorus 
III  (1078),  and  the  latter  by  Alexius  I, 
Comnenus  (1081).  Under  his  reign  the 
crusades  commenced.  His  son,  John  II, 
came  to  the  throne  (1118),  and  fought 
■with  great  success  against  the  Turks  and 
other  barbjuians.  The  reign  of  his  son, 
Maimel  I,  who  succeeded  him  (1143), 
was,  also,  not  unfortunate.  His  son,  Alex- 
ius II,  succeeded  (1180),  and  was  dethron- 
ed by  his  guardian,  Andi-onicus,  as  was 
tlie  latter  by  Isaac  (1185).  After  a  reign 
disturbed  from  without  and  within,  Isaac 
.was  dethroned  by  his  brother,  Alexius 
III  (1195).  The  crusadei-s  restored  him 
and  liis  son,  Alexius  IV ;  but  the  seditious 
Constantinopolitans  proclaimed  Alexius 
V,  Ducas  Mui'zuphlus,  emperor,  who  put 
Alexius  IV  to  death.  At  the  same  time, 
Isaac  II  died.  During  the  last  reigns, 
the  kings  of  Sicily  had  made  many  con- 
quests on  the  coasts  of  the  Adriatic.  The 
Latins  now  forced  their  way  to  Constan- 
tinople (1204),  conquered  the  city,  and  re- 
tained it,  together  with  most  of  the  Euro- 
pean territories  of  the  empire.  Baldwin 
count  of  Flanders  was  made  emperor, 
Boniface  marquis  of  Montferrat  obtained 
Thessalonica  as  a  kingdom,  and  the  Ve- 
netians acquired  a  large  extent  of  teni- 
tory.  In  Attalia,  Rhodes,  Philadelphia, 
Corinth  and  Epirus,  independent  sove- 
reigns arose.  Theodore  Lascaris  seized 
on  the  Asiatic  provinces,  bore  the  title  of 
emperor  at  Nice,  and  was,  at  first,  more 
powerful  than  Baldwin.  A  descendant 
of  the  Comneni,  named  Alexius,  establish- 
ed a  principality  at  Trebisond,  in  which 
his  great-grandson  John  took  the  title  of 
emperor.  Neither  Baldwin  nor  his  suc- 
cessors were  able  to  secure  the  tottering 
throne.    He  himself  died  in    captivity, 


among  the  Bulgarians  (1206).  To  him 
succeeded  Henry,  his  brother,  with  Peter, 
brother-in-law  of  Henry,  and  his  son 
Robert  (1221).  With  the  exception  of 
Constantinople,  all  the  remahiing  Byzan- 
tuie  territory,  including  Thessalonica,  was 
conquered  by  John,  emperor  of  Nice. 
Baldwin  II,  brother  of  Robert,  under  the 
guardianship  of  his  colleague,  John  Bri- 
enne,  king  of  Jerusalem,  died  in  1237. 
Michael  Palseologus,  king  of  Nice,  con- 
quered Constantinople  in  1261,  and  Bald- 
win died  in  the  West,  a  private  person. 
The  sovereigns  of  Nice,  up  to  this  pe- 
riod, were  Theodore  Lascaris  (1204); 
John  Ducas  Patatzes,  a  good  monarch 
and  successful  warrior  (1222) ;  Theodore 
II,  his  son  (1259),  who  was  deprived  of 
the  crown  by  Michael  Palseologus  (1260). 
In  1261,  Michael  took  Constantinople 
from  the  Latins.  He  labored  to  unite 
himself  with  the  Latin  church,  but  his 
son,  Andronicus  II  (1282),  renounced  tlie 
connexion.  Internal  disturbances,  and 
foreign  wars,  particularly  with  the  Turks, 
threw  the  exhausted  empire  into  confu- 
sion. Andronicus  III,  his  grandson,  obhg- 
ed  him  to  divide  the  throne  (1322),  and, 
at  length,  wrested,  it  entirely  from  him. 
Andronicus  died  a  jnonk  (1328).  Andi'o- 
nicus  IV,  who  ascended  the  throne  in  tlie 
same  year,  waged  war  unsuccessfully 
against  the  Turks,  and  died  1341.  His 
son  John  was  obliged  to  share  the  throne 
with  his  guai-dian,  John  Cantacuzene, 
during  10  years.  The  son  of  the  latter, 
Matthew,  was  also  made  emperor.  But 
John  Cantacuzene  resigned  the  crown, 
and  ftlatthew  was  compelled  to  abdi- 
cate (1355).  Under  the  reign  of  John, 
the  Turks  first  obtained  a  firm  footing  in 
Europe,  and  conquered  Gallipohs  (1357). 
The  family  of  Palaeologus,  from  this 
time,  were  gi-adually  deprived  of  tlieir 
European  tenitories,  partly  by  revolt, 
partly  by  the  Turks.  The  sidtan  Amu- 
rath  took  Adrianople  (1361).  Bajazet 
conquered  almost  all  the  Eia'opean  prov- 
inces except  Constantinople,  and  obliged 
John  to  pay  him  tribute.  The  latter  was, 
some  time  after,  driven  out  by  his  o>vn 
son,  Andronicus,  who  was  succeeded  by 
his  second  son,  Manuel  (1391).  Bajazet 
besieged  Constantinople,  defeated  an  ar- 
my of  western  warriors,  under  Sigismund, 
near  Nicopohs  (1396),  and  Manuel  was 
obliged  to  place  John,  son  of  Andronicus, 
on  his  tlirone.  Timur's  invasion  of  the 
Turkish  provinces  saved  Constantinople 
for  this  time  (1402).  Manuel  then  recov- 
ered his  throne,  and  regained  some  of  the 
lost  provinces  from  the  contenduig  sons 


BYZANTINE  EMPIRE— BYZANTINE  HISTORIANS. 


363 


of  Bajazet.  To  him  succeeded  his  son 
John  (1425),  whom  Amurath  II  stripped 
of  all  his  territories  except  Constaiitino- 

f>le,  and  extorted  a  tribute  from  him 
1444).  To  the  emperor  John  succeeded 
his  brother  Constantine.  With  the  assist- 
ance of  his  general,  the  Grenoese  Justin- 
ian, he  withstood  the  superior  forces  of 
the  enemy  with  fruitless  courage,  and  fell 
in  the  defence  of  Constantinople,  by  the 
conquest  of  which,  May  29, 1453,  Moham- 
med II  put  an  end  to  the  Greek  or  Byzan- 
tine empire.  In  1461,  David  Comnenus, 
emperor  of  Trebisond,  submitted  to  him, 
and,  at  a  subsequent  period,  was  put  to 
death.     (See  Comntni.) 

Byzantixe  Historians  ;  a  series  of 
Greek  authors,  whose  works  relate  to  the 
history  of  the  lower  Greek  empire,  from  the 
fourth  century  until  the  conquest  of  Con- 
stantinople by  the  Turks,  and  to  the  Turk- 
ish history  until  the  end  of  the  16th  cen- 
tury. These  authors  display  the  faults  of  a 
degenerate  period ;  but  they  contain,  also, 
tlie  relics  of  former  excellence.  They  are 
the  principal  source  of  the  history  of  the 
decay  of  the  Roman  empire,  and  a  correct 
delineation  of  the  condition  and  character 
of  the  modem  Greeks  requires  an  inti- 
mate acquaintance  with  them,  of  which 
D'Anse  de  Villoison  is  an  example.  They 
contain,  besides,  an  inexhaustible  store  of 
materials  relative  to  the  great  migration 
of  the  nations,  and  tlie  new  political  sys- 
tem to  which  it  gave  rise  in  the  north  of 
Asia  and  in  Europe,  and  illustrative  of 
ecclesiastical  history.  These  too  much 
neglected  authors  have  been  collected  in 
an  edition,  published  at  Paris — Corpus 
Scriptoruvi  HistoricB  Byzantinm  (Paris, 
royal  press,  1645 — 1702, 23  vols.) ;  repruit- 
ed  at  Venice,  with  a  different  arrangement 
of  the  works  (1729 — 173-3),  and  explained 
by  several  French  scliolai-s,  particularly 
by  Du  Cange,  who  have  rendered  great 
ser\iee  by  their  commentaries  and  glos- 
saries. These  collections,  however,  are 
rarely  to  be  fomid  complete.  Hase  has 
enlarged  the  list  of  these  writei*s,  by  his 
edition  of  Leo  Diacomis  {Leonis  Diaconi 
Caloensis  Hisloria,  etc.,  e  Bibl.  Regia  nunc 
primiim  in  Lucem  edid.  ill,  C.  B.  Hase,  Pai'- 
is,  1819,  folio),  which,  in  form  and  the  value 
of  the  contents,  approaches  the  great  Paris 
edition.  He  has  promised,  also,  to  publish 
Psellus.  Stritter,  keeper  of  the  royal  ar- 
chives at  Moscow,  under  Paul,  has  prov- 
ed, by  an  excellent  extract  [Memot-ia  Pop- 
vlorum  ad  Danuhium,  Pontum  Euxinum, 
Paludem  Maotidem,  Mare  Caspium  et  hide 
magis  ad  Septentrionem  Incolentium,  Pe- 
tersb.,  1771—79,  4  vols.,  4to.),  their  im- 


portance as  sources  of  ancient  Russian 
histoiy.  Four  of  them  form  a  continued 
history  of  the  Byzantine  empire  to  the 
year  1470,  viz.:  1.  Zonai-as;  2.  Nicetas 
Aeominatus  Choniates;  3.  Nicephorua 
Gregoras ;  4.  Laonicus,  or  Nicholas  Chal- 
condylas  of  Athens.  The  other  authors, 
who  liave  treated  only  single  parts  of  the 
Byzantine  history,  ai'e  almost  all  to  be 
found  in  the  Corpus  Byzantimim,  which 
appeared  at  Paris,  in  1648,  from  the  royal 
press,  in  three  splendid  folio  volumes. 
The  most  remarkable  among  these  are  in 
chronological  order :  1.  Procopiusof  Cse- 
sarea,  rhetorician  at  Constantinople.  We 
have  from  him  eight  books  of  histories, 
viz.,  Persica,  in  four  books,  and  Gothica, 
in  four  books,  published  separately  by 
Hoschel  (Augsburg,  1607) ;  and  Secret 
Histoiy  {Anecdota),  in  nine  books  (in 
which,  contrary  to  the  opmions  expressed 
in  his  first  work,  he  shows  himself  very 
inimical  to  the  emperor  Justinian),  pub- 
lished by  Reinhard,  at  Erlangen  and  Leip- 
sic  (1753). — 2.  Agathias,  after  the  death 
of  Justinian,  >vrote  an  account  of  his  reign, 
in  five  books,  published  at  Pai-is  (1660, 
folio).— 3.  Theophylact  of  Egypt.  We 
have  fi-om  him  a  history  of  the  emperor 
Maurice,  in  eight  books,  to  604  (Paris, 
1644). — 4.  Nicephorus,  patriarch  of  Con- 
stantinople, who  has  left  sevei-al  learned 
theological  writings.  His  Breviarium  His- 
toricum  extends  from  the  death  of  the  em- 
peror Maurice  to  770  (Venice,  1759). — 5. 
Joh.  Scylitzes  held  several  offices  at  Con- 
stantinople. We  have  from  him  an  abridg- 
ment of  history,  fi-om  811  to  the  time 
of  Isaac  Comnenus  (1057.)  It  appeared 
in  a  Latin  translation  (Venice,  1570).  The 
same  work  he  continued  to  the  time  of 
Alexander  Comnenus,  1081.  The  con- 
tmuation  is  yet  in  manuscript. — 6.  Anna 
Comnena,  daughter  of  the  emperor  Alex- 
ius I,  died  about  1150.  She  wrote  an 
Mexias,  or  a  work  on  the  histoiy  of  her 
father,  Alexius  Conmenus,  in  15  books, 
edited  by  Hoschel  in  Augsburg,  1610.  (A 
more  complete  edition,  Paris,  1651,  folio). 
— 7.  George  Acropolita,  a  statesman  in 
Constantinople,  wrote  an  abridgment  of 
the  Byzantine  history,  from  tlie  capture  of 
Constantinople  by  the  Latins,  1204,  to  its 
recapture.  1260  (Paris,  1651). — 8.  George 
Pachymer  held  high  offices  in  church  and 
state  in  Constantinople.  He  wrote  Byzan- 
tine History,  in  thirteen  Books,  from  the 
Birth  of  Michael  Palseologiis,  1158,  to  1308 
(Frankfort,  1568,  folio).— 9.  John  Canta- 
cuzenus,  the  emperor,  is  the  author  of 
Byzantine  History,  in  four  Books,  from 
1320^54  (Paris,  1645).— 10.  George  Co- 


364     BYZANTINE  HISTORIANS— BYZANTINE  SCHOOL  OF  ART. 


dinus,  intendant  of  the  palace  in  Constan- 
tinople. We  have  from  him  several  works 
on  the  antiquities  of  Constantinople.  The 
most  important  of  tliem  is  On  the  Offices 
and  Services  appertaining  to  the  Court 
and  tlie  Church  of  Constantinople  (Paris, 
1648,  foho). — 11.  Constantinus  Porphyro- 
gennetus,  or  Porphyrogenneta,  emperor, 
wrote  the  life  of  his  grandfather  Basilius 
Macedo,  edited  by  John  Meursius.  We 
have  also  a  work  of  his  on  government, 
written  for  his  son,  and  on  the  provinces  of 
the  Eastern  and  Western  Empire,  besides 
other  writings  and  collections.  The  most 
important  treats  of  tlie  ceremonies  of  the 
Byzantine  court.  It  was  edited  by  Leich 
and  Reiske  (Leipsic,  1751 — 54,  2  vols.). — 
12.  After  the  capture  of  Constantinople, 
Ducas  wrote  a  Byzantine  histoiy,  from 
1341  to  the  capture  of  Lesbos,  1462. — 13. 
Anselm  Banduri,  a  Beuedictuie  monk, 
left  an  extensive  work  on  tlie  antiquities 
of  Constantinople,  in  which  several  works 
of  more  ancient  writers  are  contained. — 
14.  Peter  Gilles.  From  him  we  have 
three  books  on  the  Thi*acian  Bosphorus, 
and  four  books  on  the  topography  and 
antiquities  of  Constantinople. — 15.  Zosi- 
mus  wrote  a  Roman  history,  in  six  books, 
from^  Augustus  to  Honorius.  This  work 
is  of  particular  impoitance  for  the  later 
epochs ;  published  by  Reitmeyer  (Leipsic, 
1784). — 16.  George  Phranza  died,  after 
the  capture  of  Constantinople,  in  a  mon- 
astery of  Corfu.  We  have  from  him 
a  chronicle  of  the  Byzantine  history,  in 
four  books,  from  1401 — 77,  published  by 
Alter  (Vienna,  1796). 

A  new  and  highly-improved  edition  of 
this  important  collection  was  conmienced, 
in  1828,  by  that  distinguished  scholar, 
Rlr.  Niebuhr,  to  be  pubUshed  by  Weber, 
the  well-known  bookseller  at  Bonn  in 
(jJermany.  Three  volumes  of  this  edition, 
in  octavo,  have  been  received  in  tlie  U. 
States,  and  will  fully  justify  the  high  ex- 
pectations enteitained  by  tlie  learned  of 
this  Herculean  undertaking.  By  a  sin- 
gular concurrence  of  circumstances,  tlie 
college  at  Cambridge,  Massachusetts,  hap- 
pens to  be  possessed  of  a  valuable  manu- 
script of  one  of  the  Byzantine  historians, 
Michael  Glycas,  which,  as  we  are  inform- 
ed by  a  gentleman  who  has  cursorily 
examined  it,  appeal's  never  to  have  been 
collated,  and  will  furnish  several  various 
readings  of  importance  in  the  emendation 
of  the  text.  This  MS.  is  one  of  a  number 
purchased  in  Constantinople,  and  brought 
to  the  U.  States  by  the  Hon.  Edward  Ev- 
erett, in  the  year  1819,  and  a  particular 
account  of  which  is  given  by  hina  in  the 


Memoirs  of  the  American  Academy,  voL 
4,  p.  413.  It  is  on  parchment,  and  is  sup- 
posed to  have  been  written  as  early  as  the 
13tli  century.  A  collation  of  it  is  now 
begun,  as  we  are  informed,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  being  ti-ansmitted  to  the  learned 
editor  ui  Germany. 

Byzantine  School  of  Art.  After 
Constantine  the  Great  had  made  the 
ancient  Byzantium  the  capital  of  the  Ro- 
man emjiire,  and  ornamented  that  city, 
which  was  called  after  him,  witli  all  the 
treasures  of  Grecian  art,  a  new  peri- 
od commenced  in  the  history  of  art. 
From  this  time  it  became  subservient  to 
Christianity,  as  the  religion  of  the  state. 
All  the  productions  of  heathen  artists, 
which  formed  suitable  oniaments  for 
Christian  cities  and  temples,  were  now 
employed  in  the  service  of  the  invisible 
God,  and  art  began,  by  slow  degrees,  to 
rise  from  its  degeneracy,  under  the  influ- 
ences of  Christianity.  At  the  time  when 
Constantine  converted  Byzantium  into  an 
imperial  residence,  splendor  and  ornament 
had  already  supphinted  the  simplicity  of 
ancient  taste.  Asiatic  luxury  had  become 
predominant,  and  this  laid  more  stress  on 
richness  of  material  and  decoration  than 
on  purity  of  conception.  Architecture, 
which  adorned  the  forum  Augusttum,  in 
Byzantium,  with  a  fourfold  colonnade, 
and  created  splendid  curia,  imperial  pal- 
aces, baths,  theatres  and  porticoes,  pre- 
served, for  a  long  time,  the  grand  forms 
of  classic  times,  and  deviated  from  them 
slowly  and  gradually,  at  first  in  the  Chris- 
tian churches,  as  a  model  for  which  Jus- 
tinian built  the  church  of  St.  Sophia,  and 
decorated  it  with  Oriental  magnificence, 
in  537.  But,  even  in  architecture,  the 
costliness  and  color  of  the  marble  was 
soon  considered  as  of  more  importance 
than  the  proportion  of  the  parts  and  the 
distribution  of  the  columns.  There  are, 
however,  as  late  as  the  ninth  century,  ad- 
mirable works  of  Greek  architecture,  par- 
ticularly those  of  Theodosius  the  Great 
and  Justinian.  This  period  was  still  less 
favorable  to  the  simplicity  of  sculpture. 
The  mythology  of  ancient  Greece  afford- 
ed sacred  subjects  to  tlie  statuary.  Gods 
appeared  in  tlie  human  fonn,  and  the 
human  figure,  in  the  Grecian  model,  was 
raised  to  the  classical  ideal.  On  the 
introduction  of  the  Christian  reUgion, 
sculpture  was  confined  to  the  imitation 
of  nature ;  afterwards  to  portraits,  and 
to  mere  purposes  of  ornament ;  for  Chris- 
tianity is  averse  to  sensible  representations 
of  the  Divinity.  Statues  of  emperors,  of 
gre^t  statesmen  9Jid  general^,,  became  thQ 


BYZANTINE  SCHOOL  OF  ART. 


36S 


subjects  of  the  sculptor,  and  seem,  event- 
ually, to  have  given  rise  to  the  introduc- 
tion of  the  woi-ship  of  images  in  the 
Christian  churches,  since  the  custom  of 
erecting  monuments  and  statues  to  the 
emperors,  and  distinguished  bishops,  was 
extended  to  martyrs  and  saints,  and  was 
afterw^ards  followed  by  the  superstitious 
worship  of  them.  (See  Iconoclasts.) 
Though  images  of  this  kind  became  more 
frequent  in  the  third  and  fourth  centuries, 
there  were  yet  many  Christian  teachei-s, 
who,  like  Tertullian  (q.  v.),  at  an  early 
period,  declared  the  fine  arts  inventions 
of  the  devil,  and  the  pagan  statues  pos- 
sessed by  demons.  This  superstition 
often  caused  the  destruction  of  the  noblest 
statues  of  the  Grecian  gods  by  popular 
violence.  It  was  not  until  after  many  difii- 
culties,  that,  in  the  ninth  century,  the 
worship  of  images  was  established  in  the 
Greek  empire,  and  after  that  lime  appear- 
ed the  first  known  traces  of  Christian 
sculpture  and  jminling  in  tlie  East.  But 
even  those  statues,  to  which  sculpture  was 
now  confined,  no  longer  displayed  the 
freedom  and  dignity  of  ancient  art.  The 
pride  of  the  emperors  demanded  statues 
of  gold  and  silver,  as  long  as  their  treas- 
ury', filled  by  exhausting  their  subjects, 
could  supply  them.  Images  of  bronze 
and  marble  were  despised.  And  how 
seldom  could  the  artist  be  inspired  by  his 
subject,  when  flatteiy  erected  monuments 
and  busts  to  the  most  worthless  of  men !  It 
was  natural,  that,  with  the  loss  of  elevated 
subjects,  the  dignity  of  art  should  be  lost 
in  petty  technical  details.  Ileyne,  in  his 
treatise  on  the  later  works  of  art,  under 
the  Byzantuie  empex-ors  [Commentat.  Soc. 
Gutting.,  vol.xi),  observes,  that  the  repre- 
sentations of  the  emperors,  of  distinguish- 
ed men,  or  of  saints,  were  uniform  in  fig- 
ure and  character.  The  vestiges  of  genius 
were  nowhere  seen  in  free  creations  and 
ideal  forms,  in  the  desire  of  truth  and 
expression.  From  the  time  of  Justinian 
downwards,  the  tnie  measure  and  j)ropor- 
tion  of  the  parts,  and  the  correctness  of 
tlie  outlines,  were  so  much  neglected,  that 
the  representations  became  constantly 
more  like  masks,  spectres  and  monsters. 
The  old  Roman  faces  were  seldom  rep- 
resented :  the  forms  appeared  to  belong 
to  quite  another  race — to  some  new  nation ; 
and  it  was  often  necessary  to  write  the 
names  under  them.  In  the  perspective 
of  the  figures  no  rules  were  observed.  It 
became,  at  this  time,  the  great  object  to 
imitate  the  costly  robes  bf  the  eniperors, 
bishops,  and  other  noble  persons,  who 
gratified  their  vanity  not  only  with  purple 
31* 


garments,  but  by  the  extravagant  use  of 
pearls  and  precious  stones,  which  were 
worn  in  long  pendants  from  the  ear,  in 
bracelets  and  in  necklaces.  The  whole 
mantle  was  often  garnished  with  precious 
stones,  and  round  the  edge  ran  a  double 
row  of  pearls.  Such  garments  the  em])e- 
rors  used  to  change  several  times  a  day. 
As  such  exterior  ornaments  are  foreign 
from  sculpture,  which  prefers  the  naked 
figure,  or  a  simple  drapery,  it  is  easy  to 
see  wiiy  the  production  of  statues  ceased 
so  soon.  In  the  lists  of  Byzantine  works 
of  scuiptiu'e  given  by  authors  of  the  fii-st 
centuries,  there  are  no  images  of  Christ, 
no  statues  of  apostles  and  saints.  Instead 
of  them,  we  find  only  crucifixes,  painted, 
or  ornamented  with  mosaic  work.  If 
there  were  any  such  images  in  earlier 
times,  they  must  have  been  destroyed  in 
the  time  of  the  Iconoclasts  (q.  v.),  as  was 
the  case  with  the  bronze  statue  of  Christ, 
near  that  of  Constantine,  which  was  de- 
mohshed  by  Leo,  the  general  destroyer  of 
images,  and  the  rej)resenlations  of  the 
Good  Shepherd,  praised  by  Eusebius,  and 
that  of  Daniel  among  the  Zrt'oris,  with  which 
Constantine  adorned  the  public  fountains. 
An  image  of  the  Savior,  sun-ounded  by 
angels,  and  worked  in  mosaic,  is  described 
by  Photius.  We  also  find  mention  of  the 
images  of  two  angels  upon  the  forum  of 
Constantine,  the  representation  of  Adanj 
and  Eve,  the  bronze  statue  of  Moses,  with 
which  Justinian  is  said  to  have  ornament- 
ed the  cui-ia,  and  that  of  Solomon,  of  an 
earlier  date.  According  to  Eusebius,  the 
roof  of  the  palace  in  Constantinople  was 
also  decorated  with  rich  mosaics  of  gold 
and  costly  stones,  representing  scenes 
from  the  passion  of  Christ ;  and  another, 
which  Justinian  erected,  in  Chalcis,  con- 
tained representations  of  events  in  the 
war  against  the  Vandals.  The  most  cel- 
ebrated of  all  the  mosaics  in  the  interior 
of  St.  Sophia's  church  iji  Constantinople 
has  been  presened  in  fragments  to  mod- 
ern times.  The  taste  of  those  times  in- 
clined, in  general,  more  to  mosaic  works 
than  to  sculpture;  because  the  former 
were  rendered  attractive  by  the  costliness 
and  colors  of  the  stones.  Sculpture -was 
employed  particularly  in  ornamenting  al- 
tai-s,  tabernacles,  holy  vessels  and  urns, 
which  were  made  of  the  most  precious 
marble.  The  art  of  engraving  on  stones 
was  also  long  preserved.  In  the  art  of 
painting,  which  was  imitated  in  mosaic, 
the  taste  of  this  age  was  the  same  as  in 
sculpture — pleased  with  gold  and  lively 
coloi-s,  but  careless  about  truth  of  repre- 
sentation, and  beauty  and  grandeur  of 


366 


BYZANTINE  SCHOOL  OF  ART. 


conception.  The  first  germ  of  a  Christian: 
style  of  art  was,  however,  developed  in 
the  Byzantine  pictures.  The  ideal  rep- 
resentations of  human  figures,  which  the 
ancient  Grecian  artists  ^d  exhibited  in 
their  master-works,  were  necessarily  given 
up  by  Christian  artists :  another  ideal  was 
to  be  formed,  which  should  not  recall  the 
odious  features  of  paganism.  But  the 
ideal  of  the  Savior,  of  the  mother  of  Christ, 
and  of  his  apostles,  could  be  formed  only 
by  degrees.  The  artists,  who  had  nothing 
real  and  material  befoi-e  them,  but  were 
obhged  to  find,  in  their  own  imaginations,^ 
conceptions  of  the  external  appearance  of 
sacred  persons,  could  give  but  feeble 
sketches  of  tlieir  ideas  by  means  of  their 
imperfect  art.  In  their  representations  of 
Jesus  and  his  apostles,  they  finally  adoj)t- 
ed  the  national  features  of  the  Jews.  In 
the  figure,  and  sometimes  even  in  the 
countenance,  they  imitated  the  external 
appearance  of  some  revered  bishop.  The 
hands  were  often  lifted,  as  m  blessing,  or 
one  hand  was  laid  upon  the  breast,  or 
holding  a  book.  Thus  the  figures  of  the 
founders  of  tlie  Christian  church  were 
first  represented  in  paintings.  They  were 
also  exhibited  in  mosaic,  but  not  in  mar- 
ble. Christian  subjects,  indeed,  are  gen- 
erally more  suited  to  painting,  which  gives 
the  outward  expression  of  the  mind,  by 
means  of  light,  and  shade,  and  colors, 
than  to  sculpture,  which,  on  the  contrary, 
elevates  the  external  form  to  a  kind  of 
spiritual  dignitj'.  As  the  artists  cared  but 
little  for  a  faithful  imitation  of  nature,  but 
were  satisfied  with  repeating  what  was 
once  acknowledged  as  successful,  it  is  not 
strange  that  certain  foniis,  introduced  by 
the  authority  of  some  celebrated  artists, 
and  approved  by  the  taste  of  the  time, 
should  be  made,  "by  convention,  and  Avith- 
out  regard  to  truth  and  beauty,  general 
models  of  the  human  figure,  and  be  trans- 
mitted as  such  to  succeeding  times.  In 
his  treatise  on  the  continuation  of  the 
arts  in  Constantinople  [Comments  Soc, 
Gotting.,  vol.  xiii),  Ileyne  remarks,  that  art 
continued  to  be  exercised  here,  as  far  as 
it  consists  m  mechanical  skill,  in  the  use 
of  instruments,  in  particular  rules  and 
general  precepts ;  but  taste,  and  a  sense 
for  truth  and  simple  beauty,  liad  vanished. 
Delicacy,  elegance  and  gracefulness  in 
design,  proportion  of  paits,  haniiony  of 
tlie  figures,  and  beauty  of  form,  were  lost. 
The  artists  did  not  even  aim  at  an  accu- 
rate representation,  but  wei-e  contented 
with  rude  and  general  outlines,  as  may  be 
seen  in  the  coins  of  the  time.  These  de- 
formed and  meagre  figures  were  slavishly 


copied,  and  labor  was  lavished  on  costfy^ 
and  often  tasteless,  ornaments.  A  certain 
propensity  to  the  grotesque  prevailed, 
even  in  architecture.  The  influence  of 
ancient  works  of  art  continually  decreased 
as  their  number  was  diminished  by  the 
violences  of  war,  by  superstition,  by  ava- 
rice, and  by  the  hand  of  time.  Most  of  the 
then  existing  works  of  antiquity  perished 
in  the  capture  of  Constantinople,  during 
the  crusades  of  1204  and  1261 ;  and  thus 
the  city  had  long  been  deprived  of  its 
most  Ijeautiful  ornaments,  when  it  was 
taken  by  the  Turks,  in  1453. — This  was, 
in  general,  the  state  of  art  in  the  Byzan- 
tine empire.  Its  influence  has  been  felt 
ever  since  ;  in  eai-Uer  times,  by  the  con- 
nexion of  the  imperial  residence  in  the 
East  with  the  Western  Empire,.and  after- 
wards by  conmiercial  intercourse  and  the 
crusades. — Let  us  first  consider  this  con- 
nexion of  the  lower  Greek  ait  with  the 
west  of  Europe,  and,  in  particular,  with 
Italy.  According  to  Stieglitz  (on  German 
Architecture),  the  character  of  the  lower 
Greek  architecture  was  tranquillity  and 
simplicity,  originating  from  jjoverty  of 
ideas  and  materials,  and  terminating  in 
heaviness.  But  this  aichitecture,  which 
prevailed  till  the  earlier  pait  of  the  middle 
ages,  preseiTed  the  seed,  from  which,  in 
later  times,  a  new  and  better  style  sprung 
up.  Constantinople  became  a  school  of 
architecture,  from  which  artists  issued  to 
all  paits  of  the  Roman  empire,  as  far  as 
Britain,  to  erect  churches  after  the  model 
of  St.  Sophia.  They  also  penetrated  into 
the  countries  of  the  East,  introducing 
their  art  among  tlie  Arabians,  who  applied 
it  to  the  erection  of  their  mosques,  and 
among  the  Moore  in  Spain,  who  formed 
their  own  style  from  it.  The  lower 
Greek  or  Byzantine  style  kept  itself  pure 
and  uncorrupted  in  Italy,  under  the  Lom- 
bards, as  well  as  under  the  Goths,  whose 
artists  came  from  the  East ;  and  thence  it 
spread,,  during  the  reign  of  Charlemagne, 
to  Gennany,  Gaul  and  England.  The 
style  of  architecture  introduced  by  Char- 
lemagne into  Gennany,  was  a  corruption 
of  tliat  prevailing  in  the  lower  Greek 
empire,  from  which,  together  with  the 
Arabian  and  German  .style,  sprang  the  true 
Gennan  or  Gothic  architecture,  which 
flourished  from  the  13th  to  the  16th  cen- 
tury. (See  Architecture,  History  of.)  The 
basso-relievos  on  the  oldest  churches  m 
Germany,  and  some  pictures  in  them,  still 
show  the  traces  of  tlie  lower  Grecian  art. 
There  are  also  to  be  found  in  Gori  (e.  g.. 
Diptych,  vol.  3,  p.  33  and  270,  tab.  iv  and 
xxiii)  and  Ciampini  ( Vet.  Moniiiient.,  part 


BYZANTINE  SCHOOL  OF  ART— BYZANTIUM. 


367 


ii,  p.  104,  tab.  xxix),  representations  of 
Italian  and  Gallic  sculpture,  which,  in 
their  draper}^,  ornaments  and  architectural 
forms,  betray  a  Byzantine  origin.    In  re- 

fard  to  painting,  we  are  indebted  to  the 
lyzantmes  for  the  preservation  of  some 
portion  of  its  ancient  excellence.  As,  in 
tlie  early  period  of  Christianity,  Grecian 
and  Roman  art,  in  general,  differed  but 
little,  since  both  sprung  from  the  ruins  of 
ancient  art,  so,  in  painting,  no  striking 
difference  is  to  be  observed  between  them. 
They  became,  however,  constantly  more 
and  more  distinct,  in  later  times,  as  Greece 
and  Italy  became  more  and  more  separat- 
ed. Short,  thick  bodies,  stiff  and  forced  at- 
titudes, exaggeration  of  the  characteristic 
parts,  in  particular  of  the  eyes,  iaces  con- 
tracted above  and  broad  below,  and  mark- 
ed with  overcharged  tints,  short  thick 
hair,  highly-arched  eyebrows,  awkward 
draperj^,  loaded  with  unnatural  folds,  dis- 
tinguish the  Greek  pictures  as  far  back 
as  the  fifth  century.  The  better  paintings, 
which  are  found  particularly  in  manu- 
scripts, show  a  neat,  accurate  and  diligent 
execution.  When  art  dechned  in  Italy, 
particularly  in  the  ninth  centurj',  painting 
was  still  cultivated  by  the  Greeks,  who, 
driven  fi-om  home  by  the  disputes  con- 
cerning images,  carried  it  into  Italy  and 
other  countries,  and  adorned  the  churches 
there.  Thus  the  lower  Greek  or  Byzan- 
tine school  was  the  mother  of  the  old 
Italian  school,  and  of  the  lower  Rhenish, 
which  i)receded  the  German.  The  rela- 
tion of  both  is  seen  in  the  similarity  of 
the  Italian  pictures  to  those  of  the  lower 
Rhenish  school.  According  to  tlie  com- 
mon statement,  several  Grecian  artists 
j)assed  over  into  Italy,  in  the  beginning 
of  the  12th  century,  and  adorned  the 
churches  of  Florence  and  Venice  with 
their  works.  These  were  joined  by  the 
Itahan  artists,  who  founded,  in  the  13th 
century,  a  school  of  art  and  painting  (see 
Italian  Art),  which,  in  its  dcvelopement, 
acquired  a  peculiar  character,  distinguish- 
ed by  beauty  both  of  conception  and  exe- 
cution. The  lower  Rhenish  school,  how- 
ever, which  is  also  called  the  school  of 
Cologne,  as  it  flourished  chiefly,  from 
the  beginning  of  the  14th  to  the  begin- 
ning of  the  15th  centuries,  in  the  city  of 
Cologne,  appears  to  have  retained  still 


more  closely  the  Byzantine  character 
than  the  Italian  did,  since  there  are  tra- 
ces of  it  even  in  the  later  German  school, 
exhibited  in  the  symmetrical  and  pyram- 
idal grouping  of  the  objects,  in  the  close 
draperj-,  and  in  the  love  of  oniaraent  and 
splendor,  shown  particularly  m  tlie  golden 
back-grounds.  The  collection  of  the 
brothers  Boisseree  (q.  v.)  contains  the 
most  excellent  works  of  this  school.  John 
Van  Eyck  first  set  the  example  of  a  more 
individual  representation  of  natural  ob- 
jects, in  opposition  to  the  general  repre- 
sentations of  the  lower  Greek,  and  the 
ideal  style  of  the  old  Roman  school.  More 
exact  accounts  are  wanting  of  the  histori- 
cal connexion  of  the  lower  Rhenish  and 
of  the  old  Italian  school  with  the  Byzan- 
tine style  of  art.  (On  the  earlier  times  of 
the  Byzantine  art,  see  Histoire  de  VArt  par 
les  Monument  depitis  sa  Dicadence  au 
14me  Siecle,jusqu^a  son  Renouvellement  au 
16me;  Paris,  1810,  folio). 

Byzantium  (fixim  its  original  founder, 
Byzas),  lying  on  the  Thracian  Bosphorus, 
on  a  triangular  promontory,  the  present 
Constantinople,  even  in  ancient  times  a 
flourishing  city,  was  at  first  a  Megarian 
colony,  and  was  aftenvards  enlarged  and 
embellished  by  the  Milesians  and  other 
Greeks.  Near  it  was  a  small  bay  of  the 
Propontis,  called  Keras,  forming  three 
harboi-s.  The  situation  of  B.  was  highly 
favorable  to  trade,  and  gave  it  the  com- 
mand of  the  commerce  of  other  nations 
in  the  Black  sea,  and  the  opportunity  of 
imposing  tolls  and  duties.  These  circum- 
stances increased  the  resources  of  the 
city ;  but  it  suffered  much  fi'om  the  at- 
tacks of  the  Thraeians,  Bithynians,  Gauls, 
and  even  the  Greeks.  It  was  severely 
treated  in  the  Peloponnesian  war,  but 
afterwards  rose  again,  and,  under  the  em- 
yjeroi-s,  was  in  the  most  flourishing  condi- 
tion. From  the  time  of  Constantine,  it 
was  the  second  city  in  the  Roman  em- 
pire, and  the  residence  of  the  emperor, 
who  endeavored  to  give  it  the  splendor 
of  old  Rome.  It  was,  lilie  Rome,  divided 
into  14  districts ;  had  an  amphitheatre,  a 
Roman  forum,  a  circus,  and  a  multitude 
of  splendid  buildings  and  statues,  some 
of  which  had  been  brought  fi'om  Rome. 
(See  Constantinople.\ 


368 


C— CABALA 


C. 


t^,  THE  third  letter  of  the  alphabet  in 
most  of  the  European  dialects.  "In  Eng- 
lish," says  Ben  Jonson, "  it  might  well  have 
been  spared,  for  it  has  no  peculiar  sound." 
It  has  the  simple  power  of  Ar,  before  a, 
0,  u,  and  most  of  the  consonants ;  and 
the  power  of  s,  before  e,  i,  y.  The 
Greeks  had  no  c  in  their  alphabet,  and 
they  supplied  the  use  of  it  in  Roman 
words  by  K  or  s,  as  the  Romans  often 
indicated  the  kapjpa  and  s^igvia,  in  Greek 
words,  by  a  c.  The  earher  Romans  also 
used  it  in  many  words  which  were  at  a 
later  period  written  with  a g;  as,  leciones 
for  legiones.  This  renders  it  probable  that 
it  was  originally  the  Greek  gamma,  as  the 
form  of  the  letters,  in  ancient  inscriptions, 
is  very  similar.  The  Roman  g  was  in- 
vented, according  to  Plutarch,  by  Spurius 
Carvilius.  Q  and  C  are  often  inter- 
changed on  monuments;  thus  we  find 
Q  VMfor  C  VM,  cotidie  for  quotidie.  Its 
arithmetical  significations,  and  its  principal 
uses  in  abbreviations,  have  been  explained 
in  the  article  Abbreviations  (q.  v.).  On  med- 
als, it  stands  for  many  names  of  persons, 
as,  CcEsar,  Caius,  Cassius,  &c. ;  of  ofiicei"s, 
as,  censor,  consul ;  of  cities,  as,  Carthago, 
&c. ;  also  for  cives,  civitas,  colonia,  cohors, 
clypeus,  castra,  circensis.  In  the  calen- 
dars and  fasti,  it  denoted  the  days  in 
which  the  comitia  might  be  held.  In  tri- 
als, the  ojjinions  of  the  judges  were  given 
by  writing  on  a  httle  cube  or  die  [tessera) 
the  initial  C,  condemno,  A,  absolvo,  or  N  L, 
non  liquet.  For  this  reason,  Cicero  (pro 
]MiL  G.)  calls  C,  littera  tristis,  and  A,  littera 
salutaris. — C,  in  music ;  the  name  of  that 
note  in  the  natural  major  mode,  to  which 
Guido  applied  the  monosyllable  ^U,  but 
wliich  has  long  since  been  relinquished 
by  the  Italians  lor  that  of  do,  as  softer  and 
more  vocal.  C  sometimes,  in  Italian  mu- 
sic, stands  for  canto,  as  C  1.  canto  prima. 
It  stands,  likewise,  when  placed  at  the 
clef,  for  common  time,  and,  with  a  line 
run  through  it  perpendicularly,  for  cut 
time,  or  a  quicker  kind  of  movement. 

Cabal  ;  the  infamous  English  ministry 
under  Charles  II  (q.  \.),  which  consisted 
of  five  men  famous  for  their  intrigues — 
ChfFord,  Ashley,  Buckingham,  Arlington, 
and  Lauderdale,  whose  initial  lettei-s  form 


this  word.  (Burnet,  Gum  Times,  An.  1672.) 
Some  think  the  use  of  the  word  cabal, 
to  denote  an  intrigue,  or  a  body  of  in- 
triguers, is  derived  from  this  circumstance. 
"  Never,"  says  Hume  (ch.  65), "  was  there  a 
more  dangerous  ministry  in  England,  nor 
one  more  noted  for  pernicious  counsels. 
Ashley  (more  kno^vn  jis  the  earl  of  Shaftes- 
bury), bold,  ambitious,  eloquent,  uisinuat- 
ing,  subtle,  united  great  industry  with  a 
sound  judgment  of  business  and  of  men* 
Buckingham,  with  the  advantages  of  a 
graceful  person,  high  rank,  sjilendid  for- 
tune, and  a  lively  wit,  bnt  without  pru- 
dence or  principle,  sacrificing,  in  turn, 
honor  to  interest,  interest  to  pleastu-e,  and 
pleasure  to  caprice,  dissipated  bis  fortune, 
and  ruined  his  health,  by  his  riot  and  de- 
baucher}-,  and  destroyed  his  character,  in 
public  life,  by  his  want  of  secrecy  and 
constancy.  Lauderdale,  tyrannical,  am- 
bitious, implacable,  insolent,  yet  abject, 
had  a  great  ascendency  over  the  king. 
ChflTord,  daring,  impetuous,  yet  artful,  and 
eloquent,  and  Arlington,  of  moderate  ca- 
pacity', without  courage  or  integrity,  were, 
secretly,  Catholics.  Shaftesbury  was  at 
once  a  deist,  and  addicted  to  astrology; 
Lauderdale  a  liigoted,  and,  earher,  a  furi- 
ous Presbyterian." 

Cabal;  a  beverage  made  in  Portugal, 
by  bruising  20  poimds  of  raisins,  and  sat- 
urating them  with  white  wine  during  3 
months.  The  mixture  is  rich,  clear  and 
agreeable. 

Cabala,  or  Cabbala,  (i.  e.  oral  tradi- 
tion), is  used  by  the  Jews  to  denote  some- 
times the  doctrines  of  the  prophets,  some- 
times the  traditions  of  their  ancestors, 
sometimes,  and  most  commonlj-,  their 
mystical  piiilosophy.  The  opinions  of 
scholars  respecting  the  origin  of  the 
cabalistic  philosophy  are  veiy  various. 
The  Jews  derive  the  cabalistic  mysteries 
from  tlie  most  ancient  times  of  their  na- 
tion, nay,  even  from  Adam  himself.  But, 
although  a  secret  doctrine  existed  among 
the  Hebrews  in  the  earliest  ages,  this  had 
reference  merely  to  religious  worship. 
The  origin  of  the  philosophical  cabala  is 
to  be  sought  for  in  Egj'pt,  and  dates  from 
the  times  of  Simeon  Schetachides,  who 
conveyed  it  from  Egj'pt  to  Palestine.    It 


CABALA— CABBAGE. 


369 


was  first  committed  to  writing  in  the  2cl 
century,  that  it  might  not  be  lost  with  the 
dispersion  of  the  Jewish  nation.  Later 
expositoi-s  have  mingled  with  it  much 
foreign  matter.  The  cabala  is  divided 
into  the  symbolical  and  the  real.  The 
symboUcal  portion  treats  principally  of 
letters,  to  which  it  gives  mystical  signifi- 
cations. The  real,  which  is  opposed  to  the 
symbolical,  and  comprehends  doctrines, 
is  divided  into  tlie  theoretical  and  prac- 
tical. The  aim  of  the  theoretical  is  to 
explain  the  Holy  Scriptures  according 
to  the  secret  traditions,  and  to  form  there- 
fi-om  a  philosophical  system  of  metaphys- 
ics, physics  and  pneumatology.  The  prac- 
tical portion,  on  the  other  hand,  pretends 
to  teach  the  art  of  performing  miracles, 
and  that  merely  by  an  artificial  apphca- 
tion  of  the  divine  names  and  sentences 
in  the  Sacred  Scriptures.  After  the  revi- 
val of  science,  many  scholars  studied  tlie 
cabala.  The  most  famous  modern  cab- 
alists  are  Henry  Morus  and  Christian 
Knorr,  the  last  of  whom  has  made  a 
compilation  of  the  most  important  parts 
of  the  cabahstic  writings,  in  two  Latin 
volumes,  in  4to.  (Respecting  die  myste- 
ries of  the  cabala,  see  Pet.  Beer's  History 
of  the.  Doctrines  and  Opinions  of  all  the 
Jewish  Sects,  and  of  the  Cabala,  Briinn, 
1822,  2  vols. ;  also  Brucker's  History  of 
Philosophy,  by  doctor  Enfield,  vol.  li. 
Allen's  Modem  Judaism,  ch.  v. ;  and  Bud- 
dsei  Introductio  ad  Historiam  Philosophice 
HebrcEorum.) 

Cabanis,  Peter  John  George,  physi- 
cian, philosopher,  and  literateur,  bom  at 
Cognac,  1757,  went  to  Paris  in  his  14th 
year,  and  devoted  himself  with  zeal  to 
the  sciences.  In  his  16th  year,  he  went 
to  Warsaw  as  secretary  of  a  Polish  lord. 
The  proceedings  of  the  stormy  diet  of 
1773  filled  him  with  melancholy  and 
contempt  of  mankind.  He  began  at  Paris 
a  complete  translation  of  the  Ihad.  In 
Auteuil,  near  Paris,  he  became  acquaint- 
ed with  madame  Helvetius,  and,  through 
her,  vvith  Holbach,  Franklin  and  Jeffer- 
son, and  became  the  friend  of  Condillac, 
Turgot  and  Thomas.  In  his  Serment 
d'un  Medecin,  he  formally  took  leave  of 
tlie  belles-lettres.  He  professed  the  prin- 
ciples of  the  revolution,  and  was  inti- 
mately connected  with  Mirabeau,  who 
made  use  of  his  ideas,  and  obtained  from 
him  the  work  on  pubhc  education,  which 
Cabanis  pubhshed  himself,  in  1791,  after 
the  death  of  Mirabeau.  He  hved  in  stUl 
closer  intimacy  with  Condorcet.  At  the 
tune  of  his  deaUi,  May  5th,  1808,  he  was 
a  member  of  the  senate.    His  Rapports 


du  Physique  et  du  Moral  de  VHomme 
(Paris,  1802,  2  vols,,  improved  m  1805), 
are  highly  esteemed.  His  works  appeared 
in  Paris,  1824,  complete,  in  4  vols. 

Cabarrus,  Francois,  count  of,  bom 
1752,  at  Bayonne,  was  destined  for  com- 
merce by  his  father,  who  sent  him  to  a 
commercial  fiiend,  Galabert,  at  Saragos- 
sa,  whose  daughter  he  married  in  secret, 
agamst  the  will  of  both  families,  in  1772. 
His  father-in-law,  however,  gave  him  the 
charge  of  a  soap  manufactory,  near  Ma- 
drid. The  nearness  of  the  city  enabled 
him  to  become  acquainted  with  several 
learned  men  and  metaphysicians,  as  01- 
avides  and  the  count  of  Caznpomanes. 
During  the  North  American  war,  in  which 
Spain  took  part  against  England,  and  was 
consequently  cut  off"  from  her  resources 
in  America,  C.  advised  the  mmister  of 
the  finances  to  make  an  issue  of  paper 
money,  payable  with  interest,  of  which 
10,000,000  piastres  were  put  in  circula- 
tion with  the  greatest  success.  He  after- 
wards established  the  bank  of  San  Carlos, 
1782,  and  a  company  to  trade  with  the 
Philippuie  islands.  After  the  death  of 
Chai-les  III,  in  1788,  he  fell  into  di^ace. 
In  1790,  he  was  arrested ;  in  1792,  releas- 
ed, and  made  a  nobleman ;  and,  in  1797, 
appointed  minister  plenipotentiary  at  the 
congress  of  Rastadt.  He  died  in  1810,  ia 
the  office  of  minister  of  finance,  to  which 
he  had  been  appointed  by  Joseph  Bona- 
parte. He  had  a  daughter  equally  cele- 
brated for  beauty  and  talents. 

Cabbage.  The  cabbage,  including 
many  species  of  the  numerous  genus  of 
brassica,  is  a  biennial  plant,  too  well  known 
to  need  description,  and  constitutes  one 
of  our  most  valuable  classes  of  vegetables. 
There  are  several  species  of  the  mid  or 
original  stock,  fi-om  which  the  garden 
cabbage  has  been  derived  by  cultivation. 
These  are  natives  of  various  parts  of  Eu- 
rope, Africa,  &c.,  and,  although  very  re- 
mote in  appearance  from  the  full,  round 
head,  which  our  plants  present,  are  scarce- 
ly more  so  than  are  the  kale,  cauliflower, 
brocoh,  &c.,  all  of  which  belong  to  the 
cabbage  family.  In  general  terms,  we 
may  consider  this  plant  as  divided  into 
three  classes — ^the  common  headed  cab- 
bage of  the  field  and  garden;  the  cauli- 
flower, brocoli,  &c.,  which  forn;\  their 
stalks  into  a  loose  head;  and  the  kale, 
colewort,  &c.,  which  grow  in  a  natural 
branching  way,  without  forming  any 
heads  at  all.  Of  these,  the  common  cab- 
bage is  by  far  the  most  valuable,  both  to 
man  and  to  the  beasts,  by  whose  assists 
ance  he  is  able  to,  make  the  earth  so  fer- 


'8W) 


CABBAGE— CABIRI. 


tile.  It  is  also  the  most  productive ;  for 
it  is  believed  that  an  acre  of  ground  will 
yield  a  greater  weight  of  green  vegetable 
matter  (and  thus  be  more  profitable  to 
tlie  fanner),  in  the  shape  of  cabbage, 
than  in  that  of  any  other  vegetable 
whatever.  It  is  very  abundantly  produc- 
ed by  clay  soils,  which  are  unfit  for  tur- 
nips, and  the  fai'mere  who  cultivate  sucli 
soils  will  find  it  a  vegetable  worthy  of 
much  attention.  The  cabbage  furnishes 
green  fodder  for  cows  and  sheep,  which 
is,  at  least,  as  good  as  turnips  or  carrots, 
fattening  the  animals  equally  fast,  and 
rendering  their  milk,  butter,  &c.,  to  the 
full  as  sweet;  and  is  far  preferable,  as  it 
keeps  later  in  the  sjjring,  and  thus  sup- 
phes  gi'een  food  when  no  other  can  be 
procured.  It  is  eaten  by  men  in  three 
forms,  all  of  which  have  their  admirers, 
but  which  vary  much  in  respect  to  their 
wholesomeness  and  digestibility.  These 
forms  are,  the  sliced  raw  cabbage,  plain 
boiled  cabbage,  and  salted  cabbage  or 
eour-crout,  the  favorite  dish  of  the  whole 
German  nation.  In  the  first  form,  of  raw 
■cabbage,  sliced  fine,  and  eaten  with  vine- 
gar, whether  entirely  cold,  or  hot  enough 
merely  to  wilt  the  vegetable,  it  is  one  of 
the  lightest  and  most  wholesome  articles 
of  vegetable  food,  and,  in  this  shape,  will 
supply  a  green  summer  vegetable  tlirough 
the  whole  of  the  winter.  Its  use  cannot 
i>e  too  highly  recommended.  Boiled  cab- 
bage. Is,  on  the  contrary,  one  of  the  worst 
articles  of  diet  that  a  weak  stomach  can 
bo  tried  with,  and  is  rarely  got  rid  of  with- 
out a  troublesome  colicky  pain.  Sour- 
crout,  or,  properly,  sauer-kraut,  is  much 
eaten  by  the  Germans  in  the  U.  States, 
and  they  consider  it  very  wholesome, 
altlwugh  it  is  nearly,  if  not  quite,  as  diffi- 
cult of  digestion  as  boiled  cabbage.  It  is 
prepared  in  the  following  manner : — Cab- 
bage is  sliced  up  fine,  and  a  layer  of  it  placed 
in  the  bottom  of  a  barrel,  which  is  plen- 
tifully salted ;  it  is  then  well  bruised  with 
a  heavy  mall  or  pestle,  or  is  trodden 
down  by  a  pair  of  heavy  boots,  till  the 
barrel  is  half  filled  with  the  froth  that 
arises  from  this  operation.  Successive 
layei-s  of  cabbage  and  salt  are  added  in 
this  manner,  each  receiving  the  same 
ti-eatment,  till  the  vessel  is  nearly  full. 
Some  cold  water  is  then  poured  in,  and 
the  top  of  the  barrel  is  pressed  down  with 
heavy  stones.  The  contents  undergo  a 
brisk  fermentation,  which  continues  for  a 
week  or  two,  during  which  time  the 
brine  must  be  drawn  off,  and  replaced  by 
new,  until  it  remains  perfectly  clear,  when 
the  process  is  finished.    It  must  be  kept 


covered  with  brine,  and  is  thus  simply  a 
fermented,  or  half  sour,  salted  mass  of 
cabbage.  The  other  forms  of  cabbage,  as 
the  cauliflower,  &c.,  supply  the  epicures 
of  all  countries  with  some  of  their  great- 
est delicacies,  while  the  hardy  kale,  which 
endures  all  degrees  of  cold,  aftbrds  the 
poor,  and  the  fanners  of  poor  soils,  a  valu- 
able fodder  for  cattle  of  all  kinds. 
Cabbala.  (See  Cabala.) 
Cabello.  (See  Poiio  Cabello.) 
Cabenda  ;  a  sea-port  of  Africa,  in  Ca- 
congo ;  Ion.  12°  SO'  E.  ;  lat.  5°  40'  S.  It 
is  situated  on  the  coast,  a  little  to  the  north 
of  the  river  Zaire,  and  has  a  safe  and  easy 
landing.  It  is  a  great  emporium  for 
trade  in  slaves.  The  situation  is  so  dis- 
tinguished for  beauty  and  fertility,  that  it 
has  been  called  the  paradise  of  the  coast. 

Cabin  ;  an  apartment  in  a  ship  for  offi- 
cers and  passengers.  In  large  ships,  there 
are  several  cabins,  the  principal  of  which 
is  occupied  by  the  commander.  In  small 
vessels,  there  is  only  one  cabin,  which  is 
in  the  stem.  The  bed-places  in  ships  ai'e 
also  called  cabins,  or,  more  commonly, 
berths.  Berth  is  used,  likewise,  for  the 
room  where  a  number  of  men  mess  and 
reside. 

Cabinet  ;  1.  a  small  apartment  adjoin- 
ing a  larger  one  ;  2.  the  most  retired 
part  of  a  private  dwelUng,  designed  for 
work,  for  amusement,  or  for  collections 
of  valuable  articles.  3.  In  the  abode  of  a 
prince,  the  cabhiet  is  a  room  set  apart  for 
the  ruler's  particular  use  ;  also,  the  apart- 
ment where  he  transacts  government 
business,  advises  with  his  privy  counsel- 
lors, and  issues  his  decrees.  Hence,  in 
political  language,  the  cabinet  is  put  for 
the  government ;  as  the  cabinet  of  Lon- 
don, of  Vienna,  of  the  Tuileries,  &c. 
4.  Finally,  a  cabinet  is  any  part  of  a  build- 
ing, or  one  or  more  whole  buildings, 
where  are  preserved  valuable  collections 
from  the  kingdoms  of  nature  or  art;  as 
paintings,  plants,  animals,  coins,  minerals, 
and  curiosities  of  every  description ;  and, 
by  metonymy,  the  name  is  apphed  to  the 
collections  themselves.  A  work  of  art, 
and  sometimes  of  nature,  of  uncommon 
beauty,  and  fitted  fi*om  its  size  to  be 
placed  in  a  cabinet,  is  called  a  cahinet-piece. 
A  cabinet  painter  is  one  who  executes 
small  highly-finished  pictures,  suitable 
for  cabinets. 

Cabiri  ;  sacred  priests  or  deified  he- 
roes, venerated  by  the  pagans  as  the  au- 
thors of  religion  and  the  founders  of  the 
human  race.  The  multiplicity  of  names 
applied  to  the  same  character,  the  inter- 
change of  the  names  of  the  deities  them* 


CABIRI— CABOT. 


871 


selves  with  those  of  their  priests,  the 
oracular  law,  which  enjoined  the  preser- 
vation of  ancient  barbaric  names,  and 
tlius  led  to  a  double  nomenclature,  sacred 
and  profene,  together  witlx  the  profound 
secrecy  of  the  rites,  have  involved  the 
subject  in  great  obscurity.  Some  have 
thought  that  the  Eastern  mythology  and 
tlie  Druidism  of  Western  Europe  contain 
traces  of  the  Cabiri.  Herodotus  (ii.  51) 
says  that  their  worship  was  brought  to 
Samothrace  by  the  Pelasgi.  Strabo  (x. 
472)  says  they  are  the  same  as  the  Cory- 
bantes.  Others  have  identified  them  with 
tlie  Titans,  the  Dii  Magni,  the  Penates, 
the  Dioscuri,  &c.  Some  say  there  were 
G,  3  mule  and  3  female,  children  of  Vul- 
can and  Cabira,  daughter  of  Proteus. 
Others  make  2,  sons  of  Jupiter  or 
Bacchus.  In  Samothrace,  4  were  vene- 
rated. In  Egypt,  their  temple  was  never 
entered  by  any  but  the  priests.  In  Phoe- 
nicia, Rome  (where,  accordmg  to  Pausa- 
nias,  they  had  an  altar  in  the  circus  maxi- 
mus\  and  other  countries  of  Europe  and 
Asia,  traces  of  their  worship  are  found. 
But  the  mysteries  (Cabiria)  celebrated  at 
Samothrace  were  the  most  famous.  The 
mysteries  of  Isis,  Ceres,  Mithras,  Tropho- 
uius,  Bacchus,  lihea,  Adonis,  Osiris,  and 
all  the  similar  customs  of  Egypt,  Greece, 
Hindostaa  and  Britain,  seem  to  be  merely 
vai'ieties  of  the  Samotliracian  rites,  which 
were  celebrated  in  the  obscurity  of  night, 
and  with  the  most  profound  secrecy. 
(See  Faber  on  the  Mysteries  of  the  Cabiri, 
Oxford,  1803,  2  vols.  8vo. ;  Potter's  Gre- 
cian Antiquities,  ii.  c.  20.)  After  a  j)re- 
vious  probation  of  abstinence,  chastity 
and  silence,  the  candidates  for  initiation 
were  purified  by  water  and  blood ;  they 
tlien  offered  a  sacrifice  of  a  bull  or  ram, 
and  were  made  to  drink  of  tw;o  fountains, 
called  Lethe  (obhvion)  and  Mnemosyne 
(memory),  to  wash  away  the  memory  of 
their  former  guilt,  and  to  enable  them  to 
remember  the  new  instructions.  They 
were  then  trajisported  into  a  dark  tower 
or  cavern,  where  their  ears  were  assailed 
by  the  most  appalling  sounds,  the  rushing 
of  waters,  llie  roar  of  thunder,  dreadful 
yells,  with  occasional  gleams  of  hght 
flashing  through  the  darkness,  and  dis- 
})laying  the  most  horrible  phantoms,  with 
a  dead  body  exposed  on  a  bier.  Thus 
filled  with  terror,  they  Avcre  suddenly  hur- 
ried into  other  scenes ;  light  and  cheerful 
music  succeeded  to  darkness  and  the  dis- 
mal sounds,  the  dead  body  revived,  and  the 
temple  resounded  with  rejoicings.  The 
hidden  doctrines  and  secret  rites  were 
now  communicated.  Dances  and  orgies,  in 


which  the  mystic  phaUtis  or  lingam,  and 
the  yoni  {atioXov  yuvodctTov),  were  introduced, 
closed  the  ceremony. 

Cable,  in  architecture ;  1.  wreathed  cir- 
cular mouldiiigs,  resemblmg  a  robe  ;  also, 
the  staff  wliich  is  left  in  the  lower  part  of 
the  flutings  of  some  examples  of  the  Co- 
rinthian and  Composite  orders. — 2.  In  na- 
val affairs,  it  is  a  long,  thick  rope,  formed 
of  3  strands  of  hemp,  which  is  employed 
for  confining  a  vessel  to  its  place  by 
means  of  an  anchor  or  other  fixed  body. 
The  long  and  heavy  chains,  which  have 
been  recently  introduced  for  this  purpose, 
are  also  called  cables.  Large  vessels  have 
ready  for  service  3  cables — the  sheet  cable, 
the  best  bower  cable,  and  the  small  bower 
cable.  They  should  be  at  least  100 — 120 
fathoms  in  length.  A  best  bower  cable, 
of  25  inches  in  circumference,  is  formed 
of  3240  threads.  The  invention  of  iron 
cables  is  of  recent  date,  and  they  have 
sujjplanted  those  of  hemp  in  sliips  of  war. 
They  are  sti'onger,  less  hable  to  be  de- 
stroyed on  rocks,  &c.  It  is  sometimes 
desirable  to  cut  the  cable  when  of  hemp ; 
this  contingency  is  provided  for  in  iron 
cables  by  a  bolt  and  shackle  at  short  dis- 
tances, so  that,  by  striking  out  the  bolt,  the 
cable  is  easily  detached. — Cable's  length, 
is  used  to  signify  the  measure  of  120 
fathoms,  the  usual  lengtli  of  a  cable. 

Caboose;  the  cook-room  or  kitchen  of 
a  ship.  In  smaller  vessels,  it  is  an  enclosed 
fireplace,  hearth  or  stove,  for  cooking,  on 
the  main  deck.  In  a  ship  of  war,  the 
cook-room  is  called  a  galley, — Caboose 
also  signifies  the  box  that  covers  the  chim- 
ney in  a  ship. 

Cabot,  George,  was  born  in  Salem, 
Massjichusetts,  in  the  year  1752,  and 
early  manifested  distuiguished  talents. 
He  spent  the  early  part  of  his  life  in  the 
employment  of  a  shipmaster.  But  he 
did  not  neglect  the  improvement  of  his 
mind,  even  amid  the  restlessness  and  dan- 
ger of  a  seafaring  career.  Before  he  was 
twenty-six  years  of  age,  he  was  chosen 
to  the  provincial  congress,  which  met  at 
Concord,  with  the  visionaiy  project  of 
ordaining  a  maximum,  of  prices,  in  order 
that  commodities  might  be  cheapened  by 
constraining  the  owners  to  sell  at  reduced 
and  fixed  rates ;  and  there  he  first  dis- 
played that  intimate  acquaintance  with 
the  true  principles  of  political  economy, 
for  which  he  was  thenceforward  preemi- 
nent. Before  Adam  Smidi  was  known 
in  the  U.  States,  and  Say  and  the  other 
continental  writers  had  formed  any  cor- 
rect notions  on  the  subject,  Mr.  Cabot 
maintained  the  present  enhghtened  doc- 


372 


CABOT. 


trines,  and  strenuously  contended  for  the 
entire  liberty  of  domestic  and  international 
commerce.  Mr.  Cabot  was  a  prominent 
member  of  the  state  convention  assembled 
to  deliberate  on  the  adoption  of  the  fed- 
eral constitution,  and,  soon  after  that  event 
took  place,  was  elected  a  senator  of  the 
United  States,  an  office  which  his  sense 
of  public  duty  caused  him  to  accept,  al- 
tliough  against  his  incUnations.  In  that 
station,  he  enjoyed  the  unlimited  confi- 
dence, not  only  of  the  august  body  of 
which  he  was  a  member,  but  also  of 
Washington  and  Hamilton;  and  to  his 
commercial  knowledge  and  profound 
views  of  finance  and  political  economy, 
the  latter  was  greatly  indebted  m  the  for- 
mation of  his  financial  system.  With 
Fisher  Ames,  also,  Mr.  Cabot  was  long 
linked  by  ties  of  the  most  affectionate 
friendship.  At  a  recent  period,  when,  in 
the  late  war,  the  exigencies  of  the  country 
seemed  to  him  to  require  his  co-operation, 
he  presided  over  a  body  of  delegates  from 
New  England,  who,  in  a  season  of  extreme 
sohcitude,  attempted  to  provide  means 
for  averting  a  dreadful  storm  of  public 
calamity.  Mr.  Cabot  died  at  Boston, 
April  18,  1823,  in  the  72d  year  of  his  age. 
He  was  the  deUght  and  veneration  of  all 
who  knew  him,  and  his  talents  seemed 
the  most  extraordinary,  his  virtues  the 
most  briglit,  to  those  who  had  the  happi- 
ness to  see  him  most  familiarly.  His 
mind  was  capacious  and  elevated.  In 
public  life,  he  was  pure  and  disinterested, 
all  his  exertions  tending  to  one  single 
object — public  good ;  in  private,  he  was 
endeared  to  his  family  and  his  friends  by 
his  kindness,  urbanity  and  benevolence. 
The  study  of  political  economy  and  the 
science  of  government  was  his  favorite 
pursuit.  His  eloquence,  which  was  oft- 
ener  displayed  in  private  than  ui  public, 
was  remarkable  for  its  beauty  and  sim- 
plicity. As  a  Christian,  he  was  sincere  and 
devout ;  and  the  manner  of  his  death 
suited  the  exemplary  character  of  his  life. 
Cabot,  Sebastian,  a  navigator  of  great 
eminence  and  abilities,  was  born  at  Bris- 
tol, about  the  year  1477.  He  was  the  son 
of  John  Cabot,  a  Venetian  pilot,  who 
resided  at  Bristol,  and  was  highly  esteemed 
for  his  skill  in  navigation.  Sebastian  was 
early  instructed  in  the  mathematical 
knowledge  required  by  a  seaman,  and,  at 
tlie  age  of  17,  had  made  several  voyages. 
In  1495,  John  Cabot  obtained  from  Hen- 
ry VII  letters  patent  empowering  him 
and  his  tliree  sons,  Lewis,  Sebastian  and 
Sanctius,  to  discover  unknown  lands,  and 
conquer  and  settle  them.    In  consequence 


of  this  permission,  the  king  supplied  one 
ship,  and  the  merchants  of  London  and 
Bristol  a  few  smaller  ones,  and,  in  1496, 
John  and  Sebastian  sailed  to  the  north-west. 
In  July  of  the  same  year,  they  discovered 
Newfoundland,  and  explored  it  up  to  lat- 
itude 67°.  The  accounts  of  this  voyage 
are  attended  with  much  obscurity  ;  but  it 
seems,  that,  in  a  subsequent  voyage,  the 
father  and  son  sailed  as  far  as  cape  Flori- 
da, and  were  actually  the  first  who  saw 
the  main  land  of  America.  Little,  how- 
ever, is  known  of  the  proceedings  of  Se- 
bastian Cabot  for  the  ensuing  20  years ; 
but  it  seems,  tliat,  in  the  reign  of  Henry 
VIII,  by  the  patronage  of  sir  Thomas 
Peait,  vice-admiral  of  England,  he  pro- 
cured anotJier  ship  to  make  discoveries, 
and  attempted  a  southern  passage  to  the 
East  Indies,  in  which  he  failed.  This 
disappointment  is  supposed  to  have  in- 
duced him  to  quit  England,  and  visit 
Spain,  where  he  was  treated  with  great 
respect,  and  appointed  pilot-major.  An 
opulent  company  of  Spanish  merchants 
soon  after  gave  him  the  command  of  an 
experlition  to  the  Spice  islands,  through 
the  newly-discovered  straits  of  Magellan. 
Accordingly,  in  1525,  he  sailed  from  Ca- 
diz to  the  Canaries  and  Cape  de  Verd 
islands ;  and,  failing,  from  the  opposition 
of  his  crew,  in  his  view  of  reaching  the 
Spice  islands,  he  proceeded  to  the  river 
La  Plata,  wliere  he  discovered  St.  Salva- 
dor, and  erected  a  fort  there.  He  subse- 
quently reached  the  great  river  Paraguay, 
and  remained  on  the  American  coast  a 
considerable  time,  with  the  view  of  form- 
ing an  establisliment.  Being  disappointed 
in  the  expected  aid  from  Spain,  he  ulti- 
mately returned  home  with  all  his  crew, 
but  was  not  vei-y  favorably  received,  owing 
to  his  failure  in  respect  to  tlie  Spice  islands, 
and  his  severe  treatment  of  tlie  mutineers 
of  his  crew.  He  notwithstanding  contin- 
ued in  the  service  of  Spain  for  some  years 
longer,  but  at  length  returned  to  England 
towards  the  latter  end  of  the  reign  of 
Henry  VIII.  At  the  beginning  of  the 
reign  of  Edward  VI,  he  was  introduced, 
by  the  protector  Somerset,  to  the  young 
king,  who  took  much  pleasure  in  his  con- 
versation, and  settled  a  pension  on  him  as 
grand- pilot  of  England.  From  this  time, 
he  was  consulted  on  all  questions  relating 
to  trade  and  navigation ;  and,  in  1552,  be- 
ing governor  of  the  company  of  merchant 
adventurers,  he  drew  up  instructions,  and 
procured  a  license  for  an  expedition  to 
discover  a  passage  to  the  East  Indies  by 
the  north.  These  instructions,  which  are 
preserved    in    Hackluyt's    collection   of 


CABOT— CACAO. 


373 


voyages,  form  a  very  honorable  proof  of 
his  sagacity  and  penetration.  He  was 
also  governor  of  the  Rnssian  compaiiy, 
and  was  veiy  active  in  their  affaire.  He 
is  supposed  to  have  died  in  the  year  1557, 
at  a  very  advanced  age,  leaving  behind 
him  a  high  character,  both  as  a  skilful 
seaman  and  a  man  of  great  general  abili- 
ties. He  was  the  first  who  noticed  the 
variations  of  the  compass ;  and,  besides 
the  ordinances  to  be  found  in  Hacklujt, 
he  published  a  large  map  of  the  world,  as 
also  a  work  under  the  title  of  .Vaw'g'ariojie 
iielle  parte  Septentrionali,  per  Sebastiano 
Cabota  (fol.,  Venice,  1583). 

Cabrera  ;  one  of  the  Balearic  isles  in 
the  Mediterranean,  belonging  to  Spain; 
Ion.  3°  E. ;  lat.  39°  ?  N.     (See  Baleares.) 

Cabul,  or  Caubul,  capital  of  the  king- 
dom of  Afghanistan,  is  a  very  ancient 
city,  situated  in  a  spacious  and  well- 
watered  plain,  enclosed  on  three  sides  by 
a  semicircular  range  of  hills,  on  the  sum- 
mit of  which  is  a  fortification.  The  Bala 
Hissai',  or  Upper  Fort,  contains  the  palace 
and  other  public  buildings.  The  houses 
are  mean,  the  bazars  well  supplied,  and 
crowded  by  Usbecks,  Afghans  and  Hin- 
doos. The  vicinity  is  famous,  in  the 
East,  for  flowers  and  fruits.  Cabul  is  a 
great  mart  for  horses  from  Tartary,  which 
are  brought  for  exportation  to  Hindostan. 
(See  Eiphinstone's  Caubul,  ch.  viii — xi.) 
Lon.  G9°  15'  E. ;  lat.  33°  W  N. 

Cabulistan.  The  countiy  compre- 
hended under  this  name  has  already  been 
described  in  the  articles  Jlfghanistan  and 
Bdujistan.  It  is  sometimes  called  Cabul, 
or  Caubul,  fi'om'the  capital ;  sometimes 
Cabulistan;  sometimes  Candahar,  from 
another  capital.  It  was  formerly,  also, 
called  Ghizne,  from  another  city,  for  the 
same  reason.  The  origin  of  the  name 
Afghans  is  unknown.  Their  own  name 
for  their  nation  is  Pooshtoon,  whence, 
])robably,  the  Indian  name  for  tliem, 
Pataiis     (See  Afglmns.) 

Cacao.  Chocolate  is  a  kind  of  cake, 
or  hard  paste,  the  basis  of  which  is  the 
pulp  of  the  cacao,  or  chocolate-nut,  a 
])roductiou  of  the  West  Indies  and  South 
America.  The  cacao-tree  (theobroma  ca- 
cao), both  in  size  and  shape,  somewhat 
resembles  a  young  cherry-tree,  but  sepa- 
rates, near  the  ground,  into  four  or  five 
stems.  The  leaves  are  about  four  inches 
in  length,  smooth,  but  not  glossj',  and  of 
a  dull  green  color.  The  flowers  are  saf- 
fron-colored, and  very  beautiful.  The 
fruit  of  the  cacao-tree  somewhat  resem- 
bles a  cucumber  in  shape,  but  is  furrowed 
deeper  on   the   sides.      Its   color,  wJiile 

VOL.  II.  32 


gi-owing,  is  green ;  but,  as  it  ripens,  this 
changes  to  a  fine  bluish-red,  Jilmost  pur- 
l)le,  with  pink  veins  ;  or,  in  some  of  the 
varieties,  to  a  delicate  yellow  or  lemon 
color.  Each  of  the  pods  contains  from 
20  to  30  nuts  or  kernels,  which,  in  shape, 
are  not  much  unlike  almonds,  and  consist 
of  a  white  and  sweet  pulpy  substance, 
enveloped  in  a  parchment-like  shell. 
These  are  the  cacao  or  chocolate-nuts. — 
Plantations  of  cacao  are  numerous  on  the 
banks  of  the  river  Magdalena,  in  South 
America.  They  are  usually  formed  in 
morassy  situations,  and  are  sheltered  from 
the  intense  heat  of  the  sun  by  larger  trees, 
which  are  planted  hi  them.  There  are 
two  principal  crops  of  cacao  in  the  year ; 
the  first  in  June,  and  the  second  in  De- 
cember. As  soon  as  the  fruit  is  ripe,  it  is 
gathered,  and  cut  into  slices ;  and  the 
nuts,  which  are,  at  this  time,  in  a  pulpy 
state,  are  taken  out,  and  laid  in  skins,  or 
on  leaves  to  be  dried.  They  have  now  a 
sweetish  acid  taste,  and  may  be  eaten 
like  any  other  fruit  When  perfectly  dry, 
tliey  are  put  into  bags,  each  containing 
about  a  hundred  weight,  and,  thus  packed, 
are  exfjorted  to  foreign  countries.  Pre- 
viously to  being  formed  into  chocolate, 
these  nuts  are  generally  toasted  or  parch- 
ed over  the  fire  in  an  iron  vessel,  after 
which  process  their  thin  external  cover- 
ing is  easily  separated.  The  kernel  is 
then  pounded  in  a  mortar,  and  subse- 
quently ground  on  a  smooth,  wann  stone. 
Sometimes  a  little  arnatto  is  added  ;  and, 
Avith  the  aid  of  water,  the  whole  is  formed 
into  a  paste.  This  is  put,  whilst  hot,  into 
tin  moulds,  where,  in  a  short  time,  it  con- 
geals ;  and  in  tliis  state  it  is  the  choco- 
late of  the  shops.  In  South  America  and 
Spain,  other  modes  are  adopted  :  the 
chocolate  is  mixed  with  sugar,  long  i)ep- 
per,  vanilla,  cinnamon,  cloves,  almonds, 
and  other  ingredients,  according  to  the 
taste  of  the  respective  inhabitants.  Mr. 
Edwards  was  of  opinion,  that  the  cakes 
of  chocolate  used  in  England  were  made 
of  about  one  half  genuine  cacao,  and  the 
remainder  of  flour  or  castile  soap.  That 
from  Cai-accas  is  considered  the  best. — 
By  the  natives  of  South  America,  the 
chocolate-nuts  are  used  for  food.  A 
white,  oily  matter,  about  the  consistence 
of  suet,  is  also  obtained  by  bruising  them, 
and  boihng  the  pulp.  The  oil  is  by  this 
means  liquified,  and  rises  to  the  sur- 
face, where  it  is  left  to  cool  and  congeal, 
that  it  may  the  more  easily  be  separated. 
This,  which  is  called  butter  of  cacao,  is 
without  smell,  and,  when  fresh,  has  a 
very  mild  taste.    Its  principal  use  is  as 


374 


CACAO— CACTUS. 


an  ingredient  in  pomatums.  From  the 
nuts,  wlien  sliglitly  roasted,  an  oil  is 
sometimes  obtained  by  pressure,  which  is 
occasionally  used  in  medicine. 

Cachao,  Kacho,  Hecho,  orBAC-KiNo; 
capital  of  the  kingdom  of  Tonquin,  on 
the  river  Songkoi,  about  ]00  miles  from 
its  mouth.  It  is  an  open,  straggling  town, 
■with  wide  streets,  the  houses  of  mud,  or 
wood  thatched  with  straw.  It  was  for- 
merly the  residence  of  the  king ;  and  the 
English  and  Danes  had  factories  there. 
It  is  a  commercial  place  of  some  conse- 
quence. Gold,  beautiful  silks,  and  the 
finest  lackered  ware,  is  exported.  Lat. 
21°  25'  N. ;  Ion.  105°  12'  E. 

Cachelot.    (See  Mliales.) 

Cachet,  Lettres  de  ;  secret  war- 
rants, by  means  of  which,  under  the 
former  kings  of  Ei'a"ce,  and  their  minis- 
tei-s,  any  body  could  be  imprisoned  or 
banished  to  a  certain  place,  without  any 
reason  given.  The  introduction  of  them 
is  ascribed  to  the  famous  Capucliin  padre 
Joseph,  under  the  ministiy  of  cardinal 
Richelieu.  In  this  sense,  the  term  lettres 
de  cachet  is  commonly  used,  but  it  has,  in 
fact,  a  more  extensive  signification.  All 
despatches  from  the  royal  state-chancery 
were  issued  either  openly,  as  lettres  pa- 
tentes,  or  sealed,  as  lettres  closes,  or  de 
cachet.  The  firet  were  always  written 
upon  parchment,  the  name  of  the  king 
signed  by  a  mmister  of  state,  counter- 
signed by  the  minister,  not  folded,  but 
only  the  lower  part  turned  over,  and 
stamped  with  the  great  seal  of  state. 
They  commenced  with  the  words  A  tons 
presens  et  a  venir  Salut !  and  ended  with 
the  form  Car  tel  est  notre  plaisir.  In  this 
shape,  all  edicts,  ordinances,  charters,  priv- 
ileges, &c.  were  issued,  but  all  had  to  be 
recorded  by  the  parliament  of  the  dis- 
trict to  which  they  referred.  The  repre- 
sentations of  the  parliament  often  pre- 
vented these  lettres  patentes  from  being 
carried  into  effect.  The  others,  the  lettres 
closes,  were  only  written  on  paper,  some 
m  the  name  of  the  king  (who  spoke  in 
the  first  person,  and  concluded  with  the 
formula  Sur  ce  je  prie  Dieu,  qu'il  vous 
ait  dans  sa  sainte  et  divine  garde,  and 
signed  with  his  name),  some  by  commis- 
sion from  the  king.  In  the  latter  case, 
they  began  with  the  words  De  par  le 
roi :  U  est  ordonni  a,  and  were  signed  by 
a  minister.  They  were  then  closed,  and 
sealed  with  the  small  royal  seal,  so  that 
the  contents  could  not  be  seen.  The 
lettres  closes  were  used  for  many  purposes 
besides  that  of  arrests.  All  the  orders 
sent  to  officers  and  private  individuals 


(e.  g.,  to  report  opinions,  to  repair  to  a 
certain  place,  to  lei^ve  their  place  of  resi- 
dence, or  go  into  banishment)  were  issued 
in  this  form.  Wan'ants  also  were  often 
issued  in  this  form,  because  the  courts, 
and  particularly  the  pohce,  could  not 
liave  acted  without  such  authority  in  ur- 
gent cases.  To  the  lieutenant-general  de 
la  police  of  Paris  a  number  of  them  were 
always  given,  to  fill  out  the  blanks  as 
occasion  might  require.  Without  them, 
he  would  not  have  been  authorized  to 
arrest  suspected  pei"sons.  Frequently  the 
arrest  by  lettre  de  cachet  was  a  fiivor  on 
the  j)art  of  the  king,  as  it  withdrew  the 
accused  from  the  severer  jiunishment  to 
which  he  would  have  been  liable  uj)on  a 
trial  before  the  courts.  (See  Linguet's 
Memoirs  sur  la  Bastille,  London,  1783, 
and  Mirabeau's  Des  Lettres  de  Cachet  et 
des  Prisons  d'Etat,  1782.)  These  lettei-s 
were  detestable  instruments  of  arbitrary 
power,  hostile  to  every  pi-inciple  of  right. 
(See  Bastile.) 

CACiquE  ;  in  some  parts  of  America, 
the  title  of  the  native  chiefs  at  the  time 
of  the  conquest  by  the  Spaniards. 

Cacodemon.    (See  Demon.) 

Cacophojjy  ;  a  fault  of  style,  which 
consists  in  a  harsh  and  disagreeable  sound, 
produced  by  the  meeting  of  two  letters  or 
two  syllables,  or  by  the  too  frequent  repe- 
tition of  the  same  letters  or  syllables.  It 
destroys  the  harmony  of  the  whole  ])e- 
riod  ;  it  is  unpleasant  in  prose  and  intol- 
erable in  verse.  Thus  the  Roman  was 
shocked  with  the 

O  (orianatam  imtam,'me  consule  Romam; 
and,  accordmg  to  Juvenal,  a  few  more 
such  cacophonies  would  have  saved 
Cicero's  head.  A  French  ear  is  offended 
wath  Voltaire  for  the  expression  glaca.  sa 
main.    Pope  says. 

And  oft  the  ear  the  open  vowels  tire. 

Cactcs,  in  botany ;  a  genus  of  succu- 
lent plants,  containing  28  species,  perma- 
nent in  duration,  singular  and  vai-ious  in 
structure,  generally  without  leaves,  hav- 
ing the  stem  or  branches  jointed,  for  the 
most  part  armed  with  spines  in  bundles, 
with  which,  in  many  species,  bristles  are 
intermixed.  They  are  natives  of  South 
America  and  the  West  Indies.  Several 
of  the  species  are  cultivated  in  other 
countries,  for  curiosity,  in  green-houses. 
Gardeners  divide  them  into,  1.  melon- 
thistles ;  these  are  of  a  roundish  form  :  2. 
torch-thistles ;  erect,  supporting  them- 
selves :  3.  cereuses  ;  creeping  with  lat- 
eral roots :  4.  prickly-psars,  or  Indian 
Jigs;  compressed,  with  proliferous  joints. 


CACTUS— CADA  MOSTO. 


375 


The  tvvo  first  sorts  appear  like  large, 
flesliy,  green  melons,  with  deep  rihs,  set 
all  over  with  strong,  sharp  thorns,  setting 
close  to  the  surface  of  the  earth,  and  dif- 
fering in  height,  from  a  foot  to  a  yard. 
When  these  plants  are  cut  through  the 
middle,  tlieir  inside  is  found  to  bo  a  soft, 
pale-green,  fleshy  substance,  very  full  of 
moisture,  the  taste  of  which  is  agreeably 
acid.  Tlie  fruits  are  frequently  eaten  in 
tlie  West  Indies.  One  of  the  most  re- 
markable species  of  cactus  is  the  C. 
grandijlonis,  or  night-flowering  creeping 
cereus,  l^elonging  to  the  tliird  class.  The 
flower  of  this  species,  though  very  short- 
lived, is  a  splendid  production.  It  be- 
gins to  open  in  the  evening, between  seven 
and  eight  o'clock,  is  fully  blown  by  eleven, 
and  by  three  or  four  in  the  morning  be- 
gins to  fade  ;  soon  after  which,  it  hangs 
down  in  a  state  of  irrecoverable  decay. 
When  tlie  plants  are  large,  several  flow- 
ers will  open  in  the  same  night,  and  there 
will  be  a  succession  of  tliem  for  several 
nights  togetlier.  The  calyx,  when  ex- 
panded, is  about  six  inches,  sometimes 
nearly  a  foot,  in  diameter,  yellow  within, 
and  dark-brown  without.  The  petals  are 
many,  and  of  a  pure  white,  and  the  great 
number  of  recurved  stanuna  surrounding 
the  style  in  tlie  centre  of  the  flower  make 
a  grand  appearance.  It  generally  flowei-s 
in  July. 

Caccs,  a  robber  in  Italy,  the  terror  of 
the  Aventine  wood,  of  the  surrounding 
inhabitants  and  of  strangers,  a  monstrous 
giant,  according  to  some,  vomiting  fire,  of 
enormous  strength  and  terrible  appear- 
ance, Avas  a  son  of  Vulcan.  A  deep, 
winding  cavern  was  his  residence,  over 
the  entrance  of  which  hung  the  heads 
and  arms  of  th.ose  whom  he  had  slain. 
This  cave  he  closed  with  a  stone,  which 
20  pair  of  oxen  could  not  remove.  AVhen 
Hercules  was  driving  the  herds  of  Geryon 
through  Italy,  C.  robbed  him  of  some  of 
them,  and,  to  conceal  their  tracks,  dragged 
them  backwards  into  his  cave.  But  their 
lowing  betrayed  them  ;  upon  which  Her- 
cules attacked  the  robber,  and,  after  a 
terrible  conflict  (see  Virgil's  JEneid,  b.  8), 
killed  him  with  his  club.  To  express  his 
gratitude  for  his  victory,  Hercules  erected 
the  ara  maxima,  and  Evander,  with  his 
Arcadians,  performed  divine  lienors  to 
Hercules  as  their  benefactor. 

Cadalso,  Jose,  a  man  of  very  respecta- 
ble standing  among  the  later  writers  of 
Spain,  was  born  at  Cadiz,  in  1741,  of  an 
ancient  and  noble  family,  and  educated 
in  Paris,  where  he  made  himself  master 
of  Greek  and  Latin,  and   tlie  principal 


languages  of  modem  Europe.  He  after- 
Avards  travelled  through  England,  Fi-ance, 
Portugal,  Gennany  and  Italy.  At  the  age 
of  20,  he  returned  home,  and  johied  the 
Spanish  forces  then  employed  against 
Portugal.  He  remained  in  the  army  till 
his  death,  in  1782,  attentive  to  his  military 
duties,  though  devoted  to  literature.  He 
was  the  friend  of  the  most  distinguished 
writers  then  living  in  Spain,  and,  by  his 
advice  and  example,  contributed  nnich  to 
bring  out  the  talent  of  several  among 
them.  He  was  killed  by  a  shell  at  the 
siege  of  Gibraltar,  in  1782.  He  is  the 
author  of  Cartas  Marrutcas,  a  series  of 
letters  written  in  the  character  of  a  Moor- 
ish traveller  in  Spain,  and  containing  re- 
flections upon  Spanish  institutions  and 
manners.  It  is  a  work  of  much  merit. 
C.  also  wrote  a  satire  called  Eruditos  a  la 
Violeta,  in  ridicule  of  scioUsts  ;  also  a 
tragedy,  and  several  poetical  pieces  under 
the  title  of  Ocios  de  mi  Juvtntud. 

Cada  Mosto,  or  Ca  da  Mosto,  Louis 
da,  born  at  Venice,  about  1432,  devoted 
himself  to  commerce,  afl;er  receiving  a 
careful  education,  and  made  many  voy- 
ages into  the  Mediterranean  sea  and  At- 
lantic ocean.  In  1454,  he  sailed  in  the 
ship  of  his  countryman,  Marco  Zcno,  for 
Flandei*8.  Contrary  winds  stopped  the 
progress  of  the  vessel  in  the  straits  of 
Gibraltar,  and  she  was  compelled  to  lie  to 
near  cape  St.  Vincent,  where  prince  Hen- 
ry had  retired  to  devote  himself  to  his 
studies,  and  to  promote  discoveries  along 
the  coast  of  Africa.  C,  a  young  man 
full  of  the  spirit  of  enterprise,  oftered  his 
services  to  the  prince,  and  obtained  a 
ship  of  90  tons.  In  1455,  he  departed 
from  Lagos,  sailed  into  the  river  Senegal, 
which  had  been  discovered  five  years 
before,  proceeded  yet  farther  along  the 
coast,  and  visited  prince  Damel,  whose 
states  extended  from  the  Senegal  to  cape 
Verd.  After  trading  in  slaves  and  gold, 
he  steered  for  cape  Verd,  where  he  joined 
two  other  discoveiy-ships  of  the  prince, 
and  visited,  in  company  with  them,  the 
mouths  of  the  Gambia,  the  riches  of 
which  had  been  greatly  extolled.  As 
they  were  attacked  by  the  inhabitants, 
and  the  mariners,  weary  of  their  long 
voyage,  had  become  discouraged,  the 
commanders  were  compelled  to  return  to 
Portugal.  In  1456,  C,  in  company  with 
two  other  ships,  made  a  second  voyage  to 
the  Gambia.  On  the  way  thitlier,  they 
discovered  the  cape  Verd  islands.  When 
they  entered  into  the  Gambia  this  time, 
they  were  well  received  ;  but  the  quantity 
of  gold  which  they  obtained    did  no| 


376 


CADA  MOSTO— CADIZ. 


answer  tlicir  expectations.  The  tliree 
ships  continued  tJieir  course  as  far  as  the 
river  Casaniunsa  and  the  Rio  Grande,  and 
returned  to  Portugal.  C.  remained  there 
till  1463,  in  which  year  prince  Hemy 
died.  The  description  of  his  travels. 
Prima  JVavigazione  per  V  Oceano  alle  Ttrre 
iW  jYegri  dtlla  Bassa  Etiopia,  di  Liiigi 
Cada  Mosto  (Vicenza,  1507,  and  IMilan, 
1519),  the  oldest  of  the  voyages  of  the 
moderns,  is  a  master-piece.  The  ar- 
rangement is  admirable,  the  nairative  in- 
teresting, the  descriptions  clear  and  accu- 
rate. 

Cade,  John  (better  kno^vn  as  Jack 
Cade) ;  a  man  of  low  birth,  who  had  been 
obliged  to  fly  into  France  for  his  crimes. 
Observing  the  discontents  of  the  people 
on  his  return  to  England  (1450),  in  the 
reign  of  Henry  VI  (q.  v.),  he  took  the 
name  of  John  Mortimer,  published  com- 
plaints against  the  abuses  of  government, 
and  soon  found  himself  at  the  head  of 
20,000  men,  common  people  of  Kent. 
Having  defeated  a  force  sent  against  him, 
he  advanced  to  London,  which  opened 
its  gates ;  but  the  riotous  disposition  of 
his  tbllowers  alarmed  the  citizens.  They 
drove  out  and  defeated  the  rebels,  who 
soon  dispersed,  and  Cade  was  killed  by 
one  Iden,  a  gentleman  of  Kent. 

Cadence,  or  Reprise  ;  a  pause  or  sus- 
pension at  tlie  end  of  an  air,  to  afford  the 
performer  an  opportunity  of  introducing 
a  graceful  extempore  close.  The  word 
cadence  is  also  frequendy  applied  to  the 
embellishment  itseltl 

Cadi^r  Idris  ;  a  mountain  of  Wales ; 
the  commencement  of  a  chain  runnhig 
nortli-^easterly.  There  are  here  several 
small  lakes,  abounding  in  fish.  The 
height  of  the  mountain  is  3550  feet  above 
the  level  of  the  sea.  It  is  tliree  miles 
south  of  Dolgelly,  Merionethshire. 

Cadet  (jh'ench) ;  1.  a  younger  brother. 
— 2.  In  the  French  senice,  a  cadet  was  a 
gentleman  who  served  in  tlie  ranks  with- 
out pay,  for  the  purpose  of  learning  the 
art  of  war. — 3.  It  is  now  applied,  in 
England  and  the  North  American  U. 
States,  to  the  pupils  of  a  military  acade- 
my, (q.  V.) 

Cadet  de  Vaux,  Antoine  Alexis,  a 
chemist,  member  of  the  French  college  de 
phamiacie,  and  of  many  learned  German 
societies,  born  in  Paris,  1743,  was  at  first  an 
apothecary,  but  for  many  yeai-s  has  been  a 
successful  practical  agriculturalist,  and  ac- 
tive, even  in  his  old  age,  in  improving  the 
soil  and  the  manufactures  of  his  country. 
He  has  thscussed  the  effect  of  the  destruc- 
tion of  mountain  forests  in  duninishing  the 


copiousness  of  the  springs  in  the  valleys, 
the  improvement  of  vineyards,  the  culti- 
vation of  foreign  plants,  and  the  providing 
of  substitutes  for  the  usual  articles  of 
food  in  times  of  scarcity.  He  is  one  of 
the  princij)al  editors  of  the  Journal  d'Eco- 
nomie  rurale  et  domestiqne,  and  of  the 
Cours  complet  d\^gricidture  pratique.  He 
has  also  been  engaged  in  politics. 

Cadi,  in  Arabic  ;  a  judge  or  jurist. 
Among  the  Turks,  cculi  signifies  an  hile- 
rior  judge,  in  distinction  from  the  moHa, 
or  superior  judge.  They  belong  to  the 
higher  clergy,  as  the  Turks  derive  their 
law  froui  their  prophet. 

Cadiz,  the  principal  port,  and  one  of 
the  handsomest  cities  of  Spain,  is  situated 
at  the  extremity  of  a  long  tongue  of  land 
j)rojecting  from  the  island  of  Leon.  The 
narrowness  of  the  land  communication 
prevents  its  capture  by  a  military  force, 
while  the  garrison  is  master  of  the  sea. 
This  was  exemplified  in  the  long  block- 
ade of  1810,  11,  12.  It  is  walled,  with 
trenches  and  bastions  on  the  land  side, 
and,  the  population  being  laige  (70,000), 
the  houses  have  been  built  high,  and  the 
streets  are  narrow.  It  has  been  much 
extended,  and  adorned  with  handsome 
builiUngs,  since  1786.  The  chief  build- 
ings* are  the  great  hospital,  the  custom- 
house, the  churches,  and  13  monasteries. 
From  the  harbor,  the  towii  has  a  fine 
appearance.  The  bay  of  C.  is  a  very  fine 
one.  It  is  a  large  basin  enclosed  by  the 
main  land  on  one  side,  and  the  projecting- 
tongue  of  land  on  tlie  other.  It  is  from 
10  to  12  leagues  in  circumference,  with 
good  anchorage,  and  protected  by  the 
neigliboring  hills.  It  has  4  forts,  2  of 
which  form  the  defence  of  the  grand 
ai-senal.  La  Caraca,  in  which  are  3  basins 
and  12  docks.  This  bay  is  the  great  ren- 
dezvous of  tlie  Spanish  navy.  C.  was 
the  centre  of  Spanish  American  trade, 
and  the  commerce  of  the  port  was  very 
extensive,  before  the  sepai-ation  of  the 
colonies.  An  important  branch  of  indus- 
try in  the  vicinity  is  the  preparation  of 
salt :  the  pits  belong  to  the  government, 
and  supply  many  of  the  fishermen  of  dif- 
ferent countries  of  Europe.  The  city 
was  taken  by  the  earl  of  Essex  in  1596, 
and  from  its  bay  Villeneuve  sailed,  previ- 
ous to  tlie  battle  of  Trafalgar,  ui  1808. 
In  1809,  it  became  the  seat  of  the  central 
junta,  and  afterwards  of  the  cortes.  It 
sustained  a  long  blockade  from  the  French 
(Feb.  6,  1810,  to  Aug.  25,  1812),  which 
was  not  raised  till  after  the  battle  of  Sala- 
manca. In  1823,  the  French  entered  it 
(Oct.  3),  after  a  short  siege.    In  1829,  it 


CADIZ— CADWALADER. 


377 


was  declared  a  free  port.  On  the  island 
of  Leon,  the  village  of  Las  Cabezas  is 
also  situated,  whei-e  Riego  began  tlie 
military  revolution,  Jan.  1,  1820.  (See 
Spain.) 

Cadiz,  Straits  of  ;  that  part  of  the 
Atlantic  which  has  the  coasts  of  Algarve 
and  Andalusia  on  the  north,  those  of  Fez 
and  Morocco  on  the  south,  and  the  straits 
of  Gibraltar  on  the  east. 

Cadmus  ;  the  name  of  several  persons 
in  mythology  and  history.  The  most  fa- 
mous is  the  son  of  Agenor  and  grandson 
of  Neptune.  With  liis  brothers,  he  was 
sent,  by  his  father,  to  seek  for  his  sister 
Europa,  who  had  been  carried  away  by 
Jupiter,  and  he  was  not  to  return  without 
her.  After  several  adventures,  C.  inquired 
of  the  oracle  at  Delphi,  which  command- 
ed him  to  desist  from  further  search,  to 
intrust  himself  to  the  guidance  of  a 
heifer,  and  where  she  should  stop  to 
build  a  city.  He  accordingly  went  to 
Bffiotia,  where  he  wished  to  sficrifice  the 
cow  to  Minerva.  But  his  companions,  in 
attempting  to  fetch  water  from  the  foun- 
tain of  Mars,  for  the  purpose  of  the  sacri- 
fice, were  slain  by  the  dragon  that  guarded 
it  C.  killed  the  dragon,  and,  at  the  com- 
mand of  Minerva,  sowed  its  teeth  in  the 
earth ;  armed  men  immediately  sprang 
up,  whom  he  called  Sparti  (the  sowed), 
but  who  perished  in  a  contest  with  each 
other,  excepting  only  five.  With  the  re- 
mainder, he  built  the  city  of  Cadmea  or 
Thebes  (see  Thebes).  Jupiter  then  mar- 
ried him  to  Harmonia,  and  all  tlie  gods 
were  present  at  his  nuptials.  He  became, 
by  this  marriage,  the  father  of  Antinoti, 
Ino,  Semele,  Agave  and  Polydorus.  Af- 
ter ruling,  for  a  time,  the  city  which  he 
had  built,  and  the  state  wliich  he  had 
founded,  he  proceeded,  at  the  command 
of  Bacchus,  with  Harmonia,  to  the  En- 
chelae,  conquered  their  enemies,  the  Illyr- 
ians,  became  their  king,  and  begat  another 
son,  Illyrius.  Jupiter  finally  changed 
him  and  Harmonia  into  seq)ents,  or,  as 
some  say,  into  lions,  and  transported 
them  to  Elysium.  Tradition  states,  that 
C.  came  to  Boeotia  fi-om  Phoenicia,  1550 
B.  C,  conquered  the  inhabitants  who 
opposed  him,  and,  in  conjunction  with 
them,  founded  the  above-mentioned  city. 
To  jjromote  the  improvement  of  his  new 
subjects,  he  taught  them  the  Phoenician 
alphabet,  the  employment  of  music  at  the 
festivals  of  the  gods,  besides  the  use  of 
copper,  &c. — Another  C.  of  Miletus,  a 
son  of  Pandion,  was  regarded,  among  the 
Greeks,  as  the  first  who  wrote  in  |)rose. 
He  lived  about  600  years  before  Christ, 
33* 


Cad3a:*d  ;  an  island  near  the  coast  of 
Flanders,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Scheldt ; 
Ion.  3°  18'  E. ;  lat.  51°  23'  N.  This  island 
is  preserved  by  lofty  dikes,  constructed 
at  a  vast  expense,  from  the  inundations 
of  the  sea ;  and  yet  is  scarcely  free  from 
danger  when  theN.  W.  wind  blows  with 
violence.  The  land  is  fertile,  and  the 
corn  is  equal  to  any  produced  in  the 
United  Provinces ;  the  meadows  are  luxu- 
riant, and  the  farmers  make  a  large  quan- 
tity of  excellent  cheese. 

Caduceus,  a  wand  of  laurel  or  olive, 
with  two  little  wings  on  the  upper  end, 
about  which  two  serpents  are  twisted, 
with  their  heads  turned  towards  each 
other,  and  their  crests  not  bristled,  served 
for  a  symbol  of  peace.  It  was  borne  by 
the  heralds,  whose  pei-sons  were  then 
sacred  and  inviolable.  The  fable  tells  us, 
that  Apollo  gave  this  staff  to  Mercury,  in 
consideration  of  his  resigning  to  him  the 
honor  of  inventing  the  lyre.  As  Mercury 
entered  Arcadia  with  tliis  wand  in  his 
hand,  he  saw  two  serpents  fighting  to- 
gether ;  he  threw  the  staif  between  them, 
and  they  immediately  wound  themselves 
around  it  in  fi-iendly  imion.  The  ser- 
pents which  adorn  tliis  staff  were,  accord- 
ing to  Bottiger,  originally,  emblems  of 
the  knots  with  which  the  oldest  mer- 
chants of  the  Mediten-anean  sea  secured 
their  chests  and  goods.  The  C.  is  Mer- 
cuiy's  pecuUar  mai-k  of  distinction.  With 
tills  he  conducted  the  shades  to  the  lower 
world,  and  from  it  received  the  name 
Caducifer ;  yet  we  find  it,  on  ancient 
coins,  in  the  hands  of  Bacchus,  Hercules, 
Ceres,  Venus  and  Anubis.  Among  the 
modems,  it  serves  principally  as  an  em- 
blem of  commerce. 

Cadwalader,  John,  was  bom  in  Phil- 
adelphia, and,  at  the  commencement  of 
tlie  revolution,  commanded  a  volunteer 
corps,  of  which  almost  all  the  members 
received  commissions  in  the  line  of  the 
army.  He  was  afterwards  appointed 
colonel  of  one  of  the  city  battalions,  from 
which  rank  he  rose  to  that  of  brigadier- 
general,  and  was  intrusted  with  the  com- 
mand of  the  Pennsylvania  troops  in  the 
winter  campaign  of  '76 — '77.  He  acted 
in  tliis  command,  and  as  a  volunteer,  in 
the  battles  of  Princeton,  Brandywine, 
tjfermantown,  Monmouth,  and  on  other 
occasions,  and  received  the  thanks  of 
general  Washington,  whose  confidence 
and  esteem  he  always  possessed.  C.  was 
appointed  to  command  one  of  the  divis- 
ions into  which  the  army  was  separated 
when  Washington  determined  to  attack 
the  enemy  at  Trenton  ;  but,  in  conse- 


srs 


CADWALADER— CAERMARTHEN'. 


quence  of  the  ice  in  the  river,  iieitlier  he 
nor  general  Ir\ine,  the  coniniander  of 
another  division,  could  cross  the  river  in 
time.  But,  tlie  day  after  Washington's 
return,  he  effected  the  passage,  suppos- 
ing him  still  on  the  Jersey  side,  and  i)ur- 
sued  the  vanquished  enemy  to  Burhng- 
ton.  In  1778,  he  was  appointed  by  con- 
gress general  of  cavalry — an  ajjpointment 
wliicJi  he  declmed  on  the  score  of  being 
more  useful  in  the  station  which  he  occu- 
pied. He  died  Feb.  10, 1786,  in  the  44th 
year  of  his  age. 

CiELius  MoNS,  one  of  the  hills  of  the 
city  of  Rome,  received  its  name  from 
Csehus  Vibemia,  an  Etruscan,  to  whom 
it  was  assigned.  The  palace  of  TuUus 
Hostilius  was  on  this  mount.  In  the  time 
of  Tiberius,  it  received  the  name  Aiigus- 
tit^.  It  is  at  present  covered  with  ruins, 
which  serve  to  excite  the  curiosity  and 
baffle  the  ingenuity  of  antiquaries. 

Caen  ;  a  large  and  well-built  town  of 
France,  the  ancient  capital  of  Lower 
Normandy,  and  the  chief  place  in  the 
department  of  Calvados.  According  to 
Dupin  {Forces  productives  commerciales 
de  la  France,  1828),  it  is  one  of  the  most 
important  cities  of  the  west  of  France, 
with  a  population  of  37,890  inhabitants, 
the  centre  of  an  important  domestic 
trade,  the  market  of  a  rich  agiicultural 
district,  a  seaport  and  a  manufacturing 
city.  Its  institutions,  htemiy,  charitable 
and  scientific,  are  numerous,  and  very 
well  organized.  The  antiquarian  society, 
tlie  Linngean  society,  tlie  agricultiural  soci- 
ety, and  the  academy  of  science,  arts  and 
hterature,  are  distinguished.  C.  also  con- 
tains one  of  the  26  academies  of  the  uni- 
versity [academie  universUaire),  a  royal 
college,  a  large  and  valuable  public  libra- 
ry,  an  academy  of  drawing,  architecture 
and  sculpture,  a  gallery  of  paintings,  and 
many  other  useful  and  Uberal  uistitutions. 
The  hospital  of  the  abbaye-aux-dames  is 
oiie  of  the  best  regulated  in  France.  The 
noble  hospital  of  the  bon-saiweur  is  divid- 
ed into  the  asylum  for  the  insane,  the 
dispensary  for  the  sick  and  wounded,  the 
school  for  the  deaf  and  dumb,  the  lying- 
in-hospital,  a  boardmg  school  for  young 
ladies,  and  a  free  school  for  120  destitute 
girls.  The  whole  is  administered  by  125 
charitable  females  (soeurs  hospitaliers). 
The  streets  are  less  narrow  and  crooked 
than  is  irsual  in  France,  and  the  houses  are 
mostly  of  white  stone.  It  has  12  jiarish 
churches,  of  which  the  principal  ai-e  the 
abhaye-aiuc-hommes,  built  by  William  the 
Conqueror,  who  lies  buried  in  it,  and 
notre-dame.    The  city  was  formerly  forti- 


fied, but  the  fortifications  are  now  in  ru- 
ins. Henry  VI  of  England  fouinled  a 
imiversity  here  in  1431,  C.  having  been 
in  the  possession  of  theEnghsh,of  whom 
it  is  now  a  favorite  retreat,  from  1417  to 
1448.  Admiral  de  Coligni  captured  it 
for  the  Protestants  in  1562,  and,  in  1815, 
it  was  occupied  by  the  Prussians.  Linen, 
serges,  i)articularly  rich  lace,  with  stock- 
ings, caps,  pajier-hangings  and  oil,  are  the 
principal  articles  of  manufacture.  A  su- 
gar refinery  has  lately  been  established,, 
in  which  a  steam-engine  is  employed.  A 
large  fair  is  held  here  annually,  and  an 
exhibition  of  the  manufactures  of  the 
de])artment  biennially.  Malherbe,  De 
Laplace,  Vauquelin,  were  born  in  this 
city  or  in  its  vicinity.  It  is  132  miles 
N.  W.  of  Paris.  Lon.  21'  38"  W. ;  lat. 
49°  11'  12"  I^. 

Caerleon  ;  a  small  town  in  England, 
26  miles  from  Bristol,  on  the  Usk,  in 
which  the  tide  rises  30  feet.  (See  Bris- 
tol Channel.)  It  was  the  site  of  the  Isca 
Silurum,  the  chief  Roman  station  in  the 
country  of  the  Silures.  The  ruins  of 
baths,  temples  and  a  theatre  were  to  be 
seen  here  in  the  12th  century ;  and  Roman 
coins,  statues  and  sepulchral  monuments 
are  yet  found.  There  are  also  the  vesti- 
ges of  an  amphitheatre,  which  the  inhalv 
itants  call  king  Arthur's  round  table,  from 
a  tradition  that  he  instituted  the  round 
table  in  tliis  place.  Population,  in  1821, 
1062. 

Caermarthen  ;  chief  tovvTi  of  Caer- 
marthenshire.  South  Wales.  It  is  situ- 
ated on  tlie  Towy,  the  picturesque  beau- 
ties of  the  vale  of  which  are  seen  to  great 
advantage  from  the  celebrated  Grongar 
hill  and  the  ruins  of  Dynevor  castle. 
The  streets  are  many  of  them  steep  and 
irregular.  The  river  is  navigable  for  ves- 
selg  of  300  tons  burden.  In  the  history 
of  romance,  C.  is  famed  as  the  birthplace 
of  Merlin,  and  tliree  miles  fi-om  the  town 
is  a  spot  called  Merlin's  grove,  m  which 
tradition  relates  that  the  Lady  of  the  Lake 
intombed  the  unhappy  magician  {Faerie 
Queen,  iii.  3).  Merlin's  chair,  from  which 
he  uttered  his  prophecies,  is  also  shown. 
Roman  roads,  coins  and  sepulchral  anti- 
quities are  found  in  the  neighborhootl. 
About  eight  miles  fi-om  the  towTi  there  is 
an  immense  cairn,  18  feet  high  and  150  in 
circuit,  covered  with  tuif.  The  top  is 
hollow,  with  a  stone  chest  in  it,  covered 
with  an  oval  stone  nine  feet  long.  Be- 
tween the  Towy  and  the  Cowen  there  is 
a  barrow  with  a  stone  chest  in  it.  C.  is 
212  miles  west  fix)m  London.  Popula- 
tion, in  1821,  8906. 


CAERNARVON— CESAR. 


379 


Caernarvon,  the  principal  town  of 
North  Wales,  stands  on  the  Menai  strait, 
with  a  good  harbor,  but  difficult  of  access. 
It  is  built  in  tlie  form  of  a  square,  enclos- 
ed on  three  sides  with  walls.  Edward  I 
built  it  in  1282,  and  his  son,  Edward  II, 
lii"st  prince  of  Wales,  was  born  here.  C. 
stands  near  the  site  of  the  ancient  Segon- 
tium  of  Antoninus,  the  Caer  Seiont  of  the 
Britons.  Being  formerly  a  strong  hold, 
it  was  frequently  attacked  in  the  wars  be- 
tween the  Welsh  and  English,  and  in  the 
civil  wars.  Population,  5788.  Distant 
253  miles  N.  W.  from  London. 

Caerphilly,  or  Caerphili  ;  a  small 
market-town  in  the  county  of  Glamorgan, 
distinguished  for  the  ruins  of  one  of  the 
most  magnificent  castles  in  Great  Britain. 
The  date  of  its  foundation  is  unknown  ; 
but,  till  the  time  of  Henry  UI,  it  was  call- 
ed the  castle  of  Senghetii/aa.  The  great 
hall,  70  feet  by  30,  and  tlie  hanging  tower, 
nearly  80  feet  high,  and  inclining  about  11 
feet  from  the  perpendicular,  are  remark- 
able objects.  The  position  of  the  latter 
was  produced  by  the  steam  of  a  qufuitity 
of  water  which  was  thrown  upon  a  fur- 
nace of  melted  iron  beneath  the  tower. 
Distant  158  miles  west  from  London. 

Caerwe>t  ;  a  village  of  England,  sup- 
posed to  have  been  the  Venta  Silurum  of 
Antoninus.  The  vestiges  of  a  large  Ro- 
man camp  are  visible.  A  mosaic  pave- 
meirt  of  blue,  white,  yellow  and  red  was 
discovered  here  some  years  ago.  Distant 
17  miles  N.  W.  of  Bristol. 

Caerwys,  a  small  town  of  North 
Wales,  is  noted  for  the  celebration  of  the 
Eisteddfod,  or  competition  of  the  bards 
(q.  v.).  They  recited  their  odes,  or  per- 
formed on  the  harp,  in  presence  of  judges 
appointed  by  the  native  princes.  The 
prize  was  a  small  silver  harp.  Distant 
212  miles  N.  W.  from  London. 

C^SAR  was  the  family  name  of  the  five 
first  Roman  enifjeroi-s.  With  Nero  the 
imj)erial  family  becan)e  extinct  (A.D.68), 
and  Casar  became  merely  a  title  of  dig- 
nity. The  emperor,  who  bore  tlie  title 
oi  Augustus,  appointed  his  successor,  with 
tlie  title  of  CcEsar.  On  medals  and  mon- 
uments we  find  the  title  Ctesar  jireceding 
tlie  name  of  the  emperor,  as.  Imp.  Ccesar 
JSTen-a  Trajanus  AugnstiLS,  and  following 
tliat  of  the  designated  successor,  as,  JV/arc. 
Aurel.  Antonin.  Ccesar.  In  tlie  lower 
Greek  empire,  a  new  dignity  of  Sebasto- 
crator  was  conferred,  and  that  of  Ccesar 
became  the  thiirl  rank  in  the  state. 

Cesar,  Cains  Julius,  a  great  general, 
statesman  and  historian,  was  born  July 
10th  [quindUis),  B.  C.  100.    He  was  the 


son  of  the  pretor  Caius  Julius  CiBsar, 
and  of  Aureha,  a  daughter  of  Aurelius 
Cotta.  From  his  earliest  boyhood,  he 
discovered  extraordinary  talents.  He 
had  a  penetratuig  intellect,  a  remarkably 
strong  memory,  and  a  lively  imagination ; 
was  indefatigable  in  business,  and  able,  as 
we  are  told  by  Plinj',  to  read,  write,  hear 
and  dictate,  at  the  same  time,  from  four  to 
seven  different  letters.  When  the  party 
of  Marius  gained  the  ascendency  in  Rome, 
Cinna  gave  his  daughter  Cornelia  in  mar- 
riage to  C,  with  the  view  thereby  to 
establish  his  own  power  more  firmly. 
Sylla,  when  he  came  to  Rome,  tried  to 
prevail  on  him  to  repudiate  her.  His  re- 
fusal provoked  the  anger  of  the  ustn-per, 
who  was  prevented  only  by  the  earnest 
entreaties  of  his  friends  from  putting  him 
under  proscription.  The  saying  of  Sylla, 
that  "he  saw  in  this  stripling  many  a 
Marius,"  hastened  the  departure  of  C. 
from  Rome.  He  travelled  into  the  Sa- 
bine territory,  was  seized  by  the  soldiers 
of  Sylla,  and  was  obliged  to  procure  his 
release  by  a  bribe  of  two  talents.  He 
then  proceeded  to  the  court  of  Nicomedes, 
king  of  Bithynia.  Thence  he  went  to  M. 
Minucius  Thermus,  the  pretor  in  Asia, 
who  intrusted  him  with  tlie  command  of 
the  fleet  which  was  to  blockade  fllitylene. 
In  the  execution  of  this  trust,  C.  distin- 
guished himself  highly,  although  but  22 
years  old.  He  next  visited  Rhodes,  and 
placed  himself  under  the  instruction  of 
Apollonius,  to  fit  himself  for  speaking  at 
tlie  bar.  On  the  way,  he  was  taken  by 
pirates,  and  compelled  to  pay  50  talents 
for  his  release.  To  revenge  himself,  he 
fitted  out  some  vessels  at  Miletus,  over- 
took the  puTites,  made  the  greatest  part 
of  them  prisonei-s,  and  had  them  crucified 
before  Pergamus.  He  now  returned  to 
Rome,  and  became  military  tribune,  ques- 
tor  and  edile.  At  the  same  time,  he 
had  the  address  to  wn  the  favor  of  tlie 
people  by  affability,  by  splendid  enter- 
tainments and  pubUc  sliows  ;  and,  trust- 
ing to  his  popularity,  he  ventured  to  erect 
again  the  statues  and  trophies  of  31arius, 
who  was  liated  by  the  senate  and  the  pa- 
tricians. ]jy  means  of  one  of  his  rela- 
tions, L.  Julius  Csesar,  whom  he  had  aid- 
ed in  obtaining  the  consulship,  he  caused 
many  of  Sylla's  followers  to  be  banished 
or  put  to  "death.  In  the  conspiracy  of 
Catiline  he  certainly  had  a  secret  part 
He  defended  the  conspirators,  who  were 
arrested,  and  succeeded  in  raising  a  tu- 
mult against  Cato,  who  strongly  opposed 
him,  so"  that  he  was  obliged  to  quit  the 
rostrum,  and  even  his  hfe  was  endanger- 


38D 


CiE3AR. 


ed.  Cato,  however,  prevailed,  and  C. 
was  for  a  time  kept  out  of  the  pretorship. 
But  he  was  soon  after  chosen  pontifex 
maxinu)s,and  was  about  to  go  as  govern- 
or to  Farther  Spain.  His  creditors  refus- 
ing to  let  him  depart,  Crassus  became  his 
bondsman  for  the  enormous  sum  of  830 
talents.  It  was  on  his  journey  to  Spain, 
tliat  he  expressed,  on  seeuig  a  miserable 
village,  the  well-known  sentiment,  that 
"he  would  rather  be  first  there,  than 
second  at  Rome."  In  Spain,  he  made 
several  conquests,  and  returned  to  Rome 
with  money  enough  to  pay  off  his  debts. 
In  order  to  gain  the  consulship,  he  now 
found  it  exjiedient  to  bring  about  a  recon- 
cihation  between  Pompey  and  Crassus, 
whose  enmity  had  divided  Rome  into 
two  parties.  He  succeeded  in  his  design, 
and  all  three  agreed  to  divide  the  sove- 
reign power  between  them.  This  was 
the  first  triumvirate  in  Roman  histoiy 
(B.  C.  60.)  C.  then  became  consul  with 
M.  Calpurnius  Bibulus,  confirmed  the 
measures  of  Pompey,  and  procured  the 
passage  of  a  law,  in  opposition  to  the 
senate  and  his  colleague,  to  distribute 
certain  lands  among  the  poor  citizens. 
This  brought  him  into  the  highest  favor 
with  the  people.  With  Pompey  he  form- 
ed a  still  more  intimate  connexion  by 
giving  him  his  daughter  Juha  in  mar- 
riage, and  gained  the  favor  of  the  eques- 
trian order  by  remitting  a  third  part  of 
their  taxes.  In  vain  did  the  heads  of  the 
patriotic  party,  Cicero  and  Cato,  raise 
their  voices  against  the  triumvirate :  they 
only  drew  upon  themselves  tlieir  ven- 
geance. When  the  year  of  his  consul- 
ship had  expired,  C.  obtained  the  govern- 
ment of  Gaul  for  five  years,  with  the 
command  of  four  legions.  After  his 
marriage  with  the  accomplished  Calpur- 
nia,  the  daughter  of  one  of  the  new  con- 
suls, Calpurnius  Piso,  he  repaired  to  Gaid, 
compelled  the  Helvetians,  who  had  invad- 
ed tliat  province,  to  retreat  to  tlieir  native 
countrj',  subdued  Ariovistus,  who,  at  the 
head  of  a  German  tribe,  intended  to  settle 
in  the  country  of  the  ^dui,  and  con- 
quered the  Belgians.  In  nine  yeare,  he 
reduced  all  Gaul,  crossed  the  Rhine 
twice  (B.  C.  55  and  53),  and  twice  passed 
over  to  Britain,  defeated  the  gallant  na- 
tives of  this  island  in  several  battles,  and 
compelled  them  to  give  him  hostages. 
The  senate  had  continued  his  govern- 
ment in  Gaul  for  another  period  of  five 
years,  while  Pompey  was  to  have  the 
conmiand  of  Spain,  and  Crassus  that  of 
Syria,  Egypt  and  Macedonia  for  five 
years  also/  But  tlie  death  of  Crassus,  in 


his  campaign  against  the  Parthiatis,  dis- 
solved the  triumvirate  ;  and  the  death  of 
Juha,  which  took  place  about  the  same 
time,  cooled  the  friendship  between  C. 
and  Pompey.  Meanwhile  the  power  and 
authority  of  Pompey  ^vere  constantly  in- 
creasing. C,  too,  strove  to  strengthen 
and  enlarge  his  own  party  in  the  capital 
by  enormous  bribes.  He  made  Gaul  a 
Roman  pi'ovince,  and  governed  the  con- 
quered lands  with  policy  and  kindness. 
Pompey,  on  the  otlier  hand,  promoted 
C.'s  enemies  to  the  consulship,  and  per- 
suaded the  senate  to  pass  a  decree,  by 
which  C.  was  to  leave  his  army,  and  re- 
sign his  government  of  the  province. 
He  declared  himself  ready  to  obey,  if 
Pompey  would  do  the  same.  Hereupon 
the  senate  ordered  that  C.  should  resign 
his  oflices  anc^command  within  a  certain 
time,  or  be  proclaimed  an  enemy  to  the 
state,  and  appointed  Pompey  general  of 
the  army  of  the  republic.  Upon  this,  C. 
urged  his  soldiers  to  defend  the  honor  of 
their  leader,  passed  the  Rubicon  (49  B.  C), 
and  made  himself  master  of  Italy  without 
striking  a  blow,  as  Pompey,  destitute  of 
troops  to  meet  him,  had  left  the  city  with 
the  consuls,  senators  and  magistrates.  C. 
then  levied  an  army  with  the  treasures  of 
the  state,  and  hastened  into  Spain,  which 
he  reduced  to  submission  without  com- 
ing to  a  pitched  battle  with  Pompey's 
generals.  He  next  conquered  Marseilles, 
and  returned  to  Rome,  where  he  was 
appointed  dictator  by  the  pretor,  M. 
JEmilius  Lepidus.  At  ilie  same  tune,  he 
was  chosen  consul  for  the  following  year 
by  the  people.  In  the  meanwhile,  Pom- 
pey had  collected  an  army  in  the  east, 
and  his  rival  hastened  to  Epiruswith  five 
legions  by  land.  But  when  the  vessels 
which  were  intended  to  transport  the  rest 
of  his  troops  had  been  captured  by  Pom- 
pey's fleet,  C.  proposed  an  accoinmodation, 
whicli,  however,  was  refused.  JMean- 
whilc  C.  received  the  expected  reenforc&- 
ments,  and  challenged  his  antagonist  to 
battle.  Pompey  dechned  comin*  to  an 
engagement,  but,  at  last,  being  sun'ounded 
in  his  camp,  was  forced  to  take  a  decisive 
step,  in  order  to  break  through  the  ene- 
my's line.  This  measure  was  successful, 
and  C.  retreated  to  Pharsalia,  where,  in  a 
bloody  but  decisive  engagement  (48  B.  C), 
he  gained  the  victory.  Pompey  fled  to 
Asia,  and  then  to  Egypt,  to  raise  a  new 
army.  As  his  jjarty  was  only  weakened, 
but  not  destroyed,  C.  hastened  after  him, 
passed  over  the  Hellespont,  where  Cas- 
sius  sun'endered  to  him  with  his  fleet,  and 
then  went  to  Egypt.     Here  he  received 


CiESAR. 


381 


intelligence  of  the  murder  of  Pompey, 
He  shed  tears  at  the  tragical  end  of  his 
rival,  gave  his  body  an  honorable  burial, 
and  loaded  his  followers  with  favors,  by 
which  many  of  them  were  won  to  em- 
brace his  cause.  Being  detained  by  con- 
trary winds,  he  made  use  of  the  time  to 
compose  the  differences  between  Ptolemy 
and  his  sister  Cleopatra  (q.  v.).  In  Rome, 
the  senate  and  the  people  strove  eagerly 
to  gain  the  favor  of  the  victor.  They  ap- 
pointed him  consul  for  five  years,  dictator 
i'or  a  year,  and  tribune  of  the  people  for 
life.  Pharnaces,  king  of  Pontus,  a  son  of 
Mitliridates  the  Great,  having  attempted 
to  recover  the  territories  of  his  father  in 
Asia,  C.  marched  against  him,  j)ardoned 
king  Dejotarus,  an  adherent  of  Pompey, 
on  his  way,  and  finished  the  war  so 
speedily,  that  he  announce^  his  success 
to  his  friends  in  the  famous  words  Vejii, 
vidi,  vici.  Returning  to  Rome,  he  grant- 
ed an  amnesty  to  all  tlie  followers  of 
Pompey,  and  gained,  by  his  clemency, 
the  universal  love  of  the  people.  When 
his  dictatorship  had  expired,  he  caused 
himself  to  be  chosen  consul  again,  and, 
without  changing  the  ancient  forms  of 
goA'ernment,  ruled  with  almost  uidimited 
power.  In  Africa,  however,  the  friends 
tjf  the  rei)ubiic  had  gathered  under  the 
standai-d  of  Cato  and  other  generals.  C. 
passed  over  with  an  army,  and  fought 
several  battles  with  various  success,  till 
tJie  victoiy  at  Thapsus  over  Scipio  Me- 
tellus  decided  the  contest  in  his  favor. 
Cato,  who  was  ui  Utica,  stabbed  himself, 
and  the  city  surrendered  to  the  conqueror. 
C.  then  made  Mauritania  and  Numidia 
Roman  provinces,  and  gave  ordere  for  the 
rebuilding  of  Carthage  and  Corinth,  which 
was  accomplished  in  a  year.  In  Rome, 
he  was  received  with  the  most  striking 
marks  of  honor.  The  term  of  his  dicta- 
torship was  prolonged  to  10  years,  the  of- 
fice of  censor  conferred  on  him  alone ;  his 
person  was  declared  inviolable,  and  his 
statue  placed  by  that  of  Jupiter  in  the 
capitol.  In  a  speech  to  the  people  on 
this  occasion,  lie  declared  his  resolution 
to  use  his  power  for  the  good  of  the  state ; 
and  put  an  end  to  the  apprehensions, 
which  some  still  entertained,  by  the  par- 
don of  Marcellus,  one  of  his  most  open 
and  bitter  enemies.  He  soon  after  cele- 
brated the  four  triumphs  which  had  been 
decreed  him  over  Gaul,  Egypt,  Pharnaces 
and  Juba,  all  in  one  month,  and  among 
the  most  magnificent  ever  witnessed  in 
Rome.  He  now  passed  many  useful 
laws,  and  invited  the  learned  men  of 
foreign  countries    to  Rome.     Amongst 


other  things,  he  undertook  the  reforma- 
tion of  the  calendar  (q.v.).  During  these 
peaceful  occupations,  the  sons  of  Pompey 
liad  collected  new  forces  in  Spain,  so  that 
C.  took  the  field  in  pei-son  against  them. 
Corduba  was  captured  after  a  most  obsti- 
nate resistance  ;  and,  soon  after,  the  par- 
ties came  to  a  general  engagement  at 
Munda.  A  fortunate  accident  decided 
the  battle  in  favor  of  C,  after  victory  had 
been  for  a  whole  day  doubtful.  In  seven 
months,  Spain  was  conquered,  and  C.  en- 
tered Rome  in  triumph.  He  was  now 
made  perpetual  dictator,  and  received  the 
title  of  iviperator,  with  full  powers  of  sove- 
reignty. He  continued,  meanwhile,  to 
conciliate  his  enemies  by  clemency,  and 
to  heap  honors  upon  his  friends.  The 
number  of  senators  he  increased  from 
300  to  900.  But  this  degradation  of  the 
senate  offended  the  Romans,  and  their 
displeasure  was  increased  by  the  arro- 
gance with  which  he  conducted  towards 
that  order.  On  one  occasion,  as  he  was 
sitting  in  the  rostrum,  in  his  chair  of  gold, 
Mark  Antony  offered  him  a  royal  diadem. 
He  refused  it,  however,  and  his  refusal 
drew  shouts  of  applause  fi-om  the  people. 
The  next  morning,  his  statues  were  deck- 
ed with  diadems.  The  tribunes  of  the 
people;  who  had  them  taken  off,  ?«.d  ilTv^ 
prisoned  the  persons  who  had  done  the 
act,  were  deposed  from  their  office  by  C. 
This  was  the  occasion  of  an  animosity, 
which  ended  in  a  conspiracy,  of  which 
Cains  Cassius  was  the  prime  mover.  C, 
having  no  suspicion  of  the  danger  which 
threatened  him,  was  forming  new  projects. 
He  resolved  to  subdue  the  Parthians,  and 
then  to  conquer  all  Scythia,  from  the  Cau- 
casus to  Grennany  and  Gaul.  C.'s  friends 
gave  out,  that,  according  to  the  Sibylline 
books,  the  Parthians  could  be  conquered 
only  by  a  king,  and,  therefore,  proposed 
that  C.  should  retain  the  title  of  dictator 
with  regard  to  Italy,  but  should  be  saluted 
with  that  of  king  in  all  the  concpiered 
countries.  For  this  purpose,  a  meeting 
of  the  senate  was  appointed  for  the  loth  of 
INIarch ;  and  this  was  tlie  day  fixed  on  by 
the  conspirators  for  the  execution  of  the 
plot  A  soothsayer  warned  C.  of  his  dan- 
ger ;  and  his  wife,  disturbed  by  a  frightful 
dream,  conjured  him  not  to  go  to  the 
senate-house.  His  doubts,  however, 
were  overcome  by  Decimus  Brutus,  one 
of  the  conspiratoi-s,  and  he  proceeded  to 
the  capitol.  On  his  way  thither,  a  billet 
was  handed  him,  giving  him  information 
of  the  conspiracy  ;  but,  in  the  crowd,  he 
put  it  by  without  reading  it.  The  con- 
spirators had    concerted,  that    Metellua 


382 


CiESAR— CAFFARELLI  DU  FALGA. 


Cimber  sliould  entreat  a  pardon  for  his 
brother,  and,  if  C.  should  refuse,  he  was 
to  tear  the  mantle  from  his  shoulders, 
which  was  to  be  the  signal  for  their  rush- 
ing upon  him  with  their  daggers.  All 
was  done  as  they  had  planned.  Casca's 
dagger  first  pierced  him  in  the  neck. 
Scarcely  had  C.  turned,  and  uttered  the 
words  "Accursed  Casca,  what  doest 
thou  ?"  when  the  conspirators  rushed 
upon  him  from  all  sides.  He  defended 
himself,  however,  undauntedly.  But, 
when  he  descried  Brutus  among  the  con- 
spirators, he  exclaimed,  "  And  thou,  too, 
my  son  ?"  covered  his  face  with  his  man- 
tle, and  fell,  pierced  with  23  wounds,  at 
the  foot  of  Pompey's  statue.  Thus  died 
this  remarkable  man,  the  best  who  ever 
aspired  to  sovereignty  in  Rome,  the  vic- 
tor in  500  battles,  and  the  conqueror  of  a 
thousand  cities,  B.  C.  44, 15th  of  March,  in 
the  56ih  year  of  his  age. — Of  C.'s  writ- 
ings, we  have  his  history  of  his  wars  with 
the  Gauls  and  with  Pompey,  written  in 
a  simple,  noble  style.  The  most  esteem- 
ed editions  are  those  of  Clarke  (London, 
1712,  fol.),  Grajvius  (Leyden,  1713,  2 
vols.),  and  Oudendorp  (Leyden,  1737,  2 
vols.  4to.)  One  of  the  best  modern  small 
editions  is  that  of  Oberlin  (Leipsic,  1805). 

CfSAREA  ;  the  ancient  name  of  many 
cities. — 1.  C.  Philippi,  or  Paneas,  built  l)y 
Philip,  tetrarch  of  Galilee,  son  of  Herod 
the  Great. — 2.  C.  Stratonis,  on  the  shores 
of  the  Mediterranean,  about  7^  miles 
north-west  from  Jerusalem.  Herod  the 
Great  enlarged  it,  and  it  became  the  me- 
tropolis of  Palestine,  and  the  seat  of  the 
Roman  proconsul.  (Joseph,  ^rch.  15,  9, 
6.)  It  is  the  place  where  Herod  Agrippa 
was  smitten  by  the  angel  {Ads  xii.  20— 
23),  where  Cornelius  the  centurion  re- 
sided (x.),  and  St.  Paul  was  imprisoned 
two  years  (xxiii. — ^xxv).  It  is  now,  ac- 
cording to  Clarke,  in  utter  desolation. — 
3.  The  capital  of  Cappadocia,  and  now 
called  Kaisarich.  It  was  once  supposed 
to  contain  400,000  inhabitants.  Lucas 
(2d  Voyage,  xviii.)says  that  all  the  moun- 
tains in  the  environs  are  perforated  with 
grottoes,  which  served  as  summer  resi- 
dences, and  that  there  are  200,000  litde 
pyramids  in  the  vicinity.  It  has  now 
25,000  inhabitants,  and  considerable  trade 
in  cotton. — There  were  many  other  towns 
of  this  name. 

Cjesarean  Operation.  (See  Midvnfe- 

C^STDS  ;  the  boxing-glove  of  the  Gre- 
cian and  Roman  pugihsts.  The  original 
Greek  caestus  was  merely  a  raw  hide,  fas- 
tened to  the  band,  and  reachuig  to  the 


wrists,  intended  for  defence.  It  was  af- 
terwards enlarged,  so  as  to  reach  to  the 
elbow,  and  loaded  with  metal,  to  increase 
the  weight  of  the  blow.  The  combat 
with  the  cfestus  was  not  more  dangerons 
than  a  common  English  boxing-match. 
Theocritus  {Idyll,  22)  has  described  one 
of  these  combats. 

C^suRA,  in  Latin  verse ;  the  separa- 
tion of  the  last  syllable  of  any  word  liom 
those  which  preceded  it,  and  the  carrying 
it  forward  into  another  foot.  It  always 
renders  the  syllable  on  which  it  falls  long, 
and  is  accompanied  by  a  slight  pause, 
hence  called  the  ccesural  pause,  as  in  the 
following  hne : 

Ille  \atus  mveum  mol/i  Mtus  hyacintlro. 

In  English  poetry,  it  is  equivalent  to  a 
pause.     (Se»  Versification.) 

Caf  ;  a  mountain,  which,  if  we  believe 
the  Mohammedans,  environs  the  whole 
earth,  which  is  thus  set  within  it  like  a 
finger  in  a  ring.  Its  foundation  is  the 
stone  Sakhral,  one  grain  of  which  enables 
its  possessor  to  work  miracles.  The  agi- 
tation of  this  stone,  which  is  an  emerald, 
whose  reflection  gives  tlie  sky  its  tints,  is 
the  cause  of  earthquakes.  The  Dives,  or 
giants,  and  the  Peri,  or  fairies,  dwell  in  it 

Cafe.     (See  Coffee- Houses.) 

Caffa  ;  one  of  the  principal  ports  of  the 
Crimea,  fonnerly  a  large  and  rich  city,  now 
much  reduced.  On  the  south  stood  the 
Genoese  town,  of  which  ruined  walls 
and  massive  magazines  remain.  On 
some  neighboring  heights  was  the  Arme- 
nian town,  and  near  this  the  Tartar  city, 
its  magnificent  baths  and  mosques  Hilling 
into  decay.  It  was  called,  by  the  Tar- 
tars, lAttle  Constantinople ;  but,  from  the 
time  of  its  capture  by  the  Turks,  in  1475, 
it  began  to  decline.  When  Clarke  visited 
it,  in  1800,  its  population  was  diminished 
to  50  families.  In  1783,  it  was  ceded  to 
Russia,  and  called  Feodosia,  from  its  an- 
cient name,  Theodosia. 

Caffa,  strait  of,  anciently  the  Cimme- 
rian Bosphonts,  discharges  the  turbid  wa- 
ters of  the  sea  of  Azoph  {Palvs  Mceotis) 
into  the  Black  sea.  It  is  about  15  leagues 
in  length  and  3  in  breadth. 

Caffarelli.     (See  Majorano.) 

Caffarelli  dd  Falga.  Among  five 
brothers  of  this  name,  all  of  whom  have 
distinguished  themselves  in  different  de- 
partments of  politics  and  literature,  the 
best  known  are, — 1.  Louis  Marie  Joseph 
Maximilian,  born  in  1756.  He  was  killed 
in  1799,  before  St.  Jean  d'Acre,  while 
general  of  division.  His  works,  which 
gained  him  a  place  in  the  national  insti- 


CAFFARELLI  DU  FALGA— CAFFRES. 


383 


tute,  relate  to  mathematics,  the  necessity 
of  better  pubhc  instruction,  and  various 
pohtical  and  philosophical  subjects.  His 
whole  life  was  devoted  to  learning,  and  to 
the  welfare  of  mankind.  He  adopted  the 
principles  of  the  revolution,  and  served 
as  a  captain  in  the  arziiy  of  the  Rliine ; 
but,  when  the  national  convention  made 
known  to  tlie  armies  the  condemnation 
of  Louis  XVI,  in  1793,  he  declared  his 
disapprobation  of  it,  and  was,  on  that  ac- 
count, deprived  of  his  office,  and  impris- 
oned 14  months.  He  was  afterwards  set 
at  liberty,  employed  in  the  department  of 
war,  and  finally  returned  to  the  army  of 
tlie  Rliine.  The  loss  of  a  leg  did  not  pre- 
vent him  from  engaging  in  the  expedition 
to  Egypt,  as  chief  of  the  corps  of  engi- 
neers.— 2.  His  brother  Augustus,  lieuten- 
ant-general, born  in  17GG,  served  first  in 
the  Sardinian  troops,  and  afterwards  in 
ahiiost  all  the  campaigns  of  the  revolu- 
tionary war,  under  the  standard  of  France. 
In  1804,  Napoleon  sent  him  to  Rome  to 
induce  the  holy  father  to  go  to  France,  to 
anoint  him  at  his  coronation.  He  was 
tlien  made  governor  of  the  Tuileries,  re- 
ceived a  command  in  the  army,  and  was, 
from  180G  to  1810,  minister  of  war  in  the 
kingdom  of  Italy,  and  afterwards  in  active 
service  m  the  war  in  Spain.  Napoleon 
gave  him  the  command  of  the  first  mili- 
taiy  division  during  the  "  hundred  days." 

Caffe,  Daniel ;  a  painter  in  crayons  ; 
born  at  Kustrin,  1750.  After  having 
passed  his  childhood  and  youth  in  want, 
he  left  a  comfortable  office  from  his  love 
to  painting,  and  was  received,  at  the  age 
of  32  yeai-s,  as  a  pupil  of  the  academy  of 
painting  in  Dresden.  Here  he  studied, 
chiefly,  the  pictures  of  Mengs,  and  soon 
acquired  a  great  reputation  by  his  ])or- 
Craits.  He  also  established  a  manufactory 
of  crayons.  He  copied  many  pictures  in 
the  galleries  of  Dresden,  with  a  vigor  and 
warmth  uncommon  in  a  pauiter  m  cray- 
ons.    He  died  in  1815. 

Caffila  ;  a  company  of  merchants  or 
travellers  who  join  together  for  security, 
in  some  eastern  countries.  It  differs  from 
tlie  caravan  by  being  in  the  employ  of 
some  sovereign  or  companj^  while  the 
former  is  composed  of  merchants  trading 
each  on  his  own  account. 

Caffraria  ;  a  name  adopted,  by  the 
Portuguese,  from  the  Arabs,  who  called  all 
tlie  African  continent,  southward  from 
Sofala  (their  most  southerlj'^  settlement), 
the  land  of  Cqfirs  (infidels).  It  was  fii-st 
applied  to  the  whole  width  of  the  conti- 
nent, from  cape  Comentes  on  the  east  to 
cape  Negro  on  the  west.    As  the  names 


of  particular  states  and  people  became 
known,  the  extent  of  C  diminished ;  and 
the  term  is  now  applied  only  to  the  territory 
on  the  north-eastern  bordei"S  of  the  Cape 
Colony.  C.  is  but  impertectly  Itnown. 
(See  Caffres.) 

Caffres.  In  the  south-eastern  part  of 
Africa,  there  is  a  race  distinguished  from 
the  Negroes  by  a  larger  facial  angle  (the 
head  being  formed  like  that  of  Europe- 
ans), a  high  nose,  hair  frizzled,  liut  less 
woolly  than  that  of  the  Negroes,  and  a 
brown  or  iron-gray  complexion,  differing 
from  the  shining  black  of  that  race. 
They  have  many  Arab  words  in  their  dia- 
lects, and  the  custom  of  circumcision  pre- 
vails among  them.  These  people  were 
called,  by  the  Portuguese,  Caffres,  mistak- 
ing the  JMohammedau  term  Caftr  (here- 
tics) for  a  national  appellation.  It  is  now 
retained,  by  geographical  writers,  to  de- 
note the  savage  tribes,  whose  physical 
characteristics  have  already  been  describ- 
ed, extending  from  Quiloa  southward, 
and  the  Cape  Colony  eastward.  The  his- 
toiy,  origin  and  actual  extent  of  this  race 
is  unknown,  and  is  reserved  to  instruct 
or  confound  future  explorers  in  these  un- 
known regions.  In  a  more  limited  sense, 
this  name  has  been  given  to  the  ti'ibe 
whose  true  name  is  Koussas,  living  on 
the  confines  6f  the  Cape  Colony.  They 
are  a  handsome,  vigorous  race,  of  simple 
habits,  their  principal  food  being  milk  in 
the  form  of  curd.  They  use  no  salt :  wa- 
ter is  their  only  drink.  They  are  all  pas- 
sionately fond  of  tobacco.  Then-  dress 
is  made  of  the  skins  of  sheep.  Ivory 
rings,  worn  on  the  left  arm,  are  their 
chief  ornaments.  The  women  have  their 
backs,  arms  and  breasts  furrowed  by  tear- 
ing up  tlie  skin  with  a  sharp  instrument. 
Both  sexes  paint  the  whole  body  red. 
Their  dwellings  are  low,  circular  cabins, 
constructed  by  the  women.  Plurality  of 
wives  is  allowed,  but  it  is  rare  that  they 
have  more  than  two.  Cattle  are  of  the 
first  importance,  and  the  chief  object  of 
affection  to  a  Caffi-e.  They  obey  and 
follow  their  master  like  dogs.  The 
ground  is  cultivated  by  the  women.  At 
the  age  of  12,  the  boys  are  appointed  to 
the  care  of  cattle,  ami  exercised  publicly 
in  the  use  of  the  javelin  and  the  club. 
The  girls,  under  the  inspection  of  the 
chiefs'  wives,  are  taught  to  perform  the 
work  of  the  hut  and  the  garden.  The 
Caffres  are  of  a  peacefid  disposition,  but 
display  great  activity  juid  skill  in  the  use 
of  arms,  when  necessaiy.  Their  weap- 
ons are  the  hassagay,  tlie  shield  and  the 
club.     Previous  to  commencing  hostili- 


sn 


CAFFRES— CAGLIOSTRO. 


ties,  they  send  heralds  to  the  enemy. 
They  are  fond  of  the  chase,  pursuing  the 
lion  and  the  elephant.  Each  horde  has 
a  hereditary  and  absolute  chief.  The 
cupidity  of  the  English  colonists  has 
found  pretences  for  depriving  them  of 
their  finest  territory  (1821),  now  called 
Albany ;  and  this  lately  kind  and  happy 
people  seem  destined  to  extinction,  or  to 
a  miserable  and  degraded  condition.  (See 
Lichtenstein's  Travels  in  Sovihem  Africa.) 

Caftan  ;  the  well-known  national  dress 
of  the  Turks,  in  the  form  of  a  night-gown, 
and  generally  white,  with  pale-yellow 
flowers.  It  is  made  of  woollen  or  silk, 
and  sometimes  hned  with  costly  fur. 
Such  caflans  are  presented  as  gifts,  by 
the  Turkish  court,  to  the  Christian  am- 
bassadoi-s,  or  to  other  persons  on  whom  a 
particular  honor  is  to  be  conferred.  And 
ambassadors,  if  they  are  not  expressly 
permitted  to  appear  in  the  dress  of  their 
nation,  are  compelled  to  wear  a  caftan  at 
the  audiences  that  are  given  them. 

Caglia,  cape.    (See  Matapan,  cape.) 

Cagliari,  the  capital  of  the  island  of 
Sardinia,  is  situated  on  a  hill  near  the  sea. 
It  consists  of  four  parts, — 1.  the  castle,  on 
the  top  of  the  hill;  9.  the  Marina;  3. 
Estempache  ;  4.  the  Villa  Nuova.  It  is 
strongly  fortified,  and  is  the  residence  of 
the  viceroy,  of  an  archbishop,  and  the 
seat  of  a  university  with  300  students, 
which  was  revived  and  remodelled  in 
1765.  It  contains  a  royal  society  for  the 
promotion  of  agriculture,  established  in 
1805,  a  museum  of  natural  historj',  and 
one  of  antiquities.  Population,  28,000. 
It  has  some  manufactures.  C.  is  the  em- 
porium of  all  the  Sardinian  trade.  Here 
are  the  dock-yards  and  the  quarantine- 
ground.  Its  spacious  and  safe  harbor  is 
defended  by  several  forts. 

Cagliari,  Paul ;  known  under  the  name 
of  Paul  Veronese ;  a  painter  of  Verona, 
born,  1532.  His  father,  who  was  a  sculp- 
tor, wished  to  educate  his  son  for  the  same 
profession  ;  but  the  young  man  betrayed 
a  greater  inclination  for  painting,  and 
was,  therefore,  placed  under  the  care  of 
his  uncle,  Antonio  Badile,  a  painter.  Un- 
der this  able  instructer,  Paul  made  con- 
siderable progress ;  but,  as  the  school  of 
Verona  already  possessed  distinguished 
artists,  such  as  Forbicini,  Giolsino,  Li- 
gozzi,  Brusasorci  and  Farinato,  he  ob- 
tained, at  first,  but  little  celebrity.  He 
went  to  Mantua  and  Vieenza,  and  after- 
wards to  Venice.  Here  he  imitated  Ti- 
tian and  Tintoretto,  but,  at  the  same  time, 
appeared  desirous  of  surpassing  them  by 
a  more  studied  elegance,  and  a  richer  va- 


riety of  ornament.  It  soon  became  evi- 
dent, from  his  works,  that  he  had  studied 
the  casts  of  ancient  statues,  and  the  etch- 
ings of  Parmesan  and  Albert  Diirer.  In 
his  first  great  works,  which  are  in  the 
church  of  St.  Sebastian,  in  Venice,  his 
pencil  is  yet  timid.  The  History  of 
Esther,  in  fresco,  which  he  aftenvards 
painted  in  this  church,  excited  general 
admiration ;  and  the  execution  of  impor- 
tant works  was  intiiisted  to  him,  among 
which  are  many  that  adorn  the  library  of 
St.  Mark's.  He  afterwai'ds  accompanied 
the  Venetian  ambassador  Grimani  to 
Rome,  where  he  saw,  with  enthusiasm, 
the  beautiful  models  of  Raphael  and  Mi- 
chael Angelo,  and  painted,  after  his  re- 
turn, his  fine  Apotheosis  of  Venice..  His 
numerous  banquetting  pieces  are  also  ex- 
cellent. Six,  at  least,  of  these  are  found  at 
Venice,  in  the  refectories  of  the  monas- 
teries, among  the  best  of  which  are  the 
Marriage  at  Cana,  comprising  120  figures, 
many  of  which  are  portraits,  and  the 
Feast  of  Christ  with  Simon.  In  the  for- 
mer piece,  the  extravagant  display  of 
Asiatic  pomp,  and  the  confusion  of  differ- 
ent persons  and  dresses,  have  been  justly 
censured.  In  the  latter,  the  air  of  j)ride 
in  the  aspect  of  Christ,  instead  of  a  sim- 
ple expression  of  dignity,  the  placing  of 
the  principal  personage  in  a  comer  of  the 
picture,  and  the  running  into  each  other 
of  the  white  table-cloth  and  the  archi- 
tecture of  the  background,  have  been 
considered  blemishes.  In  his  Pilgrims 
of  Emmaus,  Paul  violated  all  the  unities 
of  time,  place  and  action.  But,  with  all 
these  faults,  he  displays  splendid  talents 
and  great  fruitfiilness  of  conception.  Hia 
portraits  are  spirited  and  noble,  and  his 
coloring  splendid.  He  died  in  1588.  His 
scholars  were,  Charles  and  Gabriel,  his 
sons,  and  Benedetto,  his  brother,  besides 
Michael  Parrasio,  Naudi,  Maffei  Verona, 
Francesco  Montemezzano. 

Cagliostro,  count  of  (real  name  Giu- 
seppe Balsamo),  was  bom  in  1743,  at  Pa- 
lermo. His  father  died  when  he  was 
young,  and  he  was  educated  by  his  ma- 
ternal relations.  He  entered  the  order  of 
the  Brothers  of  Mercy,  where  he  found 
an  opportunity  to  cultivate  his  talents  for 
medical  science,  by  which  he  afterwards 
distinguished  himself.  But  he  showed, 
at  the  same  time,  a  great  love  of  dissipa- 
tion, and  was,  at  last,  compelled  to  sepa- 
rate firom  the  order.  He  returned  to  Pa- 
lenno,  where,  among  other  tricks,  he 
deceived  some  credulous  persons  by  his 
pretended  skill  in  magic  and  the  finding 
of  hidden  treasures.    He  also    showed 


CAGLIOSTRO— CAGNOLI. 


385 


himself  adroit  in  counterfeiting  hand- 
writing, and  attempted  to  get  possession 
of  a  contested  estate  b\'  means  of  a  forged 
document,  but  was  discovered,  and  oblig- 
ed to  liee.  He  now  determined  to  go  to 
Rome,  and,  in  his  journey  througli  Cala- 
bria, became  acquainted  with  the  beautiful 
Lorenzii  Feliciani,  daughter  of  a  belt- 
maker.  Slie  appeared  to  him  intended 
by  fortune  to  assist  his  -designs.  He 
formed  an  intimacy  with  her,  and  soon 
compelled  her  to  assist  in  the  accomplish- 
ment of  his  purposes  by  the  loss  of  her 
virtue.  They  now  began  their  travels,  in 
which  he  assumed  the  character  of  a  man 
of  rank,  fii-st  appearing  under  the  name 
of  the  marquis  Pelltgrini,  and  finally 
under  that  of  the  count  Cagliostro.  He 
travelled  through  many  countries  of  Eu- 
rope, stopped  in  the  capital  cities,  and,  by 
his  chemical  inixtures,  by  his  tricks,  and 
by  the  amours  of  his  lady,  gained  consid- 
erable sums.  We  find  him  in  Madrid, 
Lisbon,  Paris,  London,  and  many  other 
cities.  He  knew  how  to  cheat  with  great 
ingenuity,  and  was  always  fortunate 
enough  to  preserve  himself  by  an  early 
flight,  if  men's  eyes  began  to  be  opened, 
or  waking  justice  threatened  him  with 
imprisonment.  The  discovery  of  the  phi- 
losopher's stone,  the  preparation  of  a 
precious  elixir  vitte,  &c.,  were  the  pre- 
tences, under  which  he  extracted  from 
credidous  people  considerable  sums  in 
ready  money.  Many  had  recourse  to  his 
assistance,  not,  indeed,  to  be  initiated  into 
the  mysteries  of  magic,  but  to  j)urchase, 
at  a  high  rate,  different  kinds  of  medi- 
cine, one  of  which  was  the  icater  of 
beauty.  This  profitable  business  em- 
ployed our  hero  maiiy  years ;  but,  with 
the  fading  charms  of  his  lady,  many 
sources  of  wealth  failed.  His  trade  in 
medicine  also  began  to  gi'ow  less  lucra- 
tive, and  he  determined  to  seek  his  for- 
tune as  the  founder  of  a  new  and  secret 
sect.  In  pursuance  of  this  plan,  he  passed 
himself  off,  during  his  second  residence 
in  London,  for  a  freemason,  and  played 
the  part  of  a  magician  and  worker  of 
miracles,  in  which  character  he  dre\» 
upon  himself  the  eyes  of  all  the  enthusi- 
asts in  Europe.  The  countess  C,  on  her 
part,  did  not  remain  idle.  She  was  the 
first  and  most  perfect  scholar  of  her  hus- 
band, and  played  the  part  of  a  priestess 
to  this  new  order  in  as  able  a  manner  as 
she  had  before  played  that  of  a  priestess 
to  another  goddess.  His  plan  for  reviving 
an  old  Egyptian  order,  the  founders  of 
which  he  declared  to  be  Enoch  and  Elias, 
contained  a  mass  of  the  greatest  absurdi- 
voL.  II.  33 


ties  and  nonsense.  But  his  pretensions 
to  supertmtural  power,  the  mystery  with 
which  his  doctrines  were  enveloped,  his 
pretended  ability  to  work  miracles,  his 
healing  the  sick  without  pay,  Avith  the 
greatest  appearance  of  generosity,  and  the 
belief  that,  as  the  great  Kophtha  (this 
name  he  had  taken,  as  ihe  restorer  of 
Egj'ptian  masonry),  he  could  reveal  the 
secrets  of  futurity,  gained  him  many 
friends  and  supporters.  C.  again  travel- 
led through  Europe,  and  attracted  great 
attention  in  Mittau,  Strasburg,  Lyons  and 
Paris.  While  in  this  last  city  (1785),  he 
had  the  misfortune  to  be  implicated  in 
the  scandalous  affair  of  the  necklace,  and 
was  banished  the  country  as  a  confidant 
of  cardinal  Rohan.  He  now  returned  to 
London,  and  sent  many  epistles  to  his 
followers,  wherein  he  bitterly  complained 
of  the  injuiy  he  had  received  in  France, 
and  panned  the  French  court  in  the 
blackest  colors.  From  London,  where 
he  could  not  long  remain,  he  went  to 
Bale,  and  other  cities  in  that  quarter. 
But,  at  length,  listening  to  the  repeated 
entreaties  of  his  wife  and  other  friends, 
he  returned  (1789)  to  Rome.  Here  he 
busied  himself  about  freemasonry  ;  but, 
being  discovered,  and  committed  to  the 
castle  of  St.  Angelo,  he  was  condemned, 
by  a  decree  of  the  pope,  to  imprisonment 
for  life,  as  a  freemason,  an  arch-heretic, 
and  a  man  very  dangerous  to  I'eligion. 
He  died,  in  the  summer  of  1795,  in  the 
castle  of  St.  Leo,  a  small  city  in  the  States 
of  the  Church.  A  biography  of  madame 
von  der  Recke,  in  the  Zeitgenossen,  No.  xi, 
contains  an  account  of  C.'s  residence  in 
Riga,  and  his  connexion  with  madame 
von  der  Recke ;  and  in  Casanova's  me- 
moirs there  is  some  interesting  informa- 
tion concerning  him, 

Cagnoli,  Anthony,  astronomer,  member 
of  the  French  national  institute,  and  pres- 
ident of  the  Italian  academy  of  sciences, 
was  born  at  Zante,  and  was  attached,  in 
his  youth,  to  the  Venetian  embassy  at 
Paris,  where,  afl;er  the  year  1776,  he 
showed  more  love  for  astronomy  than  for 
diplomacy.  Havmg  settled  in  Verona  in 
1782,  he  constructed  an  observatory  in 
his  own  house,  by  his  observations  in 
which  he  enriched  the  science  of  astron- 
omy with  many  discoveries.  After  the 
destruction  of  his  obsen'atory  by  the 
French  (1798),  who,  however,  compen- 
sated him  for  his  loss,  his  instruments 
were  transferred  to  the  observatory  of 
Brera,  in  Milan,  and  he  was  appointed 
professor  of  astronomy  in  the  military 
school  at  Modena.     In  1814,  he  went 


886 


CAGNOLI— CAILLE. 


back  to  Verona,  and  died  there  in  1816. 
His  best  works  are,  JVoiizie  Astronomiche 
adat.  aW  Uso  comune  (Modena,  1802,  2 
vols.,  with  plates) ;  and  his  Trigonomctria 
Piana  e  Sfenca  (2d  edition,  Bologna,  1804, 
with  plates) ;  translated  into  French  by 
Chompre  (2d  edition,  Paris,  1804,  4to.). 

Cagots  ;  an  unfortunate  race  of  men, 
resembling  the  Cretins.  They  are  found 
in  the  south  of  France,  near  the  Pyrenees. 
They  are  mostly  poor  beggai-s,  perform- 
ing the  meanest  offices,  and  covered  with 
leprosy,  king's  evil,  and  vermin  ;  confined 
to  tlie  coarsest  food,  wandering  about 
without  habitation,  without  clothes  or  fire 
in  the  depth  of  winter,  barely  covered 
with  dirty  rags,  retiring,  in  the  night,  to 
barns  and  hovels ;  of  a  thin  and  pale 
asfject,  generally  mutilated,  lamed  in  their 
limbs,  despised,  insulted,  or  pitied ;  cast  out 
of  the  race  of  men  as  unworthy  of  life ; 
given  up  to  the  most  beastly  excess,  and 
accused  of  the  most  honid  crimes  with 
which  the  human  race  can  be  stained. 
In  former  ages,  they  were  shut  out  from 
society  as  lepers,  cursed  as  heretics,  ab- 
horred as  cannibals  and  pederasts ;  their 
feet  wei-e  bored  with  an  iron,  and  they 
were  forced  to  wear  an  egg-shell  on  their 
clothes,  by  way  of  distinction.  The  very 
name  of  Cagot,  which  Scaliger  derives 
from  cdnis  gottiis,  is  a  proof  of  the  detest- 
ation in  which  they  were  held.  Opin- 
ions are  much  divided  with  regard  to  the 
origin  of  this  miserable  race,  living  in  the 
midst  of  a  highly  cultivated  people.  The 
most  plausible  conjecture  is  tliat  which 
derives  them  from  some  nortliern  barba- 
rians, who  migrated  into  the  south  of  Eu- 
rope in  the  3d  or  4th  century.  More 
accurate  researches  have  established  the 
fact,  that  they  are  not  without  capacity  to 
become  useful  members  of  human  soci- 
ety ;  and  that,  to  accomphsh  this,  it  is  only 
necessary  to  remove  them  fi-om  the  con- 
dition in  which  they  suffer  so  much  mis- 
ery and  contempt,  wliich  alone  would  be 
sufficient  to  hinder  them  from  developing 
.  their  talents,  if,  indeed,  they  are  inferior 
to  those  of  other  men. 

Cahoes,  or  Cahoos  Falls.  (See  Mo- 
haiok.) 

Cahors  Wixe  is  that  wine  which  is 
>  used  to  improve  the  Pontac  and  other 
red  French  wines.  It  is  consumed  in 
Bourdeaux  and  other  places,  where  the 
lighter  and  cheaper  French  wines  find  a 
ready  market. 

Caiaphas,  a  Jew,  was  the  high  priest 
at  the  time  when  Jesus  Christ  was  cruci- 
fied by  the  Romans.  In  the  dismay 
which  the  resurrection  of  Lazarus  pro- 


duced among  the  priests  and  Pharisees, 
he  proposed  the  death  of  that  obnoxious 
person  {John,  xi.  49,  50) ;  and,  when  the 
officers  of  the  Jewish  hierarchy  arrested 
Jesus,  they  carried  him  first  to  Annas,  and 
then  to  C,  from  whom  he  was  transferred 
to  the  hands  of  the  civil  authority.  C. 
wa.s  de])osed,  A.  D.  35,  and  Jonathan  ap- 
pointed in  his  stead. 

Caic,  or  Caique  ;  a  skiff  of  a  galley. 
It  was  pointed  at  both  ends,  and  was  25 
feet  long  by  6  broad  and  2i  deep.  It 
went  out  of  use  with  the  galley.  The 
name  is  now  applied,  in  the  Levant,  and 
particularly  in  the  Black  sea,  to  small 
barks.  (In  the  latter  sea  they  are  manned 
by  Cossacks.)  It  is  also  used  in  the  French 
navy  for  a  small  vessel. 

Caicos,  or  Cayos  ;  a  cluster  of  small 
islands  or  rocks,  called  Lnttle  and  Great 
Caicos,  between  Hayti,  or  St.  Domingo, 
and  the  Bahama  islands.  The  largest, 
called  Grand  Caico,  is  GO  miles  long,  and 
2  or  3  broad.  St.  George's  Key  is  the 
principal  harbor.  Population  in  1803,  40 
whites,  and  about  1200  slaves.  Lon.  72° 
W. ;  lat.  21°  36'  N. 

Cailas,  or  Cailasa  ;  the  loftiest  ridge 
of  the  Himalaya  mountains,  (q.  v.)  On 
its  eastern  side  is  a  remarkable  peak, 
called  the  lAngam  of  Siva  or  Mahadtva, 
an  object  of  great  veneration  to  his  vota- 
ries. It  is  the  favorite  abode  of  Siva,  and 
blooms  with  eternal  spring. 

Caillaud,  Frederic  ;  a  French  travel- 
ler in  Africa,  who  explored  the  situation 
of  the  ancient  Meroe,  and  penetrated  to 
the  southern  part  of  the  kingdom  of  Sen- 
naar.  He  travelled  in  Africa  during  the 
yeare  1819,  1820,  1821,  and  1822.  (See 
Merof.) 

Caille,  Auguste ;  a  French  traveller, 
and  the  only  European  who  has  returned 
from  Timbuctoo  or  Ten-Boctoo.  In  1819, 
he  accompanied  major  Gray  in  his  ex- 
ploring expedition,  and,  being  on  the 
Senegal  in  1824,  determined  to  attemyjt 
to  reach  Timbuctoo  and  Jenna  by  his 
own  exertions.  Having  adopted  the  Ara- 
bian dress,  and  embraced  the  religion  of 
ihe  country,  he  joined  a  caravan,  and  set 
out  from  Kakondi  (Kokundi),  Ajjril  19, 

1827.  He  crossed  the  Joliba  (Niger),  and 
spent  some  time  at  Kankan,  whence  he 
travelled  about  200  miles  eastwardly,  to 
Tim^.  Leaving  this  place,  where  he  was 
detained  five  months  by  sickness,  Jan.  10, 

1828,  and  taking  a  northerly  direction, 
he  again  fell  in  with  the  Joliba,  March 
10,  and,  crossing  an  arm  of  that  stream, 
arrived  at  Jenna.  Having  embarked, 
March  23,  on  the  Niger,  and  passed,  on 


CAILLE. 


387 


Ilia  way,  the  lake  Delo  (misplaced,  on  the 
maps,  under  the  name  of  Dibbie),  he 
reached  Tiinhuctoo  April  20.  Leaving 
this  city  May  4,  he  crossed  tlie  Great  Des- 
ert, and  readied  Talilet,  July  23,  whence 
he  passed  through  Fez  to  Tangiei-s. 
Thus  this  intrepid  young  traveller,  at  the 
age  of  28  yems,  has  achieved  alone,  and 
by  liis  own  resources,  what  the  exertions 
of  {Kjwertul  societies,  tlie  aid  of  govern- 
ments, and  the  most  devoted  eftbi-ts  of 
experienced  travellei-s,  had  in  vain  at- 
tempted. This  account  is  the  substance 
of  the  report  of  a  committee  of  the  geo- 
graphical society  of  Paris,  by  whom  his 
accounts  have  been  examined.  The  prize 
t)ffered  by  that  society  to  the  fii-st  travel- 
ler who  should  reach  Timbuctoo  has 
been  awarded  to  him ;  the  king  has  be- 
stowed on  him  the  cross  of  the  legion  of 
honor,  and  3000  francs,  with  a  pension 
of  3000  francs  for  the  years  1829  and 
1830,  to  enable  him  to  pui-sue  the  studies 
necessary  to  jirepare  him  to  renew  his 
visit  to  tiiose  hitherto  unknown  regions. 

Caille,  Nicholas  Louis  de  la,  born  at 
Rumigny,  not  far  from  Rosoy,  in  Thie- 
raclie,  1713,  studied  at  the  college  at 
Lisieux,  and  wished  to  dedicate  himself 
to  the  service  of  the  church.  But,  at  this 
time,  his  attention  was  directed  to  astron- 
omy, and  he  carried  the  spirit  of  geometry 
into  the  scholastic  philosopliy,  and  even 
into  theology,  of  which  he  wished  to  re- 
form the  language,  and  treat  the  proposi- 
tions after  tlie  manner  of  EucUd.  He 
soon  renounced  theology  altogether.  Cas- 
sini  and  Maraldi  were  his  friends,  and 
with  them  he  drew  up  a  description  of 
the  coast  of  France,  from  Nantes  to  Bay- 
onne.  On  account  of  the  accuracy  and 
.skill  which  he  displayed  in  this  operation, 
he  was  selected  to  take  part  in  tbe  verifi- 
cation of  the  meridian,  which  was  then 
beginning  to  be  a  subject  of  interest.  He 
began  tliis  great  work  April  30,  1739, 
and,  in  this  year,  finished  all  the  triangles 
from  Paris  to  Perpignan  ;  measured  the 
bases  of  Bourges,  Rhodez  and  Aries  ;  ol>p 
served  tJie  azimuths  and  zenith  distances 
of  the  stars  at  Bourges,  Rhodez  and  Per- 
pignan, and  took  the  principal  share  in 
tlie  measurement  of  the  degree  of  longi- 
tude which  terminates  at  the  harbor  of 
C^ette.  During  the  severe  winter  of  J  740, 
he  extended  his  triangles  over  tlie  princi- 
pal mountains  of  Auvergne,  to  connect 
with  the  meridian  a  new  basis  measured 
at  Riom.  The  object  of  this  excursion 
was  to  procure  additional  information  for 
the  purpose  of  clearing  up  the  doubt 
^hich  he  entertamed  concerping  the  ba- 


sis of  Ju\isy,  measured  by  Picard  in  1669. 
He  had  discovered  and  demonstrated  that 
this  basis  was  a  thousandtli  jnnt  too  long, 
from  whence  it  follows,  that  the  toise 
used  by  Picard  Avas  at  least  a  hue  shorter 
than  the  toise  of  the  academy.  This 
assertion  of  his,  so  long  contested,  was 
now  placed  beyond  doubt.  During  his 
absence,  he  was  made  professor  of  math- 
ematics in  the  college  of  Mazarin,  in  con- 
sequence of  which,  the  continuation  of 
the  meridian  in  the  north  was  delayed  till 
the  next  autumn.  C.  ended  his  surveys 
in  the  course  of  some  months ;  during 
which  he  measured  two  bases  more,  and 
made  the  astronomical  observations  at 
Paris  and  Dunkirk.  After  his  return,  he 
commenced  the  calculations  for  which 
he  liad  prepared  the  materials  by  these 
long  operations,  and,  by  a  comparison  of 
the  different  arcs  which  he  had  measured, 
he  sliowed  that  tlie  degrees  increase  from 
the  equator  to  the  poles — a  result  diamet- 
rically ojiposite  to  the  old  measurement. 
His  works  on  geometrj,  mechanics,  as- 
tronomy laid  optics,  which  followed  each 
other  in  a  few  yeai-s,  show  with  wliat 
ability  he  discharged  the  duties  of  pro- 
fessor. His  Ephemerides,  and  the  numer- 
ous and  able  memoirs  which  he  presented 
to  the  academy  of  sciences,  and  his  cal- 
culations of  the  eclipses  for  1800  yeai-s,  in 
the  first  edition  of  his  Art  de  verifier  les 
Dates,  prove  with  what  ai-dor  he  pursued 
his  astronomical  studies.  He  liatl  under- 
taken the  correction  of  the  hst  of  staiv, 
according  to  the  method  of  corresponding 
heights.  In  1746,  he  was  in  jiossession 
of  an  observatory  erected  for  him  at  the 
colllge  Mazarin.  True  to  the  laborious 
method  which  he  believed  the  best,  C. 
spent  las  days  and  nights,  for  14  years,  in 
making  observations  on  the  sun,  the  plan- 
ets and  the  stai-s,  to  rectify  the  astronomi- 
cal catalogues  and  tables.  He  had  re- 
ceived the  two  six-foot  sectors,  with  which 
he  had  verified  the  meridian  of  France. 
Desirous  of  observing  the  stars  of  the 
southern  hemisjihere,  which  riever  ap- 
jiear  aliove  the  horizon  at  Paris,  he  formed 
the  plan  of  a  voyage  to  the  cape  of  Good 
Hope.  He  saw  immediately  the  advan- 
tage to  be  derived  from  this  cbange  of 
place,  in  detennining  the  parallax  of  the 
moon,  of  Mars  and  Venus,  and  the  refrac- 
tion of  the  rays  of  hght.  Lalande  (q.  v.), 
then  19  yeai-s  old,  was  sent  to  Berlin, 
which  hes  nearly  under  the  same  merid- 
ian as  the  cape,  to  take  corresponding 
measures  at  the  same  time.  This  astro- 
nomical undertaking  cost  four  yeai-s  of 
journeys  and  labor.     C.  determined  the 


CAILLE— CAIN. 


position  of  about  10,000  stars,  in  127 
nights,  witii  wonderful  accuracy.  As  his 
departure  from  the  cajie  was  delayed,  he 
enijjloyed  the  interval  in  measuring  a 
degree  of  the  southern  hemisphere,  fie 
also  received  orders  to  superintend  the 
construction  of  an  accurate  chart  of  the 
Isle  of  France  and  the  Isle  of  13ourbon, 
tliough  one  had  recently  been  executecl 
by  the  celebrated  navigator  d'Apres.  Af- 
ter his  return,  he  employed  himself,  with 
great  assiduity,  in  com|)aring  the  different 
methods  which  had  been  proposed  for 
solving  the  problem  of  the  longitude. 
(See  Longitude,  Geograph.)  He  chose, 
for  this  pui-pose,  the  distances  of  the  moon 
from  the  sun  or  the  stars,  showed  the 
advantage  of  this  method,  and  projjosed 
a  plan  lor  a  nautical  almanac,  since  uni- 
vei"sally  adopted.  For  the  use  of  naviga- 
tors with  but  little  knowledge,  he  con- 
trived ingenious  and  graphic  means  of 
assistance,  by  which  they  were  made 
acquainted,  in  an  easy  manner,  with  a 
method  which  must  otherwse  have  teixi- 
fied  them  by  the  length  of  the  calcula- 
tions. C.  divided  his  time  between  his 
observatory,  his  calculations,  his  duties  as 
an  academician  and  professor,  and  the 
publication  of  his  dilferent  works.  Now 
appeared  his  tables  of  the  sun,  his  As- 
tronomiiE  Fundamtnta  novissima  Solis  et 
Stellarum observat. stabil.  (Paris,  1757),  the 
continuation  of  his  Ephemeiides.  He  was 
particularly  engaged  in  observations  of 
the  moon,  and  the  stars  of  the  zodiac. 
Finding  the  method  of  corresponding 
heights  too  slow  for  the  vast  ])lan  which 
he  had  formed,  he  fixed  in  his  observatoiy 
a  meridian  telescope,  which  gave  him  the 
right  ascension  of  the  stais  with  much 
nioi-e  ease.  But,  in  order  to  attain  the 
degree  of  accuracy  at  which  he  aimed, 
he  made  it  a  rule  to  admit  no  star  into  his 
new  catalogue,  which  he  had  not  ob- 
served for  three  or  four  days,  comparing 
it  each  time  with  several  of  those,  the 
places  of  which  he  had  ])reviously  deter- 
mined with  so  much  care.  He  thus  at- 
tained a  greater  degree  of  accuracy  than 
his  celebrated  rivals,  Bradley  and  Mayer, 
who  were  furnished  with  better  instru- 
ments, and  generally  contented  them- 
selves with  a  single  observation  of  the 
stai-s  of  lesser  magnitutle.  It  is  to  be  re- 
gretted, that  this  great  work  lias  not  been 
edited  with  greater  accuracy  by  the  friend 
and  scholar  of  C.  Engaged  in  so  many 
employments,  C.  still  found  time  for  other 
labors.  From  the  maimscripts  of  Bou- 
guer,  who  had  intrusted  them  to  him  at 
the  time  of  his  death,  he  published  Traite 


de  la  Gradation  de  la  Lutniere,  and  wholly- 
revised  tlie  Traite  de  JVavigation.  He 
afterwards  published  the  observations  of 
the  landgrave  of  Hesse-Cassel  and  Wal- 
ther,  the  travels  of  Chazelle  to  Egypt, 
and  Feuillee's  voyage  to  the  Canary  isl- 
ands. A  violent  attack  of  the  gout  having 
interrupted  his  labors,  he  resumed  them, 
as  soon  as  he  was  able,  with  too  nuich 
eagerness,  exhausted  his  weak  frame,  and 
died  in  17G2.  Ho  bequeathed  his  manu- 
scripts to  his  fiiend  Maraldi,  who  pub- 
lished the  Ciel  .Austral,  preceded  by  an 
doge  of  the  author,  by  iJrotier.  Never 
Avas  there  a  greater  friend  of  labor  and 
truth  than  C.  The  number,  as  well  as 
the  accuracy  of  his  observations,  is  wor- 
thy of  admiration,  more  particularly  if 
we  consider  that  all  his  astronomical  la- 
bel's took  place  within  27  years.  His 
Journal  du  Voyage  fait  au  Cap  de  Bonne 
Espirance  was  edited  by  Cai'lier  (Paris, 
17(i3). 

Caimacan  {lieutenant) ;  a  title  of  the 
grand  signior,  the  grand  vizier,  and  the 
governor  of  Constantinoj)le. 

CAurAN.     (See  Cayman  Islands.) 

Caiman.     (See  Alligator.) 

Cain  ;  the  eldest  son  of  Adam  and 
Eve  ;  the  first  murderer.  Jealous  of  the 
favor  shown  to  his  younger  brotlier  (see 
Abel),  he  murdei"S  him  in  the  field.  The 
avenging  voice  of  conscience  asks  him 
the  tciTible  question,  "  Cain,  where  is  thy 
brother?"  which  he  vahdy  endeavoi-s  to 
evade — "Am  I  my  brother's  keeper  ?"  The 
curse  is  pronounced  upon  him  ;  he  is  de- 
clared a  fugitive  and  a  wanderer  on  the 
face  of  the  earth.  His  remorse  and  de- 
spair fill  him  with  the  apprehension  of 
retribution — of  death  from  the  hand  of 
whoever  shall  meet  him.  But  a  mark  is 
set  upon  him,  as  a  sign,  lest  any  one 
should  kill  liim.  He  then,  continues 
Moses  (Ge?i.  iv.  16 — 24),  went  out  and 
dwelt  in  the  land  of  Nod,  on  the  east  of 
Eden.  (q.  v.)  His  wife  bore  hhn  a  son, 
Enoch,  who  built  a  city.  Jabal,  one  of 
his  descendants,  is  called  the  fatlier  of 
those  who  live  in  tents  (sceiiites).  Jubal, 
brother  of  Jabal,  was  the  first  liiusician, 
and  Tubal-cain,  another  brother,  was  the 
fij-st  smith.  This  is  the  last  information 
which  the  Mosaic  history  gives  of  tlie 
family  of  Cain,  unless  we  suppose  the 
beautiful  daughters  of  men  ( Gen.  vi.  2), 
or  the  giants  {Gen.  vi.  4),  to  be  his  pos- 
terity. The  conciseness  of  the  sketch  of 
antediluvian  history  in  Genesis  has  left 
a  wide  field  for  conjecture.  Why  was 
Abel's  offering  prefeiTcd  ?  What  was  the 
sign  which  indicated  tlie  acceptance  of 


CAIN— CAISSON. 


389 


the  one  and  the  rejection  of  tlie  other  ? 
What  was  to  he  the  effect  of  this  prefer- 
ence ?  Did  Abel  manifest  a  more  Hvely 
faith  ?  Was  his  offering  consumed  by  a 
fire  from  heaven  ?  Were  the  privileges 
of  primogeniture  transferred  to  him  from 
the  eldest  born,  as  was  frequently  done  in 
the  patriarchal  times?  Who  were  the 
avengei-s  whom  he  feared  ?  Preadamites, 
as  some  have  gravely  conjectured  {Bayle, 
art.  Cain),  or  descendants  of  Abel  ?  Was 
the  mark  set  upon  Cain,  or  does  the 
original  signify  tliat  a  sign  was  given  him 
to  inspire  him  with  confidence  in  the 
promise  .*'  Josephus  relates,  that  he  be- 
came the  leader  of  a  band  of  robbers, 
committed  all  sorts  of  licentiousness,  cor- 
rupted the  simplicity  of  primitive  man- 
ners by  his  luxury,  established  the  right 
of  property  by  setting  up  landmarks,  and 
was  the  inventor  of  weights  and  meas^ 
ures. 

Caique,  Graxd  ;  a  small  island  among 
the  Bahamas ;  Ion.  70°  VV. ;  lat.  19=  5(y 
N.  The  Little  C.  lies  south-west  of  the 
former. 

Ca-Ira.  These  famous  revolutionary 
couplets  were  written  on  the  occasion  of 
the  celebration  of  the  cajjture  of  the  Bfis- 
tile,  when  the  civic  oath  was  taken  before 
the  altar  of  the  countrj'.  The  celebration 
took  place  on  the  Champ  de  Mars,  July 
14,  1790,  in  the  mitlst  oi'  torrents  of  rain. 
The  refrain,  or  chorus,  runs  thus  i--— 

Ah  !  9a  ira,  9a  ira,  9a  ira, 

En  ilepit  d'  z'aristocrat'  et  d'  la  pluie, 

All !  9a  ira,  (fee. 

Nous  nous  qiouilleroDS,  mais  9a  finira. 

This,  it  will  be  seen,  was  directed  against 
the  aristocrats.  The  famous  Marseillaise, 
or  Mui-seilles  hj'um,  which  resounded 
throughout  Europe  during  the  wars  of 
the  young  republic  against  the  coalition 
of  sovereigns,  wtis  directed  against  foreign, 
as  the  pa-ira  was  against  the  domestic, 
enemies  of  the  revolution.  The  author 
and  composer  of  the  Marseillaise  (Rouget 
de  I'Isie),  an  officer  of  the  engineers,  nar- 
rowly escaped  with  his  head,  during  the 
reigti  of  terror,  (See  Poesies  Rev.  et  Anti- 
Rev.,  Paris,  1821,  2  vols.)  These  poejns 
were  proscribed  by  the  directory  in  1797, 
and  have  not,  of  coui-se,  been  restored  to 
favor  by  the  consulate,  the  empire,  or 
shice  the  restoration. 

Cairn  ;  a  name  given  to  hca])S  of 
stones,  connnon  in  Great  Britain,  paiticur 
larly  in  Scotland  and  Wales,  generally  of 
a  conical  form,  and  cro%viied  by  a  flat 
stone.  They  are  of  various  sizes,  and 
were  probably  constructed  for  different 
objects.  Some  are  evidently  sepulchral, 
33* 


containing  urns,  stone  chests,  bones,  &c. 
Olhci-s  were  erected  to  commemorate 
some  remarkable  event,  and  otliers  appear 
to  have  been  intended  for  religious  rites, 
(See  Thimuli.) 

Cairngorm,  or  Blue  Mountain  ;  a 
mountain  of  Scotland,  belonging  to  the 
Grampian  hills.  It  is  particularly  cele» 
brated  for  the  crystals  found  on  it,  called 
cairngorms,  of  various  colors  and  sizes. 
They  have  now  become  scarce.  They 
are,  in  general,  of  a  smoky  or  yellowish 
hue  (smoky  quartz  and  yellow  quartz), 
and  are  used  for  seals  and  other  trinkets, 

Cairo  (in  Arabic,  Kahira,  which  signi- 
fies victorious) ;  tlie  capital  city  of  Egypt, 
and  one  of  the  largest  cities  in  the  world, 
It  lies  on  the  east  bank  of  the  Nile,  in  a 
sandy  plain,  and  contains  Old  Cairo,  Bou- 
lac  [the  harbor),  and  New  Cairo,  which 
are,  to  a  considerable  degree,  distinct  from 
each  other.  The  city  itself,  separate  from 
the  gardens  and  plantations  which  surr 
round  it,  is  3i  leagues  in  circuit,  has  31 
gates,  and  2400  irregular,  unpaved  streets, 
which,  during  the  night,  are  closed  at  the 
end  of  tlie  quarter,  to  prevent  disturb-r 
ances ;  also  25,840  houses,  for  the  mpst 
j)art  built  of  brick,  with  flat  roofs,  and 
more  than  200,000  inhabitants — Arabs 
or  Mohammedans,  Coptish  Christians, 
Mamelukes,  Greeks,  Syrians,  Armenians, 
Jews,  and  natives  of  various  countries  of 
Europe.  Tlie  castle,  situated  on  a  rock 
containing  Joseph's  well,  276  feet  deep, 
is  the  residence  of  the  pacha.  There  are 
80  public  baths,  300  mosques,  2  Greek, 
12  Coptish,  and  1  Armenian  church,  3t> 
synagogues,  and  many  silk,  camlet,  tapesT 
tiy,  gunpowder,  leather,  linen  and  cottoq 
factories,  The  commerce  of  the  city  is 
very  great,  since  it  is  the  centre  of  conir 
munication  between  Europe,  the  Medif 
terranean  sea,  Asia,  and  the  north  of  Afr 
rica.  Here  is  also  a  Mohammedan  high-r 
school,  a  printing-office,  and  a  libraiy  of 
25,000  volumes.  A  line  of  telegraphs 
extends  from  hence  to  Alexandria,  about 
255  miles  distant,  by  which  intelligence  is 
communicated  in  40  minutes.  In  the 
neighborhood  ^  is  an  aqueduct  of  317 
arches ;  also  Boulac,  the  harbor  of  C, 
wliich  contains  an  institution  for  100 
scholai-s,  sujjported  by  the  pacha,  and  ^ 
printing-otHce.  In  1798,  C.  was  takeii 
by  the  French.     (See  Egypt.) 

Caisson  ;  1.  a  chest  filled  with  combus^ 
tibles,  and  buried  under  ground,  in  order 
to  explode  at  a  particular  lime.  It  is  also 
a  covered  wagon  for  the  provisions  and 
ammunition  of  an  army. — 2.  In  archie 
lecture,  a  kind  of  chest,  case,  or  flat-bott 


390 


CAISSON— CALABASH-TREE. 


tomed  boat,  used  in  tlie  construction  of 
bridges,  large  enough  to  contain  an  entire 
I)ier,  whicli  is  built  in  it ;  tlie  caisson  is 
then  sunk  to  the  bed  of  tlie  river,  and  the 
sides  removed  from  the  bottom,  which  is 
left  as  a  foundation  for  the  pier. — Floating 
vessels,  under  the  same  name,  ai'e  used  to 
close  the  entrances  of  docks  and  basins. 
A  groove  is  worked  in  the  nuisoniy  of 
the  entrance,  and  a  vessel  of  the  shajjc  of 
the  o]iening,  with  a  projection  coirespond- 
ing  to  the  groove,  a  hanging  scuttle  on 
each  side,  and  funiished  with  pumps,  is 
iioated  into  it  at  high  tide.  The  scuttles 
being  opened,  the  caisson  sinks,  and  tills 
U[)  the  groove.  The  scuttles  are  then  shut, 
and  the  water  is  prevented  from  entering 
the  dock,  or  from  discharging  itself  from 
the  basin.  If  the  dock  is  to  be  filled,  the 
scuttles  are  opened,  till  the  water  is  nearly 
on  a  level  on  each  side,  when  the  scuttles 
are  again  shut,  the  caisson  emptied  by  the 
pumps,  and  then  floated  off. 

Caius,  or,  in  the  Greek  manner  of 
writmg,  Gaius  ;  a  learned  lawyer  of  the 
time  of  Adrian  and  Antoninus  Pius  (117 — 
161),  of  whose  life  but  veiy  little  is  known. 
Of  his  numerous  works,  his  Institutes  are 
jjarticularly  important;  fii-st,  as  having 
been,  for  centuries,  down  to  the  time  of 
Justinian,  one  of  the  most  common  man- 
uals of  law ;  secondly,  as  having  been  the 
foundation  of  the  official  compendium  of 
the  law,  which  occupies  an  important 
place  in  the  reform  of  the  judicial  system 
by  Justinian ;  and,  thirdly,  as  the  only  tol- 
erably full,  systematic  and  well-an-anged 
source  of  the  old  Roman  law.  Some 
parts  of  this  work  have  been  known  for  a 
considerable  time.  Two  leaves  of  a  man- 
uscript of  it  were  discovered  in  the  library 
of  the  cathedral  chapter  at  Verona,  as 
early  as  the  beginnhig  of  the  last  century, 
by  Scipio  IMalfei ;  but  the  manuscript 
itself  was  first  discovered  in  1816,  by  Nie- 
buhr,  who  staid  two  days  at  Verona,  on 
his  way  to  Rome  as  Prussian  ambassador. 
The  parchment,  on  which  the  Institutes 
of  C.  were  written,  had  been  used  to 
copy  the  lettei-s  of  St.  Jerome.  Maffei 
had  perceived  it  to  be  a  Codex  Rescriptus, 
without,  however,  having  very  accurately 
examined  it.  Niebuhr  saw  that  an  old 
juridical  work  lay  here  concealed,  and  von 
Savigny,  professor  of  law  in  Berlin,  at 
tliat  time  at  Paris,  happily  conjectured 
that  it  might  be  the  Institutes  of  C.  The 
academy  of  sciences  at  Berlin  sent,  in 
1817,  two  professore,  Bekker,  the  philolo- 
gist, and  Goschen,  the  jurist,  to  Italy,  to 
investigate  this  discoverj-  with  accuracy. 
The  present  professor,  Bethmann  Hol- 


weg  offered  his  services  to  them,  and,  by 
their  united  efforts,  the  greatest  part  of 
the  book  has  been  brought  into  order,  and 
that  part  which  was  before  illegible  whol- 
ly restored.  The  fragments  of  C  were 
j)rinted  at  Berlin,  1820.  The  manuscript 
has  been  again  examined,  by  professor 
Blume,  and  many  additional  discoveries 
have  been  made,  which  have  been  intro- 
duced into  a  new  edition  (Berlin,  1825). 
They  have  opened  new  vieAvs  u])on  many 
points  of  the  history  of  Roman  law,  and 
have  also  destroyed  many  acute  and  learn- 
ed hyjjothcses. 

Ca  jEPUT  Oil  ;  the  volatile  oil  obtained 
from  the  leaves  of  the  cajeput-tree — the 
cajeputa  officinarum  (the  melaleuca  leuca- 
dendron  of  Linn^us).  The  tree  which  fur- 
nishes the  cajeput  oil  is  common  on  the 
mountains  of  Amboyna,  and  the  other 
Molucca  islands.  It  is  obtained,  by  distil- 
lation, from  the  dried  leaves  of  the  smaller 
of  two  varieties.  It  is  prepared,  in  great 
quantities,  in  the  island  of  Banda,  and 
sent  to  Holland  in  copper  flasks.  As  it 
comes  to  us,  it  is  of  a  green  color,  very 
limpid,  lighter  than  water,  of  a  strong 
smell,  resembling  camphor,  and  of  a 
strong,  pungent  taste.  It  bums  entirely 
away,  without  leaving  any  residuum.  It 
is  often  adulterated  \\\\.\\  other  essential 
oils,  colored  with  the  resin  of  milfoil.  In 
the  genuine  oil,  tlie  green  color  depends 
on  the  presence  of  copper ;  for,  when  rec- 
tified, it  is  colorless. 

Calabar,  Old  ;  a  country  of  Africa,  on 
a  river  of  the  same  name,  in  Upper  Guinea- 
Duke  ToAvn,  the  principal  place  on  the 
river,  is  in  Ion.  about  8°  E.,  lat.  5°  4'  N.,  and 
contains  2000  inhabitants.  Creek  ToA\m, 
eight  miles  N.,  contains  1500  inhabitants. 
Old  Town  was  formerly  the  capital.  The 
inhabitants  are  represented  as  cruel, 
treacherous  and  dishonest.  New  Calabar, 
situated  on  a  river  of  the  same  name,  80 
miles  VV.  of  Old  C,  contains  about  300 
houses,  and  is  the  centre  of  the  Dutch 
commerce  in  this  countiy. 

Calabash-Tree.  The  calabash-tree 
{crescentia  cvjcta)  is  a  production  of  the 
West  Indies  and  the  continent  of  Ameri- 
ca, about  the  height  and  dimensions  of 
an  apple-tree,  with  crooked,  horizontal 
branches,  wedge-shaped  leaves,  jiale- 
white  flowers  on  the  trunk  and  branches, 
and  a  roundish  fruit,  from  two  inches  to 
a  foot  in  diameter.  The  uses  to  which  the 
fruit  of  the  calabash-tree  is  applied  are 
very  numerous.  Being  covered  with  a 
greenish-yellow  skin,  which  encloses  a 
thin,  hard,  and  almost  woody  shell,  it  is 
employed  for  various  kinds  of  domestic 


CALABASH-TREE— CALABRIA. 


391 


vessels,  such  as  water-cans,  goblets  and 
cups  of  almost  every  description.  So  hard 
and  close-grained  are  these  shells,  that, 
when  they  contain  any  fluid,  they  may 
even  be  put  several  times  on  the  fire  as 
kettles,  without  any  injiuy.  When  in- 
tended for  ornamental  vessels,  they  are 
sometimes  highly  polished,  and  have  fig- 
ures engraven  upon  them,  which  are  vari- 
ously tinged  with  indigo  and  other  colors. 
The  calabash  contains  a  pale-yellow, 
juicy  pulp,  of  an  unpleasant  taste,  which 
is  esteemed  a  valuable  remedy  m  several 
disorders,  both  external  and  internal. 

Calabrese  ;  the  appellation  of  a  j)aint- 
er,  by  name  Mattia  Preti,  a  native  of  Ca- 
labria ;  born  1&43,  dierl  1099. 

Calabria  ;  a  mountainous  countr}^,  ly- 
ing on  the  sea-coast,  about  164  miles  in 
length,  and  from  20  to  GO  broad,  forming 
the  southern  part  of  the  Italian  peninsula. 
It  extends,  in  the  southern  part  of  Naples, 
along  the  Apennines  and  the  Tyrrhenian 
sea,  to  the  capes  of  Spartivento  and  Squil- 
lace  on  the  south,  and  to  the  gulf  of  Ta- 
rento  in  the  Mediterranean  sea  on  the 
east.  In  a  space  of  6800  square  miles,  it 
contains  more  than  890,000  inhabitants, 
among  whom  are  many  Arnauts.  The 
accurate  accounts  of  this  country,  so  fa- 
mous m  fable  and  history,  but  hitherto 
not  very  accessible  to  travellei-s,  we  owe 
to  the  war  which  the  French,  under  Jo- 
seph and  Jci-ome,  carried  on  against  the 
proud  and  fanatical  natives,  until  1810. 
In  ancient  times,  C.  was  a  part  of  Magna 
Graecia,  the  residence  of  Pythagoras,  the 
birth-place  of  Charonidas,  of  Zaleucus, 
Praxiteles,  Agathocles,  and  other  distin- 
guished men.  The  countrj''  where  the 
luxurious  Sybaris  once  flourished  is  now 
sunk  in  deep  barbarism.  The  climate 
was  much  esteemed  in  antiquity ;  but,  in 
some  places,  the  stagnant  watei"s,  to  the 
draining  off  of  Avhich  no  one  pays  dny 
attention,  produce  contagious  diseases  in 
tlie  hot  season.  The  heavy  dews  pre- 
serve, during  the  greater  part  of  the  year, 
a  delightful  verdure,  which  is  increased 
by  numerous  springs  and  streams.  Pliny 
extols  the  fertility  of  the  dark  soil,  which, 
with  the  exception  of  the  great  ])lain  ]Mar- 
cesato,  resembling  an  entire  waste,  covers 
the  calcarious  rocks  of  C.  Beautiful 
groves  of  ])ine,  fir  and  larch,  the  pitch- 
bearing  trees  of  the  wood  of  Sila,  famous 
in  ancient  times,  shade  the  sides  of  the 
Apennines.  The  evergreen -oak,  the  Ori- 
ental plane-tree,  the  Indian  chestnut,  the 
beech,  the  aloe,  the  fig,  various  nut- 
trees,  and  others,  flourish  here.  The  Ca- 
labrlan  ash  aflTords  manna.     The  fields 


are  beautifully  adorned  with  herbage,  the 
cinnamon  rose  and  sage,  and  tlie  hills 
with  strawberries  and  raspberries.  On 
the  coast  gi-ow  the  evergreen  tamarisk  and 
arbutus.  With  all  the  rich  fruits  of  the 
torrid  zone,  we  find  here  some  of  those 
which  belong  to  the  north  of  Europe — we 
wander  amid  orchards  of  fine  apples,  and 
through  green  Alpine  meadows,  with 
their  soft  herbage.  In  the  valleys,  the 
thomy  caper  mingles  its  bright  flowers 
with  the  dark-green  rosemary,  and  the 
laurel  overehadovvs  all  the  streams.  From 
the  rush  [sarrachio]  the  Calabrian  manu-. 
factures  his  ship-tackle,  his  baskets,  his 
mats,  his  ropes  and  his  nets,  in  which  he 
catches  the  tunny.  The  lazy  and  igno- 
rant inhabitant  of  this  beautiful  land  has 
forgotten  tlie  Grecian  mode  of  culture, 
which  produced  excellent  wines  and  good 
oil.  He  has  corn  and  rice,  safii-on,  anise, 
liquorice,  madder,  flax  and  hemp.  He 
cultivates  olives,  figs,  almonds  and  cotton. 
Tiie  noble  sugar-cane  will  come  to  per- 
fection here.  The  sill<?  of  this  country  is 
good.  The  sheep,  horned-cattle  and 
hoi-ses  are  numerous.  The  watere  con- 
tain tunnies  and  eels.  Near  Reggio  a 
kind  of  muscle  is  found,  called  pinna  ma- 
rina, Irom  whose  silky  beard  a  splendid 
fabric  is  manufactured,  which  is  as  fight 
as  it  is  effectual  in  affording  protection 
against  the  cold.  Coral  is  also  fished  up. 
The  quarries  and  pits  afford  alabaster, 
marble,  gjpsura,  alum,  chalk,  rock-salt, 
lapis  lazuli,  and  the  fine  cojiper,  renown- 
ed since  the  time  of  Homer.  The 
condition  of  the  people  is  a  subject  of 
astonishment  to  all  observer.  The  Ca- 
labrian, scarcely  40  leagues  from  the 
gates  of  the  capital,  is  wild  as  a  Tartar, 
cruel  as  a  ftloor,  rude  and  ignorant  as  a 
Negro  of  Senegal ;  yet  he  has  some  good 
qualities.  He  is  honest,  hospitable,  and 
tender  of  his  honor.  The  corru])tion  of 
a  race  of  men,  naturally  so  energetic,  is 
the  fault  of  the  government,  the  church, 
and  the  feudal  system  now  abolished.  A 
few  rich  individuals  are  found  here  among 
a  great  number  of  miserable  poor.  The 
peasant  labors  little,  and  subsists  almost 
entirely  on  the  spontaneous  productions 
of  nature.  His  habitation  resembles  the 
pig-sties  of  the  rest  of  Europe.  The  feu- 
dal lords  formerly  exercised  a  dreadful 
tyranny  over  their  vassals,  who,  weai-j'  of 
suffering,  fled  to  the  mountains,  and  hved 
by  robbery.  Ignorance,  love  of  revenge, 
cruelty  and  cunning  ai-e  the  principal 
traits  in  the  character  of  the  people. 
Once  offended,  a  Calabrian  is  irreconcila- 
ble.   Hereditaiy  hatred,  therefore,  divides 


901 


CALABRIA— CALAMINES. 


most  of  the  families,  and  an  individual 
never  goes  abroad  without  carrjing  arms 
under  his  black  mantle.  In  tiie  niglit, 
they  barricade  their  houses.  They  have 
no  idea  of  social  pleasures,  and  the  rich 
think  only  of  scraping  together  money. 
Tlie  females  are  not  beautiful:  they  marry 
early,  and  soon  fade.  Even  those  of  the 
higher  classes  cannot,  in  general,  read  or 
write.  The  husbands  are  so  jealous,  that 
they  always  confine  their  wives,  and  treat 
them  severely.  The  recourse  to  lawsuits 
and  chicanery  is  common,  although  the 
administration  of  justice  is  wretchedly 
defective.  The  clergy  are  as  ignorant  as 
they  are  corrupt,  and  supei*stition  rules  all 
classes.  Even  the  robber  carries  relics 
in  his  bosom,  which  he  supplicates  for 
assistance  in  his  enterprises.  The  people 
are  naturally  intelligent.  Their  language 
is  a  corruption  of  the  Italian,  difficult  to 
he  understood,  but  full  of  origmal  and 
pointed  expressions.  The  classes  which 
are  in  some  degree  well  informed  express 
themselves  with  great  ease  and  wannth. 
Their  gestures  are  extremely  lively.  They 
have  great  powers  of  persuasion.  If  they 
caimot  attain  their  end  in  this  way,  they 
revenge  themselves  by  murder.  They  tu"e 
•well-formed,"  muscular,  and  of  a  brown 
complexion.  They  have  animated  coun- 
tenances, and  eyes  full  of  fire  and  expres- 
sion, but  passionate  hearts  and  giddy 
heads.  They  are,  like  the  Sardinians  and 
the  Coi-sicans,the  savages  of  Europe.  (See 
Sejour  (Tun  Qfficier  Frangais  en  Calabre, 
Paris,  1810.)  In  regard  to  government, 
the  country  is  divided  into  Calabria  Citra 
on  the  north,  and  Calabria  Oltra  I  and  II 
on  the  soutli.  The  former  contains  Co- 
senza,  which  has  15,000  inhabitants ;  the 
latter,  Reggio,  which  has  1G,500,  and 
Catanzaro,  tlie  capital  city,  which  has 
1 1,000.  These,  alone,  among  tlie  few  cit- 
ies, arc  of  importance,  on  account  of  their 
manufactures  and  commerce.  There  are 
some  silk  manufactories  at  IMonteleone 
(the  Grecian  Hipponium,  called,  by  the 
Romans,  Vibona,  now  containing  15,000 
inhabitants,  and  the  ruins  of  a  temple  of 
Ceres).  The  seaport  Crotona  has  some 
commerce.  The  city  of  Gerace  is  built 
of  the  ruins  of  Locri.  Pizzo,  where  Mu- 
rat  was  seized,  Oct.  13,  1815,  is  called, 
from  that  event,  the  viosl  faUhJuL  city,  and 
is  freed  from  all  city  taxes  and  excise. 
Many  marks  of  the  etuthquake,  which,  hi 
February,  1783,  laid  waste  the  southern 
part  of  C.,  destroyed  300  cities  and  vil- 
lages, and  buried  30,000  men,  are  still  to 
be  seen, 

CAtAHORRA  (anciently  CcUagurris) ;  a 


toAvn  of  Spain,  in  Old  Castile,  near  the 
south  side  of  the  Ebro,  on  the  borders  of 
Navarre;  1-36  miles  N.  N.  E.  of  Madrid; 
Ion.  2=  W.;  lat.  42°  IG^  N.;  population, 
7200.  It  is  a  bishop's  see,  and  contains 
three  parish  churches  and  tliree  convents. 
In  the  year  of  Rome  682,  this  town,  then 
called  CcUagurris,  siding  with  Sertorius, 
was  besieged  by  Afranius,  one  of  Pom- 
pey's  generals,  and  the  inhabitants  reduc- 
ed to  such  extremity,  that  they  fed  on 
their  wives  and  children ;  whence  the 
Romans  were  wont  to  call  any  grievous 
famine  fames  Calagurritana.  Quintilian 
was  born  here. 

Calais  ;  a  French  sea-port  on  the 
channel  which  sepai'ates  England  fi-om 
France,  called  by  the  French  the  Pas  de 
Calais  and  La  Alanche  ;  by  the  English, 
the  English  channel.  This  strongly -for- 
tified city  is  protected  by  a  citadel  and 
the  fort  of  Nieuvelet.  It  contains  8,500 
inhabitants,  and  has  a  harbor  which  is 
too  shallow  for  lai-ge  ships,  and  is  impor- 
tant only  because  passage  boats  run  con- 
tinually from  here  to  Dover.  The  strait  is 
24  miles  wide,  and  the  passage  by  the 
steam-boat  seldom  exceeds  5  hours.  In 
1346,  C.  was  taken  by  Edward  III,  king 
of  England,  after  such  a  bold  defence  as 
made  the  siege  one  of  the  most  remark- 
able in  history.  It  remained  in  the  pos' 
session  of  the  English  until  1.558,  when 
it  was  lost,  together  with  all  the  English 
possessions  in  France.  Near  the  harbor 
a  monument  has  been  erected  to  com- 
memorate the  return  of  Louis  XVIII, 
April  24, 1814.  In  the  year  1819,  15,577 
travellers  landed  here,  and  11,033  em- 
barked from  this  port. 

Calais,  Pas  de  (i.  e.,  straits  of  Calais); 
a  department  of  France,  formerly  the 
provmce  of  Artois,  lying  east  of  the  chan" 
nel,  and  south  of  the  straits.  Population, 
in  1827,  642,969;  chief  place.  Arras, 
(See  Departments.) 

Calais,  straits  of.    (See  Dover,  straits 

Calaite.     (See  Thtrquoise.) 

Calamanco  ;  a  woollen  stuff,  princi- 
pally manufactured  in  the  Netherlands. 
The  English  manufactures  of  it  have  de- 
clined of  late  years.  The  warp  is  some- 
funes  mixed  with  silk  or  goats'  hair. 
This  stuff  is  made  plain,  colored,  striped 
or  watered. 

Calamata.    (See  Greece.) 

Calamine.    (See  Zinc.) 

Calamines,  or  Calamianes  ;  a  cluster 
of  islands  in  the  Indian  sea,  among  those 
called  the  Philippine  islands.  They  are 
17  in  number,  one  of  which  is  30  miles 


CALAMINES— CALCHAS. 


393 


long,  and  12  broad,  divided  between  the 
king  of  Borneo  and  the  Spaniards,  with 
some  independent  natives  in  the  interior 
parts,  who  hve  without  chiefs  and  with- 
out laws :  they  are  black,  and  have  no 
fixed  places  of  abode.  About  1200  on 
the  sea-coast  have  submitted  to  the  Span- 
iards, who  have  a  garrison  at  a  place 
called  Tatay.  Tlie  country  is  mountain- 
ous, and  produces  some  rice,  and  great 
quantities  of  wax  and  honey.  Lon.  120° 
W  E.  ;  lat.  12°  N. 

Calamus  ;  a  reed. — 1.  The  C.  pastora- 
lis  was  a  simple  reed  or  cane,  used  as  a 
musical  instrument.  Thejbtula,  or  shep- 
herd's pipe,  was  made  of  this  substance  : 
it  is  hence  figuratively  used  l)y  the  poets 
for  the  pipe  itself — 2.  The  C  sci'ijjtorius, 
or  chartaniis,  was  used  by  the  ancients  to 
write  on  materials  which  the  style  would 
injure,  as  papyrus,  parchment,  &c.  It 
was  generally  made  of  the  Egyptian, 
sometimes  of  the  Persian  reed.  It  was 
sharpened  with  a  knife,  or  a  rough  stone, 
and  split  like  our  pens. — 3.  The  C.  aro- 
maticiis  (the  acorus  of  botanists)  is  an 
odoriferous  reed,  formerly  brought  from 
India,  now  found  also  in  the  north  of  Eu- 
rope, and  in  North  America.  It  is  used 
by  the  distillers  of  Dantzic  to  correct  the 
empyreumatic  odor  of  spirits,  and  to  give 
tliem  a  pecuhar  flavor. 

Calandra.    (See  Mosaic.) 

Calas,  John.  This  unfortunate  man, 
who  died  on  the  scaifokl,  a  victim  of  fa- 
naticism, was  born,  1098,  in  Lacai)arede, 
near  Chartres,  in  Languedoc,  educated  in 
tlie  Protestant  religion,  and  established  as 
a  mercliant  in  Toulouse,  lie  had  three 
sons  and  thi'ee  daughtei-s,  whom  he  edu- 
cated himself,  and  was  held  in  general 
esteem,  wlien,  in  his  68th  year,  he  was 
suddenly  accused  of  the  dreadful  crime 
of  murdering  his  son.  In  17G1,  his  oldest 
son,  iMarc  Antoine,  was  found  strangled 
in  his  father's  house.  It  was  reported 
tJiat  the  unfortunate  youth  had  been  put 
to  death  by  his  fatiier,  because  he  had  be- 
come a  Catholic.  John  C.  and  his  whole 
family  were  arrested,  and  a  prosecution 
instituted  against  him,  in  support  of 
which  numerous  witnesses,  wliose  insuf- 
ficiency was  a])parent,  ajjpeared  against 
him.  In  vain  did  the  old  man  })load  his 
affection  for  his  son,  and  that  son's  mel- 
ancholy ;  in  vain  did  he  assert  that  he  had 
another  son,  who  had  embraced  the  Cath- 
olic religion,  who  still  received  his  yearly 
allowance ;  that  it  was  impossible  for  him, 
a  weak  old  man,  to  execute  such  a  deed 
of  violence  on  a  youth  full  of  strength, 
and  that  he  had  not  murdered  a  Catholic 


maid-servant  wliom  he  had  in  the  house. 
The  parliament  of  Toulouse  condemned 
him,  by  8  voices  against  5,  to  be  tort\ired, 
and  then  broken  on  the  wheel ;  and,  on 
the  9th  of  March,  1762,  the  sentence  was 
executed.  He  suffered  the  torture  with 
firmness,  and  ascended  the  scaftbld  with 
these  words  : — "  I  die  guiltless ;  my  judges 
liave  been  deceived ;  but  Christ,  who  was 
himself  guiltless,  suftered  a  death  even 
more  dreadlul."  Tlie  youngest  son  ^vas 
banished  for  ever,  but  the  mother  and  the 
maid  were  acquitted.  The  family  of  the 
imhaj)py  man  retired  to  Geneva.  Vol- 
taii-e,  who  was  then  at  Ferney,  became 
acquainted  with  them,  and  formed  the  de- 
sign of  defending  the  memory  of  C.  He 
brought  the  cause  before  the  bar  of  public 
oj)inion,  and  directed  the  attention  of  men 
to  the  defects  of  the  criminal  law.  The 
widow  and  children  of  C.  solicited  a  re- 
vision of  the  trial.  Fifty  judges  once 
more  examined  the  circumstances,  and 
declared  C.  altogether  innocent.  The  king, 
by  his  liberality,  sought  to  recompense  the 
family  for  their  undeserved  losses,  and 
people  of  the  first  rank  emulated  each 
other  in  endeavoring  to  relieve  them. 

Calatrava.     (See  Orders.) 

Calcar,  John  van  ;  a  Dutch  painter  of 
the  school  of  John  van  Eyk,  born  about 
1500,  at  Calcar,  in  Cleves.  His  paintings 
are  true  to  nature.  He  studied  so  thor- 
oughly the  works  of  Titian,  that  their 
pictures  cannot  always  be  distinguished. 
The  Mater  dolorosa,  in  the  collection  of 
lioisseree  (q.  v.),  in  Stuttgard,  a  perfect 
work  of  art,  is  by  him.  Another  small 
picture  of  his,  the  Infant  Chist  with  the 
Shepherds,  was  a  favorite  of  Rubens.  In 
this  piece,  the  light  is  represented  as  pro- 
ceeding from  the  child.  He  designed 
almosuall  the  portraits  in  Vasari's  Lives, 
and  the  figures  for  the  anatomical  work 
of  Vesalius.     He  died  in  Naj)les,  1546. 

Calcarious  Spar.     (See  Lime.) 

Caixhas  ;  son  of  Thestor;  priest  and 
prophet  of  the  Greeks  at  the  time  of  the 
Trojan  war.  When  the  fleet  destined  for 
Troy  assembled  in  the  harbor  of  Aulis, 
the  Greeks,  before  their  departure,  at- 
tempted to  propitiate  the  favor  of  the  gods 
by  sacrifices  on  an  altar  unrler  a  plane- 
tree,  when  a  serpent,  creeping  from  under 
the  altar,  crawled  up  the  tree,  devoured  a 
sparrow  on  her  nest,  with  8  young  ones, 
and  was  then  changed  into  a  stone.  The 
])roiihet  now  foretold  to  the  Greeks  that 
Troy  would  not  be  subdued  by  them  till 
the  10th  year  of  the  siege.  He  himself 
accompanied  the  army  to  Troy.  During^ 
the  siege,  the  Greeks  were  attacked  by  a 


394 


CALCHAS— CALCULUS. 


pla^e,  and  C.  declared  that  it  was  tlic 
effect  of  Apollo's  anger,  because  they  had 
deprived  his  priest  of  his  daughter  Chry- 
8eis,  whom  Agamemnon  had  selected  as 
his  mistress.  He  counselled  the  Greeks  to 
app(;asc  Apollo  by  restoring  the  damsel ; 
and  it  was  at  his  advice  that  they  after- 
wards built  the  wooden  horse.  He 
I)rophesJed  that  the  Trojan  iEneas  would 
ibiind  an  empire  in  Italy.  After  C.'s 
death,  an  oracle  was  dedicated  to  him  on 
mount  Drium  in  Daunia. 

Calcination.  Calcination,  as  com- 
monly understood,  consists  in  heating 
bodies  in  a  steady  fire,  at  a  greater  or  less 
temperature.  The  product  is  a  powder 
which  is  called  calx.  In  a  narrow  sense, 
we  understand  by  this  process  a  change 
of  metals  into  a  metallic  calx,  or  metal  he 
earth.  Metals  are  calcined  in  two  ways — 
by  the  diy  method,  which  consists  in 
burning  them  in  the  open  air,  or  by  the 
wet  method,  which  consists  in  dissolving 
the  metal,  and  precipitating  its  calx.  Take, 
for  u)stance,  a  quantity  of  lead,  and  melt 
it  in  the  open  air  in  a  flat  vessel ;  it  soon 
assumes  a  grayish  hue,  the  earthy  sub- 
stance forming  a  coat  on  the  surface. 
Upon  the  removal  of  this,  the  metal  ap- 
pears, having  a  brilliant  lustre,  and,  after 
some  time,  the  same  gray  coat  reappears. 
It  may  be  removed  as  long  as  any  lead 
remains.  This  substance  is  the  calx.  Cal- 
cined lead  is  specifically  hghter  than  the 
metal,  but  its  absolute  weight  is  consid- 
erably greater,  so  that  10  pounds  of  metal 
make  11  pounds  of  calx.  Platina,  gold 
and  silver  are  not  affected  in  this  way  in 
so  great  a  degree,  on  wliich  account  they 
are  called  the  perfect  metals.  Chemists 
are  now  convinced,  that,  in  this  process, 
the  atmospheric  air  is  decomposed,  and  a 
portion  absorbed  by  the  metal,  which  ac- 
counts for  its  increase  of  weight.  Calci- 
nation is,  therefore,  nothing  but  oxydation ; 
and,  as  the  body  is  not  saturated  with  ox- 
ygen, no  acid  is  formed,  but  the  result  is 
u  metallic  oxyde. 

Calcographt.  (See  Engraving.) 
Calculus.  The  lower  or  common 
analysis  (q.  v.)  contains  the  rules  necessa- 
jy  to  calculate  quantities  of  any  definite 
magnitude  whatever.  But  quantities  ai-e 
sometimes  considered  as  varjing  in  mag- 
iiitu<le,  or  as  having  arrived  at  a  given 
state  of  magnitude  by  successive  varia- 
tions. This  gives  rise  to  the  liigher  anal- 
ysis, which  is  of  the  greatest  use  in  the 
physico-mathematical  sciences.  Two  ob- 
jects are  here  proposed :  First,  to  descend 
from  quantities  to  their  elements.  The 
method  of  effecting  this  is  called  the  dif- 


ferential calculus.  Second,  to  ascend 
from  the  elements  of  quantities  to  the 
quantities  themselves.  This  method  is 
called  the  integral  calculus.  Both  of 
these  methods  are  included  under  the 
general  name  infinitesimal  analysis.  Those 
quantities  which  retain  the  same  value 
are  called  constant;  those  whose  values 
are  vai-ying  arc  called  variable.  When 
variable  quantities  are  so  connected  that 
the  value  of  one  of  them  is  determined  by 
the  values  ascribed  to  the  others,  that  va- 
riable quantity  is  said  to  be  a  function  of 
the  others.  A  qutuitity  is  trj^m^eZ)/ greaf 
or  iiifinitely  small,  with  regard  to  another, 
when  it  is  not  possible  to  assign  any  quan- 
tity sufficiently  large  or  sufficiently  small 
to  express  the  ratio  of  the  two.  When 
we  consider  a  variable  quantity  as  increas- 
ing by  infinitely  small  degrees,  if  we  wish 
to  know  the  value  of  those  increments, 
the  most  natural  mode  is  to  determine  the 
value  of  this  quantity  for  any  one  instant, 
and  the  value  of  the  same  for  the  instant 
immediately  following.  This  difference 
is  called  the  differential  of  the  quantity. 
The  integral  calculus,  as  has  been  already 
stated,  is  the  reverse  of  the  differential  cal- 
culus. There  is  no  variable  quantity  ex- 
pressed algebraically,  of  which  we  cannot 
find  the  differential ;  but  there  are  differ- 
ential quantities,  which  we  cannot  inte- 
gi'ate :  some,  because  they  could  not  have 
resulted  from  differentiation;  others,  be- 
cause means  have  not  yet  been  discovered 
of  integrating  them.  We  have  made 
these  elementaiy  observations  for  the  pur- 
pose of  introducing  the  histor}'of  the  dis- 
covery of  this  mighty  instrument.  For  a 
full  examination  of  the  subject,  we  refer 
to  Lacroix's  works,  Camot's  MHaphysique 
du  Calcul  Infinitesimal,  Lagrange  s  Calcut 
des  Fonctions.  Newton  was  tlic  fii-st  dis- 
coverer, having  pointed  out  the  jninciples 
in  a  treatise  written  before  16G<J,  but  not 
published  till  many  years  after.  Leibnitz, 
meanwhile,  made  the  same  discover}',  and 
published  it  to  the  world  before  Newton, 
and  independently  of  Newton's  prior 
discoveries,  with  a  much  better  nota- 
tion, which  is  now  universally  adopted. 
The  methods  analogous  to  the  infinitesi- 
mal analysis  jjreviously  employed  were 
thatofexAaush'o«5,  known  to  the  ancients, 
that  of  indivisibles  of  Cavalieri,  and  Des- 
cartes' method  of  indeterminates.  Leib- 
nitz considered  the  differences  of  the 
variable  quantities  as  infinitely  small,  and 
conceived  that  he  might  reject  the  higher 
powers  of  those  differences  without  sen- 
sible error;  so  that  none  of  those  powers 
but  the  first  remained  in  the  differential 


CALCULUS. 


395 


equation  finally  obtained.  Instead  of  the 
actual  increments  of  the  Jiowing  or  vari- 
able quantities,  Newton  introduced  the 
Jluxions  of  those  quantities;  meaning,  by 
Huxions,  quantities  which  had  to  one 
another  the  same  ratio  which  the  incre- 
ments had  in  their  ultimate  or  evanes- 
cent state.  The  Jliixioiis  of  Newton  cor- 
responded with  tlie  dijerentials  of  Leib- 
uitz  ;  and  tiie  fiuents  of  the  former  with 
tlie  integrals  of  the  latter.  The  fluxionary 
and  tlie  differential  calculus  are  therefore 
two  moditications  of  one  general  method. 
The  problems  which  relate  to  the  maxima 
and  minima,  or  the  greatest  and  least  val- 
ues of  variable  quantities,  are  among  the 
most  interesting  in  mathematics.  When 
any  fimction  becomes  either  the  greatest 
or  the  least,  it  does  so  by  the  velocity  of 
its  increase  or  decrease  becoming  equal 
to  nothing:  in  this  t;ase,  the  fluxion  which 
is  proj)ortional  to  that  velocity  must  be- 
come nothing.  By  taking  the  fluxion  of 
the  given  function,  and  supposing  it  equal 
to  nothing,  an  equation  may  be  obtained 
in  finite  terms,  expressing  the  relation  of 
tlie  quantities  when  the  function  assigned 
is  the  greatest  or  least  possible.  The  new 
analysis  is  peculiarly  adapted  to  physical 
researches.  The  momentarj'  increments 
represent  |)rccisely  the  forces  by  which 
the  changes  in  nature  are  produced ;  so 
that  this  doctrine  seemed  created  to  pen- 
etrate into  the  interior  of  things,  and  take 
cognizance  of  tiiose  powers  which  elude 
the  ordinai-y  metliods  of  geometrical  in- 
vestigation. It  alone  aftbrds  the  means 
of  measuring  forces,  when  each  acts  sep- 
arately and  instantaneously,  under  condi- 
tions that  can  be  accurately  ascertained. 
In  comparing  the  eftects  of  continued  ac- 
tion, the  variety  of  time  and  circumstance, 
and  the  continuance  of  effects  after  their 
causes  liave  ceased,  introduce  uncertainty, 
and  render  the  conclusions  vague  and  un- 
satisfactory. The  analysis  of  infinites 
here  goes  to  the  point ;  it  measures  the  in- 
tensity or  instantaneous  effort  of  the  force, 
and  removes  all  those  causes  of  uncer- 
tainty. It  is  by  effects,  taken  in  their 
nascent  or  evanescent  state,  that  the  true 
jiroportion  of  causes  must  be  ascertained. 
Calculus.  Little  stones, anciently  used 
for  computation,  voting,  &c.,  were  called 
calculi.  The  Thracians  used  to  mark 
lucky  days  by  white,  and  unlucky  by 
black  pebbles  ;  and  the  Roman  judges,  at 
an  early  period,  voted  for  the  acquittal  of 
the  accused  by  a  white,  and  for  condem- 
nation by  a  black  calculus :  hence,  niger 
or  albits  calculus,  a  favorable  or  unfavor- 
able vote.    Sometimes  the  ballots  were 


marked  with  characters,  and  then  were 
made  of  wood.  Calculi  lusorii  or  latrones 
were  counters  used  in  a  game,  something 
Uke  backgammon.  Calculus  Minervm  ^^'as 
au  expression  employed  to  signify  that 
the  accused  escai)ed  by  an  equal  division 
of  the  votes  of  the  judges.  He  was  said 
to  be  acquitted  calculo  Minervce  (by  the 
vote  of  Minerva),  because  Orestes  was 
acquitted  by  the  vote  of  that  goddess 
when  the  judges  were  equally  divided. 

Calculus,  or  Stoxe,  is  tiie  name  giv- 
en to  all  hard  concretions,  not  bony, 
formed  in  the  bodies  of  animals.  Calculi 
may  be  divided  into  two  classes,  accord- 
ing as  they  are  found  in  the  gall-l)ladder 
or  in  the  urinary  bladder.  The  first  are 
called  hiliary  calculi,  the  second  urinary 
calculi. — Biliary  calculi  are  of  a  lamella- 
ted  structure,  and  are  composed  of  a  sub- 
stance which  is  considered,  by  M.  Chev- 
reul,  as  a  peculiar  principle,  which  he  has 
named  cholesterine  (from  x''^'h  l^il^S  ^'^d 
crepeoi,  solid).  It  is  described  as  a  white, 
crystalline  substance,  with  much  lustre, 
insipid  and  inodorous,  much  resembling 
spermaceti,  but  differing  in  being  less 
fusible,  and  in  not  forming  a  soap  with 
alkalies.  It  is  also  converted,  by  the  ac- 
tion of  nitric  acid,  into  a  pecidiar  acid, 
called  cholestenc  acid.  This  is  slightly 
soluble  in  water,  and  forms  soluble  salts 
wth  the  alkalies.  Cholesterine  consists  of 
carlx)n  85.095,  oxygen  3.025,  and  hydro- 
gen 11.88.  It  has  lately  been  detected  in 
the  bile  itself,  both  in  that  of  anunals  and 
of  man.  Besides  cholesterine,  biliaiy 
concretions  contain  a  portion  of  inspissa- 
ted bile,  and  the  yellow  coloring  matter 
of  the  bile  in  a  concentrated  state,  which, 
from  the  beauty  of  its  hue,  and  its  perma- 
nence, is  much  valued  as  a  pigment. — • 
Urinary  calculi  are  of  very  variable  char- 
acters and  composition.  The  following 
substances  enter  principally  into  their 
composition :  uric  acid,  urate  of  annno- 
nia,  phosphate  of  lime,  phosphate  of  am- 
monia and  magnesia,  oxalate  of  lime, 
silex,  sometimes  oxyde  of  iron  and  animal 
matter — these  being  more  or  less  jjure  or 
mixed,  and  being  often  divei-sified  by  me- 
chanical structure,  so  as  to  render  it  diffi- 
cult to  constitute  well-defined  species. 
The  six  following  species  embrace  the 
])rincipal  varieties  of  urinary  calculi : — 1. 
that  composed  chiefly  of  uric  acid ;  2. 
that  consisting  chiefly  of  the  triple  ])hos- 
phate  of  ammonia  and  magnesia ;  3.  the 
bone-earth  calculus,  formed,  almost  en- 
tirely, of  phosphate  of  lime  ;  4.  the  fusi- 
ble calculus,  composed  of  the  two  pre- 
ceding intermixed  ;   5.  tlie  mulberry  cal- 


CALCULUS— CALCUTTA. 


cuius,  consisting  of  oxalate  of  lime ;  and, 
6.  a  rare  species,  the  cystic  oxyde  calcu- 
lus. Two  others,  still  more  rare,  are,  the 
xanthic  oxyde  and  fibrinous  calculus,  dis- 
covered by  doctor  Marcet ;  and,  lastly, 
calculi  have  been  met  with  formed  of 
carbonate  of  lime.  In  all  these  calculi, 
besides  the  saline  matter,  there  is  present 
a  portion  of  auunal  matter,  which  is  con- 
ceived to  be  tlie  mucus  of  the  bladder. 
This  seems  to  give  them  color  and  indu- 
ration. It  is  found  even  in  those  which 
are  white  and  ciystalline.  In  the  mul- 
berry calculus  it  is  {)resent  in  a  lai-ger 
proportion  than  in  the  others.  The  in- 
gredients of  calculi  are  often,  also,  diver- 
sified by  intermixture  in  layers.  These 
must,  of  course,  be  vai-ious,  and,  as  their 
production  is,  in  some  measure,  accident- 
al, irregularly  arranged.  Those  which 
have  been  the  most  frequently  obsei-ved 
are  alternations  of  uric  acid  with  phos- 
phate of  magnesia  and  ammonia,  or  phos- 
phate of  lime ;  or  of  oxalate  of  lime  with 
uric  acid,  or  with  either  or  botli  of  these 
phosphates. 

Calcdtta,  tlie  capital  of  Bengal,  and 
of  the  whole  British  East  Indies,  is  situa- 
ted on  the  west  branch  of  the  Hoogly,  an 
arm  of  the  Ganges,  on  which  the  largest 
East  Indiamen  may  come  quite  up  to  tlie 
city.  The  navigation,  however,  on  ac- 
count of  several  sandbanks,  which  are 
continually  changing  their  size  and  posi- 
tion, is  very  dangerous.  This  place,  for- 
merly the  insignificant  village  of  Govind- 
pour,  rose,  in  the  last  century,  to  the  size 
of  a  great  city.  The  climate,  when  the 
English  first  made  a  settlement  here,  in 
1690,  W!is  as  luihealthy  as  that  of  Batavia ; 
but  it  has  been  gradually  becoming  less 
fatal  to  settlers,  partly  by  the  removal  of 
a  forest  near  the  city,  partly  by  greater 
attention,  in  tlie  settlers  themselves,  to 
tlieir  mode  of  living.  Notwithstanding 
the  unhealthiness  of  the  place,  it  continu- 
ed steadily  to  increase,  quickly  recovered 
from  its  losses  in  1756,  and  is  now  one 
of  the  most  magnificent  cities  in  the 
world.  In  1802,  the  population  was  com- 
puted at  600,000 ;  a  few  years  after  (in- 
cluding the  suburbs),  at  1,000,000,  of 
wliich  about  one  half  may  be  given  to  the 
city.  The  population  of  the  suiTounding 
districts,  within  a  space  of  20  miles,  Avas 
estimated,  m  the  same  year,  at  2,225,000 
inhabitants.  The  houses  of  the  English, 
who  occupy  a  separate  quarter  of  the  city, 
are  of  brick,  elegantly  built,  and  many  of 
them  like  palaces.  On  account  of  the 
heat  of  the  climate,  tliey  are  not  joined 
together,  but  stand  at  some  distance  from 


each  other,  have  high  and  airy  apart- 
ments, flat  roofs,  and  are  surrounded  with 
verandahs.  With  this  part  of  the  city, 
"the  black  ioti'/j,"  so  called  (the  Peltah), 
which  is  the  quarter  occujjied  by  the  na- 
tives, forms  a  strikuig  contrast.  It  has 
extremely  narrow  and  crooked  streets, 
intei-spersed  with  gardens  and  innumera- 
ble tanks.  Some  of  the  streets  are  paved- 
The  houses,  which  are  some  of  brick, 
some  of  mud,  but  mostly  of  bamboo  or 
straw  mats,  present  a  motley  aj)pearance. 
Fort  William,  not  far  from  ihe  city,  was 
begun  by  lord  Clive,  in  1757,  and  is  a 
magnificent  work,  in  the  form  of  an  octa- 
gon, but  on  too  extensive  a  scale  for  the 
purposes  of  defence.  It  has  bomb-proof 
barracks,  laige  enough  for  10,000  men, 
and  would  require  600  pieces  of  cannon 
for  the  works.  It  commands  the  river. 
A  trench  is  drawn  round  the  whole, 
which  may  be  filled,  in  case  of  need,  Avith 
water  frotn  the  Hoogly,  to  the  depth  of 
eight  feet.  Between  fort  William  and 
the  city  there  is  a  plain,  Avhich  foniis  a 
favi>rite  promenade  of  the  inhabitants, 
Hindoos,  blacks,  Europeans,  equipages 
of  all  sorts,  and  palanquins,  are  here  seen 
mixed  together  in  a  motley  croAvd.  On 
the  western  side  stands  the  ncAv  palace, 
built  by  the  marquis  of  Wellesley,  at  an 
expense  of  a  million  pounds  sterling,  and 
reminding  one,  by  its  grandeur,  of  the  fa- 
bled palaces  of  Arabian  story.  The  old 
fort  is  now  a  custom-house,  and  the  infa- 
mous "  black  hole"  has  been  turned  into 
a  Avare-liouse.  An  obelisk,  50  feet  iiigh, 
at  the  entrance,  contains  the  names  of  the 
unfortunate  ca])tives,  Avho,  in  1756,  Avhen 
the  city  Avas  taken  and  plundered  by  Su- 
raja  Dowla,  fell  a  ictims  to  the  most  inhu- 
man cruelty.  Amongst  the  other  public 
buildings  are  the  court-house,  an  Arme- 
nian and  an  Enghsli  church.  In  the 
middle  of  the  city  is  a  large  tank,  for  the 
purpose  of  supplying  the  inhabitants  dur- 
ing the  hot  season,  when  the  river-Avater 
becomes  oftensive.  Here  is  the  residence 
of  the  governor-general  of  India,  and  the 
seat  of  the  supreme  court  of  justice, 
which  decides  causes  according  to  tlie 
English  law,  AA'ithout  regai'd  to  rank,  sta- 
tion or  country.  Smaller  offences  are 
tried  by  the  superintendent  of  police  and 
justices  of  the  peace.  Order  is  main- 
tained by  several  companies  of  seapoys, 
Avho  make  regular  patrols  through  tJie 
city.  C.  is  the  great  emporium  of  Ben- 
gal, and  tlie  cliannel  tlirough  which  the 
treasures  of  the  interior  provinces  are 
conveyed  to  Europe.  The  port  is  filled 
with  ships  of  all  nations.    Mercantile  en 


CALCUTTA— CALDAS  DE  MONBUY. 


397 


terprise  is  nowhere  more  active  than  here. 
There  are  some  houses  wliich  trade,  an- 
nually, to  the  amount  of  4  or  5  million 
pounds  sterling.  The  trade  in  sugar, 
opium,  silk,  musUn,  &c.  is  very  consider- 
able. Large  quantities  of  salt  are  export- 
ed to  Assam,  and  gold,  silver,  ivory,  musk, 
and  a  peculiar  kind  of  silky  cotton,  are 
brought  back  in  exchange.  Cowries,  a 
kind  of  small  shells,  passing  as  coin,  are 
received  in  exchange  for  rice  from  the 
Maldives.  The  trade  with  Pegu,  Siam, 
and  the  Malay  isles,  formerly  so  profita- 
ble, has  very  much  declined.  The  Brit- 
ish merchants  are,  as  might  be  expected, 
the  most  numerous ;  and  many  of  them 
have  acquired  fortunes  which  enable  them 
to  live  in  a  style  of  great  splendor.  Next 
to  them,  in  number  and  respectability,  as 
well  as  m  outward  show,  are  the  Ar- 
menians. They  are  peaceable  and  indus- 
trious merchants.  Many  of  them  have 
large  capitals,  and  carry  on  an  extensive 
trade  to  China  and  the  ports  to  the  west, 
as  far  as  the  Persian  gulf.  The  Mongols, 
however,  are  the  wealthiest ;  and,  as  they 
lend  only  at  an  enormous  interest,  their 
profits,  from  this  source,  are  three  times 
as  great  as  a  capital  commonly  gives. 
The  Hindoos  remain  fixed,  however  rich 
they  may  become,  in  their  narrow  views, 
and  theu-  accustomed  frugality.  Their 
houses  and  shops  are  mean,  and  it  is  only 
on  occasion  of  their  nuptials  and  religious 
festivals,  that  they  indulge  in  any  extraor- 
dinary expense.  Then  they  a.ssemble  un- 
der magnificent,  illuminated  canopies,  dis- 
tribute rose-water  and  other  perfumes  in 
profusion,  and  regale  themselves  with 
confectionary  from  golden  vessels,  while 
they  are  entertained  by  the  voices  of 
singing  girls,  or  the  exhibition  of  a  panto- 
mime. The  petty  trade  of  C.  is  mostly 
in  the  hands  of  the  Banyans  and  Sarkars, 
who  are  constantly  on  the  watch  for 
cheap  purchases,  and  make  use  of  the 
lowest  artifices  to  impose  on  their  cus- 
tomers. This  kind  of  deception  is  so  far 
from  being  in  disrepute  among  their 
countrymen,  that  they  honor  the  adepts 
in  it  with  the  title  of  pucka  adme,  which 
signifies  a  man  of  great  talent. — Notwith- 
standing the  high  price  of  all  the  necessa- 
ries of  life,  and  the  enormous  expendi- 
tures of  the  English  merchants,  we  find  a 
multitude  of  institutions  for  the  relief  of 
the  indigent.  Of  this  kind  are,  an  hospital 
for  those  natives  who  are  in  want  of  medi- 
cal aid,  two  schools  for  oqihans  whose 
fathers  were  in  the  service  of  the  compa- 
ny, a  free  school,  &c.  The  college  of 
fort  William,  founded  by  the  marquis  of 
VOL.  II.  34 


Wellesley,  has  been  changed,  in  part, 
from  its  original  plan,  which  was,  not  on- 
ly to  instruct  tlie  youth  in  the  service  of 
the  company  in  the  languages,  and  other 
branches  of  study  necessary  for  their  pro- 
fession, but  also  to  watch  over  their  beha- 
viour, and  to  guard  them  fi-om  the  dan- 
gers to  which  they  were  exposed  by  their 
inexperience.  The  latter  part  of  the  plan 
is  now  given  up.  The  Asiatic  society, 
founded  by  sir  William  Jones,  in  1784,  is 
devoted  to  the  study  and  explanation  of 
the  literature,  histoiy,  antiquities,  arts  and 
sciences  of  Asia.  The  papers  already 
published  are,  generally,  of  great  value. 
There  is  a  botanical  garden  belonging  to 
the  society  on  the  beautiful  island  of 
Garden  Reach,  the  summer  residence  of 
the  rich  Enghsh. 

Caldara,  Polidoro,  called  Caravaggio, 
born  in  1495,  at  Caravaggio,  in  the  Mil- 
anese, went  to  Rome  in  his  youth,  carried 
bricks,  at  first,  for  the  masons  who  work- 
ed in  the  Vatican,  and  felt  a  great  desire 
to  become  a  painter,  from  seeing  Giovan- 
ni da  Udina  and  the  other  peiinters  who 
were  occupied  in  the  Vatican.  He  form- 
ed a  close  friendship  with  Maturin  of 
Florence,  who  assisted  him  with  his  ad- 
vice. C.  soon  surpassed  him,  and  exerted 
himself  to  introduce  improvements  in 
drawing,  having  always  in  view  the  an- 
tiques. Raphael  employed  him  in  the 
galleries  of  the  Vatican,  where  he  paint- 
ed, under  his  direction,  several  excellent 
friezes.  At  Messina,  he  executed  an  oil- 
painting,  which  represents  Christ  bearing 
the  cross,  contains  a  number  of  beautiful 
figures,  and  proves  his  abiUty  to  treat  the 
most  elevated  subjects.  He  has  ap- 
proached, more  than  any  one,  to  the  style 
and  the  manner  of  the  ancients,  particu- 
larly in  imitating  their  basso-relievos.  His 
figures  are  correct,  well-distributed  and 
an-juiged ;  the  positions  are  natural,  the 
heads  full  of  expression  and  character.  It 
is  evident  that  he  would  have  acquired 
great  celebrity  if  he  had  undertaken 
greater  works.  He  applied  himself  to 
the  chiaro-oscuro,  particularly  to  that  kind 
of  it  which  is  called  sgrqffiato.  He 
showed,  also,  much  talent  in  his  land- 
scapes. At  the  sack  of  Rome,  in  1527, 
he  fled  to  Naples,  and,  on  his  return  from 
that  place  to  Rome,  in  1543,  he  was  mur- 
dered by  his  domestic. 

Caldara,  a  celebrated  composer  of  the 
18th  century,  was  bom  at  Venice,  1714, 
and  died  1763.  His  church  compositions 
are  still  in  repute. 

Caldas  de  Mo^but  ;  a  small  tov\m  in 
Catalonia,    Spain,  about  20  miles  north 


«» 


CALDAS  DE  MONBUY— CALDERON. 


of  Barcelona.  It  contains  hot  mineral 
springs,  of  such  a  temperature  that  the 
inhabitants  bring  eggs,  vegetables,  &c., 
to  boi)  them  in  the  water.  When  cooled, 
it  is  dnmk  m  scrofulous  and  rheumatic 
complaints. 

Calder,  or  Cawdor;  a  village  and 
parish  in  Nairnshire,  Scotland,  in  which 
are  seen  the  remains  of  a  castle,  once  the 
residence  of  Macbetli,  destroyed  by  Mal- 
colm ;  4  miles  south  of  Nairn. 

Calderari  {coppersmiths).  Tliis  name 
was  assumed  by  one  of  the  many  secret 
societies  which  have  sprung  up  in  Italy, 
from  the  political  agitation  of  the  times. 
Of  late  years,  they  have  been  most  nu- 
merous at  Naples,  and,  indeed,  more  so 
in  tlie  provinces  than  in  tlie  capital,  where 
they  were  once  united,  for  a  long  time, 
with  the  Ciu-bonari,  but  were  after- 
wards opposed  to  them.  All  these  so- 
cieties, so  far  as  they  have  any  definite 
political  object,  appear  to  have  in  view 
the  poUtical  union  of  Italy,  and  its  libera- 
tion from  foreign  dominion,  but  differ 
from  eacli  other  so  widely,  in  regard  to 
the  means  and  the  results,  that  a  decided 
hostility  has  been  the  consequence.  Of 
tlie  true  character  of  each  of  these  socie- 
ties, among  which  the  Calderari  and  tlie 
Carbonari  have  been  the  most  famous  and 
extensive,  it  is  as  difficult  to  give  any  cer- 
tain infonnation,  as  it  is  to  ascertain  their 
history ;  for,  though  they  have  both,  and 
particularly  the  Carbonari,  published  their 
statutes  and  proceedings  since  1817,  yet 
these  sources  of  information  have  not  all 
reached  us,  nor  are  they  entirely  to  be  de- 
pended on.  Of  the  Calderari,  we  are 
told  by  count  Orloff  {Memoires  sur  le 
Royaume  de  JVdples,  vol.  ii.  286),  that  they 
sprung  from  the  Carbonari,  towards  the 
end  of  the  year  1813.  It  appears  that  a 
change  was  then  made  in  tlie  form  of  the 
society,  which  had  become  too  large,  and 
a  great  number  of  its  former  members 
were  excluded  in  consequence.  These 
united  themselves  into  a  new  society,  un- 
der the  name  of  the  Calderari,  and  be- 
rime the  most  bitter  opponents  of  their 
former  brethren.  After  tlie  return  of 
king  Ferdinand  to  Naples,  prince  Canosa, 
minister  of  police,  favored  the  Calderari, 
that  he  might  more  effectually  put  down 
the  Carbonari,  who  were  objects  of  his 
suspicion.  For  this  purpose,  he  organiz- 
ed them  anew,  divided  them  into  wards, 
appointed  a  central  ward  in  each  prov- 
ince to  oversee  the  rest,  and  gave  them 
the  name  of  Calderari  del  contrapeso  (Cal- 
derari of  the  counterpoise).  He  distrib- 
uted 20,000  muskets  among  them ;  but. 


when  the  king  was  apprized  of  this  haz- 
ardous undertaking,  which  had  been  be- 
gun without  his  knowledge,  a  stop  was 
put  to  any  further  proceedings  by  Cano- 
sa's  dismissal  and  banishment ;  but  the  as- 
sociation was  not  then  abolished.  This 
account  has  been  contradicted  from  other 
quarters.  Canosa  was  turned  out  of  his 
office,  which  he  had  held  but  six  months, 
June  27,  181G;  and,  three  months  after  his 
banishment,  a  royal  decree  was  issued, 
renewing  the  prohibitions  and  penalties 
against  all  secret  societies,  not  excepting 
the  Calderari,  and  commanding  their 
prosecution,  although  they  had  lately 
manifested  their  attachment  to  the  king 
and  to  good  order.  Canosa  himself,  in  an 
anonymous  work  (/  Pifferi  di  Montagna, 
Dublin,  1820),  has  contradicted  the  state- 
ments of  count  Orloff  with  regard  to  him 
and  the  Calderari.  According  to  his  ac- 
count, they  sprang  up,  not  in  Naples,  but 
in  Palermo,  when  lord  Bentinck  abolish- 
ed the  companies  of  tradesmen.  This 
measure  excited  great  dissatisfaction. 
The  'coppersmiths'  or  Calderari,  in  partic- 
ular, declared  to  the  queen  their  readiness 
to  take  up  arms  against  the  British,  and 
disturbances  ensued,  in  which  the  Nea- 
politan fugitives  took  a  conspicuous  part. 
Lord  Bentinck  had  them  sent  to  Naples, 
where  they  became  active  in  the  secret 
associations  against  Murat ;  and,  on  this 
occasion,  one  of  the  old  societies,  which 
had  hitherto  borne  the  name  of  Trinita- 
rians, assumed  that  of  Calderari.  When 
it  was  proposed,  in  the  ministry  of  1816, 
to  take  strong  measures  against  them,  as 
the  remains  of  the  party  of  1799,  prince 
Canosa  was  for  upholding  the  party,  not 
for  any  selfish  reason,  but  from  the  belief 
that  they  were  a  necessary  counterpoise 
to  the  more  numerous  and  formidable  Car- 
bonari. Tlie  society,  however,  has  never 
adopted  the  name  of  Calderari  of  the 
counterpoise  ;  and  the  stoiy  of  the  distri- 
bution of  muskets  is  contradicted  by 
prince  Canosa,  in  the  publication  above- 
mentioned.  The  Calderari,  who,  accord- 
ing to  the  above  accounts,  appear  to  be  a 
continuation  of  the  body  got  together  by 
cardinal  Ruffo,  in  1799,  are  composed,  al- 
most entirely,  of  the  lower  classes,  and, 
hence,  not  so  much  has  been  published  by 
them,  as  by  the  Carbonari.  A  single  un- 
important pubUcation,  by  the  jurist  Pasqu. 
Tonelli  {Breve  Idea  della  Carbonaria,  sua 
Origine  nel  Regno  di  JVapoli,  suo  Scopo, 
sua  Persecuzione  e  Causa  cke/e'  nascere  la 
Sella  de'  Calderari,  Naples,  1820),  has  a 
notice  of  them. 
Calderon.    Don  Pedro  Calderon  de 


CALDERON. 


oB9 


k  Barca  Henao  y  Riano,  descended  from 
an  ancient  family,  was  born  at  Madrid, 
Jan.  1,  IGOl,  received  his  early  education 
iu  tlie  Jesuits'  college  of  his  native  city, 
and  studied  at  Salamanca,  where  he  de- 
voted himself  chiefly  to  history,  philoso- 
phy and  jurisprudence.  His  poetical 
genius  early  discovered  itself.  Before  his 
14th  year,  he  had  written  his  first  play,  Ei 
Carro  del  Cielo  (vol.  9  of  his  works). 
His  talent  for  tliis  species  of  poetry,  which 
has  brought  his  name  down  to  posterity, 
and,  perhaps,  his  powers  of  invention  in 
the  preparation  of  entertainments  for  fes- 
tivals, soon  gained  him  fi-iends  and  i)at- 
rous.  When  he  left  Salamanca,  in  ltj"25, 
to  seek  employment  at  the  court  of  Ma- 
drid,many  noblemen  interested  themselves 
ill  bringing  forward  the  young  poet.  But, 
having  an  inclination  for  the  military  pro- 
fession, he  entered  the  service  in  1625, 
and  bore  arms  with  distinction  for  10 
yeai-s  in  Milan  and  the  Netherlands.  In 
163G,  he  was  recalled  by  Philip  IV,  who 
gave  him  the  direction  of  the  court  enter- 
tainments, and,  in  particular,  the  prepara- 
tion of  plays  for  the  court  theatre.  The 
next  year,  he  was  made  knight  of  the  or- 
der of  San  Jago,  and  sen  ed  in  the  cam- 
paign in  Catalonia.  The  unexpected  ter- 
muiation  of  tlie  war  restored  him  again  to 
liis  peaceful  occupation.  The  king  now 
conferred  on  him  a  monthly  pension  of 
30  escudos  de  oro  ;  but  he  still  employed 
his  talents  with  unuiterniitted  industry  iu 
composing  for  the  theatre  and  the  church. 
The  king  spared  no  cost  iu  tlie  represent- 
ation of  his  theatrical  pieces.  Ten  yeare 
after,  in  1651,  he  procured  permission 
from  the  order  of  San  Jago  to  enter  the 
clerical  profession,  and,  iu  1653,  obtained 
a  chaplain's  ofiice  in  the  archiepiscojjal 
church  at  Toledo,  without  quitting,  how- 
ever, his  former  occupation.  But,  as  this 
situation  removed  him  too  far  fiom  court, 
he  received,  in  1663,  another  at  the  king's 
court-chapel  (being  still  allowed  to  hold 
tlie  former) ;  and,  at  the  same  time,  a  pen- 
sion was  assigned  him  from  the  Sicilian 
revenue.  His  fame  greatly  increased  his 
income,  as  he  was  solicited  by  the  princi- 
pal cities  of  Spain  to  compose  their  autos 
sacramentales,  for  which  he  was  liberally 
paid.  He  bestowed  particular  pains  on 
the  composition  of  these  pieces,  and,  m 
fact,  eclipsed  all  that  the  Spanish  litera' 
ture,  so  rich  in  this  department  of  fancy, 
had  hitherto  produced.  These  subjects 
were  particularly  suited  to  his  religious 
turn  of  mind  ;  and  he  set  a  peculiar  value 
pn  his  performances  of  tliis  kind,  so  as 
even  to  disparage  his  other  works,  which 


deserve  no  mean  reputation.  ReUgion  is 
the  ruUng  idea,  the  central  point,  of  his 
poems.  Whatever  subject  he  handles,  he 
exhibits  true  poetical  genius.  Even  al- 
lowing that  he  is  inferior  in  richness  of 
invention  to  Lope  de  Vega,  he  certainly 
excels  him  in  fineness  of  execution,  ele- 
vation of  feeling,  and  aptness  of  expres- 
sion. If  we  find  in  hmi  much  that  is 
foreign  to  our  modes  of  thinking  and 
feeUng,  to  our  accustomed  views  and 
manner  of  expression,  we  shall  have  oc- 
casion much  oftener  to  admire  his  unri- 
valled genius.  The  Spanish  nation  esteem 
C.  among  the  greatest  ])oetical  geniuses. 
Many  faults  in  his  writings  are  to  be  at- 
tributed to  the  age  and  circumstances  of 
the  author.  Among  his  dramatic  works 
are  many  pieces  of  intrigue,  full  of  com- 
plicated plots,  and  rich  in  interesting  inci- 
dents. There  are,  besides,  heroic  come- 
dies and  historical  plays,  some  of  which 
merit  the  name  of  tragedies.  To  this 
class  belongs  the  Constant  Prince,  which 
deserves  an  honorable  place  among  ro- 
mantic tragedies  of  the  first  rank.  B^ 
sides  these,  C.  has  left  95  autos  sacramertr 
tales,  200  loos  (preludes)  and  100  saynetes 
(farces).  He  wrote  his  last  play  in 
the  81st  yeai-  of  his  age.  The  smaller 
poems  of  C,  his  songs,  sonnets,  ballads, 
&c.,  notwithstanding  the  applause  which 
they  received  from  his  contemporaries,  are 
now  forgotten  ;  but  his  plays  have  main- 
tained their  place  on  the  stage  even  more 
than  those  of  Lope  de  Vega.  The  num- 
ber of  his  collected  plays  amounts  to  128. 
He  wrote,  however,  many  more,  some  of 
which  were  never  published.  The  most 
complete  edition  of  his  works  is  that  pub- 
lished by  D.  Juan  de  Vera  Tassis  y  Vil- 
larroel  (Madrid,  1685,  9  vols.).  A.  W. 
Schlegel  and  Gries  have  given  masterly 
translations  of  his  jiieces  into  German. 
The  former  has  published  5  plays  in  2 
vols.  (Beriin,  1803—1806) ;  the  latter,  10 
plays  in  5  vols.  (Berhn,  1815 — 1822). 
These  were  followed  by  the  translations 
of  baron  Malsburg,  of  which  6  vols. 
(Leipsic,  1819 — 1825)  have  appeared. 
Gothe  and  Schlegel  have  the  merit  of 
having  ojiened  the  German  stage  to  the 
genius  of  C,  as  Schroder,  before  them,  had 
done  to  that  of  Shakspeare.  The  Con- 
stant Prince  shows,  perhaps,  in  the  high- 
est degree,  the  skill  of  C.  as  a  tragic  poet 
It  turns  on  one  of  the  most  per})lexing  of 
all  subjects,  viz.  the  idea  of  destiny,  man- 
aged in  a  truly  poetical  way,  in  a  tragedy 
terminating  happily.  The  great  fertility 
of  C.'s  invention  has  heaped  up  an  abun-> 
dance  of  materials,  from  which  foreign 


400 


CALDERON— CALEDONIANS. 


theatres  might  be  much  enriched.  It  is 
to  be  regretted  that  his  works  have  not 
been  clironologically  arranged.  We 
might  then  have  traced  the  growth  of 
mysticism  in  his  mind,  and  seen  it  strik- 
ing root  more  deeply  as  he  advanced  in 
Me.  At  the  age  of  62,  he  was  admitted 
into  the  fraternity  of  San  Pedro.  In 
1687,  he  was  elected  their  capdan  mayor. 
He  left  them  all  his  property,  for  which 
they  erected  a  splendid  monument  to  his 
memory.  He  died  May  25,  1687,  aged 
87.  Among  his  imitators,  Tirso  de  Moli- 
na is  wortliy  of  mention,  as  the  author  of 
the  Inflexible  Stranger,  which  has  been 
often  imitated,  and  is  the  groundwork  of 
the  celebrated  opera  of  Don  Juan. 

Caleb,  of  the  tribe  of  Juda,  bom  B.  C. 
1530,  was  sent  with  Joshua  and  10  oth- 
ers to  examine  the  Land  of  Canaan. 
When  Joshua  had  conquered  the  coun- 
try, C.  reminded  the  Jews  of  the  promise, 
which  had  been  made  by  God,  that  they 
should  enjoy  this  country.  He  obtamed 
the  city  of  Hebron  for  his  share  of  the 
spoil,  l)esieged  and  captured  it,  and  drove 
out  three  giants,  or  Anakim.  He  then 
marched  against  Kiijath-Sepher,  and  of- 
fered his  daughter  Achsah  to  tlie  first  who 
should  enter  it.  Othniel,  his  nephew,  was 
the  successful  aspirant  for  the  fair  Jewess. 

Caledo>-ia  ;  the  ancient  name  of  Scot- 
land, (q.  v.) 

Caxedoma  ;  a  town  in  New  York,  on 
the  west  side  of  the  Gfenesee,  20  miles 
south-west  of  Rochester,  235  west  of  Al- 
bany. The  village  is  situated  on  the 
great  road  from  Albany  to  Bufialo,  pro- 
duces wheat  in  great  quantities,  and  has 
several  beds  of  gypsum ;  also  limestone, 
iron  ore,  salt  and  sulphur  springs.  Great 
or  Big  springs,  situated  on  the  north  side 
of  the  village,  are  regarded  as  a  curiosity. 
The  waters,  which  are  unpregnated  with 
sulphur  and  hme,  boil  up  in  great  quanti- 
ties from  the  earth  m  a  pond  or  reservoir 
of  five  acres.  In  this  pond,  except  at  the 
places  where  the  water  boils  up,  grows  a 
singular  weed,  five  or  six  feet  high,  and 
so  thick  as  to  be  almost  unpenetrable. 
The  surface  of  the  water  is  covered  with 
a  frothy  substance,  which,  when  dried, 
lias  a  very  offensive  smell.  The  temper- 
ature of  the  water  is  always  nearly  the 
same,  extremely  cold,  but  never  freezes. 
A  fine  mill-stream  issues  from  this  pond ; 
and  the  quantity  of  water  is  little  affected 
by  rain  or  drought. 

Caledonia,  New ;  a  country  of  North 
America,  west  of  the  Rocky  mountains, 
extending  about  500  miles  from  north  to 
south,  and  nearly  400  from  east  to  west, 


It  is  mountainous ;  abounds  in  lakes,  the 
largest  of  which  are  Stuart's  lake  and 
Nattootain  lake.  The  largest  rivers  are 
Eraser's  and  Natteotain  rivers.  The 
thermometer  sometimes  falls  32  degrees 
below  zero  ;  but  the  seasons  are  generally 
milder  than  in  the  same  parallel  east  of 
the  Rocky  mountains.  The  summer  is 
never  very  hot.  The  natives  call  them- 
selves Td-cullies.  The  whites  call  them 
Carriers.     They  are  estimated  at  5000. 

Caledonia,  New  ;  a  large  island  in  the 
Pacific  ocean,  from  220  to  250  miles  long, 
and  50  broad.  It  is  rendered  dangerous 
of  a]>proach  by  formidable  reels,  extend- 
ing 270  miles  beyond  the  island.  The 
danger  is  increased  by  the  current  setting 
directly  on  the  breakers.  Lon.  163°  to 
167°  E. ;  lat.  20°  to  22°  26'  S.  It  was 
discovered  by  Cook,  in  his  second  voy- 
age (1774),  wlio  remained  on  the  coast  a 
week.  D'Entrecasteaux  was  the  first 
who  sailed  completely  round  it  (1792  and 
1793).  A  chain  of  mountains,  2500  feet 
high,  extends  through  the  island,  from 
the  summits  of  which  the  sea  is  visible 
on  both  sides.  The  island  produces  the 
bread-fruit-tree,  banana,  sugar-cane,  arum 
and  cocoa,  although  tlie  soil  is  by  no 
means  fertile.  The  animals  are  very  few. 
A  spider  called  nookee  forms  threads  so 
large  as  to  offer  a  sensible  resistance  be- 
fore breaking.  They  are  eaten  by  the 
people.  Their  other  articles  of  food  are 
not  more  choice.  Like  the  Ottomacs  of 
South  America,  described  by  Humboldt, 
they  eat  steatite — a  soft,  friable,  greenish 
earth,  containing  magnesia,  silex  and  iron. 
Cook  and  Forster  described  them  as  gen- 
tle, simple,  kind  and  honest.  D'Entre- 
casteaux  represents  them  as  cruel,  perfid- 
ious and  thievish.  The  women  were 
hired  for  a  nail.  Recent  observation  has 
shown  them  to  be  cannibals.  They  are 
armed  with  darts  and  clubs,  but  do  not 
use  the  bow.  Their  huts  are  small,  and 
filled  with  smoke,  to  defend  them  from 
insects.  Their  language  is  different  from 
that  of  Polynesia,  and  is  described  as 
harsh  and  croaking.  Their  dress  is  a 
girdle  of  fibrous  bark.  They  also  wear 
ornaments  of  bone  or  coral,  and  paint 
tlieir  breasts  with  wide  black  streaks. 
Their  hair  is  nearly  woolly,  the  surface  of 
tlieir  bodies  shiny  and  black.  Some 
have  the  thick  lips  of  the  African  Negro. 

Caledonians  ;  the  name  of  a  confed- 
eracy of  tribes  in  what  is  now  Scotland 
{Britannia  Barbara).  Tacitus  supposes 
them  to  be  Germans ;  others,  with  more 
reason,  Celts.  They  are  the  ancestors  of 
the  modem  Highlanders. 


CALEMBOURG— CALENDAR. 


401 


Calembourg  ;  a  kind  of  pun,  in  wliicli 
a  word  is  employed  in  an  unusual  sense, 
or  by  which,  without  regard  to  grammar 
or  orthography,  some  letters  are  changed, 
added  or  left  out,  without  changing  the 
pronunciation.  Thus  a  calembourg  is  dis- 
tinguished from  the  proper  jeu  de  mot. 
A  Westphalian  count  Calemberg,  wlio 
lived  in  Paris  under  Louis  XV,  is  said 
to  have  amused  the  circles  there  by  his 
blunders  in  the  French  language,  and  oc- 
casioned the  marquis  Bievre  to  introduce 
tliis  new  kind  of  witticism.  As  an  in- 
stance, we  adduce  the  following: — A 
robl)cr  demanded  from  a  traveller  Ins 
purse,  putting  a  pistol  to  his  breast,  with 
the  words  "  La  bourse,  on  la  vie."  "  Pour 
Vavis  {la  vie)"  the  traveller  answered, 
dryly,  "  le  meiUeur  que  je  jiuisse  vous  don- 
ner,  est  de  quitter  voire  metier,  sans  quoi 
vous  sercz  pendu,  et  pour  la  bourse  (hair- 
bag)  je  7i'en  ai  pas,  parceque  jc  porte  un 
cadogan  (hair-knot)."  The  French  lan- 
guage is  rich  in  such  puns,  because  it  is 
poor  in  words,  and  these,  consequently, 
may  be  taken  iu  different  signitications. 
(See  Pun.) 

Calenberg  ;  a  principality  in  the  king- 
dom of  Hanover,  which  derives  its  name 
from  an  ancient  castle,  now  in  ruins,  situ- 
ated 11  or  12  miles  south  of  Hanover.  Its 
extent  is  1050  square  miles.  It  has  about 
139,222  inhabittuits,  chiefly  Lutherans. 
(See  Hanover.) 

Calendar  ;  the  division  of  time  into 
yeai-s,  months,  weeks  and  days ;  also  a 
register  of  these  divisions.  Among  the 
old  Romans,  for  want  of  such  a  register, 
it  was  the  custom  for  the  pontifex  maxi- 
vms,  on  tlie  fii"st  day  of  the  month,  to 
proclaim  {calare)  the  month,  with  the  tes- 
tivals  occuning  in  it,  and  the  time  of  new 
moon.  Hence  caleiula  and  calendar. 
The  periodical  occuiTence  of  certain  nat- 
ural phenomena  gave  rise  to  the  fii-st  di- 
vision of  time.  The  appjuent  daily  revo- 
lution of  the  starry  heavens  and  the  sun 
about  the  earth  occasioned  the  division 
into  days.  But,  as  the  number  of  days 
became  too  great  for  convenience,  some 
larger  measure  of  time  was  found  neces- 
sar}'.  The  changes  of  the  moon,  which 
were  observed  to  recur  ever}'  29  or  30 
days,  suggested  the  di\'ision  of  time  into 
months.  After  a  considerable  period, 
these  also  were  found  to  multiply  too 
much,  and  a  still  larger  measure  of  time 
was  wanted.  Such  a  one  was  found  in 
the  apparent  yearly  revolution  of  the  sun 
round  the  earth  in  theechptic.  The  time 
of  this  revolution,  after  several  erroneous 
calculations  hereafter  to  be  mentioned, 
34* 


was  finally  determined  to  be  a  little  more 
than  365  days.     This  was  called  a  solar 
year,  or,  simi)ly,  a  year,  which  was  divid- 
ed, according  to  the  former  measures  of 
lime,  into  months  and  days.     Now,  on  ac- 
count of  the  great  influence  of  the  sun's 
course  in  the  ecliptic,  and  its  consequent 
variations  of  distance  from  us  upon  the 
earth,  and  the  affairs  of  its  inhabitants  in 
all  countries,  the  attention  of  men  would 
naturally  be  drawn  to  this  phenomenon. 
Hence  it  has  happened  that  all  nations,  in 
any  degree  civilized,  have  adopted  the 
year  as  the  largest  measure  of  time.     It 
is  probable  that  the  Phcenicians  first,  then 
the  Egyptians,  and  afterwards  the  Greeks, 
made  use  of  this  modeof  reckoning,  from 
whom  it  was  conununicated  to  other  na- 
tions.   The  division  of  the  year,  however, 
into  months  and  days,  could  not  have 
been  very  accurate  at  first,  because  it  can 
be  settled  only  by  long  and  attentive  ob- 
servation.     The  calendar  of  the  oldest 
nations  was  quite  imperfect.    They  were 
satisfied  witli  one  which  enabled  them  to 
manage  the  common  business  of  hus- 
bandry.   The  Greeks  were  the  first  who 
attempted  to  adjust  the  courses  of  the  sun 
and  the  moon  to  each  other.    For  this 
purpose,  they  reckoned  12.J  revolutions  of 
tlie  moon  round  the  earth  for  one  solar 
year;  and,  to  avoid  the  fractions  of  a 
month,  they  made  the  year  consist  of  13 
and  12  months  alternately.     Solon,  per- 
ceiving the  defects  of  this  arrangement, 
fixed  the  number  of  days  in  a  month  at 
29i,  and  made  the  month  consist  of  29 
and  30  days  alternately.     Still  the  length 
of  the  month  and  that  of  the  year  were 
not  brought  into  exact  adjustment,  and 
new  disorders  soon   folloAved.    Various 
plans  for  the  reformation  of  the  calendar 
were  proposed  from  time  to  time;  but  all 
jnoved  insufficient,  till  Meton  and  Encte- 
mon  finally  succeeded  in  bringing  it  to  a 
much  greater  degree  of  accuracy,  by  fix- 
ing on  the  period  of  19  years,  in  wliich 
time   the  new  moons  return   upon  the 
same  days  of  the  year  as  before  (as  19 
solar  yeai"s  are  very  nearly  equal  to  235 
lunations).    (See  Cycle.)    This  mode  of 
comi)utation,  first  adopted  by  the  Greeks 
(433  B.  C),  was  so  much  approved  of,  that 
it  was  engraven  with  golden  lettei-s  on  a 
tablet  at  Athens.     Hence  the  number, 
showing  what  year  of  the  moon's  cycle 
any  given  year  is,  is  called  the  golden 
number.    This  period  of  19  years  was 
found,  however,  to  be  about  six  hours  too 
long.    This  defect  Calippus,  about   102 
years   later,  endeavored   to  remedy,  but 
still  failed  to  make  the  begiiming  of  the 


CALENDAR. 


seasons  return  on  the  same  fixed  day  of 
the  year. — Among  the  Romans,  their  first 
king,  Romulus,  introduced  a  year  of  10 
divisions  or  months,  of  which  4  (jiamely, 
March,  May,  July  and  October)  containetl 
31  days ;  the  rest  (April,  June,  August, 
September,  November  and  December), 
only  30.  When  he  discovered  that  this 
mode  of  reckoning  was  imperfect,  he  in- 
serted as  many  days  as  were  necessary  to 
complete  the  year,  and  bring  it  up  to  the 
beginning  of  the  following  one.  His  suc- 
cessor, Numa  Pompihus,  abolished  this 
method,  added  50  days  more,  took  1  day 
from  each  of  the  6  months  containing  30 
days,  because  even  numbers  were  sup- 
posed to  be  unhicky,  and  out  of  the  whole 
56  days  formed  2  new  months  of  28  days 
each,  which  he  called  January  and  Feb- 
ruary. Thus  the  year  consisted  of  12 
mouths,  and  350  days ;  and,  to  make  it 
agree  with  the  course  of  the  sun,  interca- 
lations were  made  use  of,  after  the  man- 
ner of  the  Greeks,  These  intercalations, 
however,  were  left;  to  the  discretion  of  the 
priests;  and,  as  they  made  them  very  arbi- 
trarily, according  to  the  exigences  of  the 
state,  or  their  own  private  views,  com- 
plaints and  irregularities  soon  arose. 
Notwitlistanding  this  defect,  the  arrange- 
ment continued  to  the  end  of  the  republi- 
can constitution.  The  calendar  of  the 
Romans  had  a  very  jieculiar  arrange- 
ment. They  gave  particular  names  to 
3  days  of  the  month.  The  first  day  was 
called  the  calends.  In  the  4  months  of 
March,  May,  July  and  October,  the  7th, 
in  the  others,  the  5th  day,  was  called  the 
nones ;  and,  in  the  4  former,  the  15th,  in 
the  rest,  the  13th  day,  was  called  the  vies. 
The  other  days  they  distinguished  in  the 
following  manner: — they  counted  from 
the  above-mentioned  days  backwards, 
observing  to  reckon  also  the  one  from 
which  they  began.  Thus  the  3d  of 
March,  according  to  the  Roman  reckon- 
ing, would  be  the  5th  day  before  the 
nones,  which,  in  that  month,  fall  upon 
the  7th.  The  8th  of  January,  in  which 
month  the  nones  happen  on  the  5th,  and 
the  ides  on  the  13th,  was  called  the  6th 
before  the  ides  of  January.  Finally,  to 
express  any  of  the  days  after  the  ides, 
they  reckoned  in  a  similar  manner  fi'om 
the  calends  of  the  following  month. 
From  the  inaccuracy  of  the  Roman 
method  of  reckoning,  it  appears  that,  in 
Cicero's  time,  the  calendar  brought  the 
vernal  equinox  almost  two  months  later 
than  it  ought  to  be.  According  to  the 
last  letter  of  the  10th  book  of  Cicero's 
Epistles  to  Atticus,  this  equinox  was  not 


yet  past,  although  it  was  near  the  end  of 
May,  by  their  calendar.  To  check  this 
irregularity,  Julius  Csesar,  on  being^  ap- 
pointed dictator  and  pontiff  (A.  U.  C,707), 
invited  the  Greek  astronomer  Sosigenes 
to  Rome,  who,  with  the  assistance  of 
Marcus  Fabius,  invented  that  mode  of 
reckoning,  which,  after  him  who  intro- 
duced it  into  use,  has  been  called  the  Ju- 
lian calendar.  The  chief  improvement 
consisted  in  restoring  the  equinox  to  its 
proper  place  in  March.  For  this  pur- 
pose, two  months  were  inserted  between 
November  and  December,  so  that  the 
year  707,  called,  from  this  circumstance, 
the  year  of  confusion,  contained  14  months. 
In  the  number  of  days,  the  Greek  com- 
putation was  adopted,  which  made  it  3651^ 
The  number  and  names  of  the  months 
were  kejjt  unaltered,  wth  the  exception 
of  Quintilis,  which  was  henceforth  called,, 
in  honor  of  the  author  of  the  improve- 
ment, Julius.  To  dispose  of  the  quarter 
of  a  day,  it  was  determined  to  intercalate 
a  day  every  fourth  year,  between  tlie  23d 
and  24th  of  February.  This  was  called 
an  intercalary  day,  and  the  year  in  which 
it  took  place  was  called  an  intercalary 
year,  or,  as  we  term  it,  a  leap  year.  This 
calendar  continued  in  use  among  the  Ro- 
mans until  the  fall  of  the  empire,  and 
throughout  Christendom  till  1582.  The 
festivals  of  the  Christian  church  were  de- 
tennined  by  it.  With  regard  to  Easter, 
however,  it  was  necessary  to  have  ref- 
erence to  the  course  of  the  moon.  The 
Jews  celebrated  Easter  (i.  e.,  the  Passover) 
on  the  14th  of  the  month  Nisan  (or  March) ; 
the  Christians  in  the  same  month,  but  al- 
ways on  a  Sunday.  Now,  as  the  Easter 
of  the  Christians  sometimes  coincided 
with  the  Passover  of  tlie  Jews,  and  it  was 
thought  unchristian  to  celebrate  so  im- 
portant a  festival  at  the  same  time  as  the 
Jews  did,  it  was  resolved,  at  the  council 
of  Nice,  325  A.  D.,  that,  from  that  time, 
Easter  shotild  be  solemnized  on  the  Sun- 
day following  the  first  full-moon  after  the 
vernal  equinox,  which  was  then  suppos- 
ed to  take  place  on  the  21st  of  March. 
As  the  course  of  the  moon  was  thus  made 
the  foundation  for  determining  the  time 
of  Easter,  the  lunar  cycle  of  Meton  was 
taken  for  this  purpose ;  according  to 
which  the  year  contains  365^  days,  and 
the  new  moons,  after  a  period  of  19  years, 
return  on  the  same  days  as  before.  The 
inaccuracy  of  the  Julian  year,  thus  com- 
bined Avith  the  lunar  cycle,  must  have 
soon  discovered  itself,  on  a  comparison 
with  the  true  time  of  the  commencement 
of  the  equinoxes,  since  the  received  length 


CALENDAR. 


403 


of  365^  days  exceeds  the  true  by  about  11 
minutes;  so  that,  for  every  such  Julian 
year,  the  equinox  receded  11  minutes,  or 
a  day  in  about  130  years.  In  consequence 
of  this,  in  the  16th  centurj',  the  venial 
equinox  had  changed  its  place  in  the  cal- 
endar from  the  21st  to  the  10th  ;  i.  e.,  it 
really  took  place  on  the  10th  instead  of 
the  21st,  on  which  it  w^as  placed  in  the 
calendar.  Aloysius  Lilius,  a  physician  of 
Verona,  projected  a  plan  for  amending 
tlie  calendar,  which,  after  his  death,  was 
presented  by  his  brother  to  pope  Gregoiy 
XIII.  To  carry  it  into  execution,  the 
pope  assembled  a  number  of  prelates  and 
learned  men.  In  1577,  the  proposed 
change  was  adopted  by  all  the  Catholic 
princes ;  and,  in  1582,  Gregory  issued  a 
brief  abolishing  the  Julian  calendar  in  all 
Catholic  countries,  and  introducing  hi  its 
stead  the  one  now  in  use,  under  the  name 
of  the  Gregorian  or  reformed  calendar,  or 
the  neio  style,  as  the  other  was  now  called 
the  old  style.  The  amendment  consisted 
in  this : — 10  days  were  dropped  after  the 
4th  of  Oct.,  1582,  and  the  15th  was  reckon- 
ed immediately  after  the  4th.  Every  100th 
year,  which,  by  the  old  style,  was  to  have 
been  a  leap  year,  was  now  to  be  a  com- 
mon year,  the  4th  excepted ;  i.  e.,  1600 
was  to  remain  a  leap  year,  but  1700, 1800, 
1900,  to  be  of  the  common  length,  and 
2000  a  leap  year  again.  In  this  calendar, 
the  length  of  the  solar  year  was  taken  to 
be  365  days,  5  hours,  49  minutes  and  12 
seconds.  Later  observations  of  Zach, 
Lalande  and  Delambre  fix  tlie  average 
length  of  the  tropical  year  at  about  27 
seconds  less ;  but  it  is  unnecessary  to  di- 
rect the  attention  of  the  reader  to  the  er- 
ror arising  from  this  difference,  as  it  will 
amount  to  a  day  only  in  the  space  of  3000 
years.  Notwithstanding  the  a«>ove  im- 
provement, the  Protestants  retained  the 
Julian  calendar  till  1700,  when  they  also 
adopted  the  new  style,  with  this  differ- 
ence, that  they  assigned  the  feast  of 
Easter  to  the  day  of  the  'firet  full  moon 
after  the  astronomical  equinox.  But  this 
arrangement  produced  new  variations. 
In  1724  and  1744,  the  Easter  of  the  Cath- 
olics was  eight  days  later  than  that  of  the 
Protestants.  On  this  accoimt,  the  Grego- 
rian calendar  was  finally  adopted,  1777, 
in  Germany,  under  the  name  of  the  gen- 
eral calendar  of  the  empire,  or,  as  it  is  now 
called,  the  reformed  calendar,  in  order  that 
the  Catholics  and  Protestants  might  cele- 
brate Easter,  and,  consequently,  all  the 
movable  feasts,  at  the  same  time.  Eng- 
land introduced  the  new  style  in  17.52, 
and  Sweden  in  1753.    Russia  only  re- 


tains the  old  style,  which  now  diflTers  12 
days  from  tlie  new. — In  France,  during^ 
the  revolution,  a  new  calendar  was  intro- 
duced by  a  decree  of  the  national  conven- 
tion, Nov.  24,  1793.  The  time  from 
which  the  new  reckoning  was  to  com- 
mence was  the  autumnal  equinox  of 
1792,  which  fell  upon  the  22d  of  Sept., 
at  18  minutes  and  30  seconds  after  9 
A.  M.,  Paris  time.  This  day  was  select- 
ed as  that  on  which  the  first  decree  of 
the  new  republic  had  been  promulgated. 
The  year  was  made  to  consist  of  12 
months  of  30  days  each,  and,  to  complete 
the  full  number  of  days,  5  jours  comple- 
mentaires  were  added  to  the  end  of  it,  in 
common  years,  and  6  in  leap  years.  Each 
period  of  4  years,  termuiating  with  a  leap 
year,  was  called  a  franciade.  Instead  of 
weeks,  each  month  was  divided  into  3 
parts,  called  decades,  consisting  of  10  days 
each ;  the  other  divisions  being  also  ac- 
commodated to  the  decimal  system.  The 
names  of  the  months  were  so  chosen  as 
to  indicate,  by  their  etymology,  the  time 
of  year  to  which  they  belonged.  They 
were  as  follows : — Autumn,  from  the  22d 
Sept.  to  the  22d  Dec. ;  Vendemiaire,  vint- 
age month  (Oct.) ;  Brumaire,  foggy  month 
(Nov.);  Frimaire,  sleet  month  (Dec): — 
Winter,  from  22d  Dec.  to  22d  March ; 
JVivose,  snowy  month  (Jan.) ;  Ventose, 
windy  month  (Feb.) ;  Pluviuse,  rainy 
month  (March) : — Spring,  from  22d  March 
to  22d  June ;  Germinal,  bud  month 
(April) ;  Floreal,  flower  month  (May) ; 
Prairial,  meadow  month  (June) : — Sum- 
mer, fi-oni  22d  June  to  22d  Sept. ;  Messi- 
dor,  harvest  mouth  (July) ;  Thermidory 
hot  montii  (Aug.) ;  Fructidor,  fruit  month 
(Sept.). — The  10  days  of  each  decade  were 
called,  1.  Primidi,  2.  Duodi,  3.  Tridi,  4. 
Qiiartidi,  5.  (^uintidi,  6.  Sextidi,  7.  Sep- 
tidi,  8.  Octidi,  9.  JVbnidi,  10.  Decadi  (the 
Sabbath).  Besides  this,  each  day  in  the 
year  had  its  particular  name,  appropriate 
to  the  time  when  it  occurred ;  e.  g.,  the 
7th  of  vintage  month,  Vendemiaire,  was 
named  carottes  (carrots).  This  calendar 
was  abolislied,  at  the  command  of  Napo- 
leon, by  a  decree  of  the  senate,  9th  Sept., 
1805,  and  the  common  Christian  or  Gre- 
gorian calendar  introduced  throughout 
the  French  empire.  (For  a  pretty  full 
historical  account  of  this  subject,  see 
Biisch's  Handbuch  der  Erfindungen,  vol. 
vii.  p.  152  et  seq. ;  also  Gebelin's  His- 
toire  du  Calendrier.  There  are  also  astro- 
nomical calendars,  to  which  the  Astro- 
nomical Year-Book  of  professor  Bode 
belongs,  and  of  which  50  vols,  had  ap- 
peared in  1822.    It  is  still  continued.    Of 


404 


CALENDAR— CALICO. 


the  same  class  are  the  Paris  Connoissance 
des  Temps,  and  the  London  Nautical  Al- 
manac.    See  Almanac  and  Chronology.) 

Calender.  Different  fabrics,  before 
they  leave  the  hands  of  the  manufacturer, 
are  subjected  to  certain  processes,  the 
object  of  which  is  to  make  them  smooth 
and  glossy,  to  glaze  them,  to  water  them, 
or  give  them  a  wavy  appearance.  This 
is  done,  in  general,  by  pressing  the  fabric 
between  wooden  or  metallic  cylinders, 
whence  the  machine  is  called  a  calender, 
and  the  workman  a  calender  or  calen- 
derer. 

Calenders  ;  a  sect  of  dervises  in  Tur- 
key and  Persia.  They  are  not  very  strict 
in  their  morals,  nor  in  verj'  high  esteem 
among  the  Mohammedans.  They  preach 
in  the  market-places,  and  Hve  upon  alms. 
Their  name  is  derived  from  their  founder. 
(See  Dervise.) 

Calends,  with  the  Romans,  the  first 
days  of  the  month  ;  so  called  because  the 
pontifex  maximus  then  proclaimed  {ccdavit) 
whether  the  nones  would  be  on  the  5th  or 
the  7th.  This  was  the  custom  until  the 
year  450  U.  C,  when  the  fasti  calendares, 
or  calendar  (q.  v.),  were  affixed  to  the 
wall  of  public  places.  The  Greeks  did 
not  make  use  of  calends ;    whence  the 

f>roverbial  expression  ad  Grmcas  calendas 
on  the  Greek  calends),  meaning  never. 
The  calends  of  January  were  more  sol- 
emn than  the  others,  and  were  consecrated 
to  Janus  and  Juno,  On  this  day,  the 
magistrates  entered  on  their  offices,  and 
friends  interchanged  presents.  On  the 
calends,  debtors  were  obliged  to  pay  the 
interest  of  their  debts ;  hence  tristes  ca- 
lender (Hor.  Serm.  1  Sat.  3.  v.  87).  The 
book  of  accounts  was  called  Calendarium. 
— Calends,  in  ecclesiastical  history,  de- 
notes conferences,'  anciently  held  by  the 
clergy  of  each  deanery  on  the  first  of 
each  month,  concerning  their  duty  and 
conduct.     (Du  Cange,  in  voce.) 

Calenture  ;  a  violent  fever,  incident  to 
persons  in  hot  climates,  esjjecially  to  such 
as  are  natives  of  cooler  chmates.  It  is 
attended  with  dehrium ;  and  the  patient 
imagines  the  sea  to  be  a  green  field,  in 
which  he  is  tempted  to  walk  by  the  cool- 
ness and  freshness  of  its  appearance. 
This  is,  at  least,  the  poetical  explanation  of 
the  matter.  The  fact  seems  to  be,  that  the 
intense  inflanmiation  of  the  fever  promj)ts 
tlie  patient  to  plunge  into  cold  water  to 
relieve  his  sufferings. 

Calepin  [French)  ;  a  lexicon.  The 
name  is  derived  from  Calepino,  a  famous 
grammarian  and  lexicographer  of  the  15th 
century,  who  was  the  author  of  a  poly- 


glot dictionary,  which  has  passed  through 
numerous  editions,  and  been  enlarged  by 
diftercnt  editoi-s.  The  most  complete 
edition  is  that  of  Bale,  1590,  fol.,  hi  11 
languages.  This  work  was  usually  called 
the  Calepin,  and  such  was  its  celebrity, 
that  the  name  became  a  common  appella- 
tion for  a  learned  lexicon. 

Caliber  ;  the  interior  diameter  of  the 
bore  of  any  piece  of  ordnance,  or  the  di- 
ameter of  a  shot  or  shell. — Caliber  or 
calliper  compasses  are  a  sort  of  compasses 
with  arched  legs,  used  in  the  artillery 
practice,  to  take  the  diameter  of  any 
round  body,  particularly  of  shot  or  shells, 
the  bore  of  ordnance,  &c.  The  instru- 
ment consists  of  two  thin  pieces  of  brass, 
joined  i)y  a  rivet,  so  as  to  move  quite 
round  each  other.  It  contains  a  number 
of  tables,  rules,  &c.,  connected  with  the 
artillery  practice. 

Calico  ;  a  cotton  cloth,  which  derives 
its  name  fi'om  Calicut,  a  city  of  India, 
from  which  it  was  firet  brought.     In  Eng- 
land, white  or  unprinted  cotton  clotli  is 
called  calico.     In  the  U.  States,  printed 
cloth  only  is  called  by  that  name.     Calico 
printing  is  a  combination  of  the  arts  of 
engraving  and  dyeing,  and  is  used  to  pro- 
duce, upon  woven  fabrics,  chiefly  of  cot- 
ton, a  variety  of  ornamental  combinations, 
both  of  figure  and  color.     In  this  process, 
the  whole  fabric  is  immersed  in  the  dye- 
ing liquid ;  but  it  is  previously  prepared  in 
such  a  manner,  that  the  dye  adheres  only 
to  the  parts  intended  for  the  figiu-e,  while 
it  leaves  the  remaining  parts  unaltered. 
In    calico-printhig,   adjective   colors   are 
most  frequently  employed.    The  cloth  is 
prepared  by  bleaching,  and  other  process- 
es, which  dispose  it  to  receive  the  color. 
It  is  then  printed  with  the  mordant,  in  a 
manner  Similar  to  that   of  roj)perplate- 
printing,   except   that   the   figure   is   en- 
graved u})on  a  cylinder  instead  of  a  plate. 
The  cylinder,  in  one  part  of  its  revolution, 
becomes  cliarged  with  the  mordant,  mix- 
ed to  a  proper  consistence  with  starch. 
The  superfluous  i)art  of  the  mordant  is 
then  scraped  off  by  a  straight  steel  edge, 
in  contact  with  which  the  cylinder  re- 
volves, leaving  only  that  part  which  re- 
mains in  the  lines  of  the  figure.     The 
cloth  then  passes  in  ibrcible  contact  with 
tlie  other  side  of  the  cylinder,  and  receives 
from  it  a  complete  imjiression    of  the 
figure  in  the  pale  color  of  the  mordant 
The    cloth   is   then   passed   through  the 
coloring-bath,  in  which  the  parts  previ- 
ously printed  become  dyed  with  the  in- 
tended   color.      When   it   is  afterwards 
exiwsed  and  washed,  the  color  disappears 


CALICO— CALIGULA. 


405 


from  those  parts  which  are  not  impreg- 
nated with  the  mordant,  but  remains  per- 
manently fixed  to  the  rest.  When  addi- 
tional colors  are  required,  they  are  printed 
over  the  rest,  with  different  mordants, 
suited  to  the  color  intended  to  be  pro- 
duced. This  secondary  printuig  is  gen- 
erally performed  with  blocks,  engraved 
in  the  manner  of  wood-cuts,  and  applied 
by  hand  to  tlie  successive  parts  of  the 
piece. 

Calicut;  a  city  of  Hindostan,  formerly 
capital  of  the  kingdom  of  C,  which  was 
ceded  to  tlie  British  in  1792,    From  this 

fiort  the  fa-st  vessel  was  freighted  with 
ndian  commodities  for  Europe,  by  Vasco 
da  Garna,  in  1498.  The  ancient  city, 
however,  is  now  buried  beneath  the  sea ; 
and,  at  low  tides,  the  tops  of  temples  and 
minarets  are  discernible.  The  present 
town  stands  on  a  low  shore,  and  has  con- 
siderable trade.  It  was  taken  and  de- 
stroyed by  Tippoo  Saib,  but  was  rebuilt 
when  the  country  fell  into  the  hands  of 
the  English.  Cardamoms,  teak,  sandal- 
wood, pepper  and  wax  are  the  principal 
exports.  It  contains  5000  houses.  Lat. 
11°  15'  N. ;  Ion.  75°  50^  E.  The  rajah  of 
the  C.  district,  or  the  Tamuri  rajah,  called 
Zamorin  by  the  Europeans,  is  a  Bramiii, 
who  pretends  to  be  superior  to  the  other 
Bramuis,  and  inferior  only  to  the  gods. 
The  males  of  the  family  are  called  Tain- 
hurans,  and  the  females  Tamhurdtits. 
These  ladies  are  married  at  the  age  of  10, 
but  it  would  be  scandalous  for  them  to 
have  any  intercourse  with  their  hus- 
bands. The  Namburi  Bramins,  or  the 
Nairs,  are  the  fathers  of  their  children, 
who  are  all,  of  course,  in  the  dilemma 
described  by  Telemachus. 

Calif  and  Califate.  (See  Caliph.) 
California,  Gulf  of;  a  gulf  on  the 
west  coast  of  North  America,  in  Mexico, 
lying  on  the  east  side  of  the  peninsula  of 
California,  extending  from  S.  S.  E.  to  N. 
N.  W.,  between  lat.  22°  40'  and  34°  N. 
It  is  about  800  miles  long,  and,  through 
most  of  its  length,  is  less  than  100  miles 
wide.  It  receives  the  river  Colorado  at 
its  northern  extremity.  It  contains  nu- 
merous islands  and  shoals,  and  is  of  diffi- 
cult navigation. 

California,  New ;  a  province  of  Mex- 
ico, on  the  coast  of  the  N.  Pacific  ocean, 
called,  by  captain  Vancouver,  J^cw  Albion. 
It  lies  north  of  the  peninsula,  which  is 
called  Old  Califomia,  and  is  600  miles 
long,  and  only  30  broad.  Square  leagues, 
2,125.  Montery  is  the  capital.  There  is 
not  any  country  in  the  world  which  more 
abounds  in  fish  and  game  of  every  de- 


scription. Hares,  rabbits  and  stags  are 
very  common  here ;  seals  and  otters  are 
also  found  in  prodigious  numbers.  To 
the  nordiward,  and  during  the  winter,  the 
inhabitants  kill  a  very  great  number  of 
foxes,  bears,  wolves  and  wildcats.  The 
land  possesses,  also,  great  fertility ;  farina- 
ceous roots  and  seeds  of  all  kinds  abun- 
dantly prosper  here.  The  crops  of  maize, 
barley,  corn  and  peas  cannot  be  equalled 
but  by  those  of  Chili.  European  cultiva- 
tors can  have  no  conception  of  a  similar 
fertihty.  The  medium  produce  of  corn  is 
from  70  to  80  for  1 ;  the  extremes,  60  and 
100.  The  population,  in  1802,  including 
Indians  who  had  settled  and  begun  to 
cultivate  fields,  was  15,562. 

California,  Old  ;  a  province  of  Mex- 
ico, comprising  a  peninsula  in  the  Pacific 
ocean,  united,  on  the  north,  to  the  conti- 
nent of  North  America,  from  which  the 
other  part  is  separated  by  a  narrow  sea, 
called  the  gvlf  of  California,  and  bounded 
S.  and  W.  by  the  Pacific  ocean  ;  near  900 
miles  in  length,  and,  in  different  places, 
30,  60,  90,  and  120  miles  wide.  A  chain 
of  moimtains  extends  through  the  penin- 
sula, of  which  the  greatest  height  is  from 
4500  to  4900  feet  above  the  sea.  This 
peninsula  is  said  to  have  been  discovered 
by  sir  Francis  Drake,  and  by  him  called 
jVeu)  Albion ;  and  the  gulf  of  California 
has  been  sometimes  called  the  VermUion 
sea,  or  Purple  sea,  or  Red  sea.  In  a  pen- 
insula of  so  great  an  extent,  which  reaches 
nearly  from  23°  to  34°  N.  lat.,  the  soil  and 
climate  must  naturally  be  found  to  vary. 
Some  parts  are  continually  covered  with 
flowei-s,  but  the  greater  part  is  wild,  rug- 
ged and  barren,  overrun  with  rocks  and 
sand,  and  destitute  of  water.  From  cape 
St.  Lucas  to  the  Colorado,  nearly  200 
leagues,  only  two  streams  run  into  the 
gulf  of  California.  Population,  in  1803, 
9000.  The  principal  places  are  Santa 
Maria,  St.  Ignatio,  St.  Isidoro,  Loreto, 
St.  Estevan,  St.  Xavier,  St.  Yago,  Rosa- 
lie, St.  Juan  Guadalupe  and  St.  Joseph. 

Caligula,  Caius  Caesar  Augustus  Ger- 
manicus,  son  of  Germanicus  and  Agrip- 
pina,  was  born,  A.  D.  12,  in  the  camp, 
probably  in  Germany,  and  brought  up 
among  the  legions.  Here  he  received, 
from  the  soldiers,  the  surname  of  C,  on 
account  of  his  weaiing  the  caligce,  a  kind 
of  little  boots  in  use  among  them.  He 
understood  so  well  how  to  insinuate  him- 
self into  the  good  graces  of  Tiberius,  that 
he  not  only  escaped  the  cruel  fate  of  his 
parents  and  brothers  and  sisters,  but  was 
even  loaded  with  honors.  Whether,  as 
some  writers  inform  us,  he  removed  T»» 


406 


CALIGULA. 


berius  out  of  the  way  by  slow  poison,  is 
uncertain.  When  the  latter  was  about  to 
die,  he  appointed,  according  to  Suetonius, 
C.  and  the  son  of  Drusus,  Tiberius  Nero, 
heirs  of  the  empire.  But  C,  universally 
beloved  for  the  sake  of  his  father,  Ger- 
maiiicus,  was  able,  without  difficulty,  to 
obtain  sole  possession  of  the  throne. 
Rome  received  him  joyfully,  and  the  dis- 
tant provinces  echoed  his  welcome.  His 
first  actions,  also,  were  just  and  noble. 
He  interred,  in  the  most  honorable  man- 
ner, the  remains  of  his  mother  and  of  his 
brother  Nero,  set  free  all  state-prisoners, 
recalled  the  banished,  and  forbade  all 
prosecutions  for  treason.  He  conferred 
on  the  magistrates  free  and  independent 
power.  Although  the  will  of  Tiberius 
had  been  declared,  by  the  senate,  to  be 
null  and  void,  he  fulfilled  every  article  of 
h,  with  the  exception  only  of  that  above- 
mentioned.  When  he  was  chosen  con- 
*8ul,  he  took  his  uncle  Claudius  as  his 
coUeague.  Thus  he  distinguished  the 
first  eight  months  of  his  reign  by  many 
magnanimous  actions,  when  he  fell  sick. 
After  his  recovery,  by  a  most  unex- 
pected alteration,  he  suddenly  showed 
himself  the  most  cruel  and  unnatural  of 
tyrants.  The  most  exquisite  tortures 
served  him  for  enjoyments.  During  his 
meals,  he  caused  criminals,  and  even  in- 
nocent persons,  to  be  stretched  on  the 
rack  and  beheaded :  the  most  respectable 
persons  were  daily  executed.  In  the 
madness  of  his  arrogance,  he  even  con- 
Bidered  himself  a  god,  and  caused  the 
honors  to  be  paid  to  him  which  were 
paid  to  ApoUo,  to  Mars,  and  even  to  Ju- 
piter. He  also  showed  himself  in  public 
with  the  attributes  of  Venus  and  of  other 
goddesses.  He  built  a  temple  to  his  own 
divinity.  At  one  time,  he  wished  that 
the  whole  Roman  people  had  but  one 
head,  that  he  might  be  able  to  cut  it  off  at 
one  blow.  He  fi-equently  repeated  the 
words  of  an  old  poet,  Oderint  dum  metu- 
ant.  One  of  his  greatest  follies  was  the 
building  of  a  bridge  between  Raise  and 
Puteoli  (Piirzuoli).  He  himself  conse- 
crated tills  strange  structure  with  great 
splendor;  and,  after  he  had  passed  the 
night  following  in  a  revel  with  his  friends, 
in  order  to  do  something  extraordinary 
before  his  departure,  he  caused  a  crowd 
of  persons,  without  distinction  of  age, 
rank  and  character,  to  be  seized,  and 
thrown  into  the  sea.  On  his  return,  he 
entered  Rome  in  triumph,  because,  as  he 
said,  he  had  conquered  nature  herself. 
After  this,  he  made  preparations  for  an 
expedition  against  the  Germans,  passed, 


with  more  than  200,000  men,  over  the 
Rhine,  but  returned  after  he  had  travelled 
a  few  miles,  and  that  without  having  seen 
an  enemy.  Such  was  his  terror,  that, 
when  he  came  to  the  river,  and  found  th» 
bridge  obstructed  by  tlie  crowd  upon 
it,  he  caused  himself  to  be  passed  over 
the  heads  of  the  soldiers.  He  then  went 
to  Gaul,  which  he  plundered  with  unex- 
ampled rapacity.  Not  content  with  the 
considerable  booty  thus  obtained,  he  sold 
all  the  property  of  both  his  sisters,  A grip- 
pina  and  Livilla,  whom  he  banished.  He 
also  sold  the  furniture  of  the  old  court, 
the  clothes  of  Marcus  Antoninus,  of  Au- 
gustus, Agrippina,  &c.  Before  he  left 
Gaul,  he  declared  his  intention  of  going^ 
to  Britain.  He  collected  his  army  on  the 
coast,  embarked  in  a  magnificent  galley,, 
but  returned  when  he  had  hardly  left  the 
land,  drew  up  his  forces,  ordered  the  sig- 
nal for  battle  to  be  sounded,  and  com- 
manded the  soldiers  to  fill  their  pockets 
and  helmets  wth  shells,  while  he  cried 
out,  "  This  booty,  ravished  from  the  sea, 
is  fit  for  my  palace  and  the  capitol !" 
When  he  returned  to  Rome,  he  was  de- 
sirous of  a  triumph  on  account  of  his 
achievements,  but  contented  himself  with 
an  ovation.  Discontented  with  the  sen- 
ate, he  resolved  to  destroy  the  greater 
part  of  the  members,  and  the  most  dis- 
tinguished men  of  Rome.  This  is  proved 
by  two  books,  which  were  found  after  his 
death,  wherein  the  nan)es  of  the  pro- 
scribed were  noted  down,  and  of  which 
one  was  entitled  Gladius  (Sword),  and 
the  other  Pugillus  (Dagger).  He  became 
reconciled  to  the  senate  again  when  he 
found  it  worthy  of  him.  He  supported 
public  brothels  and  gaming-houses,  and 
received  himself  the  entrance-money  of 
the  visitors.  His  horse,  named  Incitatus^ 
was  his  favorite.  This  animal  had  a 
house  and  a  sen'ant,  and  was  fed  from 
marble  and  gold.  C.  had  caused  him  to 
be  admitted  into  the  college  of  his  priests, 
and  was  desirous  of  making  him  a  consul 
also.  He  even  had  the  mtention  of  de- 
stroying the  poems  of  Homer,  and  was 
on  the  point  of  removing  the  works  and 
images  of  Virgil  and  Livy  fi-om  all  libra- 
ries :  those  of  the  former,  because  he  was 
destitute  of  genius  and  learning ;  those 
of  the  latter,  because  he  was  not  to  be 
depended  upon  as  a  historian.  C.'s  mor- 
als were,  from  his  youth  upward,  corrupt ; 
he  had  committed  incest  with  all  his  sis- 
ters. After  he  had  married  and  repudi- 
ated several  wives,  Caesonia  retained  a 
permanent  hold  on  his  aftections.  A 
number  of  conspirators,  at  the  head  of 


CALIGULA— CALIPH. 


407 


tvhom  were  Chaerea  and  Cornelius  Sa- 
binus,  both  tribunes  of  the  pretorian  co- 
horts, murdered  him  in  the  29th  year  of 
his  life,  and  the  fourth  of  his  tyrannical 
reign  (from  A.  D.  37  to  41). 

Caliph  (i.  e.,  vicegerent)  is  the  name 
assumed  by  the  successoi-s  of  Mohammed, 
in  the  government  of  the  fsiithful  and  in 
tlie  high  priesthood.  Caliphate  is,  there- 
fore, the  name  given,  by  historians,  to  the 
empire  of  these  princes  which  the  Arabs 
founded  in  Asia,  and,  impelled  by  religious 
enthusiasm,  enlarged,  within  a  few  centu- 
ries, to  a  dominion  far  superior  in  extent 
to  the  Roman  empire.  Mohammed  (q.  v.), 
in  tlie  character  of  the  prophet  of  God, 
made  himself  the  spiritual  and  temporal 
niler  of  his  people.  After  the  death  of 
tlie  prophet,  the  election  of  a  successor 
occasioned  considerable  excitement.  Ab- 
dallah  Ebn  Abu  Koafas,  called  Abubeker, 
i.  e.,  father  of  the  virgin  (because  his 
daughter  Ayesha  was  the  only  one  of  the 
wives  of  Mohammed,  whom  lie  had  mar- 
ried when  a  virgin),  obtained  the  victoiy 
over  AH,  the  cousin  and  son-in-law  of 
Mohammed,  and  became  the  first  cahph, 
A.I).  632  (year  of  the  Hegira  1 1 ).  Victo- 
rious over  all  enemies,  by  the  aid  of  his 
general,  the  brave  Caled,  he  began,  as  the 
Koran  directs,  to  spread  the  doctrines  of 
Mohammed  by  arms  among  the  neighbor- 
ing nations.  With  the  watch-word  con- 
version or  tribute,  a  numerous  army,  con- 
sisting entirely  of  volunteers,  inspired  with 
zeal  for  the  holy  war,  jienetrated  fii-sl  into 
Syria.  Conquerors  in  the  first  battle,  they 
were  subsequently  several  times  defeated 
b)"^  the  Greeks ;  but,  having  once  acquired 
a  strong  footing  in  the  country  by  the 
treacherous  surrender  of  Bosra,  they  un- 
dertook, under  Caled,  the  siege  of  Damas- 
cus, and,  having  repulsed  two  large  ar- 
mies, sent  by  the  emperor  Ileraciius  to 
the  reUef  of  the  city,  they  obtained  pos- 
session of  it  by  a  capitulation  (A.  D.  633, 
of  the  Hegira  12),  the  terms  of  which  were 
pei-fidiously  broken,  Caled  jiursuing  and 
slaughtering  the  retreating  Christians. 
Abubeker  died  after  he  had  filled  the  place 
of  the  prophet  two  years  and  fourmonths» 
By  his  will,  Omar,  another  father-in-law 
of  the  prophet,  became  second  caliph.  He 
intrusted  the  command  of  the  army  of  the 
faithful  to  the  humane  Obeidah,  instead 
of  Caled,  and  completed,  by  his  means, 
though  not  without  a  brave  resistance  on 
the  part  of  the  Greeks,  the  subjugation  of 
Syria  (A.  D.  638,  of  the  Hegira  17).  Je- 
rusalem having  been  compelled  to  surren- 
der (A.  D.  636,  Heg.  15),  Omar  proceeded 
tliither  in  person  to  fix  the  terms  of  capit- 


ulation, which  have  subsequently  served 
as  a  model  in  settling  the  relations  of  the 
Moslems  to  the  subject  Christians.  These 
terms  were  carefully  observed  by  the  con- 
scientious caliph.  Equally  successful  was 
another  general,  Amrou,  in  Egypt,  which 
was  subjected  to  tlie  caliphate  in  two 
years  (640).  Omar  was  the  first  who  bore 
the  appellation  of  emir  al  moumenin  (prince 
of  the  faithful) — a  title  inherited  by  all 
succeeding  caliphs,  and  perverted  into 
miramolin  by  the  ignorant  Europeans. 
After  the  murder  of  Omar  by  a  revenge- 
ful slave  (A.  D.  643,  Heg.  23),  a  council, 
appointed  by  him  on  his  death-bed,  chose 
Osman,  or  Othman,  son-in-law  of  the 
prophet,  passing  over  Ali.  Under  him,  the 
empire  of  the  Arabs  soon  attained  a  won- 
derful magnitude.  In  the  East,  their  arms 
spread  the  doctrines  of  the  Koran  through 
Persia.  At  the  same  time,  they  advanced 
along  the  northern  coast  of  Africa,  as  far 
as  Ceuta.  Cyprus,  too  (A.  D.  647),  and 
Rhodes  (A.  D.  654)  were  conquered  ;  but 
the  former  was  lost  again  two  years 
after.  Thus  Alexandria  and  all  Egypt 
were  a  second  time,  though  not  without 
difliculty,  torn  from  the  Greeks,  who  had 
regained  their  power  there  by  the  aid  of 
the  natives.  These  i-everses  were  caused 
by  the  m^sures  of  Othman,  who,  far  in- 
ferior to  Omar  in  wisdom,  uitrusted  the 
provinces,  not  to  the  most  capable,  but  to 
his  favorites.  The  dissatisfaction  thus 
excited  occasioned  a  general  insurrection 
in  the  year  654  (Heg.  34),  which  terminat- 
ed in  his  death.  Ali,  the  son-in-law  of  the 
prophet  by  Fatima,  became  the  fourth 
caliph,  by  the  choice  of  the  people  of 
Medina,  and  is  regarded  as  the  first  legiti- 
mate possessor  of  the  dignity,  by  a  numer- 
ous sect  of  Mohammedans,  which  gives 
liini  and  his  son  Hassan  almost  equal  hon- 
or with  the  prophet.  This  belief  prevails 
among  the  Pereians;  whence  arises  the 
hatred  in  which  they  are  held  by  the 
Turks.  Instead  of  being  able  to  continue 
the  conquests  of  his  predecessors,  Ali  al- 
ways had  to  contend  with  domestic  ene- 
mies. Among  these  was  Ayesha,  the 
wdow  of  the  prophet,  called  the  mother 
of  the  faithful ;  also  Tellah,  Zobeir,  and 
especially  the  powerful  Moawiyah,  gov- 
ernor of  Syria,  who  all  laid  claim  to  the 
government.  These  were  able  to  create 
suspicion,  and  spread  the  report  that  Ali 
had  uistigated  the  murder  of  Othman. 
In  vain  did  he  endeavor  to  repress  the 
machinations  of  his  enemies,  by  intrust- 
ing the  government  of  the  provinces 
to  his  friends.  Nowhere  were  the  new 
governors  received.      The  discontented 


>m 


CALIPH. 


collected  an  army,  and  made  themselves 
masters  of  Bassora.  Ali  defeated  it,  and 
Tellah  and  Zobeir  fell ;  but  he  could  not 

grevent  Moawiyah  and  his  friend  Amrou 
om  extending  their  party,  and  main- 
taining themselves  in  Syria,  Egypt,  and 
even  in  a  part  of  Arabia.  Three  men  of 
the  sect  of  the  Khoregites  proposed  to 
restore  concord  among  the  faithful,  by 
slaying  each  one  of  the  three  heads  of  the 
parties,  Ali,  Moawiyah  and  Amrou ;  but 
Ali  only  feU  (A.  D.  660,  Heg.  40).  He 
was  a  man  of  a  cultivated  mind.  The 
celebrated  moral  maxims,  and  the  Giafa, 
as  it  was  termed,  are  the  most  famous  of 
his  works.  His  son,  the  mild,  peaceful 
Hassan,  had  no  desire  to  defend  the  ca- 
liphate against  the  indefatigable  3Ioawi- 
yah ;  but  vainly  did  he  hope  to  obtain 
security  by  a  solemn  abdication  of  the 
government.  He  perished  by  poison, 
said  to  have  been  administered  at  the 
instigation  of  Moawiyah.  Moawiyah  I 
transferred  the  seat  of  the  caUphate  from 
the  city  of  the  prophet,  Medina,  where  it 
had  hitherto  always  been,  to  Damascus, 
in  the  province  of  which  he  had  formerly 
been  governor  (A.  D.  673,  Heg.  54).  With 
him  begins  the  series  of  the  caliphs  called 
Ommiades,  which  name  this  family  bore 
from  Moawiyali's  progenitor,  Ommiyah. 
Not  long  atVer  his  accession,  he  was 
obliged  to  quell  an  insurrection  of  the 
Khoregites  by  a  campaign,  and  a  rebellion 
at  Bassora  by  severe  pimishments.  He 
then  seriously  meditated  the  entire  sub- 
version of  the  Byzantine  empire,  {q.  v.) 
His  son  Jezid  marched  through  Asia  Mi- 
nor, meeting  but  little  resistance ;  then 
crossed  the  Hellespont,  and  laid  siege  to 
Constantinople,  but  was  obliged  to  raise  it 
(A.  D.  669,  Heg.  49).  His  general  Obei- 
dah  was  more  successful  against  the  Turks 
in  Chorasan :  he  defeated  them,  and  pen- 
etrated ahnost  into  Turkestan  (A.  D.  673, 
Heg.  54).  His  son  Jezid  was  not  alto- 
gether a  wortliy  successor  of  the  politic 
Moawiyah  (A.  D.  679,  Heg.  60).  At  first, 
he  was  not  acknowledged  by  the  two 
holy  cities,  Mecca  and  Medina,  which,  as 
long  as  the  caliphs  had  resided  in  the  lat- 
ter city,  had  enjoyed  a  principal  voice  in 
their  election,  but  which  had  not  be(Mi 
consulted  when  Moawiyah,  according  to 
the  custom  of  the  caliplis,  appointed  his 
successor  in  his  life-time.  The  <liscon- 
tented  espoused  the  cause,  either  of  Hous- 
sain,  the  famous  son  of  Ali,  or  of  Abdal- 
lah,  Zobeir's  son,  both  of  whom  laid  claim 
to  the  crown.  A  rebellion  of  the  inhabit- 
ants of  Irak,  ui  favor  of  Houssain,  led  by 
Moslem  and  Hanni,  was  suppressed  by 


the  prudence  and  decision  of  Obeidallah, 
governor  of  Cufa ;  and  Houssain,  who  had 
accepted  the  invitation  of  the  conspirators, 
was  killed  (A.  D.  680,  Heg.  61),  to  the 
great  dissatisfaction  of  the  caliph,  who 
sought  to  make  reparation  by  acts  of  be- 
neficence towards  the  children  of  Hous- 
sain. Abdallah  Ebn  Zobeir  was  recog- 
nised as  caliph  in  Medina,  where  Jezid 
was  detested  for  his  voluptuousness  and 
scepticism.  On  this  account,  Medina  was 
invested,  stormed  and  sacked ;  but  Hous- 
sain's  family,  residing  there,  was  spared, 
at  the  express  command  of  the  caliph. 
After  Jezid's  death  (A.  D.  683,  Heg.  64), 
his  son,  Moawiyah  11,  a  pious  youth  of 
the  sect  of  the  Motagelites  (who  rejected 
the  fanaticism  of  the  other  Mohamme- 
dans), voluntarily  resigned  the  caliphate, 
after  a  reign  of  a  few  months.  As  he  had 
chosen  no  successor,  anarchy  prevailed. 
Obeidallah,  governor  of  Irak,  sought  to 
found  a  distinct  empire  in  Bassora,  but 
was  soon  driven  out  by  the  inhabitants 
themselves,  who  now,  as  well  as  all  Irak, 
Hegiaz,  Yemen  and  Egypt,  acknowledged 
Abdallah  Ebn  Zobeir-as  caliph.  In  Syria, 
Dehac,  regent  to  Abdallah,  was  at  first 
chosen  cahph ;  but  the  people  of  Damas- 
cus appointed  Mervvan  I,  of  the  race  of 
the  Ommiades,  caliph,  who  made  himself 
master  of  all  Syria  and  Egypt.  Chorasan 
separated  from  the  caliphate,  and  submit- 
ted to  a  prince  of  its  own  choosing — the 
noble  Salem.  In  the  following  year  (A.  D. 
684,  Heg.  65),  Soliman  Ebn  Sarad  excited 
a  great  rebellion  of  the  discontented  in 
Syria  and  Arabia,  and  pronounced  both 
caliphs  deposed,  but  was  defeated  by  the 
experienced  soldier  Obeidallah.  Menvan 
had  been  compelled  to  promise,  on  oath, 
to  leave  the  caliphate  to  Caled,  the  son  of 
Jezid ;  yet  he  nominated  his  son  Abdalme- 
Ick  as  his  successor.  Under  him  (A.  D. 
684,  Heg.  65),  Mokthar,  a  new  rebel 
against  both  ralijjhs,  was  subdued  bv  one 
of  them,  Abdallah  (A.  D  686,  Heg.'  67) ; 
but  this  only  made  Abdallah  more  formi- 
dable to  Abdalmelek,  who,  in  order  to  be 
able  to  direct  all  his  forces  against  him, 
concluded  a  peace  witli  the  Greek  empe- 
ror, Justinian  II,  in  which,  reversing  the 
order  of  the  Koran,  he  conceded  to  the 
Christians  a  yearly  tribute  of  50,000  pieces 
of  gold.  He  then  marched  against  Ab- 
dallah, defeated  him  twice,  and  took  Mec- 
ca by  assault.  In  this  last  conflict,  Ab- 
dallah fell.  Thus  he  united  under  his 
dominion  all  the  Mussulmans;  but  the 
resistance  of  the  governors — the  curse  of 
all  despotisms,  and  the  symptom  of  the 
future  dissolution  of  the  caliphate — kept 


CALIPH. 


4flO 


liim  constantly  occupied.  He  was  the 
first  caliph  that  caused  nioiiey  to  be  coin- 
ed. He  died  A.  D.  705  (Heg.  86).  Under 
Walid  I,  his  son,  the  Arabs  conquered,  in 
tJie  East,  Charasm  and  Turkestan  (A.  D. 
707,  Heg.  88) ;  in  the  North,  GalaUa  (A.  D. 
710);  and,  iii  the  West,  Spain  (A.  D.  711). 
(See  Spain).  He  died  in  716  (Heg.  97). 
His  brother  and  successor  besieged  Con- 
stantinople, but  liis  fleet  was  twice  de- 
stroyed by  tempests  and  the  Greek  fire. 
On  the  other  hand,  he  conquered  Georgia. 
He  died  718  (Heg.  99).  Omar  II,  his  suc- 
cessor by  Sohman's  last  will,  incurred  the 
displeasure  of  the  Ommiades  by  his  in- 
dulgence towards  the  sect  of  Ali,  and  was 
poisoned  by  them  (A.  D.  721,  Heg.  102). 
Jezid  II,  his  successor,  also,  by  the  dispo- 
sition of  Soliman,  died  of  grief  for  the  loss 
of  a  female  favorite,  of  whose  death  he 
was  the  author  (A.  D.  723,  Heg.  104.)  The 
Alide  Zeid,  grandson  of  Iloiissain,  now 
contested  the  calij)hate  with  his  brother 
Hesciiam.  He  was  indeed  overpowered, 
and  put  to  death  ;  but  another  house,  tlie 
Abbassides,  descendants  of  Abbas,  son  of 
Abdalmotaleh,  uncle  of  tlie  prophet,  l)e- 
gan  to  be  formidable.  Under  Hesciiam, 
an  end  was  put  to  the  progress  of  tlie 
Saracens  in  the  West,  by  the  energy  of 
Charles  Martel,  who  annihilated  their  ai- 
niies  at  Tours  in  732,  and  at  Narbonne  in 
736.  The  voluptuous  Walid  II  was  mur- 
dered after  a  reign  of  one  year  (A.  D.  743, 
Heg.  124).  After  the  equally  brief  reigns 
of  Jezid  III,  and  of  the  Abbnsside,  Ibra- 
him, Merwan  II  followed,  with  the  sur- 
name (respectable  among  the  Arabs)  of 
the  ^ss  (al  Hemar).  Ibrahim,  being  de- 
throned and  imprisoned  by  this  prince, 
appointed  his  brother  Abul  Abbas  his  suc- 
cessor, and  was,  shortly  after,  murdered 
in  prison.  Abdallah,  Abul  Abbas's  uncle, 
now  took  up  arms  against  the  caliph,  who 
was,  at  that  time,  fully  occujiied  by  a  dan- 
gerous rebellion  in  Persia.  Merwan  was 
twice  defeated,  and  fell  (A.  D.  752,  Heg. 
133).  With  him  terminates  the  series  of 
caliphs  of  the  race  of  Ommiyah.  The 
furious  Abdallah  treacherously  destroyed 
almost  all  the  Onuuiades,  by  a  horrible 
massacre  at  a  meeting  where  they  were 
all  assembled.  Two  only  escaped.  Ab- 
deraraes  fled  to  Spain,  where  he  founded 
the  independent  caliphate  of  Cordova  (see 
l^ain) ;  another  to  a  corner  of  Arabia, 
where  he  was  acknowledged  as  caliph, 
and  his  posterity  reigned  till  the  16th  cen- 
tury. Abul  Abbas,  although  innocent  of 
that  cruel  action,  which  secured  him  the 
throne,  derived  fi-om  it  the  name  of  Sajfah 
(the  Bloody).  He  died  very  soon,  18  years 
VOL.  II.  35 


of  age,  of  the  small-pox  (A.  D.  753,  Heg. 
134).  His  brother,  Abu  Giafar,  called  al 
Mansor  (the  Victorious),  was  obUged  to 
contend  with  a  rival  m  his  own  uncle, 
Abdallah,  whom  he,  however,  overcame. 
His  avarice  made  him  many  enemies, 
whom  he  succeeded  in  suppressuig  by  his 
pei-fidious  cunning.  He  acquired  his  sur- 
name by  his  victories  in  Armenia,  Cilicia 
and  Capj)adocia.  In  the  year  764  (Heg. 
145),  he  founded  the  city  of  Bagdad  on  the 
Tigris,  and  transferred  thither  the  seat  of 
the  caliphate  (A.  D.  768,  Heg.  149).  He 
died  on  a  ])ilgrimage  to  Mecca,  leaving 
inunense  treasures  (A.  D.  775,  Ileg.  156). 
Mahadi,  his  son  and  successor,  a  man  of 
a  noble  character,  had  to  contend  with 
the  turbulent  inhabitants  of  Chorasan, 
under  the  pretended  prophet  Hakem,  and 
died  A.  D.  785  (Heg.  166) ;  and  Hadi,  his 
grandsfjn,  met  with  the  same  opposition 
li-om  die  Ali  jmrty,  under  Houssain,  All's 
great-grandson.  Hadi  caused  the  Zen- 
dists  to  be  exterminated — a  sect  adhering 
to  the  doctrine  of  two  principles  of  nature. 
According  to  the  usual  oi-der  of  succes- 
sion, and  Maliadi's  provision,  Hadi  was 
followed,  not  by  his  son,  but  by  his  broth- 
er Haruu  (A.  D.  786,  Heg.  167),  who  was 
denominated  al  Raschid,  on  account  of 
his  justice,  and  is  famous  for  promoting 
the  arts  and  sciences.  He  concluded  a 
truce  (an  actual  peace  could  never  be 
made  with  Christians.)  with  the  Greek 
empress  Irene  (788,  Heg.  169),  who  con- 
sented to  pay  him  tribute.  Jaliir,  an  Ahde, 
disputed  with  him  tlie  possession  of  the 
throne,  but  subsequently  submitted.  Ha- 
run,  however,  tarnished  his  reputation  by 
tlie  murder  of  .lahir,  and  still  more  by 
the  murder  of  his  sister  Abbassah,  and 
her  favorite,  the  Barmecide  Giafar,  and 
by  the  expulsion  and  persecution  of  the 
whole  family  of  the  Barmecides,  whose 
services  to  the  state  and  himself  had  been 
of  veiy  great  value.  Harun  divided  the 
empire  among  his  three  sons.  Al  Amin, 
as  sole  caliph,  was  to  reign  over  Irak, 
Arabia,  Syria,  Egj'pt,  and  the  restof  Afi-i- 
ca:  under  him,  Al  Mamun  was  to  govern 
Persia,  Turkestan,  Chorasan,  and  the 
whole  East;  and  Motassem  was  to  rule 
Asia  Minor,  Armenia,  and  all  the  coun- 
tries on  the  Black  sea.  The  younger 
brothers  were  to  succeed  Amin  in  the 
caliphate.  At  Thus,  hi  Chorasan,  through 
which  Harun  was  passing,  in  order  to 
quell  a  rebellion  that  had  broken  out  in 
Samarcand,  he  was  an-ested  by  death,  of 
which  he  had  been  forewarned  bv  won- 
derful dreams  (A.  D.  809,  Heg.  190).  Al 
Amin  tlie  Faithful  (his  proper  name  was 


m 


CALIPH. 


Mohammed)  was  undeserving  of  this  name. 
Untrue  to  his  obhgations  as  a  ruler,  and 
addicted  to  all  kinds  of  sensuality,  he  left 
the  dischai'ge  of  Jiis  duties  to  his  vizier, 
Fadhel.  The  vizier,  from  liatred  of  Ma- 
mun,  persuaded  the  caHph  to  appoint  his 
son  his  successor,  and  deprive  Motassem 
of  his  portion  of  territory.  A  war  arose 
between  the  brothei-s.  Mamun's  general, 
Thaher,  defeated  the  armies  of  the  caliph, 
took  Bagdad,  and  caused  Amin  to  be  put 
to  death  (A.  D.  813,  Heg.  194).  Mamun 
was  recognised  as  caliph.  Nobler  in  his 
inclinations  than  Amin,  he  cherished  the 
arts  and  sciences ;  but,  like  his  brother,  he 
left  the  government  and  annies  to  his 
ministers.  His  measures  to  secure  the 
cahphate  to  the  Alides,  in  order  to  please 
Riza,  his  favorite,  excited  the  powerful 
Abbassides  to  an  insurrection.  They  de- 
clared Mamun  to  have  forfeited  the  throne, 
and  proclaimed  Ibrahun  caUph,  but  sub- 
milted  again,  after  the  death  of  Riza, 
when  the  caliph  had  changed  his  senti- 
ments. The  vast  empire  of  the  Arabs, 
embracing  numberless  provinces  in  two 
quarters  of  the  globe,  could  hardly  be 
held  under  his  sceptre.  There  is  but  one 
step,  and  that  an  easy  one,  under  a  weak 
sovereign,  from  a  viceroyalty  to  a  king- 
dom. The  A\Tsdom  of  the  former  Abbas- 
sides could  only  retard  this  evil ;  the  faults 
of  the  latter  precipitated  it.  Even  under 
Harun  al  Raschid,  the  Agladides  had 
founded  an  independent  empu*e  in  Tunis 
(A.  D.  800,  Heg.  181),  as  had  likewise  the 
Edrisides  in  Fez.  Thaher,  having  been 
appointed  governor  of  Chorasan,  made 
himself  independent.  From  him  the 
Thaherides  derived  their  origin.  Mamun 
sent  Thomas,  a  Greek  exile,  with  an  army 
against  the  Greek  emperor,  Michael  II, 
the  Stammerer.  Thomas  depopulated 
Asia  Minor,  and  laid  siege  to  Constanti- 
nople ;  but  a  storm  destroyed  his  fleet 
(A.  D.  823,  Heg.  207).  A  second  attack 
on  the  imperial  city  was  repelled  by  the 
aid  of  the  Bulgarians.  Thomas  was  taken 
prisoner,  and  executed.  Towards  the  ma- 
ny reUgious  sects,  into  which  the  Mussul- 
mans were  then  divided,  Mamun  acted 
with  toleration.  He  died  A.  D.  833  (Heg. 
218).  During  his  government  (about  830, 
Heg.  215),  the  African  Arabs  conquered 
Sicily  and  Sardinia,  where  they  maintain- 
ed themselves  about  200  years,  till  the 
former  island  was  torn  from  them  by  the 
Normans,  in  1035,  and  the  latter  island  by 
the  Pisans,  in  1051.  Motassem,  at  first 
named  Billah  (by  the  grace  of  (xod),  Ha- 
run's  third  son,  built  a  new  city.  Samara, 
56  miles  from  Bagdad,  and  transferred 


thither  his  residence.  In  his  wars  against 
the  Greeks  and  rebellious  Persians,  he 
first  used  Turkish  soldiers.  From  grief 
at  tlie  death  of  his  private  physician,  Mo- 
tassem became  insane,  and  died  A.  D. 
842,  Heg.  227.  Vathek  BUlah,  his  son, 
member  of  the  Motazehte  sect,  exerted 
himself  to  promote  the  advancement  of 
science ;  but  he  was  an  enervated  volup- 
tuary, and  died  of  nen'ous  weakness  (A.  D. 
846,  Heg.  232).  A  contest  for  the  succes- 
sion, between  his  brother  Motawackel  and 
his  son  Motliadi,  was  decided  by  the  al- 
ready powerful  and  arrogant  Turkish 
body-guard  in  favor  of  the  most  unworthy 
competitor,  the  former.  Under  Mota- 
wackel, it  became  more  and  more  custom- 
ary to  carrj-  on  all  wars  by  means  of 
Turkish  mercenaries.  Thus  the  Arabs 
were  rendered  unwarlike  and  etfeminate, 
as  must  necessarily  be  the  case,  in  a  hot 
chmate,  with  those  who  do  not  hve  in 
constant  activity.  Motawackel  manifested 
a  blind  hatred  of  the  Alides,  not  sparing 
even  the  memory  of  the  deceased.  He 
moreover  evinced  a  mahgnant  spirit,  and 
a  proneness  to  sensuality  and  cruelty.  His 
own  son,  Montassar,  educated  in  the  in- 
dulgence of  both  these  vices,  and  often 
barbarously  treated  by  him,  conspired 
against  him  with  the  Turkish  body-guards, 
and  effected  his  murder  (A.  D.  861,  Heg. 
247).  The  Turks,  who  now  arrogated  the 
right  of  electing  the  caliphs,  called  the 
murderer  to  the  throne  of  the  faithful,  and 
compelled  his  brothers,  who  Avere  inno- 
cent of  the  atrocious  act,  and  whose  re- 
venge they  feai-ed,  to  renounce  the  suc- 
cession which  had  been  designed  for 
them  by  Motawackel.  Montasser  died, 
soon  after,  of  a  fever,  caused  by  the  goad- 
uigs  of  remorse  (A.  D.  862,  'Heg.  248). 
The  Turks  then  elected  Mostain  Billah, 
a  grandson  of  tlie  caliph  Motassem.  Two 
of  tlie  Alides  became  competitors  with 
him  for  the  cahphate.  One  of  them,  at 
Cufa,  was  defeated  and  put  to  death ;  but 
the  other  founded  an  mdependent  empire 
in  Tabristan,  which  subsisted  half  a  cen- 
mry.  The  discord  of  the  Turkish  soldiers 
completed  the  dismemberment  of  the 
empire.  One  party  raised  to  the  throne 
Motaz,  second  son  of  Motawackel,  and 
compelled  Mostain  to  abdicate.  Motaz 
Billah  soon  found  means  to  get  rid  of  him, 
as  well  as  of  his  own  brother,  Muwiad. 
He  then  meditated  the  removal  of  the 
Turkish  soldiers;  but,  before  he  found 
courage  to  execute  his  projects,  they  re- 
belled on  account  of  tlieir  pay  bemg  in  ar- 
rear,  and  forced  him  to  resign  the  govern- 
ment.   He  soon  after  died  (A.  D.  869,  Heg. 


CALIPH. 


m 


255).  They  conferred  the  caliphate  on 
Mohadi  Billah,  son  of  the  caliph  Vathek, 
but  deposed  this  excellent  prince,  eleven 
months  after,  because  he  attempted  to  im- 
prove their  military  discipline.  Under  Mo- 
tawackel's  third  son,  the  sensual  Motam- 
ed  Billah,  whom  they  next  called  to  the  ca- 
liphate, liis  prudent  and  courageous  fourth 
brother,  MuafTek,  succeeded  in  overcom- 
ing the  dangerous  preponderance  of  these 
Turks.  Motamed  transferred  the  seat  of 
the  caliphate  from  Samara  back  to  Bag- 
dad, in  the  year  873  (Heg.  259),  where  it 
afterwards  continued.  In  the  same  year, 
owing  to  a  revolution  in  the  independent 
government  of  Chorasan,  the  dynasty  of 
tlie  Thaherides  gave  place  to  tliat  of  the 
Softarides,  who,  eventually,  extended  their 
dominion  over  Tabristan  and  Segestan. 
The  governor  of  Egjpt  and  Syria,  Ach- 
met  Ben  Tulun,  also  made  himself  inde- 
pendent (A.  D.  877,  Heg.  263),  from  whom 
are  descended  the  Tulunides.  The  brave 
MuafTek  annihilated,  indeed,  the  empire 
of  the  Zingliians,  in  Cufa  and  Bassora,  10 
years  after  its  formation  (A.  D.  881,  Heg. 
268);  but  he  was  unable  to  save  the  ca- 
liphate from  the  ruin  to  which  it  was  con- 
tinually hastening.  Motamed  died  soon 
after  him  (A.  D.  892,  Heg.  279),.  and  was 
succeeded  by  JNIuaffek's  son,  Mothadad 
Billah.  He  contended  unsuccessfiiUy  with 
anew  sect  that  had  arisen  in  Ii-ak — the  Car- 
mathians  (A.  D.  899,  Heg.  286) — agamst 
whom  his  son,  Moktaphi  Billah  (A.D.  902, 
Heg.  289),  was  more  fortunate.  He  was 
still  more  successful  in  a  war  against  the 
Tulunides,  as  he  again  reduced  Egypt 
and  Syria,  in  905  (Heg.  292).  Under  his 
brother,  IVIoktadar  Billali,  who  succeeded 
him  at  the  age  of  13  years  (A.  D.  909, 
Heg.  296),  rebelhons  and  bloody  quarrels 
about  the  sovereignty  distui-bed  the  gov- 
ernment of  the  empire.  He  was  several 
times  deposed  and  reinstated,  and  finally 
mui-dered  (A.  D.  931,  Heg.  319).  During 
his  reign,  Abu  Mohammed  Obeidallali 
rose  in  Africa,  who,  pretending  to  be  de- 
scended from  Fatima,  daughter  of  the 
prophet  (therefore  from  Ah),  overthrew 
tlie  dynasty  of  the  Agladides  in  Tunis,  and 
founded  that  of  the  Fatiraites  (A.  D.  910, 
Heg.  298).  Not  satisfied  with  reigning 
independent  of  the  caliph,  this  party,  as 
descendants  of  the  prophet,  asserted  tliem- 
selves  to  be  the  only  lawful  caliphs. 
Shortly  afterwards,  the  dynasty  of  the 
Bouides,  in  Persia,  rose  to  authority  and 
power  (A.  D.  925,  Heg.  315).  Chorasan 
was  still  independent.  The  only  change 
was,  that  the  Samanides  had  taken  the 
place  of  the  Soflfarides.   In  a  part  of  Ara- 


bia the  heretic  Carmathians  ruled ;  in  Mes- 
opotamia, the  Hamadamiles.  In  Egypt, 
which  had  just  been  recovered,  Akschid, 
from  a  governor,  was  called  to  be  a  sove- 
reign. From  him  descended  the  Akschi- 
dites.  Kaher  Billah,  Motiiadad's  third  son, 
merited  liis  fate,  on  account  of  his  malice 
and  cruelty.  The  Turkish  soldiers,  having 
recovered  their  power,  drove  him  from 
the  throne  into  exile  (A.  D.  934,  Heg.  322), 
in  which  he  perished  five  years  after- 
Avards.  Rhadi  Billah,  his  brother,  bore 
the  dignity  of  an  emir  al  omra  (captain  of 
the  captains),  with  which  the  exercise  of 
absolute  power,  in  the  name  of  the  cahph, 
was  united ;  and  tlms  the  caliph  was  more 
and  more  thrown  into  the  back-ground. 
The  first  Avho  was  invested  with  this 
dignity  was  Raik ;  but  it  was  soon  torn 
from  him  by  the  Turk  Jakan,  by  force  of 
anns,  in  the  year  939  (Heg.  327).  Jakan 
extended  the  power  of  the  ofiice  to  such 
a  degree  as  to  leave  the  caliph  nothing  but 
tlie  name  of  his  temporal  sway,  and  even 
assumed  the  right  of  detenniningthe  suc- 
cession to  the  Uirone.  Raik  was  indem- 
nified by  receiving  Cufa,  Bassora  and 
Irak  Arabi,  as  an  uidependent  govern- 
ment. The  next  caliph,  Motaki  BiUah, 
Moktader's  son,  made  an  effort  to  regain 
liis  independence  by  the  murder  of  Ja- 
kun ;  but  he  was  soon  compelled,  by  the 
Turkish  soldiers,  to  appoint  Tozun,  an- 
other of  their  countrymen,  emir,  wiio 
made  this  office  hereditary.  He  formally 
devised  it  to  a  certain  Schirzad,  but  it  soon 
came  uito  the  possession  of  tlie  Persian 
royal  house  of  the  Bouides,  whose  aid  tlie 
succeeding  cahph,  Mostaki  Billali,  solicit- 
ed against  the  tyranny  of  Schirzad.  The 
first  Bouide  emir,  Moezeddulat,  left  it  as 
an  inheritance  to  his  posterity.  Not  the 
caliph,  but  the  emir,  now  reigned  in  Bag- 
dad, though  over  only  a  small  temtory. 
In  every  remote  province,  there  were 
independent  princes.  To  continue  the 
catalogue  of  the  names  of  those  who 
were  henceforward  caliphs,  would  be 
superfluous,  for  these  Blussulman  pope* 
had  not  by  any  means  the  power  of  the 
Christian.  It  would  be  too  tedious  to 
pm*sue  the  branches  into  which  the  histo- 
ry of  the  caliphate  is  now  divided ;  but 
we  must  briefly  show  the  great  changes 
which  the  different  states  and  their  dynas- 
ties have  undergone,  and  which  gave  rise 
to  tlie  dominion  of  tlie  Ottoman  Porte. 
During  the  minority  of  the  Akschidite 
Ali,  the  Fatimite  Morz  Ledinillali,  at  that 
time  caliph  in  Tunis,  subjugated  Egypt 
in  969  (Heg.  358),  and  founded  Cairo, 
which  he  made  the  seat  of  Iiis  caliphate. 


CALIPH— CALIXTINS. 


There  were,  consequently,  at  this  time, 
three  caliphs — at  Bagdad,  Cairo  and  Cor- 
dova— each  of  which  declared  the  othei-s 
heretics.  But  the  Fatimites,  as  well  as 
the  Abbassides,  fell  under  the  power  of 
their  viziers,  and,  hke  them,  the  Ommi- 
ades  in  Cordova  were  deprived  of  all 
power  by  the  division  of  Spain  into  ma- 
ny small  sovereignties,  till  they  were  en- 
tirely subverted  by  the  Morabethun.  (See 
Spain.)  Ilkan,  king  of  Turkestan,  having 
conquered  Cliorasan,  and  overthrown  the 
Samanides,  was  expelled  again  by  Mach- 
mud,  prince  of  Gazna,  who  founded  there 
the  dominion  of  the  Gaznevides,  in  998 
(Heg..388),  who  were  soon,  however,  over- 
thrown in  turn  by  the  Seldjook  Tin-ks, 
under  Togrul  Beg,  in  1030  (Ileg.  421). 
This  leader  conquered  also  Charasm, 
Georgia,  and  the  Persian  Irak.  Called  to 
the  assistance  of  the  caliph  Kajem  Beme- 
illah,  at  Bagdad,  against  the  tyranny  of 
the  Bouide  emirs,  he  proceeded  to  Bag- 
dad, and  became  emir  himself  in  1055 
(Heg.  448),  by  which  means  the  dominion 
of  the  Turks  was  firmly  established  over 
all  the  Mussulmans.  To  his  nephew, 
Alp  Arslan  (who  defeated  and  took  pris- 
oner tlie  Greek  emperor  Romanus  Dioge- 
nes), he  left  this  dignity,  with  so  great 
power,  that  these  Turkish  emirs  al  omra 
were  frequently  called  the  sultans  of  Bag- 
dad. Turkish  prhices,  who  aspired  to  be 
sovereigns  in  the  other  provinces,  were, 
at  first,  satisfied  with  the  title  of  aiabek 
(father,  teacher),  such  as  the  atabeks  of 
Irak  and  Syria,  of  Adherbidschan,  Far- 
sistan  (Persis)  imd  Laristan.  It  was  the 
atabeks  of  Syria  and  Irak,  with  whom 
the  crusadei-s  had  principally  to  contend. 
The  first  was  calletl  Omadeddin  Zenghi; 
by  the  Franks,  Sanguhu  They  were  af- 
terwards termed  sidtans.  The  cahph  of 
Bagdad  wa.s  recognised  by  all  as  the  spir- 
itual sovereign  of  all  Mussulmans:  his 
teinpoi-al  authority  did  not  extend  beyond 
the  walls  of  Bagdad.  Noureddin,  Zen- 
ghi's  son,  being  requested,  by  the  Fatimite 
cahph  Adhed,  to  protect  Bagdad  against 
his  vizier,  sent  to  Cairo,  in  succession,  the 
Curds,  Schirkueh  and  Salaheddin  or  Sa- 
iadin;.but  the  latter  overthrew  the  Fati- 
mites (as  scliismatic  anti-popes),  and  usurp- 
ed the  authority  of  sultan  of  Egj'pt  in 
1170  (Heg.  556),  with  which  he  united 
Syria,  after  Noureddin's  death.  This  is 
the  great  Salaheddm  (Saladin),the  formi- 
dable enemy  of  the  Christians,  the  con- 
queror of  Jerusalem.  The  dynasty  which 
commenced  with  him  was  called,  from 
his  father,  Ayoub,  the  AyovMtes.  They 
reigned  over  Egypt  till  expelled  by  the 


Mamelukes  in  1250.  The  Seldjook  sul- 
tans of  Irak  were  overthrown,  in  1194 
(Heg.  590),  by  the  Charasmians;  and,  as 
those  of  Chorasan  were  extinct,  there  re- 
mained of  the  Seldjook  dominions  noth- 
ing but  the  empire  of  Iconium  or  Roura, 
in  Asia  Minor,  from  which  the  present 
Turkish  empire  derives  its  origin.  (See 
Ottoman  Empire.)  The  Charasmian  sul- 
tans extended  their  conquests  far  into 
Asia,  until  their  territories  were  invaded 
by  the  Tartars,  under  Zenghis  Khan,  in 
1220  (Heg.  617).  They  were  finally  totally 
destroyed  by  his  son  Octal.  Bagdad,  also, 
the  remains  of  the  possessions  of  the  ca- 
liphs, became  the  easy  prey  of  a  Mongul 
horde,  under  Holagou,  in  1258  (Heg.  636),. 
by  the  treachery  of  tlie  vizier  al  Kami, 
and  a  slave,  Amram,  under  the  56th  ca- 
liph, Motazem.  The  nephew  of  the  cru- 
elly-murdered Motazem  fled  to  Egjpt, 
where  he  continued  to  be  called  caliph, 
under  the  protection  of  tlie  jMamelukes, 
and  bequeatlied  the  Mohammedan  pope- 
dom to  his  posterity.  When  the  Turks 
conquered  Egy{)t,  in  1517,  the  last  of 
these  nominal  caliphs  was  carried  to 
Constantinople,  and  died,  after  returning 
to  Egypt,  in  1538.  The  Turkish  sultans 
subsequently  assumed  the  title  of  caliph, 
and  the  padishah  or  grand  signer  at  Con- 
stantinople retains  it  to  the  present  day, 
with  the  claim  of  spiritual  supremacy 
over  all  Mussulmans,  though  this  claim 
is  httle  regarded  out  of  his  own  domin- 
ions, and  strongly  disputed  by  the  Per- 
sians. 

Calixtins,  or  Utraquists  ;  a  sect  of 
the  Hussites  in  Bohemia,  who  differed 
from  the  Catholics  principally  in  giving 
tlie  cup  in  the  Lord's  supper  to  laymen. 
(See  Hussites.)  Under  George  of  Podie- 
brad,  from  1450  to  1471,  who  declared 
himself  for  them,  the  C.  obtained  the  as- 
cendency. Under  Wladislaw,  they  main- 
tained their  religious  liberties,  and,  from 
the  time  of  the  reformation  in  the  16th 
century,  shared  the  doctrines  as  well  as 
the  fate  of  the  Protestants  in  Bohemia. 
Their  refusal  to  fight  against  their  own 
sect  in  the  Smalkaldian  wai-,  at  first  drew 
upon  them  severe  persecutions ;  but  Fer- 
dinand I,  though  unfavorable  to  them  in 
other  respects,  permitted  them  to  partici- 
pate in  the  advantages  of  the  rehgious 
peace  of  1556  with  his  other  Protestant 
subjects,  and  the  excellent  Maximilian  II 
granted  them  perfect  liberty  in  the  exer- 
cise of  their  rehgious  belief.  Their  situ- 
ation became  more  critical  imder  Rodolph 
II,  and  they  found  it  difficult  to  prevail 
on  him  pubUcly  to  acknowledge  the  Bo- 


CALIXTINS— CALIXTUS. 


413 


heinian  confession,  presented  by  them  in 
connexion  mth  the  Bohemian  Brethren 
and  the  Lutherans,  and  to  confirm  the 
church  government,  under  which  tliey 
had  hitherto  possessed  teachers,  churches 
and  schools  of  their  o\vn,  and  a  separate 
consistory  at  Prague.  When  Matthias 
made  many  encroachments  on  the  privi- 
leges thus  granted,  the  united  Protestants, 
under  the  count  of  Thurn,  m  1C17,  un- 
dertook to  defend  themselves.  This  final- 
ly kindled  the  30  years'  war.  After  a 
short  triumph  imder  Frederic  of  the 
Padatinate,  whom  they  had  chosen  king, 
they  were  defeated,  in  1620,  near  Prague, 
and  the  Protestant  cause  completely  over- 
thrown. Ferdinaiid  II  caused  many 
C,  Lutlierans  and  Calvinist^  to  be  exe- 
cuted as  rebels,  and  drove  others  into 
banishment ;  and  Ferdinand  III  did  not 
extend  the  benefits  of  the  peace  of  West- 
phalia to  the  Protestants  in  Bohemia. 
His  successors  were  not  more  favorably 
disposed  towards  the  Protestants ;  and  the 
edict  of  toleration  of  Joseph  II,  1782,  first 
restored  to  the  Protestants  in  Bohemia 
their  religious  libem',  of  which  they  had 
been  deprived  during  162  yeai-s,  and 
which  is  enjoyed  to  the  present  day  by 
the  Calvinists  and  Lutherans,  among 
whom  the  remains  of  the  old  C.  have 
been  lost 

Calixtus  ;  the  name  of  several  popes. 
— 1.  The  first  was  a  Roman  bishop  from 
217  to  224,  when  he  suffered  martjxdom. 
— 2.  Guido,  son  of  count  William  of  Bur- 
gundy, archbishop  of  Vienna,  and  papal 
legate  in  France,  was  elected,  in  1119,.  in 
the  monastery  of  Clugny,  successor  of 
the  expelled  pope  Gelasius  II,  who  had 
been  driven  from  Italy  by  the  emperor 
Henry  V,  and  had  died  in  this  monastery. 
He  received  the  tiara  at  Vienntu  In  the 
same  year,  he  held  councils  at  Toulouse 
and  at  Rheims,  the  latter  of  which  was 
intended  to  settle  the  protracted  dispute 
respecting  the  right  of  investiture.  As 
the  emperor  Henry  V  would  not  confirnt 
an  agreement  which  he  had  already  made 
on  this  subject,  C.  repeated  anew  the  ex- 
communication which  he  had  pronoimced 
against  him  as  legate,  at  the  council  of 
Vienna,  in  1112.  He  excommunicated^ 
also,  the  anti-pope  Gregory  VIII,  and  re- 
newed former  decrees  respecting  simony, 
lay  investiture  and  the  marriage  of  jM-iests. 
Successftil  in  his  contest  with  the  emperor 
on  the  subject  of  investiture  by  means  of 
his  alliance  with  the  rebels  in  Gennany, 
in  particulai"  with  the  Saxons,  he  made 
his  entrance  into  Italy  in  1120,  and,  with 
great  pomp,  into  Rome  itself;  took  Greg- 
35* 


oiy  VIII  prisoner,  in  1121,  by  the  aid  of 
the  Nomians,  and  treated  him  shamefully. 
He  availed  himself  of  the  troubles  of  the 
emperor  to  force  him,  in  1122,  to  agree  to 
tlie  concordat  of  Wonns.  (See  Investi- 
ture and  Concordat).  He  died  in  1124. — 
C.  Ill,  chosen  in  1168,  in  Rome,  as  anti- 
pope  to  Paschal  III,  and  confinned  by 
the  emperor  Frederic  I,  in  1178,  was 
obliged  to  submit  to  pope  Alexander  III. 
As  he  was  not  counted  among  the  legal 
popes,  a  subsequent  pope  Avas  called  C.  III. 
This  was  a  Spanish  nobleman,  Alphonso 
Borgia,  comisellor  of  Alphonso,  king  of 
Airagon  and  the  Sicilies.  He  \Vas  made 
jjope  in  1455.  He  was  at  this  time  far 
advanced  in  Ufe,  bqt  equalled  in  policy 
and  ijresumption  the  most  enterprising 
rulers  of  the  church.  In  order  to  appease 
the  displeasure  of  the  princes  and  nations, 
occasioned  by  the  proceedings  of  the 
councils  of  Constance  and  Basil,  he  in- 
stigated them  to  a  crusade  against  the 
Tiu-ks,  and  supported  Scanderbeg,  lor 
this  purpose,  with  money  and  ships. 
His  intention  was  counteracted  in  Ger- 
many by  the  discontent  of  the  states  of 
the  emj)ire  vfith  the  concordat  of  Vienna, 
and  in  France  by  the  appeals  of  the  uni- 
versities of  Paris  and  Toulouse  against 
the  tithe  for  the  Turkish  war.  King  .^'Vl- 
phonso,  moreover,  was  indignant  at  the 
refusal  of  tlie  pope  to  acknowledge  his 
natural  son  Ferdinand  as  king  of  Naples. 
The  Romans,  also,  were  displeased  at  the 
favors  which  he  conferred  on  his  worth- 
less nephews.  Afl;er  his  death,  in  1458, 
a  treasure  of  115,000  ducats  was  found, 
destined  for  the  Turkish  war. 

Calixtcs  (properly  Callisen),  Gfeorge, 
the  most  able  and  enhghtened  theologian 
of  the  Lutheran  church  in  the  17th  century, 
was  bom  in  1586,  at  Meelby,  in  Holstein, 
and  educated  at  Flensborg  and  Helmstadt. 
In  1607,  in  the  latter  university,  he  turn- 
ed his  thoughts  to  theologj' ;  in  1609,  vis- 
ited the  universities  of  the  south  of  Ger- 
many, in  1612,  those  of  Holland,  England 
and  France,  -wiiere  his  mtercoui-se  with 
tlie  different  religious  parties,  and  the 
greatest  scholars  of  his  time,  developed 
Siat  independence  and  Uberality  of  ojjin- 
ion,  for  wMch  he  was  distinguished. 
After  a  brilliant  victory,  in  1614,  in  a  re- 
ligious dispute  with  the  Jesuit  Turrianus, 
he  was  made  i)rofessor  of  theology,  and 
died  in  1656.  His  treatises  on  the  au- 
thority of  the  Holy  Scriptures,  ti'ansulv 
stajitiation,  celibacy,  supremacy  of  the 
pope,  and  the  Lord's  supi)er,  belong,  even 
according  to  the  judgment  of  learned 
Cathc^c^to  the  most  profound  and  acute 


m, 


CALIXTUS— CALLIOPE. 


writings  against  Catholicism.  But  his 
genius,  and  the  depth  of  his  exegetic  and 
historical  knowledge,  exposed  him  to  the 

Eei-secutions  of  the  zealots  of  his  time, 
lis  assertion,  that  the  points  of  ditFerenco 
between  Calvinists  and  Lutherans  were  of 
less  importance  than  the  doctrines  in 
which  they  agreed,  and  that  the  doctrine 
of  the  Trinity  was  less  distinctly  express- 
ed in  the  Old  Testament  than  in  the  New, 
and  his  recommendation  of  good  works, 
drew  upon  him  the  reproaches  of  cryj)to- 
papism.  His  heresy  was  tenned  Syncret- 
ism, (q.  V.)  The  elector  John  George  I 
of  Saxony  protected  him,  in  1655,  at  the 
diet  of  Ratisbon,  against  the  Lutheran 
theologians.  His  historical  mvestigations 
and  his  philosophical  spirit  shed  new 
light  on  dogmatic  theology  and  the  ex- 
egesis of  the  Bible,  and  gave  them  a  more 
scientific  form.  He  made  Christian  mo- 
rality a  distinct  branch  of  science,  and,  by 
reviving  the  study  of  the  Christian  fathers 
and  of  the  history  of  tlie  church,  prepared 
the  way  for  Spener,  Thoinasius  and  Sem- 
ler.  He  educated  his  son  Frederic  Ulrich 
Calixtus,  and  many  other  enlightened  the- 
ologians. 

Calk  ;  to  drive  a  quantity  of  oakum 
.  into  the  seams  of  planks,  to  prevent  the 
entrance  of  the  water..  After  the  oakuui 
is  driven  in,  it  is  covered  witli  melted 
pitch  or  resin,  to  preserve  it  from  the  ac- 
tion of  the  water. 

Calk.\r.    (See  Calcar.) 

Calkoen,  Jan  Frederic  van  Beck,  a 
Dutch  scholar  and  astronomer,  bora  1772, 
at  Groningen,  died  in  1811.  He  was  a 
member  of  many  leanied  societies,  pi-o- 
fessor  at  Leyden,  and  afterwards  at  U- 
trecht.  His  Euryaliis,  on  Beauty,  and 
another  work  on  the  Time-Pieces  of  the 
Ancients,  are  deser\iHg  of  mention.  His 
essay  against  the  work  of  Dupuis,  Oiigine 
de  tons  les  CuUes,  obtained  the  Taylerian 
prize. 

Call  is  the  cry  of  a  bird  to  its  young, 
or  to  its  mate  in  coupling  time,  which,  in 
most  instances,  is  a  repetition  of  one  note, 
and  is  generally  common  to  tlie  cock  ancl 
hen.  Calls  are  also  a  sort  of  pipes  used 
by  fowlers  to  catch  birds,  by  imitating 
their  notes.  They  are  commonly  formed 
of  a  pipe,  reed  or  quill,  and  blown  by  bel- 
lows attached  to  it,  or  by  the  mouth.  Hai'es 
are  also  sometimes  taken  by  a  call. 

Callao  ;  a  seaport  to^Ti  of  Peru,,  on  a 
river  of  the  same  name,  near  the  Pacific 
ocean.  It  is  the  port  of  the  city  of  Luna, 
from  which  it  is  six  miles  distant.  Lon. 
77°  4'  W. ;  lat.  12°  3'  S. ;  population,  about 
5000»    The  road  is  one  of  the  most  beau- 


tiful, the  largest  and  safest,  in  the  South 
sea.  Two  islands,  named  St.  Laurence 
and  Callao,  and  the  peninsula,  which 
nearly  reaches  them,  defend  vessels  from 
south  winds :  towards  the  west  and  north 
is  open  sea,  but  tlie  winds  from  these 
points  are  never  violent ;  the  water  is  al- 
ways tranquil ;  is  deep,  and  without  rocks. 
C.  is  the  rendezvous  of  from  16  to  17,000 
tons  of  sliipping,  5000  of  which  are  re- 
served for  the  navigation  of  the  Pacific 
ocean.  The  town  was  fortified  by  10 
bastions  and  some  batteries,  and  defended 
by  a  garrison.  There  are  two  fauxbourgs 
inhabited  l)y  Indians.  In  1746,  this  town 
was  destroyed  by  an  earthquake,  when, of 
4000  hihabitants,  only  200  escaped.  Since 
that  time,  C.  has  been  rebuilt  upon  the 
same  plan,  but  a  little  farther  fi-om  the 
sea. 

Callimachus,  a  Greek  poet  and  gram- 
marian, boiii  at  Cyreue,  in  Lybia,  of  a  no- 
ble family,  floiu-ished  under  the  reign  of 
Ptolemy  Philadelpbus,  about  250  years 
before  Christ.  He  opened,  in  Alexandria, 
a  school  of  grammar,  i.  e.,  of  the  belles- 
lettres  and  hboral  sciences,  and  could 
boast  of  several  scholars  of  distiiiguished 
attainments,  such  as  Eratosthenes,  Apol- 
lonius  Rhodius,  Aristophanes  of  Byzanti- 
um, &;c.  Ptolemy  Philadelpbus  present- 
ed him  with  a  place  in  the  museum,  and 
gave  him  a  salary,  as  he  did  other  men  of 
learning.  After  the  death  of  Philadel- 
pbus, he  stood  in  equal  favor  witli  Ptole- 
my Euergetes.  Under  these  circum- 
stances,, he  wrote  most  of  his  works,  the 
number  of  which  was  very  considerable. 
With  the  exception  of  some  fragments, 
all  that  we  have  of  these  is  72  epigrams 
and  6  hymns.  His  poem  on  the  hair  of 
Berenice  [eoma  Berenices)  has  been  pre- 
served ui  the  Latm  translation  of  Catullus. 
C.'s  pocnis  bear  the  stamp  of  their  age, 
which  sought  to  supply  the  want  of  nat- 
ural genius  by  a  great  ostentation  of  leani- 
mg.  Instead  of  noble,  simple  grmideur, 
tliey  exhibit  an  overcharged  style,  a  false 
pathos,  and  a  straining  atler  the  singular, 
the  antiquated,  the  learned.  His  elegies 
are  mentioned  by  the  ancients  with  great 
praise,  aaid  served  Propertius  as  models. 
The  best  edition  of  C.  is  by  J.  A.  Emesti 
(Leyden,  1761,  2  vols.),  which,  as  well  as 
the  edition  of  Graevius  (Utrecht,  1697,  2 
vols.),  contains  Spanheim's  learned  com- 
mentary. Valckenaer  also  published  Ele- 
ei.arum  Fragmeiiia,  by  this  author  (Ley- 
den, 1799). 

Calliope;  one  of  the  muses  (q.  v.); 
daughter  of  Jupiter  and  Mnemosyne. 
She  presided  over  eloquence  and  heroic 


CALLIOPE— CAOIAR. 


415 


IKxetry.  She  is  said  to  have  been  the 
mother  of  Orpheus  by  Apollo.  She  was 
represented  with  an  epic  poem  in  one 
hand,  and  a  trumpet  in  the  other,  and 
generally  crowned  with  laurel. 

Callisen,  Henry,  a  physician  and  sur- 
geon, bom  in  1740,  at  Pentz,  in  Holstein, 
son  of  a  poor  clergyman,  educated  him- 
self by  his  own  exertions,  served  in  the 
army  and  in  the  fleet,  afterwards  in  the 
hospitals  at  Copenhagen,  was  made,  in 
1771,  chief  surgeon  in  the  Danish  fleet, 
and,  in  1773,  professor  of  surgery  at  the 
imiversity  in  Copenhagen.  He  wrote,  in 
1777,  his  Jiistitut.  ChimrgicB  hr>dierna, 
wliich  was  received  with  applause  by  all 
Europe.  In  Vienna,  and  at  the  Russian 
universities,  lectures  are  given  on  them. 
There  are  also  excellent  essays  by  him  in 
the  medical  journals.  He  died  at  Copen- 
hagen, February  5,  1824,  at  the  age  of  84 
years. 

Callisthenes,  a  Greek  philosopher 
and  historian,  a  native  of  Olynthus,  was 
appointed  to  attend  Alexander  hi  his  ex- 
pedition against  Persia.  His  republican 
sentiments  rendered  him  unfit  for  a 
courtier,  added  to  which  he  had  no  small 
share  of  vanity.  But  his  unpardonable 
crime  was  his  opposition  to  the  assump- 
tion by  tliat  conqueror  of  divuie  honoi-s. 
The  cons])iracy  of  Hermolaus  affording  a 
l)retext  for  a  ciiarge  of  treason,  he  was 
apprehended.  Historians  disagree  as  to 
his  fate ;  but  most  of  them  admit  that  he 
was  for  some  time  carried  about  with  the 
army  in  the  ignominious  character  of  a 
convicted  traitor.  Aristotle  states  that  he 
died  of  a  disease  CQntracted  under  this 
treatment.  Ptolemy  asserts  that  he  was 
crucified;  Justin,  that  he  was  disfigured 
and  confined  in  a  cage,  with  a  dog  for 
his  companion,  until  Lysimachus  enabled 
him  to  terminate  his  sufferings  by  poison. 
He  wrote  a  Histoiy  of  the  Actions  of 
Alexander,  and  other  historical  works. 

Callisthenics.     (See  Gyirmastics.) 

Callisto  ;  a  nymph  of  Diana,  daugh- 
ter of  Lycaon,  king  of  Arcadia.  Ju- 
piter loved  her,  assumed  the  shape  of 
Diana,  and  seduced  her.  The  fruit  of 
her  amour,  calle*!  Areas,  was  hid  in  the 
woods,  but  preservinl.  She  was  changed, 
b)'  the  jealousy  of  Juno,  into  a  bear.  Ju- 
piter placed  her,  with  her  son,  among  the 
stars,  where  she  still  shines  as  the  Great 
Bear. 

Callot,  Jacques,  bom  in  1.594,  at 
Nancy,  vanquished,  by  pereeverance,  ev- 
ery obstacle  which  obstructed  his  perfec- 
tion in  his  art.  He  twice  ran  away  from 
his  parents,  who  intended  hhn  for  another 


profession,  fled  to  Italy,  and  leamt  draw- 
ing, in  Rome,  under  Giul.  Parigi,  engrav- 
ing under  Philip  Thomassin,  and  became 
aftei-wards,  at  Florence,  a  disciple  of 
Canta-Gallina,  and,  at  Nancy,  of  Claude 
Henriet.  He  soon  gave  himself  up  en- 
tirely to  his  love  for  engraving,  and  pre- 
ferred etching,  probably,  because  his  ac- 
tive and  fertile  genius  could,  in  that  way, 
express  itself  moi'e  rapidly.  In  the  space 
of  20  ycai-s,  he  designed  and  executed 
about  KJOO  pieces.  (See  the  catalogue  in 
the  Cabinet  de  SiiigtdariUs  d^ Architecture, 
Peinture,  Sculpture  et  Gravure,  by  Le 
Comte,  vol.  2,  p.  376  to  392,  and  Ger- 
saint's  Catalogue  de  Lorangtre.)  In  tlie 
composition,  the  disposition  of  the  parts, 
and  in  the  distribution  of  light,  C.  is  not 
particularly  eminent ;  but,  in  the  single 
parts  of  his  pieces,  he  is  very  successful. 
His  drawing  is  correct ;  the  attitudes 
mostly  pleasing ;  the  groups  have  consid- 
erable variety ;  hai-sh  contrasts  are  avoid- 
ed ;  the  expression  is  vigorous ;  and  the 
execution  displays  the  ease  of  a  master. 
He  is  particularly  distinguished  by  the 
drawing  of  the  little  figures  with  which 
he  has  filled  all  his  pieces.  Most  of  them, 
except  sacred  subjects,  are  representa- 
tions of  battles,  sieges,  dances,  festive 
processions.  The  Miseres  et  Malheurs  da 
la  Guerre,  in  18  pieces,  are  considered  the 
best.  He  executed  works  of  this  kind  for 
Cosmo  II  of  Florence,  Louis  XIII  of 
France,  and  the  duke  of  Lorraine.  He 
was  so  strongly  inclined  to  the  comic, 
that  this  dispo.sition  appears  even  in  his 
representations  of  sacred  subjects,  for  in- 
stance, in  the  Temptation  of  St.  Anthony. 
He  not  only  introduced  some  burlesque 
and  grotesque  figures  in  his  engravings, 
but  executed  whole  pictures  in  this  style, 
in  which  his  whole  art  is  displayed.  His 
Fair  and  his  Beggars  are  called  his  liest 
pieces.  He  was  the  fii"St  who  used,  in  his 
etchings,  tlte  hard  varnish — the  ver,nce 
grosso  dei  lignaiuoli  of  the  Italians.  He 
died  at  Nancy,  in  1635.  He  was  distin- 
guished for  piety,  magnanimitj',  and  regu- 
larity of  life.  (See  the  biography  of  C. 
by  Gei-saint,  or  that  of  Husson,  Paris, 
1706.) 

Callus  is  a  yn-etcmatui-al  hanlr>ess, 
whether  carneous  or  osseous.  The  new- 
growth  of  bony  suljstancc  between  the 
extremities  of  fractured  bones,  by  which 
they  are  united,  is  an  instance  of  the 
latter.  External  friction  or  pressure  pro- 
duces tlie  former,  as  in  the  hantis  of 
laborers,  and  the  feet  of  persons  who  wear 
tigiit  shoes.    (See  Corns.) 

Calmar,  the  principal  city  of  Sma- 


416 


CALMAR— CALMUCS. 


land,  in  Sweden,  on  the  Baltic  sea,  is 
situated  opposite  to  Oland,  on  the  island 
of  Quamhohn,  and  contains  4500  inhab- 
itants. It  has  a  small  but  good  harbor, 
and  carries  on  considerable  trade  in  tim- 
ber, alum  and  tar.  It  has  also  manufac- 
tures of  woollen  cloth,  and  is  the  resi- 
dence of  a  bishop,  and  of  the  governor  of 
the  province.  The  well-fortified  castle 
of  C  lies  outside  of  the  citj^,  on  the  strait 
of  Oland.  (For  the  ordinance  called  the 
Union  of  Calmar,  see  Margaret,  queen  of 
Denmark  and  JVorway.) 

Cajlmet,  Augustine,  distinguished  as  an 
exegetical  and  historical  writer,  bom  in 
1672,  at  Mesnil-la-Horgne,  in  tlie  diocese 
of  Toul,  entered,  in  16^8,  into  the  Bene- 
dictine order  at  Toul,  and  studied  chiefly 
in  the  abbey  of  Moyen-Moutier.  Here 
he  became,  in  1698,  teacher  of  philosophy 
and  theology  ;  in  1728,  abbot  of  Senones, 
in  Lorraine,  and  died,  in  1757,  at  Paris. 
He  was  a  judicious  compiler  of  volumi- 
nous works,  such  as  Cominentaire  sur  tous 
les  lAvres  de  VAnc.  et  de  M)uv.  Test.  (Paris, 
1707—16, 2.3  vols.  4to.),  Didionnaire  Hist. 
et  Crit.  de  la  Bible  (4  vols.),  Histoire  Ecd. 
et  Civile  de  Lorraine  (4  vols.)  Acuteness 
and  taste  are  wanting  in  his  writings,  and 
they  have  been  censured  both  in  France 
and  in  otlier  countries. 

Caims,  Region  of.  In  the  Atlantic 
ocean,  between  the  tropic  of  Cancer  and 
lat.  29°  N.,  and  on  the  confines  of  the 
trade-winds,  between  4°  and  10°  N.  lat., 
calms  of  long  duration  prevail ;  and  hence 
these  tracts  are  called  the  calm  latitudes, 
or  the  regions  of  calms.  In  the  latter 
tract,  particularly,  these  perpetual  calms 
are  accompanied  by  a  suffocating  heat, 
by  thunder-storms  and  floods  of  rain,  so 
that  it  is  sometimes  called  the  rainy  sea. 
The  only  winds  that  occm-  are  sudden 
squalls  of  short  duration  and  little  extent 
In  these  calms,  the  provisions  are  conupt- 
ed,  the  seams  open,  and  the  stagnant  air 
breeds  disease.  When  a  ship  is  in  this  po- 
sition, if  the  currents  set  in  towards  rocks, 
and  tlie  sea  is  too  deep  to  cast  anchor, 
her  destniction  is  almost  inevitable.  In  tlie 
Mediterranean,  where  there  are  no  tides, 
dead  calms  are  more  common  than  in  the 
open  ocean  ;  but  they  are  often  the  pres- 
ages of  approaching  storms. 

Calmucs  [Oelot,  Eleuthes)',  the  most 
remarkable  branch  of  the  Mongol  race. 
They  themselves  maintain,  that  their 
primitive  residence  was  situated  between 
the  Koko-Noor  (the  Blue  Lake)  and 
Thibet.  Long  before  the  time  of  Grenghis 
Khan,  a  part  of  this  people  is  said  to  have 
made  an  expedition  to  the  west,  as  far  as 


Asia  IMinor,  and  to  have  lost  themselves 
there  among  the  mountains  of  Caucasus ; 
but  the  rest,  who  had  remained  in  Great 
Tartar)',  received,  from  their  Tartar  neigh- 
bors, the  name  of  Khalhnik  (the  sepa- 
rated). In  fact,  they  call  themselves,  to 
this  day,  Khalimik,  though  Oelot,  which 
signifies  the  same  tiling,  continues  to  be 
their  proper  appellation.  They  have  been 
divided,  at  least  since  the  dismemberment 
of  the  Mongol  empire,  into  four  principal 
branches,  called  Khoschot,  Derbet,  Soon- 
gar,  and  Tor  got.  The  greater  portion  of 
the  Khoschot  Calmucs  has  remauied  in 
and  aromdd  Thibet  and  on  the  Koko- 
Noor,  and  is  said  to  have  been  under  the 
protection  of  the  Chinese  since  the  do\vu- 
fall  of  the  Soongar  Calmucs.  The  smaller 
portion  of  this  tribe  had,  long  before,  re- 
tired to  the  Irtish,  and  finally  fell  under 
the  dominion  of  the  Soongar  horde,  with 
which  it  took  part  in  the  war  against 
Cliina,  and  was  dispersed  with  them. 
The  horde  of  the  Khoschots  (waiTiors), 
which  is  still  united  under  the  Chinese 
sovereignty,  received  its  name  from  the 
courage  which  it  displayed  under  Grenghis, 
and  ia  rated  at  50,000  souls.  For  tliis 
reason,  and  also  because  the  family  of 
their  princes  derives  its  origin  immedi- 
ately from  the  brother  of  the  great 
Grenghis,  the  Klioschots  maintain  the 
first  rank  among  the  Calmuc  tribes.  A 
part  of  them,  about  1800  families,  settled 
on  the  Wolga  in  1759,  and  voluntarily 
submitted  to  die  Russian  sovereignty.  At 
the  dismembeiTnent  of  the  Mongol  em- 
pire, the  Soongar  Calmucs  constituted  but 
one  tribe  with  the  Derbets,  wliich  was 
afi:erwards  divided  between  two  brothers 
of  their  princely  family.  In  the  17th 
century,  and  the  begimiing  of  the  18th, 
this  horde  subjected  a  great  part  of  the 
other  Calmuc  tiibes,  especially  the  Khos- 
chot, Derbet  and  Khoit,  and  cai-ried  on 
bloody  wars,  both  with  the  Mongols  and 
with  the  Chinese  empire,  which  temii- 
nated  in  their  entire  subjugation  and  dis- 
persion. They  were  regarded  as  the 
bravest,  richest  and  most  powerful  horde. 
The  Derbet  Calmucs,  whose  pasture- 
grounds  were  originally  situated  in  the 
region  of  the  Koko-Noor,  departed  fi-om 
thence  on  account  of  the  Mongol  dis- 
turbances towards  tlie  Irtish,  and  sepa- 
rated into  two  parties.  One  of  them  be- 
came united  vAth  the  Soongars,  and  was 
finally  destroyed  with  them.  The  other 
settled  on  the  Ural,  Don  and  Wolga,  and 
the  majority  of  them  joined  the  Torgots, 
but  aftenvai-ds  separated  fi-om  them.  The 
Torgot  (Wolgaic)  Calmucs  seem  to  have 


CALMUCS— CALONNE. 


417 


been  formed  into  a  distinct  horde,  later 
than  the  other  Calmuc  branches.  In  the 
very  beginning,  they  separated  from  the 
restless  Soongars,  and  settled  on  tlie 
Wolga ;  for  which  reason,  the  Russians, 
to  whom  they  submitted  in  1616,  called 
them  the  Wolgaic  Calmucs.  But,  the 
oppression  of  the  Russian  government 
having  excited  dissatisfaction  among 
tliem,  they  returned  to  Soongary  in  1770, 
and  j)ut  themselves  under  the  Chinese 
protection.  Here,  however,  strict  meas- 
ures were  at  first  adopted  against  them. 
All  these  dilTerent  tribes  were  fomierly, 
or  are  at  present,  under  the  rule  of  their 
own  khans,  who  are  tributary  to  the  gov- 
ernment under  which  the  horde  hves. 
There  is  also  a  colony  of  baptized  Cal- 
mucs, to  which  the  Russian  government 
has  granted  a  fertUe  territory,  with  the 
city  Stavropol,  in  the  Orenberg  district 
of  the  government  Ufa.  This  colony  has 
been  much  augmented  of  late.  In  the 
same  district,  there  is  likewise  a  small 
colony  of  Mohammedan  Calmucs,  formed 
of  proselytes  which  the  Kirghises  have 
made  and  received  among  themselves. 

Calomel.     (See  Mercury.) 

Calo>>'e,  Charles  Alexander  de,  bom 
in  1734,  at  Douai,  where  his  father  was 
first  president  of  the  parhament,  studied 
at  Paris,  devoted  hunself  to  the  duties  of 
an  advocate  at  Artois,  went  as  attorney- 
general  (procureur  general)  to  the  parha- 
ment of  Douai,  and  was,  in  1763,  ap- 
pointed maitre  des  requites,  in  1768, 
intendant  of  Metz,  and  afterwards  of 
Lille.  This  was  hia  situation  on  the 
death  of  Louis  5tV.  The  minister  Mau- 
repas,  returning  from  a  long  exile,  had 
placed  successively  in  the  office  of  min- 
ister of  finance,  Turgot  and  Necker, 
Fleury  and  Ormesson.  In  November, 
1783,  after  the  death  of  Maurepas,  they 
were  succeeded  by  C,  who  found  the  fi- 
nances already  in  disorder.  Besides  the 
loans  and  tlie  arrears  accumulated  under 
preceding  ministers,  176  millions  had  been 
raised  in  advance.  C.  concealed  his  embar- 
rassment, and  assumed  an  appearance  as  if 
all  was  well.  He  despised  the  expedient  of 
retrenchment,  paid  the  instalments  which 
were  due,  supported  the  public  paper  by 
secret  advances  of  money,  hastened  the 
payment  of  the  interest  of  tlie  public  debt, 
made  great  improvements  in  the  farming 
of  the  royal  monopohes  and  of  the  public 
lands,  established  the  credit  of  the  caisse 
(fescoinpte,  projected  a  sinking-fund,  and 
undertook  a  new  coinage  of  gold  money, 
as  if  no  difficulties  existed.  At  fii^st,  he 
followed  the  system  of  loans,  which  was 


begun  before  him.  According  to  his  esti- 
mate, the  government  had,  from  1776  to 

1786,  borrowed  1250  milUons.  The  an- 
nual deficit  amounted,  however,  to  115 
millions.  This,  nevertheless,  was  to  be 
reduced,  in  1797,  to  55  millions.  To  this 
end,  the  revenues  of  the  state,  which 
might  then  amount  to  475  millions,  should 
have  been  increased  to  590  millions.  C.'s 
first  operations  were  calculated  only  for 
the  moment ;  the  national  debt  rested  on 
no  good  security.  To  provide  tliis,  the 
only  means  was  a  new  system  of  taxation, 
and  C.  proposed  it.  His  two  principal 
instruments  were  a  general  land-tax,  pay- 
able in  kind,  and  an  increase  of  the 
stamp-tax.  Since,  however,  it  was  fore- 
seen, that  the  execution  of  a  plan  which 
called  for  sacrifices  from  the  two  highest 
ranks  of  the  nation,  till  this  time  unheard 
of,  would  meet  with  much  opposition 
from  them,  and  yet  a  general  assembly 
of  the  states  seemed  too  dangerous,  C. 
chose  a  middle  course,  which  seemed  to 
be  favorable  to  the  accomplishment  of  his 
design.  He  proposed  an  assembly  of  the 
notables,  chosen  from  the  most  respectable 
members  of  tlie  two  first  orders,  the  magis- 
trates and  the  heads  of  tlie  most  important 
municipalities.    On  the  22d  of  Febmary, 

1787,  the  notables  held  their  first  session 
at  Versailles.  The  report  of  the  ministex 
of  finance  was  impatiently  expected.  He 
dehvered  it  with  all  the  ability  of  which 
he  was  capable;  but  this  could  not  di- 
minish the  ill  impression  of  his  explana- 
tions. The  deficit  of  115  millions  waa 
greater  than  had  been  feared.  C.  traced 
the  origin  of  this  from  the  administration 
of  Terray ;  asserted  that  it  amounted  then 
to  40  millions ;  that,  from  1776  to  1783,  it 
had  increased  about  as  much  more ;  and, 
at  last,  confessed  that  he  himself  had  in- 
creased it  about  35  milhons  from  that 
time  till  1786.  Lafayette  appeared  at  the 
head  of  those  numerous  complainants 
who  now  came  forward  against  C. ;  but 
the  king  seemed,  at  first,  to  support  his 
minister.  The  keeper  of  the  gieat  seal, 
C.'s  constant  adversary,  was  dismissed. 
This  triumph  was,  however,  of  short  du- 
ration. Independently  of  the  fiiends  of 
Lafayette  and  Necker,  a  thnd  jiarty  came 
forward  agabist  Mm — that  party  which 
brought  into  the  ministry  the  archbishop 
of  Toulouse,  Lom6nie-Brienne.  The 
court  was  alarmed  at  the  delays  of  the 
assembly  of  the  notables,  and  the  ferment 
which  it  excited.  C.  was  deprived  of  his 
office,  and  banished  to  Lorraine.  Thence 
he  went  to  England,  where  he  received  a 
flattering   invitation  from   the   empress 


US 


CALONNE—CALORIC. 


Catharine  IL  He  now  employed  him- 
self in  refuting  the  charges  which  were 
brought  against  him.  In  his  petition  ad- 
dressed to  the  king  about  the  end  of  1787, 
he  takes  a  re\iew  of  all  his  ministerial 
operations,  and  endeavors  to  prove  that 
he  had  always  for  his  object  the  improve- 
ment of  the  finances.  The  archbishop  of 
Toulouse,  his  successor,  had  infomied 
him  of  the  personal  displeasure  of  the 
king ;  the  parUaments  of  Grenoble,  Tou- 
louse, BesaiiQon,  had  made  him  the  ob- 
ject of  public  animadversion ;  the  parlia- 
ment of  Paris  had  come  forward  formally 
against  him.  C.  defended  himself  against 
all  these  attacks.  He  besought  the  king 
to  declare,  that  he  had  constantly  acted 
by  his  express  command  or  with  his  con- 
sent, and  offered,  in  case  the  king  should 
be  silent,  to  justify  himself  before  the 
tribunal  of  peers,  before  which  he  had 
been  accused.  To  all  the  charges  brought 
against  him,  his  friends  opposed  this  fact, 
wliich  is  certainly  true,  that  he  retired 
from  the  ministry  poor.  In  a  letter  of  C. 
to  the  king,  Feb.  9, 1789,  containing  po- 
litical reflections,  and  principally  directed 
against  Necker,  he  manifested  the  inten- 
tion of  offering  himself  a  candidate  for 
the  states-generaL  He  actually  made 
his  appearance  in  the  electoi^al  assembly 
of  the  nobiUty  of  Bailleul,  but  returned 
to  London  without  effecting  his  purpose, 
where  he  employed  himself  in  vmting  on 
the  state  of  affairs  in  France.  The  revo- 
lution had,  in  the  mean  time,  begun.  C. 
took  part  in  it  with  a  zeal  which  seemed 
to  exceed  his  powers.  His  negotiations, 
his  journeys  to  Germany,  Italy  and  Rus- 
sia, his  perseverance,  his  attachment  to 
their  cause,  made  him  invaluable  to  the 
party  which  he  served.  In  order  to  as- 
sist his  unfortunate  party  with  the  pen, 
he  wrote  his  Tableau  de  I'Europe  en  JVo- 
vembre,  1795,  remarkable  on  account  of 
its  warmth,  and  its  faithful  delineation  of 
events.  From  that  time  he  lived  m  Lon- 
don, principally  occupied  with  the  fine 
arts,  which  he  had  always  cultivated  with 
taste.  In  1802,  he  returned  to  Paris, 
where  he  died  in  October  of  the  same 
year.  Such  was  the  career  of  a  minister 
who  gave  the  first  impulse  to  the  French 
revolution.  He  possessed,  in  a  high  de- 
gree, the  quaUties  requisite  to  a  great  states- 
man— an  accurate  acquaintance  with  de- 
tails, together  with  comprehensive  views, 
and  tlie  power  of  conceiving  extensive 
projects.  But,  if  wisdom  which  matures 
the  conceptions,  if  a  prophetic  glance 
which  foresees  all  the  impediments,  if 
consistency  and  a  spirit  of  method  which 


provides  for  the  success  of  the  execution, 
are  essential  to  a  statesman,  then  C.  can 
lay  no  claim  to  that  title.  A  knowledge 
of  human  uatm*e  was  wanting  m  his 
character.  His  morals  were  far  from  be- 
ing strict.  His  works,  among  which  his 
speeches  and  memorials  to  the  notables 
deserve  the  first  place,  are  valuable  con- 
tributions to  the  history  of  financial  ad- 
mmistration. 

Caloric  is  the  name  given,  in  chemis- 
tr}',  to  that  agent  which  produces  the 
phenomena  of  heat  and  combustion.  It 
is  hypothetically  regarded  as  a  subtile  flu- 
id, the  particles  of  which  repel  one  an- 
other, and  are  attracted  by  all  other  sub- 
stances. It  is  imponderable,  and,  by 
its  distribution,  in  various  proportions, 
among  the  particles  of  matter,  gives  rise 
to  the  tlnree  general  fonns  of  gas,  U- 
quids  and  solids.  The  particles  of  water, 
by  losmg  caloric,  have  their  cohesion  so 
much  increased,  that  they  assume  the 
solid  form  of  ice  ;  by  adding  caloric,  they 
again  become  fluid ;  and  by  a  still  furtlier 
addition,  they  are  converted  into  vapor. — 
Caloric  exists  in  two  different  states— free 
or  uncomMned,  and  in  a  state  of  combina- 
tion. In  the  former  condition,  it  creates 
the  sensation  of  heat,  and  produces  ex- 
pansion in  other  bodies.  The  power 
which  any  body  has  of  exciting  the  sen- 
sation of  heat,  and  occasioning  expansion, 
is  understood  by  the  expression  of  its 
temperature.  This  is  supposed  to  vary 
with  the  quantity  of  fi^e  caloric  in  a  giv- 
en quantity  of  matter ;  a  high  tempera- 
ture being  ascribed  to  the  presence  of  a 
large  quantity  of  free  caloric,  and  a  low 
temperature  to  that  of  a  small  quantity. 
We  are  ignorant,  however,  of  the  ex- 
tremes of  temperature,  and  may  compare 
it  to  a  chain,  of  which  a  few  of  the  middle 
links,  only,  are  exposed  to  our  observa- 
tion, while  its  extremities  are  concealed 
from  our  view. — The  expansion  of  bodies 
is  one  of  the  most  universal  effects  of  an 
increase  of  temperature.  This  increase 
in  bulk,  however,  is  not  the  same  in  all 
bodies.  The  same  increase  of  tempera- 
ture causes  liquids  to  expand  more  than 
soUds,  and  aeriform  bodies  much  more 
than  either.  On  this  principle  are  con- 
structed the  various  instruments  for  meas- 
uring temperature ;  since  the  degree  of 
expansion  produced  by  caloric  bears  a 
sufficient  proportion  to  its  quantity  to  af- 
ford us  the  means  of  ascertaining  it  with 
tolerable  accuracy.  Our  senses,  it  is  ob- 
vious, are  quite  inadequate  to  afford  us 
this  information ;  for  we  compare  our 
sensations  of  heat,  not  with  any  fized  or 


CALORIC. 


419 


unifonn  standard,  but  with  those  sensa- 
tions which  we  have  had  immediately 
previous.  Hence,  the  same  portion  of 
water  will  feel  warm  to  a  hand  removed 
from  contact  with  snow,  and  cold  to  an- 
other hand  Avhich  has  been  heated  before 
the  fire.  To  convey  precise  notions  of 
temperature,  tlierefore,  we  are  obliged  to 
describe  the  degree  of  expansion  pro- 
duced in  some  one  body  which  has  been 
previously  agi-eed  upon  as  a  standard  of 
comparison.  The  standard  most  gene- 
rally adopted  is  quicksilver,  which  is  con- 
tained in  a  glass  ball,  tenninating  a  long, 
narrow  tube.  This  instrument  is  called 
a  thermometer.  If  quicksilver,  or,  indeed, 
any  other  substance  except  the  gases, 
suffered  equal  expansion  by  equal  mcre- 
ments  of  the  calorific  power,  then  this 
instrument  would  be  perfect ;  but  the 
same  increase  of  bulk  is  not  effected  in 
the  same  liquid  or  solid,  at  all  tempera- 
tures, by  adding  similar  quantities  of 
heat ;  for  bofUes  expand,  by  equal  incre- 
ments of  caloric,  more  in  high  than  in 
low  temperatures,  because  the  force  op- 
posing expansion  is  duninished  by  the 
interposition  of  caloric  between  the  par- 
ticles of  bodies ;  and,  therefore,  when 
equal  quantities  of  caloric  are  added  in 
succession,  the  last  portions  meet  Avith 
less  resistance  to  their  expansive  force 
than  the  first.  In  gases,  on  the  contrary, 
which  are  destitute  of  cohesion,  equal  in- 
crements of  heat  appear  to  be  attended 
with  equal  augmentations  of  bulk. — The 
tendency  to  an  equilibrium  is  a  characteris- 
tic of  tree  caloric.  Any  number  of  dif- 
ferent bodies,  unequally  heated,  when 
exposed,  in  an  apartment,  to  the  same 
temperature,  gradually  arrive  to  an  equal- 
ity of  temperature.  It  is  in  obedience  to 
tliis  law,  that  we  experience  the  sensations 
of  heat  and  cold  when  we  touch  bodies 
which  are  warmer  or  colder  than  our- 
selves. There  exists  much  diversity  in 
tlie  rapidity  with  which  different  sub- 
stances abstract  caloric  when  in  contact 
with  a  body  in  which  it  is  accumulated. 
Common  air  and  gases  abstract  it  but  tar- 
dily, while  wood,  stones  and  metals  ac- 
quire it  more  rapidly.  According  to  their 
power  of  conducting  it  off  under  these 
circumstances,  bodies  are  divided  into 
conductors  and  non-conductors  of  caloric ; 
and,  in  general,  the  power  of  conduction 
varies  with  the  densities  of  bodies.  But 
this  tendency  of  caloric  to  an  equilibrium 
is  not  estabhshed  solely  by  the  agency  of 
intermediate  bodies  or  commimication. 
A  part  of  it  moves  through  tlie  atmos- 
]Aere,  like  Ught,  in  right  lines,  and  with 


immeasurable  velocity,  and  has,  there- 
fore, been  called  radiant  caloric.  The 
comparative  quantities  lost  by  radiation 
and  by  conduction  may  be  approximated 
by  obser\'ing  what  time  it  takes  to  cool 
any  body  through  the  same  number  of 
degi-ees  m  air  and  in  vacuo.  Thus  doctor 
Franklin  imagined  he  had  ascertained 
that  a  body,  which  requires  five  minutes 
to  cool  in  vacuo,  will  cool  in  air,  through 
the  same  number  of  degi-ees,  in  two  min- 
utes. Count  Rumford's  experiments,  with 
a  TorricelUan  vacuum,  give  the  propor- 
tions of  five  to  three. — Radiant  caloric 
passes  only  through  transparent  media, 
or  fi^e  space.  When,  in  its  passage,  ita 
rays  impinge  upon  the  surface  of  a  solid 
or  a  liquid  substance,  tliey  are  either  re- 
flected from  it,  and  thus  receive  a  new 
direction,  or  they  lose  their  radiant  form 
altogether,  and  are  absorbed.  In  the  lat- 
ter case,  the  temperature  of  the  receiving 
substance  is  uicreased ;  in  the  former,  it  is 
unchanged. — The  nature  of  the  surface 
of  a  body  has  been  found  to  influence 
powerfully  both  the  radiation  and  absorp- 
tion of  caloric.  The  energy  of  calorific 
emanation  from  a  cubical  tin  vessel, 
coated  with  different  substances,  and  con- 
taining warm  water  (as  determined  by 
the  differential  thermometer  of  Leshe), 
gave,  with  a  covering  of 

Lampblack, 100 

Isinglass, 75 

Tarnished  lead, 45 

Pohshed  iron, 15 

Tin-plate,  gold,  silver  or  copper,  .  .  12 

Similar  results  were  obtained  simply  by 
noting  the  rates  of  coohng  in  vessels  of 
similar  shapes  and  capacities  with  various 
surfaces.  Useful  lessons  have  been  de- 
rived fi-om  these  discoveries.  Tea  and 
coffee-pots,  which  are  intended  to  retain 
their  heat,  are  made  of  bright  and  polish- 
ed metals ;  and  steam-pipes,  intended  to 
convey  heat  to  distant  apartments,  are 
kept  bright  in  their  course,  but  darkened 
where  they  reach  their  destination.  The 
power  of  different  surfaces  to  absorb  ca- 
loric was  found,  by  coating  one  of  the 
bulbs  of  the  differential  thermometer  suc- 
cessively with  different  substances,  and 
presenting  it  to  an  uniformly  heated  sub- 
stance, to  follow  the  same  order  as  the 
radiating  or  projecting  quality. — With  re- 
gard to  combined  caloric,  it  has  been 
shown  that  solids,  during  liquefaction, 
imbibe  a  quantity  of  caloric,  which  ceases 
to  be  obvious,  both  to  our  senses  and  to 
the  thennometer.  The  same  is  also  true 
of  soUds  and  Uquids  in  their  conversion 


m 


CALORIC— CALPURNIUS. 


into  vapors  or  gases ;  a  portion  of  caloric, 
which  is  essential  to  the  elasticity  of  the 
new  product,  ceases  to  become  apparent. 
Whenever  this  effect  takes  place,  cold  is 
said  to  be  produced ;  by  which  we  are 
only  to  understand  the  passage  of  caloric 
from  a  free  to  a  latent  form.  The  reverse 
of  these  phenomena  has  also  been  satis- 
factorily established ;  viz.  when  the  densi- 
ty of  bodies  is  increased,  either  by  cheniical 
or  mechanical  means,  caloric  is  evolved. 
For  example,  a  high  temperature  is  pro- 
duced by  mingluig  cold  sulphuric  acid 
and  water ;  metals  become  intensely  heat- 
ed by  the  augmentation  of  their  density 
through  haimnering  ;  Uquids,  by  be- 
coming solids,  or  gases  by  convereion  in- 
to liquids,  also  evolve  caloric.  A  pound 
of  water,  condensed  from  steam,  will  ren- 
der 100  pounds  of  water  at  50°  warmer 
by  11°;  whereas,  a  pound  of  boiling  wa- 
ter will  produce  the  same  rise  of  temper- 
ature in  no  more  than  about  13.12  pounds ; 
and,  since  steam  and  boiling  water  affect 
the  thermometer  in  the  same  manner, 
tliis  effect  can  be  produced  only  from  the 
existence  of  a  much  greater  quantity  of 
caloric  in  the  former  than  in  the  latter. 
— The  sources  of  caloric  are  six ;  viz.  the 
sun's  rays,  combustion,  percussion,  fric- 
tion, the  mixture  of  different  substances, 
and  electricity. 

Calorimeter  ;  an  instrument  to  meas- 
ure the  capacity  of  a  body  for  caloric,  or  its 
specific  caloric.  The  thermometer  (q.  v.) 
measures  merely  the  variations  of  tem- 
perature, or  sensible  heat.  The  body  in 
the  calorimeter  is  placed  in  the  innermost 
of  three  concentric  vessels,  tlie  two  outer 
ones  containing  ice  ;  the  quantity  of  wa- 
ter produced  by  the  cooling  of  the  body 
a  given  number  of  degrees,  determines  its 
specific  caloric.  This  instrument  vias  in- 
vented by  Lavoisier  and  Laplace.  In  the 
C.  invented  by  Rumford,  water  is  used ; 
the  capacity  of  the  body  is  determined  by 
the  number  of  degrees  which  the  temper- 
ature of  the  water  is  raised,  in  cooling  the 
body  a  given  number  of  degrees. 

Calorimotor.  (See  Galvanic  Battery.) 
Calottists,  or  the  Regiment  de  la 
Calotte  ;  a  society  which  sprung  up  at 
Paris,  in  the  last  years  of  the  reign  of 
Louis  XIV,  and  formed  a  regiment  uuder 
the  name  Lm  Calotte,  signifying  a  flat  cap 
of  a  peculiar  shape,  which  was  tlie  symbol 
of  the  society.  All  were  admitted  whose 
ridiculous  behavior,  odd  character,  foolish 
opinions,  &c.,  had  exposed  them  to  public 
criticism.  They  had  a  singular  coat  of 
arms,  on  wliich  was  the  sceptre  of  Momus, 
with  bells,  apes,  rattles,  &c. :  on  their 


principal  standard  were  the  words  "  Pa- 
vet  Momus,  luna  influit."  Everj'  one  who 
made  himself  particularly  ridiculous  re- 
ceived letters-patent,  and  those  who  were 
most  angry  were  most  laughed  at.  On 
the  death  of  Toi-sac,  the  colonel  of  the 
Calottists,  the  eloge  (a  spirited  satire  on 
the  academical  style),  which  the  Calottists 
pronounced  on  this  occasion,  was  sup- 
pressed. Aimon,  colonel  of  the  guards, 
hastened  to  marshal  Villars  with  their 
complaints,  and  concluded  with  the  words, 
"  My  lord,  since  the  death  of  Alexander 
and  Caesar,  the  Calottists  have  not  had  any 
protector  besides  you,"  and  the  order  was 
retracted.  They  became,  however,  too 
bold,  attacked  the  ministers,  and  even 
foreign  kings ;  and  the  regiment  was,  in 
consequence,  dissolved.  Of  a  similar 
character  is  the  Academy  of  Fools,  which, 
for  many  years,  has  existed  in  Duisburg. 
Some  act  of  folly  is  necessary  to  procure 
a  man  admission  as  a  member. 

Caloyers  ;  Greek  monks,  who  chiefly 
reside  on  mount  Athos,  and  lead  a  very 
solitary  and  austere  life,  eating  no  meat, 
and  observing  the  fasts  of  the  Greek 
church  verj'  rigidly.  They  do  not  even 
eat  bread,  unless  they  have  earned  it. 
Duiing  their  7  weeks  of  Lent,  tliey  pass 
tlie  greatest  part  of  the  night  in  weeping 
and  lamentations  for  their  own  sins  and 
for  those  of  others.  The  Turks  some- 
times call  tlieir  dervishes  by  this  name. 

Calpe.     (See  Ahyla  and  Gibraltar.) 

Calprenede,  Gauthier  de  Costes  de  la, 
born  in  Tolgou,  in  Gascony,  died  at  Paris 
in  16G3,  in  the  ofiice  of  royal  cham- 
berlain. He  was  one  of  the  authors  who, 
ui  the  17th  century,  brought  into  fashion 
a  new  kind  of  voluminous  and  long-spua 
romances  of  chivalrj.  Events  from  the 
Greek  and  Roman  history  were  treated  in 
the  spirit  and  manner  of  the  old  romances 
of  chivalry.  C.  wrote  Cassandra,  in  10 
vols.,  Cleopatra,  in  12  vols.,  Pharamond, 
in  7,  besides  some  tragedies.  His  trage- 
dies obtained  httle  reputation  by  the  side 
of  those  of  Comeille,  but  his  romances 
were  highly  celebrated,  and  are,  certainly, 
the  best  of  their  kind.  He  is  not  desti- 
tute of  poetical  imagination,  and  his  char- 
acters are  often  dignified  and  well  drawn, 
though  his  Artabtui  has  become  a  pro- 
verbial name  for  exaggeration.  He  wrote 
with  great  rapidity.  His  plots,  however, 
are  constructed  with  care,  and  his  stories, 
long  as  they  are,  are  not  deficient  in  keep- 
ing. His  lady  has  surpassed  him  in  bold- 
nessof  romantic  narration  in  Les Nbuvelles 
de  la  Princesse  Mddiane. 

Calpurnids,  Titus  JuUus,  a  native  of 


CALPURNIUS— CALVERT. 


421 


Sicily,  lived  in  the  8d  century.  We  have 
7  idyls  written  by  him,  which  are  not 
Avilliout  merit,  and  approach  near  to 
those  of  Virgil,  although  they  are  inferior 
to  them  in  elegance  and  purity,  as  well 
as  to  those  of  Theocritus  in  simplicity 
and  conformity  to  nature.  The  best  edi- 
tion is  that  of  Beck  (Leipsic,  1803). 

Caltrop;  a  kindoftliistle, armed  with 
prickles,  which  grows  in  France,  Italy  and 
Spain,  and  is  troublesome  by  rumiing  in- 
to the  feet  of  cattle.  Hence,  in  the  mili- 
tary art,  C.  is  an  instrument  with  4  iron 
jjointsi,  disposed  in  a  triangular  form,  3 
of  them  being  turned  to  the  ground,  and 
the  other  pointing  upwards.  They  are 
used  to  impede  the  progress  of  cavahy. 

Calumet;  the  Indian  pipe  of  peace. 
The  origin  of  the  word  is  doubtful.  Ileck- 
ewelder,  in  his  Narrative  of  the  Mission 
of  the  United  Brethren  among  the  Dela- 
ware and  Mohegan  Indians  (Phil.  1820), 
gives  several  derivations.  Mr.  Dupon- 
ceau  thinks  it  may  come  from  the  French 
chalumeau,  a  reed.  Upon  all  .occasions, 
when  Indian  chiefs  and  warriors  meet  in 
peace,  or  at  the  close  of  a  war  with  those 
of  another  nation,  in  their  talks  and  trea- 
ties with  the  wliites,  or  even  when  a  sin- 
gle person  of  distinction  comes  among 
them,  the  calumet  is  handed  round  with 
ceremonies  peculiar  to  each  tribe,  and 
each  member  of  the  company  draws  a  few 
whifFs.  To  accept  the  calumet,  is  to 
agree  to  the  terms  proposed ;  to  refuse  it, 
is  to  reject  them.  Some  symbols  of  ami- 
ty are  found  among  all  nations :  the  white 
flag,  or  flag  of  truce,  of  the  moderns,  and 
the  olive  branch  of  the  ancients,  are  simi- 
lar in  character  to  the  Indian  calumet. 
The  calumet  is  still  in  use  among  the  In- 
dians, apd  was  introduced  at  a  late  inter- 
view between  president  Adams  and  the 
chiefs  of  some  Indian  tribes.  Tobacco 
is  smoked  in  the  calumet,  and  the  leaves 
of  various  other  kinds  of  plants.  The  bowl 
of  this  pipe  is  made  of  different  kinds  of 
marble,  and  the  stem  of  a  reed,  or  of  some 
light  kind  of  wood,  which  is  easily  jjcrfo- 
rated.  This  stem  is  adorned  in  various 
ways ;  sometimes  it  is  marked  with  the  fig- 
ures of  animals,  and  hieroglyphical  deline- 
ations, and  almost  univei-sally  has  beautiful 
feathers  attached  to  it,  disposed  according 
to  the  taste  of  the  individual,  or  of  the  tribe 
to  which  he  belongs.  The  calumet  dance  i-s 
the  least  hideous  of  the  Indian  dances. 
It  is  of  a  peaceful  character,  and  seems  to 
be  intended  to  represent,  by  a  series  of 
movements,  the  power  and  utility  of  the 
calumet.  It  is  rude  and  simple,  as  are  all 
the  dances  of  tlie  Indians. 
VOL.  II.  36 


Calvados  ;  a  dangerous  ridge  of  rocks 
on  the  north  coast  of  Normandy,  extend- 
ing (lat.  49°  22'  N.)  to  the  west  of  Orne, 
for  the  space  of  10  or  12  miles.  It  is  so 
called  from  a  Sjianish  vessel  once  ^\Tecked 
on  it,  and  gives  its  name  to  the  depart- 
ment, (q.  V.) 

Calvados.     (See  Departments.) 

Calvart,  Dionysius,  a  painter,  boiTi  at 
Antweqi,  in  15.55,  went,  very  young,  to 
Ital)',  as  a  landscape  painter ;  where,  in 
order  to  learn  how  to  draw  figures,  he 
entered  the  school  of  Fontana  and  Sabba- 
tini,  in  Bologna,  wth  the  latter  of  whom 
he  visited  Rome.  After  having  passed 
some  time  in  copying  the  })aintings  of 
Raphael,  he  opened  a  school  at  Bologna, 
from  which  proceeded  137  masters,  and 
among  these  Albano,  Guido  and  Domeni- 
chino.  The  people  of  Bologna  regarded 
him  as  one  of  the  restorers  of  their  school, 
])aiticularly  in  respect  to  coloring.  C. 
understood  perspective,  anatomy  and  archi- 
tecture ;  but  the  attitudes  of  his  figures  are 
sometimes  mean  and  exaggerated.  He  died 
in  1619,  at  Bologna,  where  are  his  best 
paintings.  Agostin  Caracci  and  Sadeler 
have  engraved  some  of  his  works. 

Calvary  (in  Ileb.,  Golgotha,  the  skvll, 
Luke  xxiii.  33.,  or  the  place  of  the  skull, 
Matt.xxvii.  33.) ;  a  mountain  situated  with- 
out the  walls  of  Jerusalem,  on  which  Je- 
sus Christ  was  crucified.  JMatthew  re- 
lates, that,  at  the  time  when  our  Savior 
expired,  the  earth  shook,  and  the  rocks 
si)lit ;  and  some  modern  travellers  assert 
that  the  fissures  in  this  mountain  do  not 
follow  the  direction  of  the  strata,  but  are 
evidently  supernatural.  Jewsh  traditions 
afiinned,  that  Adam  was  buried  on  mount 
Calvary  {credat  Judaus),  and  the  early 
Christians  believed  that  Jesus  Christ  was 
crucified  here,  that  the  blood  shed  for  the 
redemption  of  the  world  might  also  pu- 
rify the  remains  of  the  first  sinner! — Cal- 
varies are  small  chapels,  raised  on  hills 
in  the  vicinity  of  cities,  with  a  crucifix, 
in  allusion  to  the  place  and  manner  of 
Christ's  death.  Thus  the  calvary  of 
mount  Valerian,  near  Paris,  is  composed 
of  7  chapels,  in  each  of  which  some  m3's- 
tery  of  the  passion  is  represented. 

Calvert,  George,  the  fii*st  baron  of 
Baltimore,  was  descended  of  a  Flemish 
family  settled  at  Kipling,  in  Yorkshire, 
where  he  was  born  in  1582.  He  was 
educated  at  Oxford,  and,  after  travelling 
abroad,  entered  into  the  service  of  Robert 
Cecil,  afterwards  earl  of  Salisbury.  He 
was  knighted  by  James  I,  and  made  clerk 
of  the  privy  council,  and,  in  1619,  was 
appointed  one  of  the  secretaries  of  state. 


423 


CALVERT— CALVIN. 


This  post  he  resigned  in  1624,  in  conse- 
quence of  having  become  a  Roman  Cath- 
olic. Notwitiistanding  this,  lie  retained 
the  confidence  of  the  king,  who,  in  1(J2.5, 
raised  liim  to  the  Irisli  peerage  of  Baltimore, 
He  had  previously  obtained  a  grant  of 
lajid  in  the  island  of  Newfoundland, 
■wliere  he  was  j)revented  from  making  a 
settlement  by  the  invasions  of  the  French. 
He  therefore  resigned  his  claim,  receiving, 
instead  of  it,  a  territory  on  the  Ameri- 
cnn  continent,  now  forming  the  state  of 
Maryland.  This  countiy  was  colonized 
under  the  patronage  of  lord  Baltimore, 
■who  displayed  justice  and  good  faith  in 
his  dealings  with  the  Indians,  and  liberal- 
ity to  religious  sects  in  his  legislative  ar- 
rangements, highly  creditable  to  his  prin- 
ciples and  character.  He  died  in  Lon- 
don, in  1632.  He  wrote  some  jjolitical 
tracts,  and  his  speeches  in  ])arliaraent  and 
lettei-s  have  also  been  published. 

Calvin,  John  (so  called  from  Calvinus, 
the  Latinized  form  of  his  family  name 
Chauvin),  the  second  great  reformer  of 
tlie  16tli  century,  was  bom  at  Novon,  in 
Picardy,  July  10, 1509.  His  father,  Gerard 
Chauvin,  a  coojjer,  dedicated  him  early 
to  the  church.  C.  says,  in  a  letter  to 
Claude  d'Hangest,  abbot  of  St.  Eloi,  at 
Noyon,  that  he  was  indebted  to  the  family 
of  this  prelate  for  his  fii^st  instruction  and 
a  liberal  education.  When  hardly  12 
years  old,  he  received  a  benefice  in  the 
cathedral  of  his  native  city.  Six  years 
after,  he  was  appointed  to  a  cure,  which 
he  soon  exchanged  for  another.  Thus, 
by  the  means  of  his  benefactors,  he  en- 
joyed, even  before  his  20th  year,  several 
benefices,  and  even  the  title  and  income 
of  a  cure,  while  he  was  yet  pui-suing  his 
studies  in  Paris.  Here  he  became  ac- 
quauited  with  his  townsman  Peter  Robert 
Olivetan,  his  senior  by  some  yeai-s,  from 
■whom  he  received  the  first  genn  of  the 
new  doctrine,  which  was  then  begin- 
ning to  spread  in  France.  He  was  in- 
duced, by  this,  to  renounce  tlie  study  of 
theolog}^,  and  to  devote  himself  to  law,  at 
Orleans,  and  afterward  at  Bourges.  He 
made  rapid  progress  therein,  and,  at  the 
same  time,  studied  die  Greek  language, 
under  Melchior  Vohnar,  a  German,  w^io 
strengthened  the  inclination  for  innova- 
tions already  awakened  m  him  by  Olive- 
tan.  In  1532,  he  returned  to  Paris,  and 
resigned  his  benefices.  In  the  same  yeai-, 
he  pul)lished  a  Latin  commentary  upon 
the  two  books  of  Seneca,  De  Clevientia, 
in  which  he  called  himself  by  his  Latin- 
ized name,  Johannes  Calvinus,  and  was 
obhged,  in  1533,  to  flee  fi-om  Paris,  be- 


cause his  fiiend  Michael  Cop,  rector  of 
the  university,  was  persecuted  on  account 
of  a  thscourse  in  favor  of  the  new  doc- 
trine, in  which  he  was  suspected  of  hav- 
ing particijjated.  C.  took  refuge  in  the 
house  of  Du  Tillet,  a  canon  at  Angou- 
lenie,  with  whom  he  quietly  pursued  his 
studies,  and  began  to  collect  the  materials 
for  liis  Christian  Institution,  which  ap- 
])eared  two  jcars afterwards.  Thence  he 
went  to  Nerac,  to  queen  Margaret  of  Na- 
A'arre,  the  sister  of  Francis  I,  who,  not  so 
much  from  a  decided  inclination  for  the 
new  doctrine,  as  from  love  for  science, 
afforded  refuge  to  several  learned  men, 
who  were  obliged  to  leave  France  on  ac- 
count of  their  opinions.  C.  was  very 
well  received  by  her,  and  here  became 
acquainted  with  several  men,  who,  at  a 
fiuure  time,  were  useful  to  his  party  ;  re- 
turned to  Paris^  but,  in  15-34,  was  again 
ol)liged  to  leave  France.  He  retired  to 
Bale,  where  he  pubhshed  his  Christian 
Institution,  as  the  confession  of  faith  of 
tliose  who  were  persecuted  in  France, 
and  condemned  to  the  stake  ;  in  which  it 
was  his  design  to  free  them  from  the  cal- 
umny, which  had  been  circulated  fi-om 
political  motives,  that  they  were  rebels 
and  Anabaptists,  and  had  nothing  in 
common  with  the  Lutheran  doctrine.  It 
would  be  difficult  briefly  to  relate  how 
he  went  farther  than  Luther  in  regard  to 
the  doctrine  of  fi-ee  will,  of  imputative 
justice,  and  the  merit  of  good  works ;  but 
it  is  more  easy  to  display  the  bold  conse- 
quences which  he  drew  from  his  doc- 
trines. He  attacked  not  only  the  su- 
])remacy  of  the  pope,  but  even  the 
authority  of  general  councils ;  he  does 
not  recognise  the  character  of  a  bishop  or 
a  ])riest  any  more  tlian  that  of  a  visible 
head  of  the  church  ;  he  permits  no  vows 
but  those  of  baptism,  and  no  sacraments 
btit  those  of  baptism  and  the  Lord's  sup- 
per; even  these  he  does  not  regard  as 
indispensable  to  salvation.  The  mass  is 
to  him  a  profanation,  and  the  honors  paid 
to  the  saints,  idolatrj-.  This  work,  Insti- 
tutio  Christiance  Religionis,  appeared  af- 
terwards in  French,  and  almost  every 
jear  was  published  by  him  with  emenda- 
tions and  additions.  The  most  complete 
edition  was  pubhshed  by  Robert  Ste- 
phens, in  1559.  The  prefixed  Prccfatio 
ad  Christianissimum  regem,  qua  hie  ei 
liber  pro  confessione  Jidei  offertur,  could 
not,  however,  put  an  end  to  the  religious 
])ersecutions  in  France  ;  since  Francis  I, 
although  far  from  being  actuated  by  reh- 
gious  fanaticism,  was  influenced,  by  polit- 
ical views,  to  continue  them.    C.  then 


CALVIN. 


423 


went  to  Italy,  to  preach  his  doctrine  there, 
and  met  with  a  favorable  reception  from 
tJjB  duchess  Renata  of  France,  the  daugh- 
ter of  Louis  XII,  and  wife  of  Ercole 
d'Este,  who  subsequently  professed  her 
belief  in  his  doctrines.  But  he  was 
obliged  to  save  himself  by  a  hasty  flight 
from  Aosta,  where  he  was  discovered, 
lie  returned  to  Paris  about  the  middle  of 
tlie  year  1536.  Since,  however,  he  could 
uot  live  there  m  securitj^,  he  resolved  to 
go  to  Bale,  and  took  the  road  througli 
Geneva,  where,  a  year  befJire,  the  new 
doctrine  had  been  introduced  by  a  formal 
decree  of  the  goveniment,  and  P'arel  was 
very  active  in  eftt.'Ctijig  its  estaljlishment. 
With  him  C.  united  himself,  and,  soon 
after,  undertook  a  coui-se  of  theological 
instruction,  to  which  he  devoted  himself 
exclusively,  while  he  left  the  pidpit  to 
Farel.  They  attempted  to  reform  the 
manners  of  the  inhabitants ;  but  this  enter- 
prise, in  which  they  had  connected  them- 
selves with  an  equally  zealous,  but  less 
able  preacher,  drew  upon  them  a  crowd 
of  powerful  enemies,  by  whom  they  were 
at  last  overthrown.  The  cause  of  this 
was  the  following :  the  Genevan  chr.rch 
made  use  of  leavened  bread  in  the  eucha- 
rist,  and  had  removed  the  baptismal  font 
frofn  the  church,  and,  moreover,  abol- 
ished all  holy-days,  except  the  Sabbath. 
These  innovations  were  not  approved  by 
tlie  synod  of  Lausanne.  The  magistracy 
of  Geneva  required  Farel  and  C  to  com- 
ply with  the  decision  of  the  synod,  and 
commanded  them,  on  their  refusal,  to 
leave  the  city  in  three  days.  This  hap- 
pened in  April,  1538.  They  went  to 
Berne ;  and,  since  the  exertions  of  tlie 
magistracy  of  Benie  and  of  the  synod  of 
Zurich  could  not  effect  their  recall,  C. 
went  to  Strasburg,  where  Luther's  doc- 
trine had  been  introduced  by  Bucer  10 
years  before.  Bucer  received  him  very 
kindly,  and  caused  him  to  be  appointed 
professor  of  theology.  At  the  same  time, 
lie  obtained  permission  to  erect  a  French 
church,  which,  on  account  of  the  great 
numl>er  of  fugitives  from  France,  was 
very  important.  Notwithstanding  the 
grout  esteem  in  which  he  was  held  here, 
liis  views  were  still  directed  to  Geneva  ; 
the  inhabitants  of  which  he  exliorted,  m 
two  letters,  to  remain  true  to  the  new 
doctrine,  when  cardinal  Sadolet  invited 
them  to  return  into  the  bosom  of  the 
church.  Here,  also,  in  1540,  C.  published 
his  work  on  the  Lord's  supjjer,  in  which 
lie  sought  to  refute  both  the  opinion  of 
Luther,  who  took  this  sacrament  in  the 
literal  sense,  and  that  of  ZuingUua  (q.  v.), 


who  understood  it  typicallj'.  In  a  con- 
ference held  at  Zurich  in  1549,  he  first 
declared  himself,  unconditionally,  in  favor 
of  the  opinion  of  the  latter.  At  last,  in 
1541,  his  friends  in  Geneva  succeeded  in 
effecting  his  recall ;  a  particular  deputa- 
tion besought  the  magistracy  of  Strasburg 
to  restore  him  to  his  fonner  flock.  Bur, 
as  C.  was  appointed  a  deputy  to  the  diet  at 
Frankfbit,  and  was  afterwards  obliged  to 
be  present  at  the  conference  at  Ratisbon, 
he  was  not  able  to  return  to  Geneva  till 
September  of  the  same  year,  lie  now 
laid  before  the  council  the  draft  of  his 
ordinances  respecting  church-discipline, 
which  were  immechately  accejited,  and 
published  in  November.  In  pui-suance 
of  the  provisions  of  these,  a  consistory 
was  formed,  composed  half  of  clergymen, 
half  of  laymen,  in  order  to  watch  "  over 
the  support  of  the  piu-e  doctrine,"  and 
over  morals.  This  tribunal  called  every- 
body, without  exception,  to  account  for 
their  slightest  words  and  actions,  and  re- 
feiTed  cases,  where  ecclesiastical  censure 
was  not  sufficient,  to  the  council,  with  an 
o]>inion  upon  them.  Thus  C.  made  him- 
self director  of  the  conduct,  as  well  as  of 
the  opinions,  of  the  Genevans.  His  spirit 
governed  exclusively  in  the  council  as  in 
the  consistoiy,  and  the  judges  never  hes- 
itated to  punish  every  one  who  set  him- 
self in  ojiposition  to  him.  Thus  a  magis- 
trate was  deposed  and  condemned  to  two 
months'  imprisonment,  "  because  his  life 
was  irregular,  and  he  was  connected  with 
the  enemies  of  C."  James  Gruet  was 
beheaded,  "  because  he  had  written  pro-, 
fane  letters  and  obscene  verses,  and  en- 
deavored to  oveithroAV  the  ordinances  of 
the  church."  Opinions  were  judged  with 
equal  severity.  It  is  well  kno\vn,  that 
IMichael  Ser\"etus,  on  his  passage  through 
Geneva,  in  1553,  was  arrested,  and,  on  C.'s 
accusation,  was  burnt  alive, because  he  had 
attacked  the  mystery  of  the  Trinity  in  a 
book  which  was  neither  written  nor  print- 
ed at  Geneva.  Numerous  other  similar 
examples  might  be  adduced,  to  prove  the 
bhnd  and  fanatical  zeal  which  he  had  in- 
fused into  the  magistracy  of  Geneva,  lor 
the  support  of  good  morals,  and  of  what 
he  esteemed  sound  doctrine  ;  and,  by  this 
means,  he  succeeded  in  putting  a  check 
upon  innovations,  and  upon  the  spirit  of 
inquiry,  and  in  introducing  a  character 
of  austerity  among  his  adherents.  He 
also  proposed  alterations  in  the  civil  legis- 
lation of  the  Genevans,  and  ui  the  form 
of  their  government,  in  which  some 
French  refugees  were  useful  to  him. 
For  tlie  advancement  of  useful  studies. 


424 


CALVIN— CALVISIUS. 


he  erected  the  academy  so  hajipily  con- 
ducted by  his  friend  Tlieodore  Beza. — 
Wlien  we  consider  all  that  C.  did  during 
his  continuance  in  Geneva,  we  can  hardly 
conceive  how  he  could  have  accomplish- 
ed so  much.  He  preached  almost  daily, 
delivered  theological  lectures  three  times 
a  week,  attended  all  deliberations  of  the 
consistory,  tdl  sittings  of  the  association 
of  ministei-s,  and  Avas  the  soul  of  ail  the 
councils.     He  was  consulted,  too,  upon 

Soints  of  law  as  well  as  of  theologj'. 
lesides  this,  he  found  time  to  attend  to 
political  affairs  in  the  name  of  tlie  repub- 
lic ;  to  pubhsh  a  multitude  of  writings  in 
defence  of  his  opinions,  of  which  his 
commentaries  on  the  Bible  are  the  most 
impoitant ;  and  to  maintain  a  conespon- 
dence  through  all  Europe,  but  principally 
in  France,  where  he  labored  incessantly 
to  extend  the  new  doctrine.  Besides  his 
printed  sermons,  the  library  of  Geneva 
contains  2025  in  manuscript,  and,  like 
tJiat  of  Berne,  several  tlieological  treatises 
not  i)rinted.  i  Although  C.  differed  fi-om 
Luther  in  essential  points,  yet  his  adhe- 
rents were  not  distinguished  from  tlie  Lu- 
therans in  the  edicts  of  Francis  I  and 
Henry  II,  nor  even  in  the  edict  of  Rouen 
in  1559.  They  themselves,  indeed,  re- 
garded C.  as  their  head,  but  without  con- 
sidering tliemselves  as  different,  on  this 
account,  from  the  adherents  of  Luther. 
A  formal  separation  first  took  place  after 
the  colloquium  (conference)  of  Poissy,  in 
1561,  where  they  expressly  rejected  the 
10th  article  of  the  confession  of  Augs- 
burg, besides  some  otliers,  and  took  the 
name  of  Calvinists.  C.  died  May  27,  m 
the  55th  year  of  his  age.  He  was  of  a 
weak  constitution,  and  suffered  from  fre- 
quent sickness.  In  Strasburg,  he  had 
married  a  widow,  Idelette  de  Burie,  in 
1539:  a  son,  the  fruit  of  their  union,  died 
early.  In  1549,  he  lost  his  wife,  after 
which  he  never  married  again.  He  was 
temperate  and  austere,  gloomy  and  in- 
flexible. He  knewnotliing  of  friendship, 
and  Ijad  no  other  ])assion  llian  to  estab- 
lish the  opinions  which  he  believed  to  be 
correct.  His  disinterestedness  was  rai'e. 
He  had  a  yearly  stipend  of  150  francs,  15 
measures  of  corn,  and  2  casks  of  wine : 
he  never  received  a  larger  one.  The 
value  of  the  whole  property  which  he 
left,  in  books,  furniture,  money,  &c.,  did 
not  exceed  125  crowns.  His  character 
was  impetuous,  and  impatient  of  contia- 
diction.  "  I  have,"  he  writes  to  Buccr, 
"  no  harder  batries  agamst  my  suis,  which 
are  great  and  numerous,  than  those  in 
which  I  seek  to  conquer  my  impatience. 


I  have  not  yet  gained  the  mastery  over 
this  raging  beast."     The  tone  of  his  con- 
troversies is  always  harsh,  bitter  and  con- 
temjjtuous.    He  does  not  always  succeed 
in  concealing  the  feeling  of  his  own  su- 
periority.    As  a  theologian,  C.  was  equal 
to  any  of  his  contemporaries  in  profoinid 
knowledge,  acuteness  of  mind,  and,  as  he 
himself  boasts,  in  the  art  of  making  good 
a  ])oint  in  question.      As  an  author,  he 
merits  great  praise.     His  Latin  works  are 
written  with  nmch  method,  dignity  and 
correctness.     He  was  also  a  great  jurist 
and   an  able   politician.      But   all   these 
qualities  would  not  have  been  sufficient 
to  make  him  the  head  of  a  distinct  reli- 
gious sect,  had  he  not  boldly  rejected  all 
religious  ceremonies.    By  tliis  means,  he 
gained,  on  the  one  side,  the  higldy  culti- 
vated, who  were  induced  to  look  upon 
visible   forms   in  religion   as    something 
derogatory,  and  also  gave  the  uneducated 
an  easy  means  of  distinguishing  them- 
selves from  the  opposite  party,  without 
the  necessity  of  examining  the  grounds 
of  their  faith,  for  which  they  were  neither 
inclined  nor  qualified. — The  chief  doc- 
trines of  C.'s  system  are  those  which  were 
discussed  at  the  famous  synod  of  Dort, 
under  the  following   heads :   predestina- 
tion, particular  redemption^  total  depravity, 
irresistible  grace,  and  the  certain  perse- 
verance of  the  saints.     In  succeeding  coii- 
trovei-sies,  these  were  denominated  the/re 
points.    The  doctrine  of  original  sin,  often 
set  forth  as  peculiar  to  C.'s  system,  is  com- 
mon to  those  of  many  Protestant  sects. 
The   followers   of  C,  in  Germany,  are 
called  the  Reformed,  but  the  doctrine  of 
predestination,  it  may  be  safely  said,  is 
eveiy  day  losing  ground  in  that  country. 
In  France,  it  is  well  known,  most  Prot- 
estants are  Calvinists.    Calvinism  is  the 
professed  behef  of  the  greatest  part  of  the 
Presbyterians  both  of  Europe  and  Amer- 
ica ;  the  Particular  Ba])tist5,  in  England 
and  India,  and  the  Associated  Baptists  in 
America ;  the  Independents  of  every  class 
in  England  and  Scotland,  and  the  Con- 
gregationalists  of  New  England. 

Calvi.nism.  (See  the  conclusion  of 
the  preceding  article  ;  also  Protestants.) 

Calvisius,  Seth  ;  a  musician  and  chro- 
nologer  of  the  IGth  century.  He  was  the 
son  of  a  Thuringian  peasant,  Jacob  Kal- 
wiz ;  was  born  m  15o0,  and,  after  a  lib- 
eral musical  and  scientific  education, 
became  chanter  at  the  Schulpforta  and 
at  the  Thomas  school  at  Leipsic.  He 
died  in  1(517.  His  valuable  works  on  the 
theorj'  of  music,  written  in  good  Latin, 
are  mentioned  in  Gerber's  Biographical 


CALVISIUS— CAMBACERES. 


425 


Lexicon  of  Musicians.  He  composed, 
also,  many  important  chronological  and 
other  scientific  works.  Zach  calls  him 
an  exact  and  zealous  investigator  of  chro- 
nology, possessed  of  as  much  leai-ning  as 
penetration. 

Calx  ;  properly  lime  or  chalk  (hence 
calcarious  earth) ;  but  the  term  is  more 
generally  apjjlied  to  the  residuum  of  a 
metal  or  mineral  which  has  been  suljject- 
ed  to  violent  heat,  burning  or  calcination 
(q.  v.),  solution  by  acids,  or  detonation  by 
uitre,  and  which  is  or  may  be  reduced  to 
a  fine  powder.  Metallic  calces  are  now 
called  oxydes.  (q.  v.)  They  weigh  more 
tlian  the  metal  from  which  tliey  are  pro- 
duced, on  account  of  the  oxygen  which 
tliey  have  absorbed. 

Calydon  ;  an  ancient  city  of  ^Etolia, 
celebrated  in  the  stories  of  king  CEneus, 
tlie  Calydonian  boar,  and  Dejanira  and 
Hercules.  CEneus,  as  the  fable  runs,  had 
forgotten  Diana  in  a  solemn  sacrifice  of- 
fered to  all  the  gods;  that  goddess,  in 
revenge,  sent  a  terrible  boar,  which  laid 
waste  the  fields  and  gardens.  In  order  to 
slay  this  monster,  Meleager,  the  son  of 
CEneus,  solicited  the  aid  of  tlie  boldest 
heroes  of  Greece — Tiieseus,  Jason,  Nes- 
tor, &c.  Several  of  the  assailants  ])erish- 
ed.  Meleager  filially  pierced  him  in  the 
back  with  his  javelin,  and  the  otliers 
speetUly  despatched   him.     (See  J\Idea- 

Caltpso  ;  a  daughter  of  Atlas  (some 
say  of  Nereus  and  Doris,  or  of  Oceanus 
and  Thetis).  She  inhabited  the  woody 
island  Ogygia,  situated  deep  in  the  ocean, 
and  lived  remote  from  all  intercourse  with 
gods  and  men.  Ulysses  having  suffered 
shipwreck  on  her  island,  she  received  him 
kindly,  and  promised  him  innnortality  if 
he  would  consent  to  maiYy  her.  But  his 
desire  of  beholding  his  country  and  his 
wife  overcame  the  channsof  the  goddess, 
Seven  years  he  had  to  remain  with  her. 
Mercury  finally  brought  C.  the  command 
of  Jupiter,  that  Ulysses  should  be  permits, 
ted  to  return  to  his  home.  This  com- 
mand she  dared  not  o])pose,  Ulysses 
departed,  but  C,  who  had  borne  him  two 
children,  Nausinous  and  NausithiJus,  died 
of  grief.  This  subject  has  been  wrought 
up  in  many  different  ways. 

Camaieu,  or  Cam^o.-  (See  Cameo.) 
Camaieu  is  also  used  for  a  })ainting 
wherein  there  is  only  one  color,  and 
where  the  lights  and  shades  are  of  gold, 
wrought  on  a  golden  or  azure  ground. 
When  the  ground  is  yellow,  the  French 
call  it  cirai^e,  when  gray,  grissaile.  This 
kind  of  work  is  cliiefly  used  to  represent 
3G* 


basso-relievos.    The  Greeks  call  pieces  of 

this  sort  Itoio^paiiarci. 

Camaldolites,  Camaldulians,  or  Ca- 
MALDUNiANS  ;  liemiits  and  monks  of  the 
order  established,  in  1012,  by  St.  Ronm- 
ald,  a  Benedictine  of  Ravenna,  in  the 
valley  of  Camaldoli,  near  Arezzo,  in  the 
Apennuies,  and  confirmed  afterwards  by 
pope  Alexander  III.  They  were  origin- 
ally hermits,  living  in  separate  cells  ;  but, 
as  their  wealth  increased,  the  greater  piu-t 
of  them  associated  in  conv^ents.  They 
existed  in  Italy,  France,  Germany  anil 
Poland.  In  the  18th  century,  there  were 
five  independent  fraternities  of  them : — 
1.  at  Camaldoli ;  2.  at  Cronenberg,  near 
Perugia ;  3.  at  Turin  ;  4.  at  Grandbois, 
near  Paris ;  5.  at  3Iurano,  in  the  Vene- 
tian territory ;  besides  12  monasteries  of 
Canialduhan  nuns.  White  garments  and 
the  austere  rules  of  the  Benedictines  they 
all  had  in  common.  The  hermits  wore 
beards,  and  had  still  more  severe  rules  in 
regard  to  fasting,  silence  and  penances. 
Their  hfe  was  devoted  to  contem}»lation 
rather  than  to  usefuhiess.  Joseph  II  and 
the  French  revolution  put  an  end  to  the 
order. — There  is,  in  the  vicinity  of  Na- 
ples, a  mountain  which  takes  its  name 
from  a  convent  of  the  Camaldoli,  situated 
on  its  top,  from  which  the  traveller  en- 
joys a  ])rospect  of  remarkable  grandeur 
and  beauty.  It  seemed  to  us  the  most 
charming  of  all  the  beautiful  views 
around  Naples ;  yet  the  sj)ot  is  not  much 
visited  by  travellers. 

Camargce,  or  Camarque,  la  ;  a  piece 
of  land,  insulated  by  the  two  principal 
mouths  of  the  Rhone,  sometimes  called  the 
Delta  of  France.  It  is  a  cluster  of  islands 
extending  over  nearly  200  square  miles. 

Cambaceres,  Jean  Jacques  Regis  ;  ex- 
duke  of  Parma,  prince  and  archchancellor 
of  the  French  empire,  member  of  the  in-r 
stitute ;  bom  in  1753,  at  Montpellier,  of  an 
ancientyamiY/e  de  robe  (family  of  lawyei-s), 
His  zeal  and  talents  soon  obtained  him 
distinction  and  the  office  of  a  counsellor 
at  the  cour  des  comptcs  at  Montpellier. 
At  the  beginning  of  the  revolution,  he  re- 
ceived several  public  offices,  became,  in 
September,  1792,  a  member  of  the  con- 
vention, and  labored  in  the  committees, 
paiticularly  in  the  committee  of  legis- 
lation, Dec.  12,  1792,  he  was  commis- 
sioned to  inquire  of  Louis  XVI  whom  he 
desired  for  his  counsel,  and  it  was  on  his 
motion  tliat  the  counsel  was  allowed  to 
communicate  freely  with  tlie  king.  In 
January,  1793,  he  declared  Louis  guilty, 
but  disputed  the  right  of  the  convention 
to  judge  him,  and  voted  for  his  provisory 


426 


CAMBACERES— CAMBRIDGE. 


arrest,  and,  in  case  of  a  hostile  invasion, 
doatli.  The  24th  of  January,  he  was 
cJiosen  secretary  of  the  convention.  As 
a  member  of  the  committee  of  pubhc 
safety,  he  reported,  in  the  session  of 
Mareii  26,  the  treason  of  Douraouriez. 
In  August  and  October,  1793,  he  present- 
ed liis  first  plan  for  a  civil  code,  in  which 
hi.s  deinocratical  notions  were  displayed. 
Ill  an  intercepted  letter  of  Antraigue, 
these  words  were  found  :  "  I  do  not  won- 
der at  all  that  C  is  among  those  who 
wish  for  the  return  of  royalty.  I  know 
him,"  &c.  C.  confuted  the  charge,  and 
llie  convention  ordered  his  speech  to  be 
jmnted  ;  but  his  character  as  a  republican 
had  been  shaken,  and  he  was  not  receiv- 
ed into  the  directoiy  for  which  he  was 
nominated.  He  entered  into  the  council 
of  the  live  hundred,  where  he  presented 
a  new  j)lan  for  a  code  civile.  This  Projet 
dp.  Code  civile,  1796,  became,  subsequently, 
the  foundation  of  the  Code  JVaj^oleon. 
May  20,  1797,  he  left  his  seat  m  the 
council.  A  year  afterwards,  he  a])peared 
anjong  the  electors  of  Paris;  and,  after 
the  revolution  of  the  30th  Prairial,  VII 
(19th  of  June,  1799),  he  was  made  minis- 
ter of  justice.  On  the  18th  of  Brumaire, 
iie  was  chosen  second  consul,  and  enter- 
ed on  tlje  ofiice  in  December.  He  made 
the  administration  of  justice  the  chief  ob- 
ject of  his  attention.  After  Napoleon  had 
ascended  the  throne,  C.  was  appointed 
Hi'chchancellor  of  the  empire,  and  after- 
wartl,  grand  officer  of  the  legion  of  honor, 
obtained,  successively,  almost  all  the  dis- 
tinguished foreign  orders,  and,  in  1808, 
was  made  duke  of  Panna..  He  always 
showed  a  remarkable  attachment  to  Na- 
poleon. The  numerous  edicts  which 
ajT])eared  during  his  government  Avere 
drawn  up  by  C.  Duruig  the  campaign 
of  Napoleon  against  the  allied  powers  in 
1813,  C.  was  made  president  of  the  coun- 
cil of  regency.  At  the  a])proach  of  tlie 
allies  in  1814,  he  followed  the  govenmient 
to  Blois,  and,  from  tlmt  place,  sent  his 
consent  to  the  abdication  of  tlie  emperor. 
When  Napoleon  returned,  in  1815,  C.  was 
again  made  archchancellor  and  minister 
of  justice,  and,  subsequently,  president  of 
the  chamber  of  peere.  After  tlie  second 
fall  of  Napoleon,  he  was  banished.  He 
went  to  Brussels.  In  December,  1818, 
tlie  king  permitted  him  to  return  to  Paris, 
■where  he  hved  afterwards  as  a  private  ui- 
dividual,  and  died  March  8,  1824. 

Cambodia,  or  Camboge,  or  Camboja, 
or  Camboya  ;  a  country  in  Asia,  between 
10°  and  15°  N.  lat.,  bounded  N.  by  Laos, 
E.  by  Cocliin-China  and  Chiampa,  S.  by 


the  sea,  and  W.  by  Siatn ;  about  400  miles 
in  length  and  150  in  breadth.  Population 
vaguely  estimated  at  1,000,000.  Tlie  air 
is  exceedingly  hot,  which  compels  the  in- 
habitants to  reside  chiefly  by  the  sides  of 
rivers  or  lakes,  where  they  ai-e  tormented 
by  mosquitoes.  The  soil  is  very  fertile. 
Gold  of  great  purity,  amethysts,  hyacinths, 
rubies,  topazes  and  other  precious  stones 
are  found.  Cattle  are  exceedingly  nu- 
merous. Elej)luuits,  lions,  tigers,  and  al- 
most all  the  animals  of  the  deserts  of  Af- 
rica, are  found  here.  The  capital  is  also 
called  Cambodia,  or  Leveck.  Lon.  104° 
35'  E. ;  lat.  13°  N. 

Cambodia,  or  Do.nnai  ;  a  river  in  Asia, 
called,  also,  in  difterent  parts  of  its  coui-sc, 
Kiou-Lo7io;  May-Kanng,  Mecori  or  Miron, 
which  rises  in  Thibet,  passes  through 
Yunnan,  a  province  of  China,  the  coun- 
tries of  Laos  and  Cambodia,  and  runs  into 
the  Chinese  sea ;  lon.  104°  lO'  E. ;  lat.  10° 
N.  It  is  navigable  for  the  largest  vessels 
40  leagues,  and  is  generally  two  miles 
wide,  and  very  deep.     (See  Mecon.) 

Cambrat,  or  Camerich,  a  large  and 
strongly  fortified  city  (having  3000  houses 
and  1 5,600  inhaliitants),  lies  on  the  Scheldt, 
in  tlie  French  Netherlands,  dejiartment 
of  the  North,  and  contains  a  number  of 
manufactories.  From  this  place  comes 
the  hiien  cloth  known  by  the  name  of 
cambric.  C.  has  been  tlie  seat  of  an  arch- 
bisiiop  since  the  16th  century.  In  the 
cathedral  church  is  Fenelon's  monument. 
Inl508,theleague(q.v.)against  Venice  was 
concluded  at  C. ;  in  1529,  tlie  peace  with 
Charles  V  (see  Francis  1) ;  and,  in  1724, 
negotiations  for  peace  were  begun  here 
by  the  emperor  Charles  VI  and  Philip  V, 
which  were  terminated  at  Vienna,  in  1725. 

Cambridge  ;  a  post-town  in  Middlesex 
county,  Massachusetts,  on  the  north  side 
of  Charles  river,  three  miles  W.  N.  W.  of 
Boston.  Population,  in  1820,  3295.  C. 
consists  of  three  principal  parts  or  di- 
visions, namely,  Old  Cambridge,  which 
contains  th(!  university,  a  state  ai-senal,  a 
Congregational  meeting-house,  an  Episco- 
l>al  church,  &c. ;  Cambridge-Port,  which 
is  a  considerable  trading  village,  contain- 
hig  four  houses  of  public  worship,  and  is 
connected  with  Boston  by  West  Boston 
bridge;  East  Cambridge,  a  flourishing 
manufacturing  village,  which  is  situated 
on  Leclimere  point,  is  connected  whh 
Boston  by  Craigie's  or  Canal  bridge,  and 
contains  a  court-house,  a  jail,  a  large  glass 
manufactory,  and  three  houses  of  public 
worship.  The  university  in  C,  the  oldest 
in  the  U.  States,  was  incorporated  in  1638, 
and  named  Harvard  college,  from  its  prm- 


C.\aiBRIDGE. 


437 


cipal  founder.    Its  endoAAinents  have  been 
since  greatly  increased  by  donations  from 
tlie  state,  as  well  as  by  numerous  acts  of 
private  bounty  ;  and,  with  regard  to  funds, 
libraiy,  professorships,  and  literary  ad- 
vantages in  general,  it  is  the  first  uistitu- 
tion  of  the  kind  in  America.     It  compris- 
es a  department  for  under-graduates,  and 
one  for  students  prejiaruig  tor  each  of  the 
learned   professions,   theology,   law    and 
medicine.     The  principal  college  build- 
ings are.  University  hall,  an  elegant  edifice 
of  granite,  containing   a  chapel,  lecture 
rooms,  dining  halls,  &c. ;  Harvard  hall,  a 
brick  edifice,  containing  the  library,  phi- 
losophical  apparatus   and    inineralogical 
cabinet;  four  other  brick  edifices,  called 
Massachusetts,  HoUis,  Stoughton  and  Hol- 
worthy  halls,  each  four  stories  high,  con- 
taining rooms  for  the  accommodation  of 
under-graduates ;   Divinity  hall,   a   large 
brick  edifice  for  the  accommodation  of 
the    theological    students ;    and    llolden 
chapel,  containing  the  anatomical  muse- 
um, chemical  laboratory  and  lecture  rooms. 
The  library  is  the  largest  in  the  union, 
and  contains  about  30,000  volumes.     The 
philosophical   apparatus   is  pj-obably  not 
surpassed   by  any  in  the  countrj'.     The 
chemical  laboratorj'',  anatomical  museum, 
and  cabinet  of  minerals,  are  all  valuable. 
The  botanic  garden  comprises  seven  acres, 
laid  out  in  an  ornamental  style,  and  is 
furnished  with  an  interesting  collection  of 
trees,  shrubs  and  plants,  both  native  and 
foreign.     The   legislative  government  is 
intrusted  to  a  corporation,  consisting  of 
the  president  of  the  uinversity  and   six 
fellows,  and  to  a  board  of  overseers,  com- 
posed of  the  president,  the  governor  of 
the   state,   lieutenant-governor,  members 
of  the  council  and  senate,  and  the  speak- 
er of  the  house  of  representatives,  tx  offi- 
ciis,  together  with  30  othei"S,  15  clergy- 
men and  15  laymen,  elected  for  the  pur- 
pose.    The  officers  of  the  university,  to 
whom  the  business  of  instruction  is  con- 
fided, are  a  president,  21  professors,  2  tu- 
tors, and  several  instrudtrs.     The  presi- 
dent, a  part  of  the  professors  and  the  tu- 
toi-s  constitute  the  inunediate  govemment 
of  the  insfitution.     The  course  of  educa- 
tion requisite  to  obtain  the  first  degree  in 
arts   in   tliis   university,  as   in  American 
colleges  generally,  is  completed  in  four 
years.      In    the   theological   school,   the 
coui-se  of  education  is  comjjleted  in  three 
years,  and  the  students  are  divided  into 
three  classes,  junior,  middle  and  senior. 
Tuition  is  afforded  free  of  expense  to  all 
pupils  hi  this  school,  and  further  assist^ 
auce  is  given  to  such  as  are   indigent. 


Graduates  of  any  college,  of  good  moral 
character,  may  be  admitted  to  share  in  all 
the  benefits  of  this  institution.  The  law 
school  was  established  in  1817.  Can- 
didates for  admission  must  be  graduates 
of  some  college,  or  qualified,  according  to 
the  ndes  of  court,  to  become  students  at 
law.  Students  in  this  department,  who 
are  graduates  of  a  college,  complete  their 
education  in  three  yeai"s.  Those  who  are 
not  graduates  complete  it  in  five  years. 
The  lectures  for  the  medical  students  are 
delivered  in  Boston,  at  the  Massachusetts 
medical  college,  which  is  a  spacious  edi-- 
fice  of  brick,  and  contains  a  medical  h- 
brary  of  about  4000  volumes.  They  com- 
mence annually  on  the  third  Wednesday 
in  November,  and  continue  three  months. 
In  order  to  obtain  a  degree  of  M.  D.,  it  is 
necessary  for  a  student  to  attend  two 
coui-ses  of  lectures,  and  to  pass  three 
yeai-s,  including  the  time  occupied  in  at- 
tending tlie  lectures,  under  the  direction 
of  some  regular  practitioner.  In  182(>, 
the  number  of  under-gi-aduates  was  252, 
theological  students  42,  law  students  24, 
medical  students  8^3 ;  total,  401.  Com- 
mencement is  on  the  last  Wednesday  in 
August.  The  academical  year  is  divided 
into  three  terms  and  three  vacations.  The 
first  vacation  is  of  two  weeks,  from  the 
Wednesday  preceding  the  25th  day  of 
December,  the  second  of  two  weeks,  from 
the  first  VVednesday  in  April,  and  the 
third,  the  six  weeks  next  precetluig  com- 
mencement. 

Cambridge  ;  a  town  of  England,  situ- 
ated on  the  river  Cam,  51  miles  north  of 
London.  It  is  an  ancient  place,  and 
Avas  a  Roman  station  (Granta).  It  has  a 
population  of  14,142  inhabitants,  and  re- 
turns two  members  to  parliament.  This 
town  is  celebrated  for  its  univei-sity, 
which,  according  to  some  writers,  wsis 
founded  as  early  as  630  ;  but  the  earliest 
authentic  document  relative  to  it  bean? 
date  1229.  The  university  consists  of  17 
colleges,  4  of  which  are  called  halls,  the 
schools,  the  public  hhrary,  and  the  senate- 
house.  The  following  list  contains  the 
name  of  each  of  these  institutions,  and 
the  time  Avhen  it  was  founded. 

1.  Peter  house 1257 

2.  Clare  hall 1326 

3.  Pembroke  hall 1343 

4.  Gonville  and  Caiiis  college    .    .     .     1348 

5.  Corpus  Christ! 1344 

G.  Trinity  hull 1;}50 

7.  King's  college 14-11 

8.  Queen's  college 14-18 

1).  Catharine  hall 1475 

10.  .lesus  college 1406 

11.  Christ  college 1505 

1:^.  St.  John's  college 1511 


428 


CAMBRIDGE. 


13.  Magdalen  college 1519 

14.  Trinity  college 1546 

15.  Emanuel  college 1584 

l(j.  Sidney  Sussex  college 1593 

17.  Downing  college 1800 

(See  Colleges.) — Previous  to  the  erection 
of  colleges,  the  students  resided  in  hostels 
or  inns,  which  were  jirovided  by  the 
townsmen  for  their  recei)tion,  of  which 
there  were  34.  The  charges  of  educa- 
tion and  maintenance  were  paid  by  the 
students  tliemselves.  The  university  is 
composed  of  a  chancellor,  vice-chancel- 
lor, the  mastei-s  or  lieads,  fellows  of  col- 
leges, and  students,  amounting  in  all  (in 
1823)  to  4277  members,  and  is  incorpor- 
ated as  a  society  for  the  study  of  all  the 
liberal  arts  and  sciences.  Although  each 
college  or  hall  is  a  body  of  itself,  and 
bound  by  its  own  statutes,  it  is  controlled 
by  the  paramount  law  of  tlie  university 
(chiefly  contained  in  the  statutes  given  by 
Ehzabeth),  each  funiishing  members  for 
the  government  of  the  whole.  The  gov- 
ernment is  administered  l>y  a  chancellor, 
who  is  a  nobleman,  a  high  steward,  cho- 
sen by  the  sejiate,  a  vice-chancellor,  who 
is  usually  the  head  of  some  college  or 
hall,  two  proctors,  who  attend  to  the  dis- 
cipline of  the  under-mastei*s  of  aits,  read 
the  graces,  &c. ;  taxors,  moderators,  scni- 
tatoi-s,  a  conunissarj',  a  public  orator ;  the 
caput,  consisting  of  the  vice-chancellor 
and  several  doctors,  which  determines 
what  graces  shall  be  brought  before  the 
university.  There  are  also  23  professors 
in  the  various  departments  of  literature 
and  science.  The  senate  is  composed  of 
all  the  doctors  and  mastere,  and  is  di\Tided 
into  two  houses,  the  regent-house  and 
the  senate-house.  The  two  members  of 
parhament,  returned  by  the  university, 
are  chosen  by  the  whole  body  collective- 
ly. The  election  of  officei-s,  the  admis- 
Bon  to  degrees,  &c.,  take  place  in  the 
senate-house.  The  fellows,  scholars,  and 
certain  inferior  officers,  are  maintained  on 
the  foundation.  Besides  which  there  are 
other  ordei-3  of  students  :  the  greater  pen- 
sioners are  the  young  nobility  and  gentle- 
men of  fortune,  who  dine  with  the  fellows, 
and  are  therefore  caWeA  fcUoiv-commontrs ; 
the  less  pensioners  dine  with  the  schol- 
ars ;  the  sizai-s  are  scholars  who  receive 
benefactions,  called  exhibitions.  Three 
years'  study  at  the  university  are  necessa- 
ry for  taking  the  degree  of  bachelor  of 
art§  (q.  v.),  and  four  years  more  for  that 
of  master.  In  divinity,  a  student  may  com- 
mence bachelor  seven  years  after  receiving 
the  degree  of  bachelor  of  arts ;  in  law, 
six  years  after ;  and,  in  physic,  five  years 


after.  The  tune  for  conferring  these  de- 
grees is  called  the  commenceinent.  The 
nobility  are  entitled  to  degrees  without 
waiting  the  statutable  time.  The  whole 
number  of  students  in  1823  was  1800. 
(See  Universities.) — The  public  library 
occupies  the  four  sides  of  a  quadrangle 
over  the  schools,  and  contains  140,000 
vols.  (See  lAbraries.)  The  Fitzwilliani 
museum  comprehends  the  collection  of 
books,  paintings,  drawings,  engravings, 
left  by  the  viscount  Fitzwilliam  in  1815. 
The  observatory  is  placed  under  the  Plu- 
mian  professor  of  astronomy  and  two  as- 
sistant observers.  (See  Fuller's  History 
of  Cambridge  University ;  Dyer's  History^ 
London,  1814,  2  vols.,  Svo.,  and  the  Uni- 
versity Calendar.) 

Cambridge  (Adolphus  Frederic  of 
England),  duke  of,  earl  of  Tipperarj", 
baron  of  Culloden,  governor-general  of 
Hanover,  chancellor  of  the  university  of 
St.  Andrews,  and  field-marshal,  was  born 
Feb.  24,  1774.  He  entered  the  military 
service  as  an  ensign  when  16  years  old, 
and  soon  afterwards  went  to  the  univershy 
of  Gottingen.  After  he  had  passed  one 
winter  at  the  court  of  Frederic  AVilliam 
II,  he  returned  to  London  ;  was  present, 
in  1793,  in  the  campaign  in  the  Nether- 
lands, and  was  taken  prisoner  in  the  bjit- 
tle  at  Hondtschoote  (8th  of  September, 
1793),  but  immediately  released.  In  1794, 
having  attained  his  majority,  he  was  ap- 
pointed colonel,  and  duke  of  C,  and  was 
called  into  the  house  of  lords.  Here  he 
enlisted  on  the  side  of  the  opposition,  un- 
der Fox,  and  adhered  to  this  part>'  until 
it  was  almost  dissolved.  He  now  joined 
the  other  party,  opposed  to  Pitt — that  of 
Grenville.  In  1803,  he  was  sent  without 
an  army  to  the  defence  of  Hanover.  But 
he  soon  transferred  the  chief  command 
to  Wallmoden,  and  returned  to  En^4|i1. 
Being  always  violent  against  Nap(>1^6n, 
he  fluctuated  between  the  parties  of  lord 
Sidmoutli,  Grenville,  and  the  o})position  ; 
and,  after  the  re-acquisition  of  Hanover, 
Avas  raised  to  the  office  of  governor-gen- 
eral of  this  kingdom  (Oct.  24, 1816).  The 
city  of  Hanover  was  much  benefited  by  his 
residence,  and  by  the  protection  and  pat- 
ronage wliich  he  bestowed  on  many  aits, 
particularly  the  dramatic.  He  Avas  mar- 
ried, May  7, 1818,  to  Augusta,  the  daugh- 
ter of  the  landgrave  Frederic  of  Hesse- 
Cassel,  who,  in  March,  1819,  bore  him  a 
son,  and,  in  1822,  a  daughter. 

Cambridge  Manuscript,  or  Beza's 
Manuscript  :  a  copy  of  the  Gospels  and 
Acts  of  the  Apostles  in  Greek  and  Latin, 
Beza  found  it  in  the  monastery  of  IrensB' 


CAMBRIDGE— CAMDEN. 


429 


us  at  Lyons,  in  1562,  and  gave  it  to  the 
university  of  Cambridge  in  1582.  It  is  a 
quarto,  and  written  on  vellum.  G6  leaves 
of  it  are  much  torn  and  mutilated,  and  10 
of  tliese  are  supplied  by  a  later  transcriber. 
The  age  of  this  MS.  is  differently  estimat- 
ed by  different  writers,  but  all  agree  that 
it  is  of  great  antiquity.  The  most  conq)e- 
tent  judges  consider  it  one  of  the  most 
ancient.  In  the  Greek,  it  is  defective  from 
the  beginning  to  Matthew  i.  20 ;  in  the 
Latin,  to  Matthew  i.  12 ;  besides  which 
it  has  some  other  chasms.  Wetstein, 
Griesbach,  Michaelis,  and  several  others, 
have  written  upon  this  MS. 

Cambron>'e,  Pien'e  Jacques  Etienne, 
baron,  general,  commander  of  the  legion 
of  honor,  and  field-mai-shal,  born  Dec.  26, 
3770,  at  St.  Sebastien,  near  Nantes,  was 
descended  from  an  opulent  family,  and 
enjoyed  a  good  education.  Under  the 
republic,  and  under  Napoleon,  he  sened 
in  ever}'  campaign,  and  became  so  cele- 
brated, on  account  of  his  personal  bravery, 
that  the  soldiei-s  wished  to  give  him  the 
title  ofjirst  grenadier  of  France,  after  the 
death  of  Latour  d'Auvergne.  but  he  de- 
clined the  honor.  He  was  made  com- 
mander of  the  chasseurs  of  the  iinperial 
guard,  and  was  at  Fontainebleau  when 
Napoleon  abdicated.  lie  went  with  him 
to  the  island  of  Elba  as  chief  of  the  divi- 
sion of  the  old  guard,  which  accompanied 
him  into  his  exile.  C.  commanded  the 
little  corps  with  which  Napoleon  landed, 
March  1,  1815,  in  the  gulf  of  St.  Juan, 
and  signed  the  address  to  tlie  French  ar- 
my, summoning  them  to  return  to  Napo- 
leon's standard.  On  the  fiehl  of  battle  at 
Waterloo,  he  was  taken  prisoner  by  the 
British,  among  those  who  were  severely 
wounded.  His  celebrated  answer  to  the 
Bndsh  proposal  of  capitulation  is  well 
known — "  La  garde  meurt,  elle  ne  se  rend 
pas?^  He  was  one  of  the  19  generals  of 
Na))oleon  who,  by  the  royal  decree  of  Ju- 
ly 24,  1815,  were  to  be  tried  by  a  court- 
martial.  He  returned  from  his  captivity 
as  a  prisoner  of  war,  and  appeared  in  per- 
son before  this  tribunal.  As  he  had  taken 
no  oath  of  fidelity  to  the  Bourbons,  he 
was  acquitted.  The  sentence  was  revis- 
ed, and  the  acquittal  confirmed. 

Cameyses,  1.  the  son  of  Cyrus  the 
Great  and  of  Cassandaua,  became,  after 
tlie  death  of  his  father,  king  of  the  Per- 
sians and  Medes,  A.  C.  530,  Soon  after 
his  accession  to  the  tlxrone,  he  made  an 
attack  upon  Egypt,  killed  the  king  of  this 
country,  Psammenitus,  plundered  the 
cliief  city,  Memphis,  and  conquered  the 
whole  kingdom  within  six  months.    He 


now  wished  to  send  a  fleet  against  Car-li; 
thage,  to  conquer  Ethiopia,  and  to  obtain 
])ossession  of  the  temple  of  Jupiter  Am- 
mon.  The  first  of  these  expeditions, 
however,  did  not  take  place,  because  the 
fleet,  which  was  maimed  with  Phcenicians, 
refused  obedience  to  him.  The  army 
which  was  sent  against  the  Ammonites 
perished  in  the  desert ;  and  the  troops,  at 
whose  head  he  himself  had  set  out  against 
the  Ethiopians,  were  compelled  by  hunger 
to  retreat.  From  this  time,  he  gave  him- 
self up  to  the  greatest  cruelties.  On  his 
entrance  into  Memphis,  seeing  the  Egyp- 
tians engaged  in  the  celebration  of  a  feast 
in  honor  of  their  god  Apis,  whom  they 
had  found,  he  believed  that  they  were  re- 
joicing at  his  misfortunes.  He  caused 
the  holy  bull  to  be  brought  before  him, 
slew  him  with  his  own  sword,  and  caused 
the  priest  to  be  scourged  with  rods.  To 
drown  his  vexation,  he  indulged  himself 
in  the  most  immoderate  enjoyment  of 
wine.  No  relation  was  held  sacred  by 
him  when  intoxicated.  He  caused  his 
brother  Smerdis,  a  dream  concerning 
whom  had  disturbed  him,  to  be  murder- 
ed. His  sister  and  wife  Atossa,  who  la- 
mented the  death  of  Smerdis,  lie  killed 
with  a  blow  of  his  foot.  These  and  other 
actions  of  the  most  insane  rage  had  irri- 
tated his  subjects.  A  Magian  availed  hitn- 
self  of  this  discontent,  and  obtained  pos- 
session of  the  throne  under  the  name  of 
Smerdis,  whose  death  had  been  conceal- 
ed. C.  had  resolved  to  go  to  Susa,  in  or- 
der to  punish  him,  when,  as  he  was 
mounting  his  horse,  he  was  wounded  in 
the  hip  i)y  his  sword.  He  died  of  this 
wound  soon  after,  in  522,  at  Ecbatana,  in 
Assyria,  without  leaving  any  children. — - 
2.  A  Persian  of  low  descent,  the  grand- 
father of  the  former,  to  whom  king  Asty- 
ages  gave  his  daughter  Mandane  in  mar- 
riagi?,  in  order  to  prevent  the  fulfilment 
of  a  dream,  according  to  which  he  was  to 
lose  his  crown  by  means  of  his  daughter's 
son,  while  he  flattered  hitnself  with  the 
ho])e,  that  his  grandsoji  would  constantly 
hold  in  remembrance  the  benefit  confer- 
red on  his  father.  He  did  not,  however, 
esca[)e  his  fate,  for  Cyrus,  the  son  of  Man- 
dane, dethroned  him. 

Camdex  ;  a  post-town,  and  capital  of 
Kershaw  district.  South  Carolina,  on  the 
E.  side  of  the  Wateree,  35  miles  N.  E. 
Columbia,  130  N.  N.  W.  Charleston  ;  Ion. 
80°  33'  W. ;  lat.  34°  17'  N. ;  population, 
about  1000.  It  is  a  pleasant  town,  regu- 
larly laid  out,  and  contains  a  court-house, 
a  jail,  an  academy,  and  four  places  of  pub- 
lic worship.     The  surrounding  country  is 


430 


CASIDEN— CAMEL. 


fertile  aiid  pleasant.  The  Wateree  is 
uavigable  to  this  place  for  boats  of  70 
tons.  Two  battles  were  fought  here  dur- 
ing the  revolutionary  war;  one,  Aug.  16, 
1780,  between  general  Gates  and  lord 
Cornwallis,  in  whicli  the  Americans  were 
defeated ;  the  other,  April  25,  1781,  be- 
tween general  Greene  and  lord  Rawdon. 
Tlie  Americans  had  12G  men  killed,  and 
100  taken  prisonei-s.  The  British  had 
about  100  killed. 

Camel  (camdiis,  L.)  ;  a  genus  of 
mammiferous  quadrupeds,  of  the  rumi- 
nant order,  characterized  by  their  size; 
the  possessionof  incisive,  canine  and  mo- 
lar teeth ;  the  upper  lip  divided ;  the  neck 
long  and  arched ;  by  the  absence  of  bonis, 
and  by  having  one  or  two  humps  or  protu- 
berances \ipon  the  back,  and  naked  callos- 
ities at  the  joints  of  the  leg,  the  inferior 
part  of  the  breast,  &c.  The  inferior  ex- 
tremities terminate  in  two  toes,  which  are 
not  wholly  covered  by  hoof,  as  they  have 
only  a  small  one  at  the  extremity,  and  a 
sort  of  very  hard,  callous  sole,  common 
to  both.  There  are  six  incisive  and  two 
canine  teeth  in  the  lower  jaw ;  and,  in  the 
upper,  there  are  two  incisors  in  the  inter- 
maxillary bone,  with  one  or  two  canine 
teeth  on  each  side,  which  increase  to  a 
considerable  size  with  the  increasing  age 
of  the  animal.  The  camel  is  the  only  ru- 
minant anhnal  which  has  cutting  teeth  in 
tlie  upper  jaw. — The  native  coimtry  of  this 
genus  is  said  to  extend  from  Mauiitania  to 
China,  witliin  a  zone  of  900  or  1000  miles 
in  breadtli.  The  conunon  camel,  having 
two  humps,  is  only  found  in  the  northern 
part  of  this  region,  and  exclusively  from 
the  ancient  Bactria,  now  Turkestan,  to 
China.  The  dromedary-,  or  single-hump 
camel,  is  found  tliroughout  the  entire 
length  of  this  zone,  on  its  southern  side, 
as  far  as  Africa  and  India.  Notwithstand- 
ing this,  the  dromedary  cannot  sustain 
either  the  burning  heat  of  the  torrid,  or 
the  mild  climate  of  the  tempej*ate  zone, 
while  the  camel  supjjorts  all  the  vicissi- 
tudes of  climate  with  but  little  injurj'.  It 
is  highly  probable  that  the  camel  has  long 
ceased  to  exist  in  its  wild  or  natural  state, 
as  it  has  been  enslaved  by  man  from  the 
earliest  times  of  which  we  have  record. 
Among  the  stock  composing  the  wealth 
of  the  patriarch  Job,  we  find  600  camels 
enumerated.  UnUke  the  elephant,  and 
other  animals  which  cease  to  breed  in  a 
state  of  captivity,  the  camel  is  as  prolific 
as  if  at  liberty  ;  and  vast  numbers  are  rais- 
ed and  employed  throughout  the  Oriental 
countries,  especially  in  the  commerce  car- 
ried on  between  the  people  residing  in  the 


\-icinity  of  the  great  deserts.  To  these 
people  the  camel  serves  in  the  place  of 
ships,  and  other  modes  of  conveyance, 
being  especially  adapted  by  nature  tor  the 
senice  in  which  it  is  employed.  In  re- 
gions where  water  is  exceedingly  scarce, 
and  wells  or  springs  are  several  days' 
joumr}^  distant  from  each  other,  it  would 
be  impossible  to  traverse  the  country  with 
the  usual  beasts  of  burthen.  But  the 
camel  can  abstain  from  drinking  for  seven 
or  eight  days  together  Avithout  injury — an 
important  advantage,  which  is  owing  to 
the  possession  of  a  fifth  pouch,  or  appen- 
dix to  the  stomach,  destined  to  receive 
water,  whenever  it  can  be  procured,  and 
capable  of  retaining  it  unchanged  for  a 
long  time.  From  this  receptacle  a  por- 
tion of  water  can  be  thrown  hito  the  other 
stomachs  or  gullet  when  necessaiy,  and 
thus  avert  the  evils  of  thii-st.  Possessing 
strength  and  activity  surpassing  that  of 
most  beasts  of  bunhen,  docile,  patient  of 
hunger  and  tliii-st,  and  contented  with 
small  quantities  of  the  coarsest  provender, 
the  camel  is  one  of  the  most  valuable 
gifts  of  Providence.  There  is  nothing, 
however,  in  the  external  appearance  of 
the  animal  to  indicate  the  existence  of  any 
of  its  excellent  qualities.  In  form  and 
j)roportions,  it  is  veiy  o])posite  to  our  usual 
ideas  of  perfection  and  beauty.  A  stout 
body,  having  the  back  (Usfigured  Avith  one 
or  two  humps;  hmbs  long,  slender,  and 
seemingly  too  weak  to  support  the  trunk ; 
a  long,  slim,  crooked  neck,  surmounted 
by  a  heavily-proportioned  head,  are  all 
ill-suited  to  produce  favorable  impres- 
sions. Nevertheless,  there  is  no  creature 
more  excellently  adapted  to  its  situation, 
nor  is  there  one  in  which  more  of  creative 
wisdom  is  displayed  in  the  peculiarities  of 
its  organization.  To  the  Arabs,  and  other 
wanderei-s  of  the  desert,  the  canael  is  at 
once  wealth,  subsistence  and  protection. 
Their  strength  and  fleetness  render  their 
mastei-s  the  terror  of  enemies,  and  secure 
them  from  pursuit — a  few  houi-s  being 
sufficient  to  place  leagues  of  trackless 
desert  between  them  and  their  foes.  The 
milk  of  the  females  furnishes  the  Arab 
with  a  lai'ge  part  of  his  nutriment.  The 
flesh  of  the  young  animal  is  one  of  his 
greatest  luxuries :  of  the  skins,  he  forms 
tents :  the  various  sorts  of  hair,  or  wool, 
shed  by  the  camel,  are  wrought  into  dif- 
ferent fabrics;  and  its  dried  dung  consti- 
tutes excellent  fuel,  the  only  kind,  indeed, 
to  be  obtained  throughout  vast  extents  of 
country.  In  order  to  qualify  camels  for 
great  exertions,  and  the  endurance  of 
fatigue,  the  Arabs  begin  to  educate  theiu 


CAMEL. 


431 


at  an  early  age.  They  are  fii-st  tauglit  to 
bear  burdens,  by  having  their  hmbs  secur- 
ed under  the  belly,  and  then  a  weiglit 
proportioned  to  then*  strength  is  put  on  : 
tliis  is  not  cliauged  for  a  lieavier  load  till 
the  animal  is  thouglit  to  have  gained  sufli- 
cicnt  power  to  sustain  it.  Food  and  drink 
ai-e  not  allowed  at  will,  but  given  in  small 
quantity,  at  long  intervals.  They  are  then 
gradually  accustomed  to  long  journeys, 
and  an  accelerated  pace,  until  their  qual- 
ities of  fleetness  and  strength  are  fully 
brought  into  action.  They  ai-e  taught  to 
kneel,  lor  the  purpose  of  receiving  or  re- 
moving their  load.  When  too  heavily 
laden,  they  refuse  to  rise ;  and,  by  loud 
cries,  complain  of  the  injustice.  Small 
camels  carry  from  600  to  800  lbs. ;  the 
largest  and  strongest  bear  1000  or  1200  lbs., 
from  30  to  35  miles  a  day.  Those  which 
ai*e  used  for  speed  alone  are  cajjable  of 
travelling  from  60  to  90  miles  a  day.  In- 
stead of  employing  blows  or  ill  treatment 
to  increase  their  speed,  the  camel-drivers 
sing  cheerful  songs,  and  thus  urge  the 
animals  to  their  best  efforts.  When  a 
caravan  of  camels  arrives  at  a  resting  or 
baituig-place,  they  kneel,  and,  the  cords 
sustaining  the  loarl  being  untied,  the  bales 
shp  down  on  each  side.  They  generally 
sleep  on  their  liellies,  crouching  between 
tlie  bales  they  have  candied:  the  load  is, 
therefore,  replaced  with  great  facility. 
In  an  abimdant  pasture,  they  generally 
browse  as  much  in  an  hour  as  serves 
them  for  runnnating  all  night,  and  for 
their  sui)port  during  the  next  day.  Ihit 
it  is  uncommon  to  find  such  pasturage, 
and  they  are  contented  with  the  coai-st^st 
fare  :  nettles,  thistles,  Avormwood,  and  va- 
rious harsh  vegetables  are  eaten  by  them 
with  avidity,  and  are  even  ])referred  to 
iiiorQ  delicate  plants. — Camels,  designed 
exclusively  for  labor,  are  usually  gelded, 
and  females  are  also  treated  in  a  similar 
manner.  They  are,  it  is  true,  not  so  strong, 
nor  so  spirited,  as  unmutilated  animals, 
but  are  much  more  managtjable.  During 
their  sexual  season,  the  males  become 
furious  and  ungovernable:  they  refuse 
food,  are  spiteful,  biting  and  kicking  even 
tlieir  keepei-s,  to  whom  they  are,  at  other 
times,  very  obedient  At  this  time,  also, 
a  foetid  secretion  is  effused  from  a  glandu- 
lar apparatus  on  the  neck;  the  animal 
foams  at  the  moutli,  and  a  red,  membran- 
ous vesicle,  similar  to  a  bladder,  is  extend- 
ed on  each  side  of  the  mouth.  One  male 
is  reserved  perfect  for  every  eight  females. 
The  female  receives  the  male  in  the  same 
crouching  attitude,  in  which  she  places 
herself  to  receive  a  load,  or  for  the  pur- 


pose of  sleeping.  She  goes  with  young 
12  months,  and  brings  forth  one  at  a  birth. 
Her  milk  is  very  thick,  abimdant  and  rich, 
but  of  rather  a  strong  taste.  Mingled  with 
water,  it  forms  a  very  nutritive  article  of 
diet.  Breeding  and  milk-giving  camels 
are  exempted  from  service,  and  fed  as 
well  as  possible,  the  value  of  their  milk 
being  greater  than  that  of  their  labor.  The 
young  camel  usually  sucks  for  12  months; 
but  such  as  are  intended  for  speed  are 
alloAved  to  suck,  and  exempted  Irom  re- 
straint, for  two  or  three  years.  The  camel 
attains  the  full  exercise  of  its  functions 
within  4  or  5,  and  the  duration  of  its  life 
is  from  40  to  50  years. — The  humps  or 
bunches  on  the  back  of  the  camel  are 
mere  accumulations  of  cellular  substance 
and  fat,  covered  by  skin,  and  a  longer 
hair  than  that  of  the  general  surface. 
During  long  journeys,  in  which  the  ani- 
mals suffer  severely  from  want  of  food, 
and  become  greatly  emaciated,  these  pro- 
tuberances are  gradually  absorbed,  and 
no  trace  of  them  left,  excejjt  that  the  skin 
is  loose  and  flabby  where  they  were  situ- 
ated. In  preparing  for  a  journey,  it  is 
necessaiy  to  guard  the  humps  from  pres- 
sure or  friction  by  appropi'iate  saddles,  as 
the  slightest  ulceration  of  these  parts  is 
followed  by  the  worst  consequences :  in- 
sects de])Osit  their  laiTCS  in  the  sores,  and 
sometimes  extensive  and  destructive  mor- 
tification ensues. — The  Bactrian  or  com- 
mon camel  is  larger  than  the  dromedary ; 
the  limbs  are  not  so  long  in  proportion  to 
the  body  ;  the  muzzle  is  larger  and  more 
tumid ;  the  hair  of  a  darker  brown,  and 
the  usual  gait  slower.  A  still  more  strik- 
ing distinction  is  afforded  by  the  two 
humps — ^the  dromedary  having  but  one. 
This  single  hump  of  the  latter  occupies 
the  middle  of  the  back,  rising  gradually 
on  all  sides  towards  its  apex,  and  never 
inclining  to  one  side.  Both  species  are 
occasionally  found  in  collections  of  ani- 
mals. The  dromedary  is  more  frequently 
seen  than  the  camel. — During  that  season 
of  the  jejir  when  these  gentle  creatures 
become  violent,  the  Turks  take  advantage 
of  this  change  in  their  disposition  to  set 
on  foot  camel-fights — disgi-aceful  exhibi- 
tions, indicative  of  the  same  spirit  as  the 
lion-fights  of  Rome,  the  bull-fights  of 
Spain,  the  bull  and  badger-baitings  and 
cock-fights  of  England.  These  fights  are 
common  at  Smyrna  and  Ale]ii»o.  The 
camels  of  Smyrna  are  led  out  to  a  large 
plain,  filled  with  eager  crowds.  The  tuii- 
mals  are  muzzled,  to  prevent  their  doing 
each  other  serious  injury,  for  their  bite  is 
tremendous,  always  bringing  tlie  piece 


432 


CAMEL— CAMELOPARD. 


out.  A  couple,  being  let  loose,  run  at 
each  other  with  extreme  fury.  Their 
mode  of  combat  is  curious:  they  knock 
their  heads  together  laterally,  twist  their 
long  necks,  wrestle  with  their  fore-legs, 
almost  like  bipeds,  and  seem  to  be  princi- 
pally bent  on  throwing  down  their  adver- 
sary. 

Camel,  in  mechanics ;  a  machine  tised 
in  Holland  and  St.  Petersburg  for  lifting 
ships  over  shallow  bars.  De  Witt  invented 
these  machines,  and  Peter  the  Great  in- 
troduced them  into  Russia.     A  camel  is 
comiHJsed  of  two  separate  parts,  the  ia- 
sides  of  which  are  shaped  so  as  to  em- 
brace tlie  hull  of  a  ship  on  botli^  sides. 
Each  part  has  a  cabin,  with  many  punijjs 
and  plugs.    They  are  fastened  to  the  "ves- 
sel underneath,  and  enjtirely  enclose  its 
sides  and  bottom.     They  are  th^n  towed 
to  the  bar,  and  are  sunk  with  the  vessel, 
by  taking  out  the  plugs.    The  water  being 
now  pumped  out,  the  camel  lifts  the  ves- 
sel, and  the  whole  is  towed  over  the  bar. 
Cameleon.    (See  Chameleon,) 
Camelopard  ;  also  called  giraffe  {cam- 
elopardalis  giraffa,  L.) ;  a  veiy  remark- 
able genus  of  mammiferous  quadrupeds, 
belonging   to    the   order  of  ruminants  ; 
characterized  by  having  8  incisive  teeth 
in  the  lower  jaw ;  a  bony  prominence  on 
the  frontal  bone ;  horns  somewhat  inclined, 
covered  by  the  skin  of  the  head,  and  hav- 
ing a  bristly  fringe  roimd  their  tips;  cal- 
losities upon  the  sternum  and  knee  joints ; 
a  tuft  at  the  end  of  the  tail ;  a  reddish 
mane,  extending  from  the  occiput  along 
the  whole  of  the  neck  and  shoulders,  as 
far  as  the  root  of  the  tail.  The  body  of  the 
giraffe  having  considerable  resemblance 
to  that  of  the  camel,  and  the  color  of  its 
skin  being  an  impure  or  yellowish  white, 
spotted  with  rhomboidal  j)atches  of  fawn 
color,  something  like  that  of  the  leopard, 
led  to  its  bearing  the  names  of  these  ani- 
mals conjoined.     In  its  manner  of  kneel- 
ing for  the  purpose  of  sleeping,  in  the 
length  of  its  neck,  and  the  presence  of 
callosities  on  the  lower  part  of  the  breast 
and  over  the  joints,  it  has  a  further  simi- 
larity to  the  camel.     Its  boms,  which,  in 
tlie  male,  are  about  a  foot  long,  perma- 
nent, and  covered  by  the  skin  of  the  head 
to  their  very  tips,  give  the  giraffe  some 
analogy  to  the  genus  cervMS  or  deer,  mider 
which  it  was  classed  by  Linnaeus.      Its 
most  striking  peculiarity  is  the  great  ap- 
parent height  of  its  foreparts,  which  rise 
veiy   suddenly   from  the   fore-shoulders. 
Measured  from  the  grovmd  to  the  top  of 
tlie  head,  the  animal  is  from  15  to  17 
feet  high.     The  posterior  extremities  are 


not  higher  than  9  feet;  but  the  difference 
in  length  between  the  anterior  and  pos- 
terior extremities  is  by  no  means  as  great 
as  would  be  inferred  from  the  a^ipearance 
of  the   animal.     The  great  difference  is 
owing  to  the  length  of  the  neck,  which 
tapers  upwards,  and  at  its  base  is  rendered 
exceedingly  thick,  by  the  long  dorsal  and 
cervical  sj)iuous  processes,  that  give  at- 
tachment  to   its   powerful   niuscles    and 
ligaments.  .   The   trunk   of  the   body   is 
short  in  proportion  to  the  neck,  and  the 
fore  hinbs  are  more  robust  than  the  pos- 
terior.    The  hoofs  are  rounded  and  cleft^ 
like  those  of  the  ox.     The  tail  is  slender, 
cylindrical,  and  terminated  by  a  tuft  3  or 
4  inches  long.     The  head  of  "the  giraffe  is 
not  unlike  that  of  tlie  horse;  the  eyes  are 
"large,  fine  and  brilliant ;  the  eai-s,  both  in 
length  and  figure,  more  resemble  those 
of  the  ox.      It  is  a  mild,  timid  and  harm- 
less animal,  choosing  dense  forests  for  its 
residence,  and  feeding  on  the  leaves  and 
shoots  of  trees.     When   it  browses  the 
herbage  on  the  gromid,  it  is  not,  as  has 
been  supposed,  under  the  necessity  of 
kneeling,  though  its  natural  mode  of  feed- 
ing, for  which  it  seems  to  be  especially 
constructed,  is  by  browsing  upon  trees  or 
shrubs  of  considerable   elevation. — The 
giraffe  is  a  native  of  the  country  lying  be- 
tween Egj'pt  and  Ethiopia.     It  is  rare  in 
Abyssinia,  and  still  more  so  in  Southern 
Africa.     It  is  himted  and  killed  by  the 
natives  for  the  sake  of  its  large  and  beau- 
tiful skin,  as  well  as  for  the  marrow  of  its 
bones,  considered  by  them  to  be  an  ex- 
quisite dainty.    The  flesh  of  the  young 
camelopard  is  said,  by  travellers,  to  be 
an   acce{)fable  article  of  diet.     Little  is 
known  of  the  gestation  of  this  animal, 
though  it  is  said,  like  that  of  the  camel,  to 
endure  for  12  months. — The  giraffe  has 
long  been  known  to  naturalists,  though 
o[)j)ortunities  of  examining  living  speci- 
mens have  always  been  rare.     They  were 
brought  livhigto  Rome,  to  adorn  the  pub- 
lic games  and  festivals,  as  Pliny  states, 
during  the  dictatorship  of  Caesar.    Fig- 
ures of  the  animal  are  still  preserved  in 
the  Pnenestine  pavement,  wrought  under 
the  orders  of  Sylla.     The  figure  of  the 
giraffe  also  occure  among  the  hieroglyphic 
monumental  drawings  of  the  Egyptians, 
The  giraffe  moves  with  great  celerity,  and 
it  requires  a  swift  horse  to  equal  its  speed, 
when  only  in  a  trot.     It  has  not  been 
tamed,  or  applied  to  any  useful  purpose, 
as  far  as  we  know,  though  a  few  speci- 
mens have,  at  different  times,  been  sent  to 
Europe,  as  presents  to  sovereigns,  or  for 
exhibition.      The  pacha  of  Egypt,  not 


CAMELOPARD— CAMERARIUS. 


433 


long  since,  sent  one  to  the  king  of  France, 
which  is  still  livuig  in  the  menagerie  of 
Paris. 

Camenz  ;  a  village  in  the  Prussian  gov- 
ernment of  Reichenbach,  circle  of  Frank- 
enstein, on  tlie  Neiss ;  remarkable  for  the 
rich  Cistercian  abbey  of  the  same  name, 
now  abolished,  which  was  built  in  1094, 
and  numbered,  from  1249  to  1810,  53  ab- 
bots. The  most  celebrated  abbot  was 
Tobicis  Stusche,  who  acquired  the  favor  of 
Frederic  the  Great  in  a  way  till  lately  in- 
explicable. According  to  a  manuscrii)t 
history  in  the  Latin  language,  left  by  a 
friar  of  C,  during  the  war  of  1741,  the 
abbot  suddenly  summoned  the  monks,  one 
evening,  to  the  chapel,  at  an  unusual 
hour,  by  the  sound  of  the  bell.  With  hun 
came  a  stranger  in  a  clerical  dress.  Scarce- 
ly had  the  monks  begun  to  pray,  when  a 
great  tuumlt  was  heard.  Austrian  troops 
had  arrived  from  Waitha,  and  were  seen 
in  the  monaster}',  and  even  in  the  church. 
They  searched  the  building  for  king  Fretl- 
oric,  but  foimd  and  seized  his  aids  only. 
Tlie  address  of  the  abbot  saved  the  king 
of  Prus:«ia  and  the  mouarchy.  Frederic 
refers  to  this  adventure  in  the  Histoire  de 
mon  Timps,  i.  chap.  3.  The  monastery 
was  dissolved  by  the  edict  of  Oct.  30, 
181L  The  beautiful  castle  was  burnt  ui 
1817. 

Cameo,  or  Camaiec;  in  the  proper 
sense,  a  gem  engraved  in  relitvo.  The 
ancients  generally  used  the  onyx  for  this 
jjurpose.  At  fim,  such  onyxes,  and,  af- 
terward, all  gems  carved  in  relief,  were 
called  cameos.  They  were  carved  ac- 
cording to  the  layers  of  the  stone,  so  that 
the  ground  should  be  of  a  different  color 
from  the  rigure  in  relief  One  of  the  most 
famous  cauieos  is  the  onyx  at  present  in 
Paris,  called  the  Apotheosis  of  Augustus, 
1  foot  high  and  10  inclies  wide :  its 
histoiy  is  also  shigular.  (See  Gem  Sculp- 
ture.) 

Camera  ^Eolia;  a  contrivance  for 
blowing  the  tire,  for  the  fusion  of  ores,  by 
means  of  water  faUing  through  a  funnel 
into  a  vessel,  which  emits  a  quantity 
of  air  or  va[)or  continually,  sufficieut  to 
keep  up  a  strong  fire. 

Camera  Clara  [light  chamber) ;  an 
optical  instrument  invented  by  Reuithaler, 
which  supplies  the  deficiencies  of  the 
camera  ohscura,  and  has  tiiis  advantage 
over  that  instruuient,  that  the  object  to  be 
represented  need  not  be  illuminated  by 
the  sun.  All  objects  appear  in  it  with 
great  distinctness.  It  can  be  used  equally 
well  in  bright  and  dark  weather,  in  the 
light  of  the  sun  or  that  of  the  moon. — 

VOL.  n.  37 


Camera  liicida  is  the  somewhat  awkward 
name  of  an  instrument  invented  in  Eng- 
land, which  only  so  far  resembles  the  cam- 
era ohscura,  tljat  it  presents  a  complete 
image  of  objects  on  a  very  diminished 
scale.  The  chief  jiart  is  a  prism.  If  this 
is  placed  in  a  proper  position,  and  the 
spectator  ajjproaches  his  eye  to  it,  he  per- 
ceives the  image  of  the  object  before  it 
representL'd  with  the  grejitest  cleai'ness, 
and  perfect  precision  of  outline,  on  a  sheet 
of  paper  fixed  underneath,  and  can  easily 
trace  it,  whilst  the  pei-sons  around  him 
see  only  the  drawing  made  on  the  paper. 
— Camera  obscura  (dark  chamber)  is  either 
a  closed  room,  in  which  the  light  can  lall 
only  through  a  small  aperture,  or  an  opti- 
cal box,  in  which  exterior  objects  are  rep- 
resented on  a  smaller  scale.  It  is  used 
for  anmsement  or  for  drawuig  landscapes 
and  scenery,  though  what  is  gained  in 
rapidity  and  ease  of  execution  is  lost  in  the 
dinmessof  the  coloring.  (For  the  theory 
of  this  instruuient,  see  treatises  on  natu- 
ral i)hilosophy  and  optics.) 

Camera  luciua.    (See  Camera  clara.) 

Camera  obscura.  (See  Camera  cla- 
ra.) 

Camerarius  (Joachim  I)  ;  born  iu 
1500,  at  Bamberg :  one  of  the  most  dis- 
tinguislied  scholars  of  Germany,  who  con- 
ti-ibuted  to  the  progress  of  knowledge,  hi 
the  Kith  century,  by  liis  own  Avorks  as 
well  as  by  editions  of  (Jreek  and  Latin 
authors  with  commentaries,  and  by  a  bet- 
ter organization  of  the  universities  at 
Leipsic  and  Tubingen,  and  of  tlie  gymna- 
sium at  Nuremberg.  He  also  took  an 
important  part  in  the  political  and  reli- 
gious affairs  of  his  time.  He  was  a  frieni  i 
of  jMelancthon,  and  was  held  in  great 
esteem  by  the  emperors  Charles  V,  Ferdi- 
nand I,  and  Maximilian  II.  In  1555,  he 
was  deputy  of  tlie  univei-sity  of  Leipsic 
to  the  diet  of  Augsburg,  and  died  in  1574. 
He  was  natiu-ally  grave  and  serious,  and 
had  such  a  deteslatioii  of  falsehood,  that 
he  could  never  endure  it,  even  in  je«t. 
His  works  are  estimated  at  150,  mostly 
ti-anslations  from  Greek  and  Latin  wrilei's, 
besides  many  poems,  and  a  great  number 
of  familiar  letters. 

Camerarius  (Joacliim  II) ;  son  of  the 
preceding  ;  born  hi  1534,  at  Nuremberg  ; 
one  of  tlie  most  learned  pliysicians  and 
greatest  botanists  of  his  time.  After  hav- 
ing studied  in  tlio  German  and  Italian 
universities,  he  practised  with  great  suc- 
cess in  Nuremberg,  where  he  instituted  a 
medical  academy,  laid  out  a  botanical 
garden,  and  publislied  many  botanical 
works.     lie  died  in  1538.     Several  of  his 


434 


CAMERARIUS— CAMILLUS. 


sons  and  grandsons  have  distinguished 
themselves  in  medicine  and  botany. 

Camerlingo  (Italian)  denotes  the  liigh- 
est  officer  in  the  Ecclesiastical  States.  The 
cardinale  camerlingo  stands,  in  fact,  at  the 
head  of  affairs  in  this  government  He 
has  the  control  of  the  treasury,  adminis- 
ters justice,  and  exercises  almost  sove- 
reign power  when  the  papal  chair  is  va- 
cant. 

Cameroxians  ;  a  sect  in  Scotland,  who 
separated  from  the  Presbyterians  in  1666, 
and  continued  long  to  hold  their  religious 
assemblies  in  the  fields.  Their  name  is 
derived  from  Richard  Cameron,  a  preach- 
er, the  founder  of  the  sect.  They  rebelled 
against  the  government,  and  were  nev- 
er entirely  reduced  till  the  revolution. 
They  adhered  rigidly  to  the  form  of  gov- 
ernment established  in  1648. — Cargillites 
was  anollier  name  for  the  same  sect,  de- 
rived from  another  preacher  among  them. 
It  is  said,  that  not  above  14  or  15  congre- 
gations of  them  exist. 

Games  are  slender  rods  of  cast  lead, 
of  which  glaziers  make  their  turned  or 
milled  lead,  for  joining  the  panes  or  quar- 
rels of  glass. 

Camillus,  Marcus  Furius.  This  Ro- 
man hero  was  chosen  tribune  of  the  peo- 
ple in  the  year  B.  C.  401,  and  took  part 
in  the  siege  of  Veii.  Three  years  after, 
he  was  invested  with  the  same  dignity, 
and  went  against  the  FaUsci.  After  he 
had  become  censor,  he  proposed  a  law 
to  oblige  unmarried  men  to  marry  the 
widows  of  those  slain  in  battle.  After  the 
defeat  of  the  military  tribunes  L.  Atilius 
and  Cn.  Genucius,  before  Veii,  by  the 
Tuscans,  C.  was  made  dictator.  He  de- 
feated the  Falisci,  Capenates  and  Tuscans, 
advanced  to  Veii,  into  which  he  penetrat- 
ed by  a  subterraneous  passage,  and,  B.  C. 
896,  obtained  possession  of  a  place,  which, 
for  10  years,  had  defied  the  Roman  pow- 
er. The  people  murmured  when  they 
saw  him  make  a  triumphal  entry  in  a 
splendid  chariot  drawn  by  four  white 
horses,  and  with  his  face  painted;  for 
both  of  these  distinctions  were  appropri- 
ated to  the  gods.  But  the  discontent  of 
the  citizens  rose  to  the  highest  pitch 
when  the  dictator  demanded  of  them  the 
tenth  part  of  the  plunder,  to  perform  a 
vow  which  he  had  made  to  Apollo  in 
case  of  success.  After  a  long  contention, 
they  agreed  to  consecrate  to  the  god  a 
golden  cup,  for  which  the  Roman  ladies 
were  obliged  to  give  all  their  jewels  into 
the  public  treasury.  Not  long  after,  G. 
was  appointed  military  tribune.  He  be- 
sieged Falerii,  the  inhabitants  of  which 


defended  themselves  to  the  last  extremity. 
A  schoolmaster  dehvered  into  the  power 
of  G.  the  children  of  the  most  distinguish- 
ed Falisci,  but  he  sent  back  the  traitor, 
with  his  hands  bound,  while  the  boys 
beat  him  with  rods,  as  they  returned  to 
their  parents.  This  generosity  induced 
the  besieged  to  surrender ;  and  the  senate 
allowed  G.  to  determine  their  fate.  He 
contented  himself  with  obliging  them  to 
pay  the  arrears  due  to  his  soldiers;  but 
this  increased  the  number  of  his  enemies. 
Some  time  before,  C.  had  opposed  the 
proposal  of  colonizing  Veii  with  one  half 
of  the  citizens  of  Rome:  he  did  the  same 
now,  when  that  proposal  was  renewed. 
For  some  thne,  he  was  invested  with  the 
dignity  of  an  interrex,  and  had  to  contend 
with  aJl  the  consequences  of  hatred.  The 
tribune  of  the  people,  Apuleius,  accused 
him  of  having  embezzled  a  part  of  the 
plunder  of  Veii.  G.,  who  foresaw  his  con- 
denmation,  went  into  voluntarj'  exile,  al- 
though his  fiiends  offered  to  pay  tlje  sum 
demanded  of  him.  Less  magnanimous 
than  Aristides,  in  a  similar  situation,  G. 
is  said  to  have  prayed  the  gods  to  compel 
his  ungrateful  country  to  a  speedy  repent- 
ance. This  wish  was  granted.  Brennus 
(q.  V.)  had  obtained  possession  of  Rome, 
with  the  exception  of  die  capitol.  C., 
who  was  residing  in  Ardea,  aroused  tlie 
inhabitants  of  that  city  to  resistance,  and 
defeated  the  Gauls,  who  were  carelessly 
encamped  before  it.  The  Romans,  who 
had  fled  to  Veii,  besought  him  to  place 
himself  at  their  head ;  but  he  declared  tliat 
he  was  ready  to  do  this  only  in  case  tlie 
Roman  people,  now  in  the  capitol,  would 
commit  to  him  the  chief  command.  Pon- 
tius Gominius,  a  young  plebeian,  had  the 
courage  and  the  good  fortune  to  carry  the 
message  fix)m  the  city.  G.  was  unani- 
mously ajjpointed  dictator,  and  soon  saw 
himself  at  the  head  of  an  army  of  40,000 
men,  with  which  he  hastened  to  the  re- 
lief of  the  ckpitol,  where  he  found  the 
besieged  just  on  the  point  of  purchasing 
peace,  and  exclaimed,  "  With  iron,  not 
with  gold,  Rome  buys  her  freedom." 
The  Gauls  were  defeated,  and  left  their 
camp  by  night.  G.  overtook  them  on  the 
next  day,  and  obtained  a  complete  victo- 
rj'.  He  now  made  a  triumphal  entry  into 
Rome,  amidst  the  acclamations  of  the 
people  and  the  army,  who  greeted  him 
with  the  name  of  Romulus,  father  of  his 
country,  and  second  founder  of  the  city. 
But  the  city  was  a  heap  of  ruins,  and  the 
tribunes  renewed  the  proposal  of  remov- 
ing to  Veii,  while,  at  the  same  time,  they 
sought  to  excite  in  the  people  apprehen- 


CAMILLUS— CAMOENS. 


m 


sions  of  the  power  of  C.  The  senate, 
however,  frustrated  their  designs,  and  C. 
retained  the  dictatorship.  Rome  was  re- 
built. The  JEquJ,  Volsci,  the  Etruscans, 
and  even  the  Latins,  united  against  Rome. 
C,  for  the  third  time  dictator,  armed  tlie 
whole  people,  came  to  the  assistance  of 
the  military  tribunes,  who  were  surround- 
ed, fired  the  enemy's  camp,  and  gave  the 
plunder  to  his  soldiers.  He  tlien  took 
Bote,  the  chief  city  of  the  iEqui,  defeat- 
ed the  Volsci,  and  compelled  tlie  Etrus- 
cans to  retreat.  He  now  triumphed  for 
tlie  third  time,  restored,  from  the  booty, 
to  the  Roman  ladies,  what  tliey  liad  for- 
merly contributed  to  the  accomplishment 
of  his  vow,  and  retired  into  a  private  sta- 
tion. Soon  after,  when  the  inhabitants  of 
Antium  attacked  Rome,  he  was  aj)pointed 
niihtary  tribune,  obtained  from  his  col- 
leagues the  chief  command,  and  took 
severe  vengeance  on  the  enemy.  His 
glory  excited  the  jealousy  of  Manlius. 
The  senate,  alarmed,  once  more  i-aised  C. 
to  the  mihtary  tribuneship.  iManlius  was 
overcome ;  but  the  people,  who  had  at 
first  rejoiced  at  his  condemnation,  soon 
felt  repentance.  It  was  resolved  to  attack 
the  Pi-senestmes,  allies  of  the  Volsci.  C. 
was  obhged,  not\vithstaudmg  his  age,  to 
take  the  chief  command.  It  appeared  to 
Iiim  hazardous  to  venture  a  battle ;  but 
Lucius  Furius,  his  colleague,  pressed  him 
to  attack  the  enemy.  C.  allowed  him  to 
direct  the  engagement,  and  confined  him- 
self to  the  command  of  the  reserve.  The 
troops  under  the  command  of  Furius  be- 
ing thrown  into  disorder,  C.  came  up,  and 
prevented  a  total  defeat.  On  the  day  fol- 
lowing, he  obtained  a  complete  victoiy, 
being  nobly  supported  by  his  colleague. 
The  inliabitants  of  Tusculum,  against 
whom  he  then  advanced,  surrendered 
without  resistance,  and  obtained  the 
friendship  of  Rome,  which  they  had  lost 
by  their  own  fault.  C.  was  appointed 
dictator,  for  the  fourth  time,  on  account 
of  the  disturbances  excited  by  Licinius 
and  Sextus,  the  tribunes  of  the  people ; 
but  he  soon  resigned  the  power  which  he 
was  obliged  to  employ  against  Romans, 
and  not  against  enemies.  He  was  already 
80  years  old,  when  the  ai)pearance  of 
a  new  army  of  Gauls  t^errified  Rome.  He 
once  more  resumed  the  dictatorsliip,  at- 
tacked the  Gauls,  dispersed  them  entirely, 
and  obtained  again  the  honor  of  a  tri- 
umph. As  new  disturbances  had  broken 
out,  C.  did  not  lay  down  his  ofiice  till  the 
ferment  was  quelled.  After  this,  he  caus- 
ed a  temple  to  Concord  to  be  built  near 
the  Capitol,  retired  from  public  hfe,  and 


died  soon  after,  B.  C.  365^  of  the  plague, 

greatly  lamented  by  the  Romans. 

Camisards  ;  Calvinists  hi  France  (in 
the  Cevennes),  who,  ui  the  beguining  of 
the  IStli  century,  opposed  the  oppressive 
proceedings  of  the  royal  deputies.  The 
collectors  of  taxes  were  attacked  by  night 
by  the  malcontents  (who,  to  disguise  them- 
selves, appeared  only  in  their  shirts — 
whence  their  name),  dragged  out  of  bed, 
and  hung,  with  the  tax-rolls  about  their 
necks.  The  government  sent  troops  to 
punish  the  authoi"S  of  these  acts.  A  certain 
John  Cavalier,  a  peasant,  whom  a  fortune- 
teller had  pointed  out  as  the  dehverer  of 
Israel,  placed  himself  at  the  head  of  the 
Camisards.  His  unhmited  autliority  with 
his  adherents,  and  his  talents  and  courage, 
enabled  him  to  oppose  the  measures  of 
experienced  generals  witli  so  much  suc- 
cess, that  negotiation  was  substituted  for 
force.  The  marshal  Villai*s  made  a  trea- 
ty with  Cavalier,  which  conceded  to  die 
party  all  their  demands,  and  by  virtue  of 
which  Cavalier  liiinself  was  received  into 
the  rojal  service  as  a  colonel.  Sickness 
subsequently  hiduced  him  to  leave  France, 
and  lie  went  to  England,  where  queen 
Anne  gave  him  a  favorable  reception. 
Voltaire,  who  became  acquainted  with 
him  in  London,  speaks  of  him  iu  high 
terms.  At  the  time  of  his  deaths  Cavalier 
was  general  and  go  vernoi,-  of  Jersey. 

Camlet,  or  Camblrt  (in  French,  cam- 
elot ;  Italian,  cainellai()\\  a  fine  stuff,  com- 
posed of  a  warp  atxl  woof,  and  manufac- 
tured on  a  looiii  with  two  treddles,  so 
called  because  originally  made  of  camels' 
hair  only^  Cauilets  are  of  different  kinds,, 
as  goats'-hair,  vyool,  silk  camlets. 

Camma  ;  a  river,  and  a  khigdom,  in  Af- 
rica: the  former  divides  Benin  from  Loan- 
go,  and  runs  into  the  Atlantic ;  lat.  1°  40' 
S, ;  the  letter  is  neai-  the  river, 

Cam(en^,  a  name  often  given  to  the 
Muses.  Properly,  Catnana,  was  synony- 
mous witli  Cannenta,  a  prophetess,  whom 
the  oldest  colony  that  settled  in  Latium, 
under  Evander,  brought  with  them  out 
of  Arcadia;  therefore  tradition  calls  her 
his  mother.  Others  mention  two  Car^ 
mentce  as  looking  into  the  past  and  future 
— goddesses  of  fate,  who  afterxyards  be- 
came goddesses  of  birth.  Numa  conse- 
crated to  the  Camcenae  a  fountain  and 
grove,  and,  froni  that  circumstance,  they 
became  confomided  with  the  Muses. 

Camoe-ns,  Louis  de ;  the  most  celebrat- 
ed poet  of  the  Portuguese ;  one  of  the 
great  men  whose  merit  was  first  apparent 
to  after  tinie,  while  their  own  age  suffered 
thein  to  starve.    He  was  born  at  Lisbon, 


CAMOENS. 


probably  in  1524  ;  for  it  appears,  from  a 
catalogue  of  jiersoiis  embarking  for  tlie 
East  Indies  in  1550,  that  C,  whose  age  is 
tliere  given  at  25  years,  otibred  himself  as 
a  volunteer  for  the  campaign.  His  father, 
Simon  Vaz  de  C,  was  a  ship-captain,  and 
perished,  by  shipwreck,  on  the  coast  of 
Goa,  in  1550.  C.  studied  at  Coimbra.  At 
that  time,  writere  were  esteemed  in  pro- 
portion as  they  imitated  the  ancients.  C, 
Avas  inspired  by  the  histoiy  of  his  country, 
and  by  the  manners  of  his  age.  llis  lyric 
l)oenis,  hke  the  works  of  Dante,  Petrarch, 
Ariostoand  Tasso,  belong  to  the  literature 
formed  under  the  influence  of  Christian- 
ity. After  the  completion  of  his  studies, 
he  returned  to  Lisbon,  where  he  fell 
deeply  in  love  with  a  lady  of  the  palace, 
Catliarine  d'Attayde.  Violent  passions 
are  often  joined  with  great  talents :  C.  had 
both.  He  was  exiled  to  Santarerii,  on 
account  of  disputes  in  which  his  love  for 
Catharine  involved  hinj.  From  despair, 
he  became  a  soldier,  and  served  in  the 
fleet  which  the  Portuguese  sent  against 
Morocco.  He  com})osed  poetry  in  the 
midst  of  battles ;  and,  as  danger  kin- 
dled bis  genius,  so  genius  animated  his 
courage.  An  arrow  de[)rived  liini  of  his 
light  eye  before  Ceuta.  He  hoped  that 
his  wounds  would  receive  a  recompense, 
though  his  talents  were  not  appreciated  ; 
but  envy  opposed  his  claims.  Full  of 
indignation  at  seeing  himself  neglected, 
he  embarked,  in  1553,  for  India.  He 
landed  at  Goa.  His  powerful  imagina- 
tion was  excited  by  the  heroic  deeds  of 
his  countrymen  in  this  quarter  ;  and,  al- 
though he  had  much  reason  to  complain 
of  them,  he  could  not  resist  the  desire  of 
celebrating  their  glory  in  an  c]>ic.  But 
this  vivacity  of  mind,  essential  to  the 
}K>et,  is  not  easily  united  with  the  moder- 
ation which  a  dependent  condition  de- 
mands. C.  was  displeased  with  the 
abuses  of  the  government  in  India,  and 
wrote  a  satire,  Avhich  caused  liis  ban- 
ishment to  Macao.  Here  he  lived  sev- 
eral years  in  no  other  society  than  that 
of  nature,  which  showered  round  him 
in  abundance  all  the  channs  of  the 
East.  Here,  too,  he  composed  his 
Lusiad.  Vasco  da  Gania's  expedition 
to  India  is  the  subject  of  the  poem. 
The  parts  of  it  which  are  best  known 
are  the  episode  of  Ines  de  Castro,  and 
the  appearance  of  Adamastor,  who,  by 
means  of  his  power  over  the  storms, 
aims  to  stop  Gania's  voyage,  when  he  is 
about  to  double  the  Cape.  In  conformity 
to  the  taste  of  the  time,  C.  united,  in  this 
poem,  a  narmtive  of  the  Portuguese  his- 


toiy with  the  splendor  of  poetic  descrip- 
tion, aiu}  Christianity  with  mythological 
fables.  He  pleased  himself  with  tracing 
the  descent  of  the  Portuguese  from  the 
Romans,  of  whom  Mars  and  Venus  are 
considered  tlie  progenitors  and  protectors. 
Since  fable  ascribes  to  Bacchus  the  flrst 
con({uest  of  India,  it  was  natural  to  rej)- 
resent  hitn  as  jealous  of  the  undertaking 
of  the  Portuguese.  If  the  imitation  of 
the  Avorks  of  classical  antiquity  has  l)een 
of  any  disadvantage  to  the  Lusiad,  the 
injury  consists,  perhaps,  in  a  diminution 
of  the  originality  Avhich  one  expects  in  a 
work  in  which  India  and  Africa  are  de- 
scribed by  an  eye-witness.  Tlie  versifi- 
cation of  the  Lusiad  has  something  so 
charming  and  splendid,  that  not  only  cul- 
tivated minds,  but  even  thecommon  peo- 
])le,  are  enraptured  by  its  magic,  and  leam 
by  heart  and  sing  its  beautiful  stanzas. 
The  general  interest  of  the  poem  consists 
principally  in  the  patriotic  feeling  which 
pervades  it.  The  national  glory  of  the 
Portuguese  appears  here  in  eveiy  form 
which  invention  can  lend  to  it ;  and  there- 
fore the  countrymen  of  C.  must  naturally 
admire  this  poem  more  than  foreigners. 
Some  critics  pronounce  the  Lusiad  a 
more  powerful  and  pure  historical  paint- 
ing than  Tasso's  Jerusalem  Delivered. 
C.  was  at  last  recalled  from  his  banish- 
ment. At  the  mouth  of  the  river  Mecon, 
ui  Cochhi-China,  he  was  shipwrecked, 
and  saved  hunself  by  swimming ;  holding 
in  one  hand,  above  the  water,  the  manu- 
script of  his  poem,  the  only  treasure 
which  he  rescued  from  the  waves,  and 
which  was  dearer  to  him  than  life.  In 
Goa,  he  encountered  new  pei-secutions ; 
he  was  confined  in  prison  tor  debt,  and 
was  not  allowed,  until  his  friends  became 
)-esponsible  for  him,  to  embark  and  return 
to  Lisbon  in  1569.  ICing  Sebastian,  yet 
hardly  past  the  age  of  childhood,  took 
an  interest  in  C.  He  accepted  the  dedi- 
cation of  his  epic  (which  appeared  in 
1572),  and,  being  on  the  point  of  embark- 
ing on  his  expedition  against  the  Moors 
in  Africa,  he  felt,  more  sensibly  than 
otliers,  the  genius  of  the  poet,  who,  like 
him,  loved  dangers  if  they  led  to  glorj-. 
But  Sebastian  was  killed  m  a  battle  before 
Alca(;ar,  in  1578.  With  him  the  royal 
family  became  extinct,  and  Portugal  lost 
her  independence.  Eveiy  source  of  as- 
sistance, as  well  as  every  hope  of  C,  was 
destroyed  by  this  event.  So  gi-eat  ^Yaa 
llis  poverty,  that,  at  night,  a  slave,  whom 
he  had  brought  Avitli  him  from  India, 
begged  in  the  streets,  in  order  to  support 
the  liie  of  bis  master.    In  this  misery,  he 


CAMOENS— CAMPAGNA  DI  ROMA. 


437 


yet  wrote  lyric  poems,  some  of  which 
contain  the  most  moving  complaints. 
This  hero  of  Portuguese  literature,  the 
ornament  of  his  country  and  of  Europe, 
died,  at  last,  in  1579,  in  the  liospital  at 
Lisbon,  in  tlie  li2d  yoai*  of  his  age.  15 
years  afterwards,  a  splendid  momnueut 
was  erected  to  his  memory. — Tlie  best 
edition  of  the  Lusiad  ( Os  Lusiadas,  etc.) 
was  published  by  Jose  Maria  dc  t*ouza- 
Botelho  (Paris,  1807,  by  Didot,  small 
folio).  Tlie  best  French  translation,  with 
notes,  is  Les  Liisiades,  on  les  Portugais, 
etc.,  by  J.  B.  F.  Millie  (Paris,  1825, 2  vols.) 
The  works  of  C,  besides  the  Lusiad,  con- 
sist of  sonnets,  songs,  odes,  elegies,  ec- 
logues, redondillas,  epigrams,  satires,  let- 
ters, and  two  comedies  (Amphitryon,  after 
Plautus,  and  the  Love  of  Philodemus). — 
(See  the  article  Portuguese  Language 
and  Lnteraiure.)  John  Adamson's  Me- 
moirs of  the  Life  and  Writings  of  L.  de 
Camoens  (London,  1820,  2  vols.),  of 
•which  the  2d  volume  contams  a  criticistn 
on  his  works,  are  valuable.  See,  also, 
madame  de  Stall's  article  respecting  him 
in  tlie  Biographic  Universelle  ((Jtii  vol.). 

Camomile  {anthemis  nobilis)  is  a  well- 
known  plant,  the  dried,  daisy-like  flowers 
of  which  are  frequently  used  in  medicine. 
The  principal  use,  for  which  camomile 
flowers  are  applied,  is  to  excite  vomiting, 
and  promote  the  ojieration  of  emetics. 
They  have  likewise  been  sid)stituted  lor 
Peruvian  bark,  in  the  case  of  intermittent 
fevers  or  agues,  particularly  on  the  conti- 
nent of  Europe,  but  not  witli  much  suc- 
cess. Both  the  leaves  and  flowers  are 
employed  in  fomentations  and  poidtices. 
They  each,  but  particularly  the  flowers, 
have  a  powerful,  though  not  unpleasant 
smell,  and  a  bitter  taste.  They  arc  ad- 
ministered in  substance,  as  a  powder  or 
electuary ;  in  infiision,  as  tea :  in  decoc- 
tion or  extract,  or  in  the  form  of  an  es- 
sential oil,  obtained  by  distillation.  So 
fragrant  is  the  camomile  plant,  that  the 
places  where  it  gi-ows  wild,  on  open, 
gravelly  commons,  may  easily  be  discov- 
ered by  the  somewhat  strawbeny-like 
perfume  which  is  emitted  by  treading  on 
them.  This  quality  has  sometimes  in- 
duced the  cultivation  of  camomile  for  a 
green  walk  in  gai'deus. 

Camp  means,  generally,  the  place  and 
order  of  tents  or  huts  for  soldiers  in  the 
field.  In  modern  times,  a  difference  is 
made  between  camp  and  bivouac,  the 
former  signifying  the  residence  of  an 
army  resting  in  tents ;  tlie  latter,  the  situ- 
ation of  one  which  dispenses  with  them, 
and  remains  either  entirely  in  the  open 


air,  or,  where  time  allows  it,  in  huts  built 
of  branches,  &c.  [See  Bivouac.)  On  the 
continent  of  Europe,  tents  are  abolished, 
and  the  name  of  camp,  therefore,  is  sel- 
dom used  there  at  present. — Camps,  of 
course,  are  of  ver}'  ancient  origin,  since 
almost  all  nations,  in  their  infancy,  lived 
as  noinades,  dwelling  in  tents ;  as  is  the 
case  with  many  tribes  in  Asia  and  Africa 
at  the  present  day,  e.  g.,  the  Arabs.  The 
Romans,  probably,  fii-st  carried  the  art  of 
encampment  to  a  Jiigh  degree  of  perfec- 
tion, on  account  of  their  many  wars  in 
distant  and  thinly  settled  regions,  Avhere 
their  large  armies  found  no  cities  to  quar- 
ter in.  Caesar  and  several  other  Roman , 
authors  give  us  much  information  on 
their  way  of  constructing  a  camj),  which 
they  improved  in  strength  and  conven- 
ience, according  to  the  time  that  they 
were  stationed  in  it,  and  which,  at  the 
same  time,  the  want  of  fortresses  obliged 
them  to  make,  in  some  cases,  the  points 
of  their  militaiy  operations.  From  such 
camps,  it  is  well  known,  many  cities 
originated,  as  Cologne  on  the  Rhine, 
Treves,  Cambridge,  Bristol,  and  many 
others.  It  is  a  fact  of  much  interest,  that 
the  military  art,  after  so  many  changes  in 
tactics,  and  in  the  principles  of  strategv', 
again  resorts  to  something  similar  to  these 
fortified  camps  of  the  ancients,  as,  in  very 
recent  times,  it  has  been  thought  advisa- 
ble, besides  i)i-oviding  fortresses,  properly 
so  called,  to  strengthen  certain  large  cities 
on  the  chief  roads,  partly  in  oixler  to  de- 
fend them  against  the  first  attack  of  the 
enemj",  and  to  prevent  his  possessing 
himself  easily  of  the  important  resources 
which  they  aflx)rd,  but  chiefly  to  give  to 
retreating  armies  rallying  points,  able  to 
funiisli  support  to  numerous  soldiers. 
They  are  also  points  of  assembly  for  the 
militia.  Thus  the  Prussians  fortified  the 
large  city  of  Cologne.  Of  all  the  Euro- 
pean armies,  the  English  are  the  only 
ones,  we  believe,  who  make  use  of  tents, 
and  therefore  have  camps,  in  the  nar- 
rower sense  of  the  word.  It  is  to  be  ob- 
served, that  camps  have  become  slighter 
and  simpler  with  the  progress  of  the  mil- 
itary art.  The  camps  of  the  Turks,  or 
other  Asiatic  nations,  are  extremely  cum- 
bersome, in  comparison  with  the  light  bi- 
vouac of  the  Europeans,  from  which,  at 
any  moment,  the  whole  army  can  rise  in 
arms,  prepared  for  battle. 

Campagna  di  Roma  ;  a  territory  in 
Italy,  wiiich  comprehends  the  greater 
part  of  old  Latium,  about  70  miles  wide 
and  230  long.  We  usually  understand 
by  it  the  desert  plain  which  commences 


438 


CAMPAGNA  DI  ROMA— CAMPAIGN. 


near  Ronciglione  or  Viterbo,  and,  includ- 
ing the  Pontine  marshes  (q.  v.),  extends 
to  Terraeina.  In  the  middle  of  this  re- 
gion lies,  half  deserted,  the  ancient  capi- 
tal of  the  world.  The  lakes  of  the  C. 
are  evidently  cratei-s  of  extinct  volcanoes. 
Thus  the  lake  Regillus,  al)ove  Frascati, 
lies  at  the  bottom  of  an  inverted  cone  of 
hard,  black  lava,  rising  in  wild  and  naked 
masses  from  40  to  GO  feet  hijrli.  Tlie 
craters  containing  the  lakes  of  Albano 
and  Nemi,  which  he  from  400  to  500  feet 
higher  than  tlie  hdie  Rogillus,  have  a  veiy 
regular  conical  form.  The  lake  of  x\l- 
bano  is  also  remarkable  for  its  atjuednct, 
or  etnissanum,  one  of  tlie  most  ancient 
and  excellent  works  of  the  Romans, 
which  discharges  the  watere  of  the  lake 
tlirough  tlie  mountains.  It  was  cut 
tlirough  the  lava,  in  a  year,  by  the  com- 
mand of  an  oracle,  duruig  the  siege  of 
Veii,  when  the  lake  threatened  to  inun- 
date even  Rome.  (See  Alhano.)  It  an- 
swers its  original  purjjosc  even  at  the 
present  da)\  There  are,  also,  many  sul- 
phur springs  here,  particularly  between 
Rome  and  Tivoli,  where  the  water  issues 
almost  boiling  from  the  earth,  and  fbnns 
tlie  lake  of  Solfatiua,  whicli  contains 
floating  islands,  consisting  of  a  calcarious 
deposit,  which  collects  round  substances 
thrown  into  the  water.  The  water  of  the 
river,  which  issues  from  thislalce,  has  the 
same  fjuaUties,  and  was  considered,  by 
the  ancients,  as  particularly  salutar\-. 
Near  the  lake  were  the  baths  of  M. 
Agrippa,  The  soil  of  the  C,  is,  in  gen- 
eral, dry,  but  very  fertile  in  the  lower 
{)arts,  though  its  cultivation  is  much  ncg- 
ected,  Froni  Mouterosi  to  the  hills  of 
Albano,  a  tree  is  seldom  to  be  seeji.  All 
the  eflbrts  of  the  Freuclt  to  diminish  the 
malignity  of  the  maV  aria  in  these  regions, 
bj' planting  trees,  have  been  unsuccessful. 
There  are  no  villages  and  towns  in  the  C. 
Here  and  there  you  find  single  huts  lean- 
ing against  the  ruins  of  old  towers  or 
temples,  and  patched  up  from  their  frag- 
ments. In*  the  middle  of  the  summer, 
when  malignant  fevei-s  render  a  residence 
in  the  C.  very  dangerous,  the  unhaj)j)y 
inhabitants  are  obliged  to  talvc  refuge  in 
the  neighboring  towus,  or  in  Rome,  where 
tliey  seek  sJielter  under  the  porticoes  of 
the  churches  and  i)a!aces.  Tlie  great 
number  of  sick  persons  who  fill  the  Ro- 
man hospitals  during  the  niouths  of  July, 
August  and  September,  are  chiefly  in- 
habitants of  the  country.  Besides  then* 
huts,  innumerable  ruins  of  temples,  cir- 
cuses and  monuments  are  scattered  about 
C,  particularly  near  the  Via  Appia ;  and 


long  rows  of  aqueducts,  some  in  ruins, 
some  in  a  state  of  preservation,  are  over- 
grown with  ivy  and  other  plants.  In  the 
winter,  flocks  of  sheep  pasture  in  these 
solitudes ;  during  the  summer,  they  are 
driven  nj)  the  Aiiennines.  Herds  of  half- 
wild  cattle  remain  diuing  tlie  whole  year 
in  the  C.  Their  keepers,  however,  soon 
liecome  a  prey  to  the  pestilence,  or  Ihll 
into  a  gi'adual  decline.  They  are  mostly 
natives  of  the  mountains,  and  serve  tl>e 
]jro])rietors  of  the  herds  for  trifling  wages. 
Eonstetten  saw  at  Torre  Paterno,  very 
near  Rome,  a  herd  of  sevend  hundred 
cows,  the  proprietoi-s  of  which  did  not 
consider  it  worth  while  to  milk  ihcni, 
though  milk  is  as  dear  in  Rome  as  in 
other  large  cities.  The  herdsmen  are 
mounted,  and  armed  with  long  lances, 
with  which  they  manage  the  cattle  very 
skilfully.  Scarcely  a  ninth  part  of  the  C. 
is  cultivated  ;  the  rest  is  used  for  pastur- 
age. In  the  times  of  the  ancient  Romans, 
this  dreary  solitude  exhibited  a  smiling 
j)icture  of  abundance  and  fertility.  Corn- 
fields, groves,  villas,  monuments,  alter- 
nated v.ith  each  other,  and,  according  to 
the  accounts  of  Strabo,  Varro  and  I'liny, 
the  air  was  remarkably  healthy,  with  the 
cxccj)lion  of  a  few  marshy  tracts  along 
the  coasts.  Tlie  conniption  of  the  cli- 
mate originated  as  eaily  as  the  6th  cen- 
tury, according  to  tradition,  after  some 
great  inundations  of  the  Tiber ;  which, 
however,  still  take  place,  widiout  increas- 
ing the  evil.  The  unhealthy  air,  the  fa- 
mous aria  caltiva^is  most  injurious  in  the 
dry  and  hot  seasons.  The  most  probable 
supposition  is,  that  it  originated  afi;er  the 
devastations  of  the  barbarians,  when  the 
waters  became  stagnant  from  the  want 
of  human  industryr  The  greatest  oljsta- 
cle  to  the  removal  of  the  evil  is  in  the 
prejudices  and  uidolence  of  the  people. 
Thus  the  corruption  is  continually  spread- 
ing, and  has  even  attacked  some  quarters 
of  Rome, 

Campaign  generally  denotes  the  season 
during  which  armies  keep  die  field.  It 
also  means  an  extensive  level  countrv". 
Fonnerly,  when  war  was  not  carried  on 
with  so  much  impetuosity  as  at  jMesent, 
campaigns  lasted  only  during  the  warmer 
months ;  and,  towards  winter,  the  troojis 
went  into  winter-quarters,  when  the  of- 
fieere  of  the  oj)posing  armies  ofi;en  met 
very  amicably  at  balls  and  other  entertain- 
ments ;  but,  of  late,  armies  have  kept 
the  field  through  the  winter,  till  a  deci- 
sive victory  has  been  gained.  Thus  the 
allies,  in  the  winter  of  1813 — 14,  followed 
the  French  over  the  Rhine ;  some  battles 


CAMPAIGN— CAMPANILE. 


439 


•were  fought  in  January  and  Februarj', 
and  the  armies  remained,  for  several 
months,  witliout  roof  or  tent,  in  tlie  open 
air  of  a  cold  winter. 

Campa>',  Jeanne  Louise  Henrielte 
(originally  Gtnet),  born  at  Paris,  Oct.  G, 
1752,  became  reader  to  the  daughters  of 
Louis  XV  ;  gained  the  favor  of  the  wife 
of  the  dauphin,  afterwards  the  queen  3Ia- 
rie  ^Vntoinette,  who  gave  her  in  marriage 
to  the  son  of  her  private  secretaiy,  M. 
Campan,  and  appointed  her  the  fii^st  lady 
of  the  bed-chamber.  Madame  C.  gave 
her  ])atroness  many  proofs  of  fidelity  and 
attachment,  and  wished  to  foHow  her  into 
the  Temple  after  the  10th  of  Aug.,  1792, 
wliich,  however,  Pethion  did  not  allow. 
After  the  fall  of  Hobespierre,  madame  C. 
established  a  boarding-school  for  the  edu- 
cation of  young  ladies  at  St.  Germain, 
which  soon  acquired  a  wide  reputation. 
On  this  account,  Napoleon  appointed  her 
the  principal  of  an  institution  founded  by 
hiui  for  the  daugjitei-s  of  the  officers  of 
tiie  legion  of  honor,  at  Ecouen,  which 
she  organized  and  superintended  for  seven 
}'ears.  After  the  restoration,  Louis  XVIII 
abolished  tljis  institution,  and  madame  C 
lost  her  situation.  Her  only  son  died  in 
1821,  in  consequence  of  ill  treatment  suf- 
fered because  he  ^vas  a  relation  of  mar- 
shal Ney.  3Ia(lame  C.  died  at  Paris, 
INTarch  10,  1822.  Of  her  Memoii-s  i-e- 
sjjecting  the  Private  Life  of  tlie  Queen 
Marie  Antoinette,  with  Recollections  of 
the  Times  of  Louis  XIV,  XV,  and  XVI, 
in  4  vols,  (translated  into  English,  1823), 
the  fifth  edition  appeared  at  Paris,  1823. 
They  contain  interostmg  contrilnnions  to 
the  history  of  the  French  revolution,  ller 
Journal  Amcdotique,  also  (Paris,  1824),  is 
rich  in  piquant  anecdotes  of  Napoleon, 
Alexander  I,  and  othei-s. 

Campanei-la,  Thomas :  a  native  of  Ca- 
labria, in  Italy,  famous  for  his  talents  and 
misfortunes.  He  disj)layed  great  quick- 
ness of  pans  when  quite  young,  and,  at 
the  age  of  15,  entered  into  the  order  of 
tlie  Dominicans.  He  studied  theology 
and  otlier  branches  of  knowledge  with 
assiduity,  but  was  jmncipally  attracted  by 
jihilosophj'.  The  0])inions  of  Aristotle, 
then  generally  tauglit  in  the  schools,  ap- 
])eared  to  him  unsatisfactory  ;  and,  in 
1591,  he  published,  at  Naples,  a  work, 
Entitled  PhilosopMa  Sensihus  demonstrata, 
intended  to  show  the  futility  of  the  j)re- 
vailing  doctrines.  This  book  j)rocured 
him  some  admirei-s,  and  more  enemies. 
He  then  went  to  Rome,  and  afterwards 
to  Florence,  where  he  was  well  received 
by  the  grand-duke  Ferduiand ;  but,  not 


obtaining  some  preferment  which  he  ex- 
])ected,  he  ])roceeded  to  Bologna,  and 
then  to  Padua,  where  he  gave  lectures  on 
philosophy.  In  1598,  he  returned  to  Na- 
j)les,  ajid  revisited,  shortly  after,  Calabria, 
where,  in  the  following  year,  he  was  ar- 
rested on  a  charge  of  conspiracy  against 
the  Spanish  government,  to  which  Naples 
was  then  subject.  A  scheme  was  im- 
puted to  him  of  having  engaged  the 
Turks  to  assist  him  in  making  himself 
master  of  Calabria.  On  this  improbable 
and  apparently  unfounded  accusation,  he 
was  imprisoned,  and,  after  being  repeat- 
edly tortured,  condemned  to  perpetual 
confinement.  In  this  situation,  he  wrote 
many  learned  works,  afterwards  publish- 
ed. 'At  length,  in  1(526,  pope  Urban  VIII 
procured  his  removal  to  Kon>e,  and,  in 
1629,  gave  him  his  liberty,  and  bestorved 
on  hhn  a  pension.  Dreading  some  fur- 
ther persecution  from  the  S{)aniai-ds,  he 
withdrew,  in  1634,  to  France,  where  he 
was  honorably  received,  and  much  es- 
teemed by  the  learned  men  of  that  coun- 
trj-.  He  died  at  Paris  in  1639. — C.  was  a 
man  of  more  imagination  than  judgment, 
displaying  his  talents  rather  by  under- 
mining the  systems  of  otliere  than  by 
establishing  his  o^^^l.  He  was  a  believer 
in  astrolog}',  one  of  the  follies  of  the  age  ; 
and  some  of  his  opinions  were  very  ec- 
centric. His  works  are  extremely  nu- 
merous. 

Campania  ;  the  ancient  name  of  a 
province  of  Italy,  in  the  })resent  kingdom 
of  Naples,  which,  partly  on  account  of  its 
natural  curiosities,  including  Vesuvius, 
the  Phlegi'Kan  fields,  the  lake  of  Averaus, 
and  jjartly  for  its  remarkable  fertility,  was 
a  favorite  resort  of  the  thstinguished  Ro- 
mans, who  built  there  mairnificent  coun- 
try-houses. Cuma,  Puteoli,  Naples,  ller- 
culaneuni,  Pomi)eii,  Caprcre,  Salernum 
and  Capiui,  the  princi])al  cities  of  C,  are 
names  rich  in  classical  associations.  The 
Appian  and  Latin  ways  led  into  tlie  inte- 
rior of  this  channiiig  province.  Even 
now,  C,  or  Terra  di  I^avoro,  is  the  most 
beautiful  and  fruitful  part  of  Italy  ;  and  no 
traveller  can  wisli  for  a  nioro  delightfiil 
country  than  tlie  fields  of  C,  filled,  in  the 
month  of  April,  with  barley  four  feet 
high,  and  attorned  with  lofty  poplars, 
which  are  connected  by  luxuriant  vines, 
fonniug  a  canopy  over  the  fields. 
"There,"  says  Gothe,  "it  is  worth  wliile 
to  till  the  ground." 

Campamle  ;  a  detached  tov/er,  in  some 
parts  of  Italy,  erected  lor  the  purpose  of 
containing  bells.  Several  of  them  have 
deviated  considerably  from.llie  »perijen- 


«0 


CAMPANILE— CAMPBELL. 


dicular,  in  consequence  of  their  great 
height  and  narrowness  of  base.  The 
campanile  of  Pisa,  called  Torre  Pendente, 
or  Hanging  Tower,  is  the  most  remarka- 
ble of  these.  Its  height  is  150  feet,  and 
it  inclines  nearly  13  feet  from  the  per- 
pendicular. The  tower  consists  of  eight 
stories,  each  of  which  is  surrounded  by 
columns.    (See  Bologna.) 

Campbell,  George,  a  distinguished 
Scotch  divine,  was  bom  at  Aberdeen,  in 
1709.  He  was  educated  at  Mareschal 
college,  and  afterwards  articled  to  a  writer 
of  the  signet  at  Edinburgh.  In  1741,  he 
relinquished  the  law,  and  studied  divinity. 
In  1759,  he  was  appointed  principal  of 
Mareschal  college.  In  1763,  he  j)ublished 
his  celebrated  Dissertation  on  Miracles,  in 
answer  to  the  Essay  on  Miracles  of  Mr. 
Hume.  This  Dissertation  was  translated 
into  the  French  and  Dutch  languages. 
In  1771,  C.  was  chosen  professor  of  di- 
vinity, and,  in  1776,  gave  to  the  world  his 
Philosophy  of  Rhetoric,  which  established 
his  reputation  as  an  accurate  gi-ammarian, 
a  sound  critic  and  a  tasteful  scholar.  He 
also  published  occasional  sermons.  The 
last  work  which  he  lived  to  publish,  was 
his  Translation  of  the  Gospels,  with  Pre- 
liminary Dissertations  and  Notes  (2  vols. 
4to.)  He  died  in  1796.  Besides  the  works 
already  mentioned,  his  Lectures  on  Sys- 
tematic Theology  and  the  Pastoral  Char- 
acter (foUo)  have  been  printed  since  his 
death  ;  as  also  his  Lectures  on  the  Eccle- 
siastical Character  (2  vols.  8vo.),  with  bis 
life  prefixed. 

Campbell,  John,  a  native  of  Edin- 
burgh, was,  when  very  young,  brought  to 
England.  His  earliest  productions  are 
not  certainly  known ;  but,  in  1736,  he 
pubhshed  the  Military  History  of  Prince 
Eugene  and  the  Duke  of  Marlborough  (2 
vols.  foUo),  which  gained  him  so  much 
reputation,  that  he  was  engaged,  soon 
after,  to  assist  in  writing  the  ancient  part 
of  the  Universal  History,  in  60  vols.  ovo. 
In  1742,  he  published  the  fii-st  two  vol- 
umes of  the  Lives  of  the  Admirals  and 
other  British  Seamen,  the  two  last  vol- 
umes of  which  appeared  in  1744.  In 
1745  commenced  the  publication  of  the 
Biographia  Britannica,  one  of  the  most 
important  undertakings  in  which  C.  was 
engaged.  The  articles  written  by  him, 
extending  through  four  volumes  of  the 
work,  are,  both  in  point  of  style  and  mat- 
ter, much  superior  to  those  of  his  coadju- 
tors. They  are  liable,  however,  to  one 
general  censure,  arising  from  the  almost 
unvarying  strain  of  panegyric,  in  which 
the  \vriter  indulges,  and  which  has  re- 


peatedly subjected  him  to  critical  animad- 
version.  In  1750,  he  pubhshed  the  Pres- 
ent State  of  Europe,  containing  much 
historical  and  political  information.  He 
was  then  employed  on  the  modern  part 
of  the  Universal  Histor}-.  His  last  and 
favorite  work  was  a  Political  Survey  of 
Great  Britain  (1774,  2  vols,  4to.)  C.  died 
Dec.  28,  1775. 

Campbell,  Thomas,  was  bom  at  Glas- 
gow, Scotland,  Sept.  7,  1777,  and  early 
displayed  a  remarkable  vivacity  of  imagi- 
nation and  vigor  of  mind.  He  entered  the 
university  of  Glasgow  at  the  early  age  of 
12,  and  immediately  distinguished  him- 
self by  can-ying  off  the  academical  prizes^ 
particularly  for  translations  from  the 
Greek  poets.  Moral  philosophy  was  one 
of  his  favorite  pursuits ;  but  he  never  ap- 
plied himself  to  any  professional  studies. 
After  passing  7  years  at  the  university,  he 
went  to  Edinburgh,  and  produced,  at  the 
age  of  20,  his  principal  poem,  the  Pleas- 
ures of  Hope,  which  established  his  repu- 
tation in  England.  Hannony  of  versifi- 
cation, a  polished  and  graceful  diction, 
and  an  accurate  finish,  are  united  ^vith 
an  ardent  poetical  sensibilitj-,  in  this 
youthful  production.  The  passage  con- 
cerning the  paitition  and  subjugation  of 
Poland  is  full  of  the  lyric  fire,  which 
afterwards  burst  forth  so  brilliantly  in 
the  Mariners  of  England,  the  Battle  of 
the  Baltic,  and  Hohenlimlen.  In  1800, 
he  visited  the  continent,  and  passed  a 
year  in  Gennany,  where  he  became  ac- 
quainted with  the  principal  poets  and  ht- 
erati.  Here  he  witnessed  the  bloody 
fight  of  Hohenlinden,  which  inspired  one 
of  his  finest  lyric  effusions.  On  leaving 
the  contuient,  he  visited  London  for  the 
first  time,  and  resided  there  till  his  mar- 
riage, in  1803,  when  he  removed  to  Sy- 
denham, where  lie  resided  about  20  yeai-s, 
receiving  a  pension  of  £200  from  tlie 
crown.  He  lias  lately  lived  in  London. 
In  1808  appeared  his  Annals  of  Great 
Britain,  from  the  Accession  of  George  III 
to  the  Peace  of  Amiens  (3  vols.,  Svo.)  In 
1609,  he  published  a  volume  of  poems 
containing  Gertrude  of  Wyoming,  a  Penn- 
sylvanian  tale.  It  is  fiill  of  pathos  and 
bieautiful  simplicity.  In  O'Connor's  Child 
he  has  touched  a  wilder  string  of  pjission 
and  despair.  His  Thcodric  (1824)  disap- 
pointed every  body  j  and  C.  has,  of  late, 
done  nothing  worthy  of  his  earlier  pro- 
ductions. He  is  remarkable  for  his  severe 
criticism  of  his  ovsti  works,  and  this  may 
account  for  his  having  written  so  little  for 
the  last  25  years.  His  poems  have  all 
been  republished  in  America,  where  they 


CAMPBELL— CAMPER. 


441 


are  very  popular.  His  Specimens  of 
Bntisk  Poets,  with  biographical  and  criti- 
cal Notices,  and  an  Essay  on  English  Po- 
etry (1819,  7  vols.,  8vo.),  contain  short 
extracts  from  the  poets,  from  the  time  of 
Chaucer  to  that  of  Anstey.  His  Lectures 
on  Poetry  were  written,  originally,  for  the 
London  Institution,  and  afterwards  deliv- 
ered in  difterent  cities  of  tlie  kingdom,  to 
his  own  profit  and  honor.  They  were 
printed,  or  at  least  a  })art  of  them,  in  the 
New  Monthly  3Iagazine.  This  magazine 
was  originally  projected  by  C.  It  apjjcar- 
ed  in  1821,  and  ^vas  edited  by  C.  about 
four  yeai'S,  with  much  reputation.  He 
%vas  one  of  the  early  .promoters  of  the 
London  univei-sity,  and,  by  his  letter  to 
Mr.  Brougham,  which  fii-st  appeared  in 
the  Times,  Feb.  9,  1825,  and  by  his  Sug- 
gestions, which  appeared  in  the  New 
Monthly  soon  aftenvards,  materially  fur- 
thered tliat  great  project.  In  1827,  he 
was  elected  rector  of  the  university  of 
Glasgow — an  office  without  labor  or  emol- 
ument. His  rival  was  sir  Walter  Scott, 
and  the  election  was  made  entirely  on 
political  grounds,  C.  representing  the 
whig  interest,  to  which  he  has  always 
been  attached. — C.  is  a  very  amiable  and 
interesting  person  in  private  life,  of  lively 
mannei-s,  and  devoted  entirely  to  literaiy 
pui-suits.  Besides  his  pension  and  the 
profits  of  his  hterary  labors,  he  has  a  sniall 
mlieritance,  received  from  an  uncle. 

Campe,  Joachim  Heinrich,  born  in 
1746,  at  Deensen,  in  the  territoiy  of 
Brunswick,  studied  theology  at  Helm- 
stadt,  in  Halle.  In  1773,  he  was  a  chap- 
lam  in  the  Prussian  service.  He  founded 
a  private  institution  for  education  near 
Hamburg,  but  left  it,  on  account  of  his 
health,  in  1783,  to  professor  Trapp.  He 
died,  Oct.  22, 1818,  at  the  age  of  72  years. 
His  philosophical  treatises,  as  well  as  the 
works  which  he  composed  for  llie  ui- 
struction  of  youth,  display  a  noble  and 
philanthropic  spirit.  The  services  which 
he  has  rendered  to  the  cause  of  educa- 
tion have  been  universally  acknowledged. 
His  style  is  j)ure  and  flowing,  artless  and 
animated.  He  possessed  a  rare  faculty 
of  accommodating  himself  to  the  youthful 
capacity.  His  endeavors  to  purifj^  and 
einich  the  German  language  were  earned 
to  excess.  His  writings  for  the  instruction 
of  childhood  and  youth  were  published 
together,  at  Brunswick,  180G— 9,  in  30 
vols.  12mo.,  with  copperplates.  His  Rob- 
inson the  Younger  has  been  translated  in- 
to ahnost  all  tlie  European  languages,  even 
into  modern  Greek.  His  Thcopliron  has 
also  had  a  wide  cuculation.    His  Workr- 


huch  der  Deutschen  Sprache  (Brunswick, 
1807 — 11,  5  vols.  4to.yis  a  production  of 
much  merit.  His  letters  written  (1789) 
from  Paris,  containing  wann  eulogiumson 
the  French  revolution,  are  bold  and  elo- 
quent, but  marked  with  the  enthusiastic 
exaggeration  of  the  time,  and  drew  upon 
him  many  serious  and  satirical  attacks. 

Campeacht,  or  Campeche  ;  a  seaport 
town  of  IMexico,  in  Yucatan,  in  a  bay  to 
which  it  gives  name,  on  the  west  coast 
of  the  j)einnsula  of  Yucatan ;  90  miles 
W.  S.  W.  Merida;  Ion.  90°  31'  W.;  lat. 
19°  51'  N.  ;  population,  6000.  It  is  de- 
fended by  a  castle  funnshed  with  cannon, 
and  has  several  times  been  taken  from 
the  Spaniards,  and  plundered.  Its  port  is 
large,  but  shallow.  The  houses  are  well 
built  of  stone.  The  exportation  of  the 
wax  of  Yucatan  constitutes  one  of  the 
most  lucrative  branches  of  its  trade.  It 
has  a  manufacture  of  cotton  cloth.  It 
was,  for  a  long  time,  the  chief  mart  for 
logwood,  of  which  great  quantities  grew 
in  tlie  neighborhood,  before  the  English 
landed  here,  and  cut  it  at  the  isthmus. 
At  the  time  when  it  w^as  taken  by  the 
Spaniards,  it  was  said  to  have  contained 
3000  houses,  and  considerable  monu- 
ments of  Indian  art. — The  bay  of  Cam- 
peachy  lies  on  the  south-west  of  the  pen- 
insula of  Yucatan,  and  on  the  north  of 
the  province  of  Tabasco. 

Camper,  Peter,  born  at  Leyden,  1722, 
died  at  the  Hague,  April  7,  1789,  was 
one  of  the  most  learned  and  acute  physi- 
cians and  anatomists  of  the  18th  century. 
He  distinguished  himself  in  anatomy, 
surgery,  obstetrics  and  medical  jiuispru- 
dence,  and  also  as  a  writer  on  the  beauti- 
ful. He  drew  with  gi'eat  skill  with  the 
pen,  painted  in  oil,  modelled  in  wax,  and 
knew  how  to  handle  the  chisel  of  the 
sculptor.  C.  was  the  first  who  proved 
that  the  ape,  of  which  the  ancients  have 
left  anatomical  descrijjtions,  was  a  species 
of  orang  outang.  His  essays  on  lithotomy, 
&c.,  liave  spread  hght  on  these  sub- 
jects. He  was  much  devoted  to  com- 
parative osteology,  and  believed,  what  the 
discoveries  of  Cuvier  have  confirmed, 
that  there  have  really  existed  animals  of 
which  the  species  are  at  present  extincL 
His  Dissertation  on  the  natural  Varieties, 
&c.,  is  the  first  work  which  has  thrown 
much  light  on  the  varieties  of  the  human 
species,  which  the  author  distinguishes 
by  the  shape  of  the  skull.  His  Treatise 
on  the  natural  Diffei-enoe  of  Features  in 
Pei-sons  of  various  Countries  and  Ages, 
and  on  Beauty  as  ejchibited  in  ancient 
Paintings  and  Engravhigs,  followed  by  a 


441 


CAMPER— CAMPHOR. 


method  of  delineating  various  sorts  of 
heads  with  accuracy,  is  intended  to  prove 
that  the  rules  laid  down  by  the  most  cel- 
ebrated limners  and  painters  are  very  de- 
fective. His  general  doctrine  is,  that  the 
difference  in  form  and  cast  of  counte- 
nance proceeds  from  tlie  facial  angle, 
(q.  V.)  In  his  essay  on  tlie  organs  of 
speech  in  apes,  he  proves  that  nature  has 
rendered  the  pronunciation  of  articulate 
sounds  unpossible,  even  to  those  which  aj)- 
proach  nearest  to  man,  by  lateral  pouches 
connected  with  the  windpipe.  C.  wrote  in 
four  languages,  and  received  ten  prizes 
from  different  academies.  He  received 
his  education  at  Leyden,  and  travelled, 
and  obtained  the  acquaintance  of  many 
of  the  most  distinguished  men  of  Europe, 
after  which  he  was  made  professor  of 
philosophy,  medicine  and  surgery  in  Fra- 
neker.  He  taught  the  same  sciences,  af- 
terwards, in  Amsterdam  and  Groningen. 

Campetti  ;  an  ItaUan,  bom  at  Garg- 
nano,  on  lake  Garda,  who  has  attracted 
much  attention,  in  our  time,  by  pretend- 
ing to  be  capable  of  ascertaining,  by  his 
feeUngs,  the  places  where  metals  and 
water  exist  under  the  ground.  Many  ex- 
periments seemed  to  confirm  his  state- 
ments. The  king  of  Bavaria  sent  for  him 
in  1806,  and  he  came  to  Munich,  where 
the  experiments  were  renewed.  These 
experiments  were  chiefly  made  vrith  pen- 
dulumSF  of  sulphurous  pyrites,  which  are 
said  to  vibrate  if  brought  near  to  met- 
als. Information  on  this  subject  is  con- 
tained in  Aretin's  J^euer  lAterarischer  An- 
zeiger  (1807),  beginning  with  No.  22. 
Gilbert  also  published,  in  1808,  interest- 
ing elucidations  of  these  experiments. 
(See  Bhabdomancy.) 

Camphor  is  a  white,  resmous  produc- 
tion, of  peculiar  and  powerful  smell,  not 
unlike  that  of  rosemary,  and  is  extracted 
from  two  or  three  kinds  of  trees  of  the 
bay  tribe,  that  grow  in  the  islands  of  the 
East  Indies  and  China.  Of  these,  the 
principal  is  the  laurus  camphora  of  Lin- 
naeus. It  is  of  considerable  height,  much 
branched,  and  has  spear-shaped  leaves, 
with  nerves,  of  a  pale-yellowish-green 
color  on  the  upper  side,  and  bluish-green 
beneath.  The  flowers  are  small,  white, 
and  stand  on  stalks  which  issue  from  the 
junction  of  the  leaves  and  branches. 
Camphor  is  found  in  every  part  of  the 
trees ;  in  the  interstices  of  the  perpendic- 
ular fibres,  and  in  the  veins  of  the  wood, 
in  the  crevices  and  knots,  in  the  pith,  and 
in  the  roots,  which  afford  by  far  the 
greatest  abundance.  The  method  of  ex- 
tracting it  consists  in  distilling  with  water 


in  large  iron  pots,  which  serve  as  the 
body  of  the  still,  with  earthen  heads  fitted 
to  them,  stuffed  with  straw,  and  provided 
with  receivers.  Most  of  the  camphor  be- 
comes condensed  in  the  solid  form  among 
the  straw,  and  part  comes  over  with  the 
water.  Its  sublimation  is  performed  in 
low,  flat-bottomed  glass  vessels,  placed  in 
sand,  and  the  camphor  becomes  concrete, 
in  a  ])ure  state,  against  the  upper  part, 
whence  it  is  afterwards  separated  with  a 
knife,  after  breaking  the  glass. — Numer- 
ous other  vegetables  are  found  to  yield 
camphor  by  distillation.  Among  them 
are  thyme,  rosemaiy,  sage,  elecami)ane, 
anemone  and  pusatilla.  A  smell  of  caiu- 
phor  is  disengaged  when  the  volatile  oil  of 
fennel  is  treated  with  acids ;  and  a  sruall 
quantity  of  camphor  may  be  obtained 
from  oil  of  turpentine  by  simple  distilla- 
tion, at  a  very  gentle  heat. — Camphor  ha» 
a  bitterish,  aromatic  taste,  is  unctuons  to 
the  touch,  and  possesses  a  degree  of 
toughness  which  prevents  it  from  bein^ 
pulverized  with  fiicility,  itnless  a  few 
drops  of  alcohol  be  added,,  when  it  is 
easily  reduced  to  a  powder.  It  floats  on 
water,  and  is  exceedingly  volatile,  being 
gradually  dissipated  in  vapor  if  kept  in 
open  vessels.  At  288°  Fahr.  it  entei-s  into 
fijsion,  and  boils  at  400°  Fahr.  ll  is  insol- 
uble in  water,  but  is  dissolved  freely  by 
alcohol,  from  which  it  is  immediately 
precipitated,  in  milky  clouds,  on  the  addi- 
tion of  water.  It  is  hkewse  soluble  in 
the  fixed  and  volatile  oils,  and  in  strong 
acetic  acid.  Sulphuric  acid  decomposes 
camphor,  converting  it  into  a  substance 
like  artificial  tannm.  With  nitric  acid,  it 
yields  a  peculiar  acid,  called  camphoric 
acid.  This  acid  combines  with  alkalies, 
and  forms  peculiar  salts,  called  ca/niphor- 
ates.  They  have  not  hitherto  been  ap- 
plied to  any  useful  purpose. — As  an 
internal  medicine,  camphor  has  been  fre- 
quently employed,  in  doses  of  from  5 
to  20  grains,  with  much  advantage,  to 
procure  sleep  in  mania,  and  to  counteract 
gangrene.  In  lar^  doses,  it  acts  as  a 
poison.  Dissolved  in  acetic  acid,  with 
some  essential  oils,  it  forms  the  aromatic 
vinegar.  It  promotes  the  solution  of  co- 
pal ;  and,  from  the  circumstance  that  its 
effluvia  are  very  noxious  to  insects,  it  is 
much  used  to  defend  subjects  of  natural 
history  from  their  ravages, — In  a  crude 
state,  camphor  is  formed  into  irregular 
lumps,  of  a  yellowish-gray  color,  some- 
what resembling  nitre  or  bay-salt.  It  is 
imported  into  Europe  in  canisters,  and 
the  refining  of  it  was  long  kept  a  secret 
by  the  Venetians.    The  Dutch  have  since 


CAMPHOR— CAMPO-FORMIO. 


HB 


performed  this  work ;  and  large  quanti- 
ties of  camphor  are  now  refined  by  some 
of  the  English  and  American  chemists. — 
For  carpenters'  work  the  wood  of  the 
camphor-tree  is  much  used.  It  is  Ught 
and  durable,  and,  in  consequence  of  long 
retainuig  its  aromatic  smeU,  is  not  liable 
to  be  injured  by  insects. — Plants  of  the 
camphor  and  cinnamon  trees  were  cap- 
tured by  admiml  Rodney,  in  1782,  and 
afterivards  carried  to  Jamaica,  and  propa- 
gated there.  The  camphor-tree  which 
grows  very  abundantly  in  the  western  parts 
of  Japan,  is  a  different  species  from  that 
found  in  the  islands  of  Sumatra  and  Bor- 
neo, with  which  we  are  principally  ac- 
quainted.— Camphor  was  formerly  in 
great  repute  as  a  medicine,  but  at  present 
its  virtues  are  less  highly  rated.  It  is  a 
cordial  and  stimulant  of  a  decidedly  heat- 
ing character,  and  is,  therefore,  improper 
in  all  fevers,  unless  the  system  is  very 
low  and  weak.  In  such  cases,  if  com- 
bined with  nitre  and  other  cooling  articles, 
it  is  sometimes  an  excellent  diaphoretic. 
But,  in  fevers  in  general,  it  is  an  article 
rather  to  be  avoided.  It  was  once,  how- 
ever, and  is  now,  in  some  parts  of  Europe, 
thought  to  be  one  of  the  best  medicines 
in  fever  of  almost  all  sorts ;  but  it  is  an 
article  that  could  well  be  dispensed  with 
in  common  practice.  As  a  domestic  cor- 
dial and  medicine,  it  is,  perhaps,  more 
used  than  anj'^  other,  being  still,  in  fami- 
lies, a  panacea  for  all  ailments  of  the 
smaller  sort. 

Campistro.v,  Jean  Galbert  de ;  a  dra- 
matic poet,  contemporary  wth  Racine; 
born  1G.56,  at  Toulouse,  died  172-3,  at  the 
same  place.  His  tragedies,  at  the  time  of 
their  appearance,  met  with  extraordinary 
applause.  At  present,  however,  they  are 
much  less  esteemed ;  so  that  only  two  of 
his  pieces — Andronicus,  a  tragedy  which 
represents,  under  fictitious  names,  the  his- 
tory of  don  Carlos,  and  the  comedj'  Le  Ja- 
loiix  Desabuse — are  admitted  into  the  se- 
lection of  the  Tliiatrt  Frangais  des  AiUeurs 
du  Second  Ordre.  I.,aharpe  says  of  C,  "His 
plots  have  been  commended  as  probable : 
they  are  so,  but  they  are  feeble  in  concep- 
tion and  execution." 

Campo  Chiaro,  duke  of;  a  NeapoUtan 
diplomatist.  In  1805,  he  served,  in  the 
royal  guard,  as  captain  of  the  Lipariots — 
a  kind  of  mounted  chasseurs.  He  remain- 
ed in  Naples  when  the  king,  on  the  ap- 
proach of  the  French,  fled,  with  his  fam- 
ily, to  Sicily.  His  liberal  sentiments  placed 
him,  the  next  year,  in  Joseph's  council  of 
state,  and  he  was  soon  after  appointed 
minister  of  the  royal  house.    Murat,  also, 


when  Joseph  was  appointed  king  of 
Spain,  placed  great  confidence  in  him, 
and  intrusted  to  him  the  direction  of  the 
police.  He  was  aflerwards  employed  on 
the  most  important  diplomatic  missions, 
among  which  was  that  to  the  congress  of 
Vienna.  The  imprudence  of  the  king 
himself,  however,  frustrated  all  the  nego- 
tiations of  the  duke,  which  were  conduct- 
ed with  great  ability.  After  the  revolu- 
tion of  Naples,  in  1820,  he  was  appointed 
minister  of  foreign  aftiiirs.  His  exertions 
in  this  difficult  post  were  not  cro^vned  with 
success ;  and,  after  the  departure  of  the 
king  for  the  congress  of  Laybach,  he  was 
summoned  before  the  parhament,  on  ac- 
count of  the  circular  of  count  Zurlo,  which 
he  had  countersigned.  He  M'as,  however, 
acquitted.    He  now  Uves  in  retirement. 

Campo-Formio  ;  a  castle  near  (or  rather 
a  suburb  of)  Udine,  in  FriuU,  a  province 
of  the  Austrian  government  of  Venice, 
celebrated  for  tlie  peace,  concluded  here 
October  17,  1797,  between  Austria  and 
France,  and  signed,  on  the  part  of  Austria, 
by  the  ambassadors  Cobentzl,  Meerveldt, 
Degelmann,  and  the  marquis  of  Gallo, 
and,  on  the  part  of  France,  by  general  Bo- 
naparte. The  negotiations  were  begun  at 
Udine  May  19,  and  were  carried  on  alter- 
nately there  and  in  the  castle  of  Passeria- 
no,  where  Bonaparte  resided.  Austria 
consented  to  cede  Mantua,  when  Bona- 
parte threatened  to  renew  the  war.  The 
treaty  of  peace  was  signed  at  both  places, 
but  it  was  dated  at  Campo-Foi-mio,  be- 
cause tliis  place  lay  between  Udine  and 
Passeriano,  allliough  the  ambassadors  had 
never  been  there.  Austria  gave  up  tlie 
Netherlands,  Milan  and  Mantua.  The 
Cisalpine  republic  was  formed,  from  Mi- 
lan, Mantua,  Modena,  Bologna,  Ferrara, 
Romagna,  and  the  Venetian  Ten-a  Firma, 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  Adige.  The 
republic  of  Venice  was  divided.  Austria 
obtained  Venice,  Istria,  Dalmatia,  and  the 
mouths  of  the  Cattaro,  and  the  Terra  Fir- 
ma, on  the  left  bank  of  the  Adige ;  France, 
the  Venetian  Ionian  islands,  and  the  Ve- 
netian possessions  in  Albania.  To  effect 
a  peace  with  the  Grennan  empire,  a  con- 
gress was  to  be  held  at  Rastadt.  By  secret 
articles  of  agreement,  the  emperor  con- 
sented to  the  partial  or  total  surrender  of 
the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine  to  France,  for 
which  Austria  was  to  receive  Salzburg, 
and  a  part  of  Bavaria  on  the  Inn.  To 
the  duke  of  Modena,  and  other  princes 
who  had  lost  a  portion  of  their  territory, 
indemnifications  in  Germany  were  secur- 
ed. Bonaparte  had,  of  his  own  authority, 
concluded  this  peace.    The  reader  will 


«M 


CAMPO-FORMIO— LOWER  CANADA. 


find  his  explanation  of  this  subject  in  his 
Memoires  (4th  vol.)  dide  au  Compte  de 
Montholon  (London,  1824,  p.  242).  The 
directory  was  discontented  with  the  trea- 
ty. Later  occurrences  gave  occasion  to  a 
second  coalition  against  France,  in  1798 ; 
U[)on  which  France  declared  war  against 
the  kingof  Hungary  and  Bohemia,  and  the 
grand-duke  of  Tuscany,  March  12,  1799. 
(See  the  articles  RaMadt,  Luneville,  peace 
at ;  also,  SchoU's  Traites  dc  Paix,  vol.  .5th.) 
Campomaxes  (don  Pedro  Rodriguez) 
count  of,  a  celebrated  Spanish  minister, 
whose  learning,  and  profound  and  elevat- 
ed views  in  political  economy,  place  him 
among  the  fii"st  writers  of  his  country,  was 
born  early  in  tlie  18th  century.  He  was 
director  of  tlie  academy  of  histoiy,  and 
his  own  works  were  a  model  of  taste  and 
industry.  As  a  statesman  and  a  publicist, 
he  enlightened  his  countrymen  by  his 
writings  on  agriculture,  manufactures,  and 
the  true  principles  of  commerce.  He  was 
chosen  a  member  of  the  academy  of 
belles-lettres  at  Paris,  and,  on  the  proposal 
of  Frankhn,  of  the  philosophical  society 
of  Pliiladelphia.  C.  raised  himself  solely 
by  his  own  merits.  His  reputation  as  the 
most  learned  lawyer  in  Spain  obtained 
him,  in  1765,  the  appointment  of  fiscal  to 
the  roj'al  coimcil  of  Castile,  by  whose  or- 
•der  he  published,  1768,  an  Answer  to  the 
Letters  of  the  Bishopof  Cuenca,  in  which 
that  prelate  asserted  that  the  inununities 
and  revenues  of  the  Spanish  church  were 
attacked.  He  Iiad  already  published  a 
Treatise  on  Ecclesiastical  JMortinain 
(1765),  which  was  translated  into  Italian, 
by  order  of  tlie  senate  of  Venice,  He  sis- 
sisted  Aranda  in  the  expulsion  of  the  Jes- 
uits from  Spain,  and  labored  to  introduce 
a  more  equal  distribution  of  the  taxes, 
to  diminish  the  number  of  mendicants, 
&c.  In  1788,  on  the  accession  of  Charles 
IV,  C.  was  ajipoiuted  president  of  the 
council  of  Castile  and  minister  of  state. 
With  the  rise  of  the  count  Florida  lilan- 
ca,  the  favor  of  C.  began  to  decline.  He 
was  removed  from  the  council,  and  retired 
in  disgrace.  His  death  took  place  early 
in  the  19th  century.  Among  his  numer- 
ous works  are.  Dissertation  on  the  Tem- 
])lai-s  (1747);  Commercial  Antiquity  of 
Carthage  (1756),  in  which  he  controverts 
the  opinions  of  Dodwell,  on  the  I'eriplus 
of  Hanno ;  Discurso  Sobre  el  Fotnento  de 
la  [iiduslria  popular  (8vo.,  1774);  and  Dis- 
curso Sohre  la  Educacion  popular  de  los 
Artisanos  (1775);  and  a  Sequel  to  the  lat- 
ter work  (4  vols.,  8vo.,  1775 — 77),  which 
.  treats  of  the  causes  of  the  decline  of  the 
arts  in  Spain. 


Campus  Martius  (called  also,  by  way 
of  eminence.  Campus,  merely)  was  a  large 
place  in  the  suburbs  of  ancient  Rome, 
between  the  mons  Capitolinus  and  Picius, 
sun'ounded,  in  a  great  measure,  by  the 
Tiber.  Its  name  was  derived  from  a 
temple  of  Mars,  situated  in  it.  The  first 
meetings  of  the  people  (comitia  centwiaia) 
were  held  here,  and  the  fii-st  lustrum  was 
celebrated  in  this  place.  (Zrir.  i.,  24.)  Tai*- 
quin  the  Proud  sowed  it  with  grain,  but 
Brutus  and  CoUatinus  restored  it  to  the 
people,  who  destroyed  tlie  grain,  ai)pro- 
priated  it  anew  to  its  former  dcstinaiion, 
and  made  it,  at  tlie  same  time,  a  place  of 
exercise  and  gymnastic  sports  for  the  Ro- 
man youth.  The  bodies  of  the  most  dis- 
tinguished men  were  bunied  tliere.  Sit- 
uated so  near  the  city,  it  soon  became 
covered  with  splendid  buildings,  of  wliich 
the  finest  was  the  circus  Flaminius.  It 
is  now  filled  with  memorable  ruins,  and 
is  one  of  the  most  interesting  parts  of 
Rome. 

Camuccim,  Vicenzo,  is  considered  the 
best  among  the  living  historical  painters 
of  Italy.  He  was  born  at  Rome,  and  is  a 
follower  of  the  French  school,  from  the 
hardness  and  exaggeration  of  which  the 
feeling  of  the  beautiful,  natural  to  an  Ital- 
ian, has  secured  him.  A.  W.  Schlegel 
says  of  him,  "  He  is  con-ect,  in  the  better 
sense  of  the  word,  to  a  verj^  high  degree. 
His  drawing  is  accurate,  his  coloruig  vig- 
orous and  bright  without  harshness,  his 
draperies  well  studied,  the  ai'rangement 
of  his  groups  happy,  as  is  his  composition 
in  general ;  yet  he  seems  wanting  in  in- 
vention." He  is  a  member  of  the  acad- 
emy of  San  Luca,  and  pauited  for  St. 
Peter's  his  Christ  xinth  the  unbelicviitg 
Thomas.  He  possesses  a  large  coUecticu 
of  pictures  and  casts,  and  is  celebrated  for 
his  success  in  restoring  old  pictures. 

Canaan.     (See  Palestine.) 

Canada  ;  a  country  in  North  America, 
belonging  to  Great  Britain ;  divided,  hi 
1791,  into  the  provinces  of  Upper  and 
Lower  Canada. 

Lotver  Canada  is  bounded  N.  by  New 
Britain,  E.  by  New  Britain  and  the  gulf 
of  St.  Lawrence,  S.  E.  and  S.  by  New 
Brunswick,  and  the  states  of  Maine,  New 
Hampshire,  Vermont  and  New  York,  and 
S.  W.  and  W.  by  Upper  Canada.  The 
Ottawa  river  forms  a  great  part  of  the 
bouudary  between  Upper  and  Lower  Can- 
ada. Above  its  source,  the  line  runs  due 
north  to  Hudson's  bay,  about  Ion.  81°  W. 
Lon.  62°— 81°  W. ;  hit.  45°— 52°  N.  The 
inhabitants,  in  1763,  were  70,000;  in  1814, 
335,000,  of  whom  275,000  were  native  or 


CANADA. 


445 


French  Canadians,  the  remainder  being 
a  mixture  of  Enghsh,  Scotch,  Irish,  and 
emigrants  from  the  U.  States.  In  ld'23, 
the  population  was  427,4()5. — It  is  divided 
into  5  districts,  viz.,  Montreal,  Three 
Rivers,  Quebec,  Gasp6  and  St.  Francis, 
which  were  subdivided,  in  179*2,  into  21 
counties.  The  'minor  divisions  are,  1. 
seigniories,  or  the  original  grants  of  the 
French  government  under  the  feudal  sys- 
tem; 2.  townships,  or  grants  of  land  tnade 
by  the  English  suice  179G,  in  liee  and 
common  soccage.  The  princi])al  towns 
are  Quebec,  the  capital,  3Iontreal,  Three 
Rivers,  New  Carlisle,  William  Hemy,  St. 
John's,  Chambly  and  La  Chine.  The 
government  is  modelled  on  the  principles 
of  the  British  constitution.  The  execu- 
tive power  is  vested  in  a  governor,  with  a 
council  of  10  members,  all  appohited  by 
the  king  of  Great  Britain.  The  legisla- 
ture, or  provincial  parliament,  is  compos- 
ed of  a  council  of  28  members,  appointed 
by  the  king,  and  a  house  of  assembly  of 
50  members,  elected  by  the  people.  About 
nine  tenths  of  the  inhabitants  are  Catho- 
lics; the  majority  of  the  remainder  are 
Episcopalians.  There  are  two  bishops 
residing  at  Quebec,  one  Catholic,  the 
other  of  the  church  of  England.  The 
number  of  Catholic  clergymen,  in  1811, 
was  140;  of  Episcopal  clergymen,  in 
1829,  25,  and  of  Presbyterian,  4.  There 
are  respectable  seminaries  at  Quebec  and 
Montreal,  but  education  is  generally  neg- 
lected by  the  French  Canadians,  the  most 
of  whom  are  unable  to  read  and  write. 
The  descendants  of  the  ancient  Canadian 
colonists  retain  the  politeness,  sprightli- 
ness,  and  easy  manners  of  the  old  French, 
from  whom  they  spnmg.  Their  houses 
are  built  of  stone  and  plastered,  seldom, 
except  in  the  towns,  of  more  than  one 
story,  and  made  extremely  warm  by 
means  of  stoves.  Their  furniture  is  gen- 
erally of  their  own  workmanship,  and 
very  simple.  Their  principal  article  of 
food  is  peas  soup,  with  a  small  quantity 
of  pork  boiled  in  it,  and  a  dish  of  thick, 
sour  milk.  The  women  and  children 
seldom  make  use  of  any  other  drink  than 
milk  and  water,  but  the  men  are  passion- 
ately fond  of  rum.  During  the  sLx  months 
of  winter,  a  great  portion  of  the  time  is 
devoted  to  amusement,  of  which  the  most 
prevalent  is  dancing.  The  climate  is 
healthy,  but  the  extremes  of  heat  and  cold 
are  very  great;  the  thermometer  some- 
times rising,  in  summer,  to  100°  Fahr.,  and 
sinking,  in  winter,  to  40'^  below  0. — ^The 
great  river  St.  Lawrence  forms  a  striking 
feature  of  Canada.  The  other  prmcipal 
VOL.  II.  38 


rivers  are  the  Ottawa  or  Uttawas,  Richelieu 
or  Sorel,  St.  Francis,  Chaudiere,  Sague- 
nay,  St.  Maurice,  Black,  Bustard,  Betsia- 
mites,  Harricanaw  and  Rupert.  The  prin- 
cipal lakes  are  St.  John's,  St.  Peter's,  Abbi- 
tibbe,  Mistassin  and  Manicouagan.  Lower 
Canada  is  intei-sected  by  ridges  of  moun- 
tains, vviiich  generally  extend  from  the 
coast  into  the  interior,  with  intervening 
valleys  of  a  fertile  and  j)leasant  a])p<'arance. 
The  valley  thiough  which  the  St.  Law- 
rence flows  is  enclosed  on  each  side  by 
mountains.  It  is  mostly  level,  of  a  very  rich 
soil,  and  is  thickly  settled.  The  country 
lying  upwards  of  50  miles  north  of  the 
St.  Lawrence  has  been  but  little  explored, 
and  is  only  known  to  be  covered  with 
immense  Ibrests.  The  productions  are 
grass,  wheat,  peas,  lye,  Indian  corn,  bar- 
ley, and  culinary  vegetables.  The  com- 
merce has  been  progressively  increasing, 
since  the  country  came  into  the  posses- 
sion of  Great  Britain.  The  exports,  in 
1769,  amounted  to  only  £163,000;  in 
1808,  to  £1,156,000.  These  consist  chief- 
ly of  lumber,  furs,  grain,  and  pot  and 
pearl  ashes ;  the  imports,  of  wines,  rum, 
sugar,  molasses,  coffee,  tobacco,  salt,  coals, 
and  British  manufactures,  amounting,  iu 
1808,  to  £610,000. 

Upper  Canada  is  bounded  E.  and  S.  E. 
by  Lower  Canada,  S.  by  the  U.  States, 
from  which  it  is  separated  by  the  St.  Law-' 
rence  and  the  chain  of  the  great  lakes. 
New  Britain  lies  on  the  north  and  west, 
but  the  hmits  are  not  well  defined,  the 
regions  on  these  borders  being  unsettled. 
Lon,  74°  to  about  98°  W. ;  lat.  42°  to  about 
50°  N.  The  pojjulation,  in  1783,  was  es- 
timated at  only  10,000 :  in  1814,  at  95,000 ; 
and,  in  1826,  at  231,778.  The  country 
has  been  settled  chiefly  by  emigrants 
from  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  and  the 
U.  States.  It  is  divided  into  11  districts, 
viz..  Eastern,  Johnstown,  Jlidland,  New- 
castle, Home,  Niagara,  London,  Western, 
Gore,  Bathurst  and  Ottawa.  These  are 
subdivided  into  counties  and  townships. 
The  townships  contain,  on  an  average, 
about  61,600  acres  each ;  total,  9,694,400 
acres.  Of  these,  about  3,000,000  acres 
are  granted  in  free  and  common  soccage, 
2,769,828  reserved  for  the  crown  and  cler- 
gy, and  3,924,572  still  remain  to  be  grant- 
ed. The  countiy  which,  in  1818,  had 
been  laid  out  and  surveyed,  extends  about 
570  miles  along  the  north  shore  of  the 
river  St.  Lawrence,  lakes  Ontario  and 
Erie,  up  to  lake  St.  Clair,  varjing  from 
40  to  50  miles  in  breadth.  The  soil  con- 
sists, generally,  of  a  fine  dark  loam,  mixed 
with  a  rich  vegetable  mould.    The  whole 


^446 


CANADA. 


coundy  presents  a  great  degree  of  same- 
ness, an  almost  imilbrm  level,  rising  only 
a  few  feet  above  the  banks  of  the  St.  Law- 
rence, and  finely  intersected,  in  every 
direction,  by  numerous  streams,  sojne  of 
which  are  navigable.  The  productions 
are  grass,  wheat,  Indian  corn,  flax,  hops, 
&c.  The  climate  is  healthy,  and  consid- 
erably milder  than  in  Lower  Canada. 
Farther  north,  the  country  is  covered 
with  immense  forests,  but  is  little  known, 
except  to  the  ludians.  The  principal  riv- 
ers are  the  St.  Lawrence,  Ottawa,  Niagara, 
Trent,  Ouse,  Redstone  and  Thames.  One 
lialf  of  the  lakes  Ontiu-io,  Erie,  St.  Clair, 
Huron,  Superior,  and  lake  of  the  Woods, 
is  included  m  Upper  Canada.  There  are, 
besides,  lakes  Nipissing,  Simcoe,  St.  Jo- 
seph's, &c.  The  principal  towns  are 
York,  the  capital,  Kingston,  Niagai-a, 
Brockville,  Queenstowu  and  Chippeway. 
The  iMethodists  are  the  most  numerous 
religious  denomination.  There  are  also 
Episcopalians,  Presbyterians,  Baptists, 
Quakers  and  Mennonists.  The  executive 
power  is  vested  in  a  lieutenant-governor 
and  a  council  of  7  members,  all  appointed 
by  the  king.  The  legislative  i)ower  is 
vested  in  a  council,  the  membei-s  of  wliich 
are  appointed  by  the  king,  and  a  house 
of  assembly,  or  provincial  parliament, 
consisthig  of  upwards  of  40  members,  re- 
turned fi-om  the  counties. 

The  French  appear  to  have  availed 
themselves  of  the  information  derived 
from  Cabot's  voyage  to  North  America, 
befoi-e  any  other  nation.  We  heai-  of 
their  fishing  for  cod  on  the  baidcs  of  New- 
foundland very  early  in  ilie  16th  century. 
About  1506,  one  Denys,  a  Frenchman,  is 
said  to  have  di-awn  a  map  of  the  gulf  of 
Sl  Lawrence,  and,  two  years  afterwards, 
Aid)ert,  a  master  of  a  vessel  belonguig  to 
Dieppe,  carried  over  to  France  some  of 
the  natives  of  C.  SeveiTil  years,  however, 
j)assed  away  before  public  attention  was 
again  turned  to  it.  In  1524,  Fi-ancis  I 
sent  four  ships,  under  Verazani,  a  Floren- 
tine, to  prosecute  discoveries  ui  this  coun- 
try. The  paiticulars  of  his  first  expedi- 
tion are  not  known.  He  retm-ned  to 
France,  and,  tlie  next  year,  undertook  a 
second,  which  appears  to  have  produced 
no  beneficial  result.  On  a  third  voyage, 
he  and  all  his  company  perished.  In 
April,  1534,  James  Cartier,  of  St.  Maloes, 
sailed,  by  commission  fi-om  the  king, 
>vith  two  small  shi])s  and  122  men,  and. 
May  10,  came  in  sight  of  Newfoundland ; 
but  the  earth  was  covered  witla  snow,  and 
great  quantities  of  ice  were  about  the 
shore.    Having  sailed  to  the  51st  degree 


of  latitude,  in  the  vain  hope  of  passing  to 
China,  he  returned  to  France  without 
making  a  settlement.  In  the  following 
year,  he  sailed  a  second  time  fi-om  France, 
with  three  ships,  proceeded  up  the  St- 
Lawrence  300  leagues,  to  a  great  and 
swift  fall ;  built  a  fort,  and  wintered  in  the 
country.  The  French  were  well  received 
by  the  natives,  but  were  soon  uifected 
with  the  scurvy,  of  which  disease  25  of 
their  number  died.  The  next  spruig, 
Cartier  returned,  Avith  the  remains  of  his 
crew,  to  France.  Between  1540  and  1549, 
a  nobleman  of  Picardy,  de  la  Roque,  lord 
of  Roberval,  made  an  attemjrt  to  found  a 
colony  in  C,  but  perished,  on  liis  second 
voyage,  with  a  great  number  of  adventur- 
ei-s.  At  last,  Hem-y  IV  appointed  the 
marquis  de  la  Roche  lieutenant-general 
of  C.  and  the  neighboring  countries.  In 
1598,  he  landed  on  the  isle  of  Sable, 
which  he  absurdly  imagined  to  be  a  suit- 
able place  for  the  establishment  of  a  colo- 
ny, though  it  was  w'ithout  any  port,  and 
produced  no  other  crop  than  briers.  Here 
he  left  about  40  malefactors,  the  gleanings 
of  the  French  jails.  After  cruisuig,  ibr 
some  time,  on  the  coast  of  Nova  Scotia, 
without  being  able  to  relieve  these  unfor- 
tunate settlers,  he  returned  to  France. 
His  colony  must  have  perished,  had  not  a 
French  ship  been  wrecked  on  the  island, 
fi*om  w'hich  a  few  sheep  were  driven 
ashore.  With  the  boards  of  the  ship  they 
erected  huts,  and,  while  the  sheej)  lasted, 
they  Uved  upon  them,  feeding  afterwards 
upon  fish.  Their  clothes  wearing  out, 
they  made  garments  of  seal-skins,  and, 
in  this  miserable  condition,  spent  seven 
yeai's,  when  Henry  IV  ordered  them  to  be 
brought  home  to  France,  and,  on  seeing 
their  miserable  appearance,  was  so  much 
moved,  that  he  forgave  them  their  of- 
fences, and  presented  each  with  50  crowns 
to  begin  the  world  anew.  In  1600,  one 
Chauvin,  a  commander  in  the  French 
navy,  made  a  voyage  to  C,  from  which 
he  retmned  with  a  jM-ofitable  cargo  of  furs. 
The  ])ublic  now  began  to  turn  more 
attention  to  this  country.  An  arma- 
ment was  equipped,  and  the  command 
given  to  Pontgran.  He  sailed  in  1603. 
In  1608,  the  city  of  Quebec  was  founded, 
and  from  this  period  the  establishment 
of  a  permanoit  French  colony  commenc- 
ed. The  settlement  was,  for  many  years, 
in  a  feeble  conditioii,  and  was  often  in 
danger  of  beuig  totally  exterminated  by 
the  Indians.  The  French,  however,  con- 
cluded a  treaty  of  peace  with  them,  and, 
finally,  by  their  address,  obtained  entire 
control  over  them,  to  the  great  inconven- 


CANADA— CANAL. 


447 


ience  of  the  neighboring  English  settle- 
ments. In  1028,  a  company  of  French 
nierchams  obtained  a  patent  for  the  ex- 
clusive trade  with  Canada,  The  next 
year,  an  English  expedition,  under  sir 
bavid  Keith,  took  possession  of  Cluebec ; 
but  it  was  surrendered  again  to  the 
French,  by  the  treaty  of  Sl  Germain's.  In 
1663,  the  charter  of  the  company  of  mer- 
chants was  taken  away,  and  now  privi- 
leges were  granted,  for  40  years,  to  .the 
West  India  comi)any.  From  this  period, 
C.  appears  to  have  remained  in  a  state  of 
tranquillity  until  1690,  when  a  bold  at- 
temj)t  was  made  by  the  people  of  New 
England  to  reduce  it  to  subjection  to  the 
crown  of  England.  An  armament  was 
equipped  for  this  senice,  and  the  com- 
mand given  to  sir  William  Phipjjs.  The 
effective  men,  to  the  number  of  between 
12  and  1300,  landed  a  little  below  the 
town  of  Quebec,  and  were  tired  on  from 
the  woods  by  the  French  and  Indians. 
Having  foimd  the  place  too  strong  for 
them,  they  ret-mbarked  with  precipitation, 
and  returned  to  Boston.  The  attem|)t 
WEis  renewed,  in  1711,  by  a  powertiil 
force  of  British  veteran  troops,  assisted  by 
about  4000  provincials  and  Indians.  Sucli 
were  the  difficulties  and  losses,  however, 
experienced  in  passing  up  the  river,  that 
the  design  was  abandoned  by  the  British 
otficei-s,  to  the  great  mortilication  of  the 
provincial  troops.  C.  continued  in  the 
occupation  of  the  French,  without  any 
further  molestation,  until  the  breaking  out 
of  the  war  between  France  and  England, 
in  1756.  Great  ])re])arations  were  then 
made,  on  both  sides,  for  attack  and  de- 
fence. In  1759,  the  British  government 
formed  the  project  of  attempting  the  con- 
quest of  C.  by  three  different  but  simulta- 
neous attacks.  One  division  of  the  army 
was  to  ascend  the  St.  Lawrence,  and  lay 
siege  to  Quebec.  The  central  and  main 
body  was  to  be  conducted  against  Ticon- 
deroga  and  Crown  Point.  The  third  was 
to  proceed  against  Niagara,  and,  afler  the 
reduction  of  that  place,  to  descend  tlje 
St.  Lawrence  to  Montreal.  The  division 
which  ascended  the  St.  Lawrence  was 
commanded  by  general  Wolfe,  and  was 
defeated  in  its  tirst  operations  by  the 
French.  The  Etiglish,  however,  tinally 
ol)taine<l  possession  of  Quebec,  after  a 
gallant  resistance  on  the  part  of  the 
French,  whose  brave  conmiander,  Mont- 
calm, had  been  killed  in  the  action.  The 
English  general  Wolfe  was  also  killed. 
Soon  afterwards,  the  whole  j)rovince  of 
C  was  subdued  by  the  English  forces, 
and  was  confirmed  to  Great  Britain  by 


tlie  treaty  of  1763.  In  1775,  C.  was  in- 
vaded by  a  body  of  provincial  troops,  un- 
der general  Montgomery.  Montreal  was 
taken,  and  a  gallant  but  unsuccessful  at- 
tempt was  made  on  Quebec,  in  which  the 
bi-ave  Montgomeiy  was  killed.  No  other 
attempt  was  made  on  this  province  during 
the  reAolutionaiy  war.  We  have  few 
records  of  Canadian  historj'  from  this  pe- 
riod until  the  late  war  between  the  U. 
States  and  'England.  Upper  C.  then  be- 
came the  theatre  of  a  sanguinary  contest. 
The  American  trooj)s  were  unable,  how- 
ever, to  make  any  permanent  conquests, 
and  the  ])rovince  luis  since  remained  sub- 
ject to  Great  Britain.  In  1825,  the  re- 
strictions upon  its  commerce,  under  which 
it  had  labored,  with  the  other  colonies  of 
Great  Britain,  were  principally  removed, 
and  its  trade  has  since  greatly  increased. 

Ca.vaille  ;  a  French  word,  signifying 
the  lowest  class  of  people.  In  the  time, 
however,,  which  inunediately  preceded 
the  revolution,  when  the  aiTogance  of  the 
nobility  was  outrageous,  canai/Ze  signified, 
with  tliem,  all  who  were  not  noblemen. 
The  people  adopted  the  word,  during  the 
revolution,  in  contempt  of  the  nobility.  In 
this  sense,  Napoleon  said,  at  St.  Helena, 
that  he  sprung  from  the  canaille ;  i.  e.,  he 
did  not  belong  to  the  feudal  aristocracy. 

Caxal.  a  canal,  in  navigation,  is  an 
artificial  channel  tor  transportation  by 
water,  The  first  inquiry  in  the  project 
of  such  a  work,  accordingly,  relates  to  the 
amount  of  transportation  that  will  be  ac- 
commodated by  the  route  proposed,  at 
some  given  rate  of  tolls  (for  the  quantity 
will  be  in  some  degree  influenced  by  that 
rate).  If  the  j)roject  be  a  mere  specula- 
tion, or  investment  of  capital  by  individur 
als  for  the  sake  of  income,  its  expediency 
will  be  determined  by  the  net  amount  of 
annual  tolls  it  will  i)robal)ly  yield  ;  which 
ought,  in  this  view  of  the  matter,  tp  be 
equal  to  the  ordinaiy  rate  of  interest.  But 
the  general  utility  or  public  expediency 
of  a  project  of  this  sort  is  not  determined 
wholly  by  this  mode  of  calculation  ;  for, 
in  this  view,  we  must  look  at  the  indirect 
advantages,  such  as  the  increased  value 
of  lands  on  the  Iwrders  of  the  canal,  the 
increased  ])rofits  of  other  works  connected 
with  or  afiected  by  the  one  proposed ;  as 
in  the  case  of  the  smaller  branches  of  in- 
ternal navigation  in  England,  many  of 
which,  as  will  be  seen  by  referring  to  the 
subjoined  list,  are  not  very  productive 
investments,  but  doubtless  contribute 
to  the  large  income  of  the  great  lines 
of  transportation  between  the  princijjal 
towns,  as  Loudon  and  Liverpool,  by  in. 


448 


CANAL— CANALS  OF  EGYPT. 


creasing  the  amount  of  goods  tliat  pass 
along  those  hnes.  To  determine  the 
general  public  utility  of  one  of  these 
smaller  branches,  therefore,  we  must  esti- 
mate not  only  the  increased  value  which 
it  gives  to  coal  mines,  stone  quairies,  for- 
ests, &:c.  on  its  border,  but  also  its  effects 
in  enhancing  the  value  of  other  canals. 
But  a  work  of  this  sort  may  be,  on  the 
whole,  of  public  utility,  although  an  al)- 
solute  income,  in  consequence  of  the  in- 
vestment, can  nowhere  be  traced,  but 
only  a  reduction  of  tiie  cost  of  sonic  arti- 
cle of  general  use,  by  meansof  adiminution 
of  the  labor,  the  number  of  days'  or  hours' 
work,  necessary  to  furnish  the  article,  at 
any  place.  Thus  the  proprietors  of  the 
duke  of  Bridgewater's  canal  are  under  ob- 
ligation to  supply  the  inhabitants  of  Man- 
chester with  coals  at  the  rate  of  M.  for 
140  ])ounds,  which  is  a  great  benefit  to 
the  inhabitants  of  that  town.  This  is  one 
of  the  advantages  of  this  work,  which 
should  be  taken  into  the  account  in  esti- 
mating its  public  utility.  Another  bene- 
ficial consequence  of  any  gi'cat  improve- 
ment of  this  description,  as  well  as  those 
'  of  other  kinds,  ofl;en  is  to  promote  some 
species  of  arts :  for  instance,  a  canal  may 
promote  agriculture,  horticulture,  &c.  by 
irrigation  or  opening  a  market.  In  deter- 
mining on  any  canal  project,  then,  as  well 
as  in  estimating  its  utility,  these  various 
circumstances  are  to  be  taken  into  con- 
sideration. The  motives,  whether  of  pub- 
lic utility  or  private  emolument,  or  a  union 
of  them  both,  being  suflicient  to  induce  to 
the  undertaking,  the  next  things  to  be  con- 
sidered are,  the  obtaining  of  an  adequate 
supply  of  water,  the  particular  route  to  be 
taken,  and  the  mode  of  construction.  On 
these  subjects,  the  reader  is  referred  to  the 
treatises  more  particulai-ly  relating  to  them. 
The  remainder  of  the  present  article  will 
be  devoted  to  a  general  account  of  some 
.  of  the  most  considerable  works  of  this 
sort.  Minuteness  of  detail  and  technical 
accuracy,  in  regard  to  the  dimensions,  &c., 
cannot  be  expected  in  a  book  of  this  kind. 
The  length  of  the  canals  is  probably 
given  with  suflicient  correctness.  The 
breadth  is,  in  many  instances,  stated,  in 
the  works  to  which  a  resort  was  necessa- 
rily had,  without  distinguishing  whether 
it  was  that  of  the  bottom  or  water  line, 
and,  in  these  instances,  it  has  been  given 
as  it  was  found,  the  reader  being  left  to 
refer  it  to  one  or  the  other  of  these  di- 
mensions, according  to  the  breadth  of  the 
locks,  and  other  facts  stated  respecting 
such  canals. 

CA^•ALS  OF  Egypt.    Egypt  has  been 


celebrated  for  its  canals  fiom  the  earliest 
periods  of  history.  The  principal  are,  the 
canal  of  MexaiidrutT  between  that  city  and 
Rosetta  and  the  Nile  ;  that  of  Jessuf,  on 
the  western  bank  of  the  Nile,  and  paral- 
lel to  it ;  and  that  of  the  Red  sea  and 
JVi7e,  across  the  isthmus  of  Suez.  The 
existence  of  this  last,  though  a  subject 
heretofore  of  some  discussion,  is  now 
established  beyond  doubt.  It  was  begim 
by  Necho,  son  of  Psammeticus,  about  GIG 
B.  C.,  and  the  work  was  continued  by 
Darius  Ilystaspes,  but  was  aftenvards 
abandoned,  fi"om  fear  of  inundating  a  great 
part  of  Egypt,  which  is  supposed  to  be 
lower  than  the  surface  of  the  Red  sea. 
The  work  Avas,  however,  resumed,  and 
com])leted  near  a  century  aftervvards, 
about  521  years  before  the  Christian  era,  by 
Ptolemy  II  ;  but  a  current  from  the  Red 
sea  u]>on  Egypt  was  prevente<l,  it  seems, 
by  a  barrier  or  bank  across  the  canal ;  or  a 
part  of  the  route  may  have  been  left  not 
excavated.  This  d.im,  if  narrow,  might 
have  been  passed  by  boats  on  inclined 
l)lanes,  after  the  Chinese  method,  or  oth- 
erwise ;  but  it  seems  to  be  more  probable, 
tliat  boats  did  not  pass  between  the  canal 
and  the  Red  sea,  but  that  the  cargoes 
were  canied  by  land  across  the  interven- 
ing barrier,  or  portion  of  ground  not  exca- 
vated, and  reshipped.  Herodotus  says 
this  canal  was  of  4  days'  navigation,  and 
wide  enough  to  admit  of  4  vessels  to  pass 
abreast.  Strabo  says  it  was  100  cubits  wide, 
and  of  suflicient  depth  for  large  vessels.  The 
breadth  would  probably  vary  very  much, 
as  does  that  of  the  canal  of  Alexandria ; 
for  if  it  was  made,  for  any  considerable 
part  of  the  distance,  by  embanking,  instead 
of  excavating,  additional-  breadth  might 
be  given  without  increasing  the  expense  of 
construction;  and,  if  navigated  by  saihng- 
vessels,  hke  the  canal  of  Alexandria,  the 
additional  breadth  would  be  convenient, 
though  not  maintained  through  the  whole 
route. — The  canal  of  Jessuf  leaves  the 
Rosetta  outlet  of  the  Nile,  near  Rha- 
meneh,  passes  a  little  south  of  Demanhour 
(the  ancient  Hemiopolis  parva),  and  thence 
by  the  north-east  shore  of  the  lake  Mareo- 
tis,  to  Alexandria.  Two  branches  pass 
off^  in  a  north-west  direction,  and  one  in 
a  southwardly,  which  communicates  with 
the  lake  Mareotis.  This  canal  is  navi- 
gated by  sailing-vessels,  beijig,  in  most 
])arts,  of  a  convenient  breadth  for  this 
])urpose,  though,  at  its  entrance  fi-om  tlie 
Nile  by  its  new  channel,  it  is  only  19i  feet 
wide.  The  old  entrance,  a  little  north  of 
the  new,  is  not  used,  on  account  of  the 
height  of  the  banks,  which  intercept  the 


CANALS  OF  EGYPT  AND  CHINA. 


449 


wind.  Aftenvai'ds,  at  the  village  of  Leine- 
dis,  it  spreads  to  the  breadth  of  about  55 
vards,  aiid  keeps  this  breadth  for  2i 
leagues,  where  tlie  banks  are  13  feet 
above  the  bottom  of  the  caiial,  and  10 
above  the  surface  of  die  ground.  Passing 
over  2  leagues  more,  towards  Alexandria 
to  Gabel,  the  breadth  is  contracted  to  224 
yards.  It  continues  of  about  this  breadth 
ibr  4  leagues,  and  is  very  regular.  Be- 
yond Leloha,  it  widens,  var}ing  in  the 
tii-st  half  league  from  109  to  273  yards  in 
breadth.  Near  Beda,  it  is  55  yards  wide, 
and  the  banks  23  feet  high.  Passing  on 
towartls  Alexandria,  the  countiy  sinks  by 
degrees,  until  the  bottom  of  the  canal  is 
on  a  level  with  the  adjacent  territory,  and 
tlieu  rises  above  it,  the  canal  being  here 
formed  by  embankments ;  but,  for  a  league 
before  aniving  at  Alexandria,  the  ground 
rises  again,  so  that  the  canal  is  here  formed 
by  an  excavation  in  the  ground.  It  })asses 
veiy  near  the  lake  Aboukir,  on  the  left,  in 
tJie  course  we  have  been  following,  and 
is  sepai^ated  from  it,  near  the  western  ex- 
tremity of  the  lake,  only  by  a  wall  about 
20  feet  in  thickness. — The  water  must 
rise  13  feet  above  the  lowest  state  of  the 
Nile  to  enter  the  jUexamhia  canal ;  and, 
at  higli  water  in  the  Nile,  the  water  in 
tlie  canal  is  about  2  feet  deep  on  an 
average.  The  distance,  in  a  straight  line, 
from  llhameneh  to  Alexandria,  is  about 
15  leaiuues,  but  by  the  course  of  the  canal, 
20.  The  navigation  of  this  canal  con- 
tinues only  about  20  or  25  days  in  the 
jear,  during  the  highest  water  of  the  Nile. 
The  French,  when  in  Egyjrt,  were  enabled 
to  navigate  this  canal  tor  six  Aveeks  by 
clearing  away  about  18  inches  of  mud 
near  Rhameueli,  at  die  eastern  extremity. 
This  canal,  which  now  passes  thi-ough 
ruins  and  deserts,  and  is  navigable  for  on- 
ly a  few  days  of  the  year,  was,  as  late  as 
the  14tli  century,  bordered  by  a  wealthy 
and  populous  territorv",  and,  in  the  time 
of  the  Roman  and  Greek  empires,  was 
the  channel  of  an  extensive  transportation. 
Ca>als  of  Chixa.  The  Chinese  seem 
to  have  a  more  extensive  inland  canal 
navigation  than  anj'  other  nation,  if  not 
greater  than  that  of  all  other  nations, 
The  general  course  of  the  rivers  is  from 
west  to  east,  the  principal  of  which  are 
the  Yang-tse,  or  Kiang-keo,  to  the  south, 
the  course  of  which  is  said  to  be  2000 
miles,  and  its  breadth  2-^  miles  at  a  dis- 
tance of  100  miles  from  its  mouth  :  and 
tlie  Yellow  river,  to  the  northward,  w  hich 
is  represented  to  be  still  longer.  These 
two  rivei-s  empty  into  the  sea,  within  100 
miles  of  each  other,  though  they  are  more 
38* 


than  1000  miles  apart  in  the  interior  of  the 
country.  The  artificial  channels  of  navi- 
gation pass  in  a  northerly  and  southerly  ^ 
direction  across  the  territoiy  lying  between 
the  natural  streams,  thus  making  Unes  of 
communication  between  these  principal 
rivers  and  their  various  branches,  which 
form  the  natural  channels  of  transporta- 
tion in  the  easterly  and  Avesterly  du'ection. 
As  these  canals  pass  over  the  summits  of 
the  intermediate  territories  between  the 
great  streams,  the  different  parts  of  the 
canals  must  be  upon  different  levels,  and 
there  must,  accordingly,  be  some  means 
for  boats  to  pass  from  one  level  to  anoth- 
er, which  they  do  mostly  by  means  of 
inclined  planes  and  roUere,  over  which 
they  are  diawn  by  men.  The  ascent  and 
descent,  at  some  of  these  planes,  is  15  feet. 
The  banks  of  the  canals  are,  in  many 
instances,  lined  with  freestone,  and  con- 
tain sluices  to  let  the  water  off  for  iirigat-. 
ijig  the  country  and  supplying  the  towns ; 
and  in  many  paits,  also,  they  are  beautifully 
ornamented  with  trees.  The  barque  in 
which  Le  Compte  passed  from  Nimpo  on 
a  canal,  was  70  feet  long  and  16  feet 
broad.  The  management,  repairs  and 
extension  of  the  canals  is  a  very  impor-. 
tant  branch  of  the  mternal  economy  of 
the  empire,  and  the  description  and  his-, 
tory  of  these  works  is  said  to  occupy  40 
volumes ;  which  does  not,  however,  give 
lis  a  very  definite  idea  of  the  extent  of 
these  records,  as  we  are  not  told  the  size 
of  these  volumes.  Some  of  the  niosf  ex-r 
tensive  of  these  works  have  been  in  ope- 
ration about  2000  years,  having  been 
completed  80  years  before  the  Christian 
era ;  and,  about  A.  D.  605,  it  is  said  there 
were  completed  in  the  empire  1600 
leagues  of  canal.— rTlie  Imperial  canal, 
and  the  continuation  of  the  line  of  trans- 
portation lietween  Pekin  and  Canton,  of 
which  that  fonns  a  pait,  is  most  fi-equent- 
ly  spoken  of,  though  the  distance  of  the 
whole  route  is  variously  stated.  Malte- 
Brun,  in  his  Geography,  states  it  at  1660 
miles,  but  it  is  stated  by  othei-s  at  920, 
The  navigation  over  this  route  occupies 
about  3  months.  The  part  of  this  hne 
called  the  Jmperial  canal  is  said  to  be 
^boiit  500  miles  in  length  fi"om  the  vicinity 
of  Pekin  to  the  Yellow  river,  which  it 
meets  about  25  leagues  from  the  sea,  where 
the  river  is  about  a  mile  wide  and  9  or  10 
feet  deep.  This  canal  is  called  the  Imperial, 
from  its  being  navigated  only  by  the  em- 
peror's boats,  w  hich  Le  Compte  estimates 
at  1000,  of  100  tons  burthen  each.  Be- 
tween the  Yellow  river  and  Canton,  the 
navigatioii  is  interrupted,  for  about  30 


450 


CANALS  OF  CHINA,  ITALY,  RUSSIA,  SWEDEN. 


miles,  by  a  mountainous  district,  causing  a 
portage  of  tliat  distance. 

Canals  ok  Italy.     In   ancient   Italy, 
besides  the  canal  of  the  Pontine  marshes, 
intended  as  a  drain,  and  used  also  for  navi- 
gation, the  region  abo\it  the  mouths  of  the 
Po  was  intersected  by  the  fossa  Aiignsti, 
fossa  Philisiina,    ami    numerous    other 
canals.     It  Avas   in   Italy  that  the   great 
improvement,  in  modern  canals,  over  the 
ancient  and  those  of  China,  was  first  in- 
troduced, in  1481,  by  the  construction  of 
locks  and  sluices  to  pass  boats  frotn  one 
level  to  another.     It  was  the  invention  of 
two  engineei-sof  Vitcrl)o,  brothei-s,  whose 
names    liave    not    been    handed   down. 
This  improvement  was  soon  after  adopted 
in  the  Milanese  territory,  under  the  direc- 
tion of  Leonardo  da  Vinci,  the  famous 
painter,  who  was  also  celebrated  as  an 
engineer.     Iidand  navigation  became  so 
important,  tliat  the  Italian  goveniments 
paid  great  attention  to  it,  and  enacted 
many  regulations  on  the  subject,  and  nu- 
merous treatises  were  published  on  the 
construction  of  locks  and  the  ait  of  mak- 
ing and  managing  canals.    The  following 
are  some  of  the  principal  canals  of  modern 
Italy.     The   JVaviglio    Grande,  between 
Milan  and  the  river  Tesino,  15  miles  in 
length,  130  French  feet  broad  at  the  sur- 
face, and  46  at  the  Iwttom.     It  was  ex- 
tended to  Alilan  in  1257,  and  enrarged,  in 
1269,  with  a  bmnch  of  about  11  miles  in 
length,  fiom  Abiato  southward.  The  Mar- 
testna  caiud  branches  off  from  the  right 
bank  of  the  Adda,  near  Concessa  (ancient 
Trizzo) ;   is  24  miles  in  length  and   33 
feet  in  breadth,  and  is  raised,  in  some 
■})laces,  by  walls  and  embankments,  110 
feet  above  the  level  of  tlie  river.     In  1497, 
5  locks  were  introduced  into  this  canal. 
The  great  canal  of  Tesino  tenninates  at 
Milan.    The  Muzza  canal  is  drawn  also 
fi-oin  the  river  Adda,  near  Cassano,  and 
re-enters  the  river  at  Castiglione,  40  miles 
distant. — In  Piedmont  are  the  JVaviglio 
iPInea,  38  miles  in  length,   uniting    the 
Dora  Baltea  and  the  Sessia,  with  a  branch 
of  13  miles,  to  the  Gardena  river  ;  and  a 
canal  of  27  miles  from  Dora  Baltea,  a  little 
above  the  falls  of  the  Po,which,  passing  Tri- 
no,  unites  with  the  Po  4  miles  below  Casal. 
These  2  canals  are  parallel  to  the  Po,  and 
substitutes  for  it.    There  are  3  other  short 
canals  in  this  territory. — In  the  dnchy  of 
Mantua  is  ti^e  fossa  Pvzzola,  15  miles  in 
length,  from  the  Mincio  to  the  Tailaro, 
and  the  canal  of  St.  George,  7  miles  long, 
branching  to  the  lake  of  Mantua;  also 
the  Montanaro,  8  miles  from  the  same 
lake  to  the  Po,  at  Borgo  Fute  ;  the  fossa 


Maestra,  5  miles  from  Ozoma  to  the  canal 
Montnnaro ;  and  the  Fossero,  from  the  Min- 
cio, 7  miles. — In  the  duchy  ofModena  is  a 
canal  16  miles  in  length,  from  Secchia  by 
JModena  to  Panaro,  which  has  several 
branches,  one  5  miles  long. — In  the  papal 
territory  is  the  fossa  Rangone,  parallel  to !  h(; 
Panaro,  from  which  a  branch  ])ass<»s  oft"  by 
Conte  to  Po  Mort  or  Po  di  Jeran.*),  and  tlie 
canalDi  Giovanni  JViginales,'^  miles  long. 
Frgm  Bologna  to  Ferrara  is  the  canal  Di 
JVaviglio,  24  miles  long,  and  terminating 
in  the  great  marshes. — There  are,  besides, 
many  sliort  branches  of  the  canals,  already 
mentioned,  as  well  as  locks  and  channels 
for  passing  rapids  in  the  navigable  rivers. 

Canals  of  Russia.  The  canals  of  Rus- 
sia began  with  Peter  the  Great,  who  had 
observed  their  useful  effects  in  Holland. 
He  commenced  three.  The  canal  of  Lado- 
ga, begun  by  him  A.  D.  1718,  and  finished 
by  the  empress  Anne,  is  67^  miles  long, 
from  the  Volk  to  the  Neva,  70  feet  broad, 
and  the  water  7  feet  deep  in  summer,  and 
10  in  winter. — The  canal  of  Vishnti-  Volo- 
sholk,  completed  under  Peter  the  Great, 
but  nuich  improved,  afterwards,  by  Cath- 
aiine,  forms  a  communication,  by  water, 
between  Astracan  and  Petersburg,  or 
between  the  Caspian  and  the  Baltic, 
which  is  effected,  as  will  be  seen  by  re- 
ferring to  the  map,  by  passing  fiom  the 
Caspian  up  the  Wolga,  then  turning  into 
the  river  Ivertza ;  leaving  which,  the  ca- 
nal ]iasses  over  to  the  river  Schlina, 
which  flows  towards  the  Baltic  into  the 
lake  Martina,  from  which  flows  the  river 
Mista,  which,  afler  a  course  of  234  miles, 
discharges  itself  into  lake  Ilmen,  from 
which  issues  the  Volk,  that  runs  130 
miles,  and  empties  into  the  lake  I^adoga, 
which  again  gives  rise  to  the  Neva,  that 
discharges  itself  into  the  Baltic  at  Peters- 
burg ;  so  that  these  three  rivers  are,  in 
fact,  the  same  stream,  jiassing  through 
three  lakes  in  its  course.  It  is  said  that 
3485  barques  have  passed  through  this  ca- 
nal in  one  year. — There  are  many  other  ca- 
nals in  Russia,  which  we  have  not  space 
to  describe.  The  canals  and  rivers  supply 
the  channels  of  a  very  extensive  inland 
navigation  in  Russia;  so  that  goods  may  be 
transjwrted,  by  rivers  and  canals,  from  the 
frontiers  of  China  to  Petersburg,  a  distance 
of  4472  miles;  and  the  hue  of  navigation 
from  Astracan  to  that  capital  is  1434  miles. 

Canals  of  Sweden.  Canals  were  early 
opened  in  Sweden,  and  the  inii)rovement 
of  the  inland  navigation  has  always  been 
a  siiliject  of  great  interest  to  the  govern- 
ment. Among  the  modern  canals  of  this 
countiy  is  that  of  Slromsholm,  60  miles 


CANALS  OF  SWEDEN,  DENMARK,  HOLLAND,  GERMANY,  SPAIN.     451 


long,  the  descent  336  feet,  the  number  of 
locks  25,  breadth  18  feet,  and  depth  4  feet 
4  inches. — The  Kindac  canal  and  tlie 
Gotha  canal,  intended  to  open  a  commu- 
nication between  the  lake  Wenner  and 
the  Bahic,  have  been  commenced  under 
the  superintendence  of  the  EngHsh  engi- 
neer Mr.  Telford.— The  canal  of  Trol- 
hatta  makes  a  navigable  channel  round 
the  rapids  of  Trolhatta,  in  the  river  Gotha, 
consisting  of  successive  cascades,  one  of 
CO  feet  in  height,  and,  in  all,  114  feet,  and 
situated  N.  E.  of  Gothenburg,  about  45 
miles.  The  project  of  constructing  works, 
by  which  to  pass  these  rapids,  was  long 
contemplated,  and  finally  accomplished 
in  1800.  These  rapids  interrupted  the 
navigation  of  tlie  Gotha  for  about  two 
miles  ;  and  the  difficulty  of  making  a  ca- 
nal past  them  was  owing  to  the  banks 
being  bold  and  rocky,  as  is  usual  at  falls 
of  such  extent.  They  are  now  passed  by 
nine  locks,  mostly  excavated  out  of  solid 
rock.  This  is  considered  a  gigantic  work, 
and  was  executed  by  a  private  company, 
to  their  own  emolument,  as  well  as  the 
public  benefit. 

Ca.vals  of  Denmark.  The  principal 
canal  in  this  country  is  that  of  Keil,  which 
commences  about  -3  miles  north  of  Keil, 
and  passes  20i  miles  across  the  duchy  of 
Holstein  to  the  river  Eydar,  which,  run- 
ning by  Rendsburg,  falls  into  the  German 
ocean  at  Jotmingen.  The  Keil  canal  thus 
opens  a  communication  between  the  two 
seas.  It  was  begun  in  1777,  and  com- 
pleted in  1785 ;  is  100  feet  broad  at  the 
top,  57  at  the  bottom,  and  the  least  depth 
of  water  is  10  feet.  The  descent  from 
die  summit  towards  the  Baltic  is  25i  feet, 
and  towards  tlie  German  ocean  23  feet. 
It  has  6  locks. 

Canals  or  Holland.  This  countrj-, 
it  is  well  known,  is  intersected,,in  all  direc- 
tions, by  canals,  which  serve  for  naviga- 
tion in  summer,  and  roads  of  ice  in  winter. 
The  surface  of  the  water,  in  many  of 
these  canals,  is  above  that  of  the  sur- 
rounding countiy ;  the  lands  of  which 
are  drained  by  pumping  the  water  uj)  into 
tlie  canals ;  for  which  purpose  numerous 
windmills  are  scattered  about  the  countiy, 
and  kept  in  operation.  (For  the  great 
ship  canal  from  Amsterdam  to  Niewe 
Diep,  see  Amsterdam.) 

Canals  of  Germany.  The  improve- 
ment of  inland  navigation  in  Germany  has 
been  obstructed  by  the  division  of  the  ter- 
ritory into  numerous  small  jurisdictions, 
which  are,  in  many  respects,  independent 
of  each  other. — The  canal  between  Vienna 
uud  Matsladt  is  40  miles  in  length ;  and 


that  of  Francis,  completed  in  1802,  be- 
tween the  Danube  and  Jeysse,  is  of  the 
same  length,  and  has  3  locks. — In  Prussia 
are  the  canals  of  Stecknitz,  Planer,  Pots- 
dam, Finow,  Muhlrose,  Frederic  WUliam, 
and  the  Bromberg.  This  last  was  con- 
structed under  Frederic  the  Great,  by  the 
engineer  BreekenhaafF.  It  is  16  miles  in 
length,  has  a  descent  of  67  feet,  and  9 
locks.     (See  Fossa  Carolina.) 

Canals  of  Spain.  Spain  has  done  al- 
most nothing  towards  improving  its  inter- 
nal navigation.  Some  canals  have  been 
projecte<l,  but  only  a  part  of  the  An-agon. 
canal  has  been  completed,  consisting  of 
two  pieces  of  canal,  both  commencing  at 
Navarre.  Though  this  partial  execution 
of  the  projected  navigjition  has  had  a 
sensible  effect  in  promoting  the  pojnilous- 
ness,  fertility  and  wealth  of  the  neighlx)r- 
ing  territory,  the  work  stands  still;  and 
there  seems  to  be  little  prospect  of  the 
com])letion  of  the  project. 

Canals  of  France.  The  canals  of 
France,  next  to  those  of  Great  Britain, 
are  the  most  important  in  Europe,  in 
respect  to  their  extent  and  the  difficulties 
overcome  in  their  construction.  The 
whole  length  of  canal  navigation  in 
France  is  al)out  900  miles,  or  about  one 
third  part  of  that  of  Great  Britain. — Cctnal 
of  Briare,  The  first  important  work  of 
this  kind,  constructed  in  France,  was  the 
canal  of  Briare,  called,  also,  that  of  the 
Loire  and  Seine,  because  its  object  was 
to  connect  those  two  rivers.  It  was  37 
yeare  in  execution,  being  begun  in  1605, 
during  the  reign  of  Henry  IV,  and  com- 
pleted in  1642.  It  is  34^  miles  in  length. 
From  the  Loire,  about  a  mile  from  Briare, 
it  ascends  along  the  river  Frezee,  by  Ou- 
zonne  and  Rogny,  where  are  7  locks ;  then 
by  Chatillou  and  Montargis,  and,  near  Ce- 
pay,  meets  the  river  Loing,  which  falls 
into  the  Seine.  The  locks  of  this  canal, 
40  or  42  in  number,  were  the  first  exe- 
cuted in  France.  They  vary  from  124 
to  164i  feet  in  length,  and  from  5  feet  4 
inches  to  more  than  13  feet  in  lif^,  and 
are,  according  to  some  authorities,  14  feet 
5  inches,  or,  acconling  to  otliei"s,  IS^^^tj- 
feet,  in  breadth.  The  i)ottoni  of  tlie  canal 
is  25y^-/iy  wide.  It  is  supplied  with  water 
principally  by  lakes  ;  one  of  the  feeders, 
that  of  Prive,  is  12  miles  in  length.  The 
cost  of  this  canal  is  estimated  at  20,000,000 
francs,  or  about  §3,700,000,  which,  con- 
sidering the  difference  in  the  value  of 
money,  is  nearly  equal  to  that  of  the  Erie 
canal' of  New  York.  It  is  important  for 
the  supply  of  provisions  to  Paris. — The 
canal  dn  Midi,  or  Languedoc  canal,  makes 


452 


•^-;  >    CANALS  OF  FRANCE. 


a  communication  between  the  Mediterra- 
nean at  the  city  of  Cette,  and  tlie  Atlantic 
ocean  at  the  mouth  of  the  Garonne,  pass- 
ing througli  the  province  of  Languedoc, 
and  is  supphed  by  the  rivers  Garonne  and 
Gironde,  and  their  tributaries.  It  was 
undertaken  in  1G64,  23  years  after  that 
of  Briare  was  completed,  and  finished  in 
1680 ;  being  148  English  miles  in  length, 
from  the  coast  of  the  Mediterranean  to 
Toulouse,  where  it  meets  the  Garonne ; 
64  feet  wide  at  the  surface  of  the  water, 
and  34  or  35  feet  at  the  bottom ;  rising,  at 
the  summit,  200  metres,  or  about  G40lfeet, 
ai)ove  tide-water,  and  having  114  locks, 
varying  in  hft  from  4  to  12  feet,  and  nav- 
igated by  boats  85  feet  long,  and  from 
17  to  19  broad,  drawing  5  feet  4  inches 
of  water,  and  of  100  tons  burthen.  The 
reservoir  of  St.  FeiTol  is  situated  at  the 
summit-level,  where  a  body  of  water  more 
than  live  French  leagues  in  length  is  ac- 
cumulated, for  the  supply  of  the  canal, 
from  the  streams  falling  from  the  neigh- 
boruig  mountains.  This  reservoir  and 
the  basins  at  Castelnaudary  cover  595 
acres.  The  canal  passes  under  a  moun- 
tain at  Beziers,  by  a  tunnel  of  720  feet 
in  lengtli,  lined  throughout  with  free- 
stone— a  kind  of  construction  novel  at  the 
time  wluen  the  canal  was  made,  though 
now  common.  The  canal  is  crossed  by 
92  road-bridges,  and  has  55  aqueduct 
bridges.  It  was  completed  under  Louis 
XIV,  under  the  direction  of  Fmucjois 
Audreossi,  as  engineer.  It  is  estimated 
to  have  cost  .33,000,000  francs,  or  about 
$6,160,000;  in  comparing  which  with 
the  cost  of  similar  works  in  Great  Britain 
and  the  U.  States,  allowance  must,  as 
above  suggested,  be  made  for  the  differ- 
ence in  the  value  of  money,  the  same 
nominal  cost,  in  France,  being  a  much 
greater  actual  cost,  in  this  comparison. — • 
The  canal  of  Orleans  was  the  next  in 
order  of  time,  having  been  l)egun  in  1675, 
and  completed  in  1692,  12  yeai-s  after 
that  of  Languedoc.  It  branches  from  the 
Loire,  near  to  Orleans,  36  miles  below 
the  place  where  the  canal  of  Briare  meets 
that  river,  and  joins  the  canal  of  Briare  at 
INIontargis,  being  45  miles  long.  One 
object  of  its  construction  was  to  save  the 
difficult  navigation  on  tlie  Loire,  between 
Orleans  and  the  junction  of  the  canal  of 
Briare  with  tliat  river,  and  to  open  a 
shorter  route  of  connnunication  between 
the  Lower  Loire  and  Paris.  It  has  28 
locks,  varying  from  13Gi  to  177^  feet  in 
length,  and  of  lifts  fi-om  5  feet  4  inches  to 
12  feet  7  inches.  From  the  Loire  to  the 
summit,  the  ascent  is  98  feet  2  inches. 


The  breadth  is  fi-om  25  feet  7  inches  to 
32  feet,  at  the  surface  of  the  water,  and 
the  depth  from  4i  feet,  when  full,  to  2 
feet,  when  lowest.  The  boats  are  from 
96  to  102  feet  long,  and  13  feet  10  inches 
broad.  The  expense  of  its  construction 
is  stated  at  8,000,000  francs,  or  about 
81,500,000.— The  canal  of  Loing  is  a 
continuation  of  the  navigation  of  that  of 
Orleans,  and  the  northern  part  of  that  of 
Briare,  commencing  from  the  northern 
extremity  of  that  of  Briare,  and  extending 
to  the  river  Seine,  terminating  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Fontainebleau.  It  was 
completed  in  1723,  is  33  miles  long,  44 
feet  broad  at  the  surface,  34  at  the  bot- 
tom, and  from  4  to  5  feet  deep.  The 
towing  path,  on  each  side,  is  6  feet  5 
inches  broad,  outside  of  which,  on  each 
side,  is  an  embankment,  like  the  levees  on 
the  Mississippi,  or  the  dykes  of  Holland, 
3  feet  high,  19  feet  broad  at  the  base,  and 
12  feet  9  inches  at  the  top,  to  prevent  the 
waters  fi-om  overflowing  during  floods. 
The  whole  descent  is  136  feet  8  inches, 
divided  among  21  locks,  which  vaiy  in 
lift  from  4  to  7  feet,  and  in  breadth  from 
15.i  to  16.  The  cost  is  stated  at  2,500,000 
fi-ancs,  or  about  8466,000.  It  was  con- 
structed about  the  same  time  %vith  the 
canal  of  Orleans. — The  canal  of  the  cen- 
tre, called,  also,  that  of  Charolois,  and 
likewise  a  branch  of  the  "Grand  Naviga- 
tion," completed  in  1791,  leaves  the  Loire 
at  Dijon,  follows  the  banks  of  the  Arran, 
then  the  left  bank  of  the  Bourlwnne,  and 
passes  by  Parce,  Genelard,  Aire  and 
Blauzey,  to  the  lakes  of  Monschamin  and 
Long-pendu,  which  form  the  sununit- 
level,  the  rise  beuig  240  feet,  by  30  locks, 
in  6300  metres.  The  summit-level  is  a 
distance  of  3940  metres,  whence  the  ca- 
nal descends,  by  the  river  Dheune,  to  St. 
Julian,  where  it  crosses  that  river,  and 
passes  along  the  right  bank  by  St.  Benain, 
St.  Leger  and  St.  Gilles,  to  Chagny, 
leaves  the  valley  of  the  Dheune,  and 
crosses  towards  the  river  Halia,  which  it 
follows  to  its  junction  with  the  Soane  at 
Chalons,  the  descent  from  the  summit 
being  400  feet  by  50  locks,  in  a  distance 
of  47,000  metres;  the  whole  length  of  tho 
canal  being  about  71  miles,  the  breadth, 
at  the  surface  of  the  water,  48  feet,  at  the 
bottom  30  feet,  the  dejrth  of  the  wate/ 
55  feet,  the  length  of  each  lock  100  feet, 
and  its  breadth  16.  The  cost  of  this  canal 
is  stated  at  11,000,000  fi-ancs,  or  al>out 
82,060,000.— The  canal  of  St.  quintin 
unites  the  Scheldt  with  the  cana]  of 
Flanders.  It  was  projected,  in  1727,  by 
tlie  military    engineer   Devieq,  but  not 


CANALS  OF  FRANCE  AND  GREAT  BRITAIN. 


453 


constructed  until  1810.  The  original 
plan,  which  has  been  very  nearly  fol- 
lowed, was  to  proceed  from  Maquincourt, 
near  the  Scheldt,  to  mount  St.  Martin, 
there  pass  through  a  tunnel  3440  toises, 
or  a  little  more  than  31  miles,  long ;  then 
follow  the  valley  of  Bellinglise  and  Ilaut 
Court  to  the  heights  of  Tronquoy  ;  there 
pass  through  a  tunnel  700  toises,  a  little 
more  than  |  of  a  mile,  in  length,  coming 
out  at  Ledin  ;  making  the  distance  of  the 
summit-level  7090  toises,  or  a  little  over  8 
miles,  of  which  2950  are  open,  and  4140, 
or  more  than  44  miles,  subterraneous. 
Tlie  length  of  this  canal  is  28  miles ;  in 
the  rise  from  St.  Quintin  to  the  summit- 
level,  there  are  5  locks,  and  in  the 
descent  to  Cambray,  17.  The  cost  is 
stated  at  12,000,000  francs,  or  about 
82,250,000. — Besides  the  above  canals, 
42  others  are  enumerated  in  the  Ency- 
clopedie  Modeme,  as  completed,  or  in 
the  course  of  construction,  in  France,  in 
1825. 

Canals  of  Great  Britain.  The 
English  were  a  century  after  the  French 
in  commencing  the  construction  of  canals 
upon  a  large  scale.  The  first  considera- 
ble work  of  this  description  was  the  San- 
key  canal,  for  which  an  act  of  parliament 
was  passed  in  1755 ;  the  object  of  the 
act  being  the  improvement  of  the  naviga- 
tion of  Sankey  brook ;  which  j)lan  was 
afterwards  changed  to  that  of  a  separate 
canal  of  12  miles  in  length.  While  the 
work  on  this  canal  was  in  progress,  in 
1758,  the  duke  of  Bridgewater  obtained 
an  act  of  parhament  for  making  Worsley 


brook  navigable  from  Worsley  mill  to  the 
river  Invell,  for  the  j)ur}iose  of  faciUtating 
the  transportation  of  coals  from  his  estate 
to  Manchester ;  but,  seeing  the  advan- 
tages of  still-water  navigation  over  that 
of  a  river,  he  conceived  the  project  of  a 
canal  over  dry  land,  passing  the  river  Ir- 
well  by  an  aqueduct,  and  thus  making  a 
communication  between  his  coal-mines 
and  the  town  of  IManchester  on  one  level. 
The  plan  was  subsequently  extended,  and 
the  duke,  who  lived  14  years  after  the 
commencement  of  the  execution  of  his 
project  (he  died  in  1772,  at  the  age  of  56), 
devoted  his  time  and  his  fortune  to  the 
execution  rjf  liis  great  work,  with  the 
assistance  of  an  engineer  distinguished  for 
his  genius.  He  diverted  all  his  resources 
into  this  channel,  and,  to  enlarge  his 
means  for  the  undertaking,  he  limited  his 
personal  expenses  to  £400  a  year,  and  is 
even  supposed  to  have  shortened  his  life 
in  consequence  of  the  toils  and  anxiety 
attendant  upon  so  arduous  an  enterprise. 
It  was  a  grand  project,  worthy  of  the  sac- 
rifices he  made  to  it.  And  it  is  a  stupen- 
dous monument,  whereby  his  memoiy  is 
associated  with  the  wealth  and  prosperity 
of  England.  The  works  were  projecteti 
by  the  celebrated  engineer  John  Brind- 
ley,  and  executed  under  his  direction,  and 
constitute  a  lasting  memorial  of  his  genius 
and  skill. 

The  following  are  the  principal  canals 
in  Great  Britain.  ( Origincdly  denotes  the 
first  assumed  cost  per  share,  where  the 
actual  cost  is  not  ascertained.) 


Aberdare, 


Aberdeenshire, 
Andover,    .  .  . 


Ashby-de-la- 
Zouch, 


3  a 
If 

1793 

II 
7i 

Ascent  If  liat-mt, 
infect  and  deci- 
mal parts. 

to 

1" 

T.iial. 

40 

5.5 

1805 

19 

170 

8.8 

20 

3i 

1790 

22i 

177 

7.8 

1805 

m 

224 

5.6 

From  Glamorganshire  to  Aber- 
nant.  Length  of  the  boats,  12  feet ; 
breadth,  5.  Number  of  shares,  221 ; 
originally,  £100 ;  value  in  1824,  £25. 
From  Aberdeen  harlwr  to  Don 
river,  at  Inverary  bridge ;  17  locks. 
From  Southampton  water  to  An- 
dover ;  has  been  partially  abandon- 
ed. Number  of  shares,  350 ;  ori- 
ginally, £100 ;  value  in  1824,  £5. 

From  the  Coventry  canal,  at 
Marston  bridge,  to  an  iron  raihvav, 
3^  mUes  long,  at  Ticknall.  The  fir^t 
30  miles  are  level,  forming,  with  the 
Coventry  and  Oxford  canal,  a  level 
of  73  miles,  without  including  the  branches.  It  has  tunnels  at  Ashby-de-la-Zouch  and 
Snareton  (the  length  of  the  two  is  700  J'ards),  and  an  iron  railway,  6  miles  in  length, 
to  the  Cloudshill  mines.  It  has  2  aqueduct  bridges.  At  Boothor])e,  a  steam-engine 
is  erected,  to  convey  the  water  to  a  feeder  for  the  sununit-level.  Number  of  shares, 
1482;  cost,  £113;  price  in  1824,  £20. 


454 


CANALS  OF  GREAT  BRITAIN. 


Asluon-under-l 
line,  or  Man-  j 
Chester  and  ■ 
01dliam,and 
branches, 

Bamesley  and  ? 
branches,     ^ 


Basingstoke, 


Birmingham, 


Birmingham  ? 
and  Fazeley,  ^ 


Brecknock 

and 
Abergavenny, 


Bridgewater, . 


i§ 


1797 


1799 


1790 


1772 


1790 


1776 


1758 


18 


18 


37 


m 


lei 


33 


40 


AKKttt  if  Descent^ 
infect  and  dtci' 
mal  parU. 


Total.   IPr.mile. 


152 


120 


195 


204 


248 


68 


83 


8.4 


6.7 


5.3 


9.07 


15 


30 


4i 


From  RocJulale  canal,  at  Man- 
chester, to  Huddersfield,  at  Duck- 
33 — 15  5  enfield  ;  has  3  aqueduct  bridges ; 
boats  of  25  tons  burthen.  Num- 
ber of  shares,  1760  ;  average  cost, 
£97  185. ;  price  in  1824,  £150. 

From  river  Calder,  below  Wake- 
field, to  Baniby  bridge  ;  has  1  aque- 
duct bridge  and  20  locks.  Num- 
ber of  shares,  720;  cost,  £160} 
price  in  1824,  £215. 

From  Wye  to  Basingstoke ;  has 
72  bridges  and  29  locks.  Number 
of  shares,  1650 ;  cost,  £100 ;  price 
in  1824,  £6.  The  Tingis  branch  is 
5i  miles  in  length.  The  boats  are 
of  45  tons  burtben.  It  has  a  tunnel 
of  i  mile. 
40  4i  Commences  in  the  Birmingham 
and  Staffordshire  canal,  and  termi- 
nates in  the  Birmingham  and  Faze- 
ley canal.  The  boats  are  70  feet 
long  and  7  wide,  and  of  22  tons 
burthen.  Number  of  shares,  4000 ; 
originally  £140  ;  price  in  1824, 
£315.  The  tonnage  is  not  to  ex- 
ceed \hd.  per  mile. 

From  the  Coventry  canal,  at 
Whittington  brook,  to  Birming- 
ham canal,  at  Fanner's  bridge ; 
has  44  locks;  boats  22  tons  bur- 
then. 

From  the  Monmouthshire  canal 
to  Brecon.  There  is,  at  Abergaven- 
ny, an  iron  railway  a  mile  in  length  ; 
at  Wain  Dew  another  4|  miles, 
and  at  Llangroiney  another  IJ 
mile.  It  has  a  tunnel  of  220 
yards,  and  3  aqueduct  bridges. 
Number  of  shares,  958  ;  originally, 
£150;  price  in  1824,  £100. 
52  5  From  the  tide-^vay  of  the  Mer- 
sey, at  Runcorn  Gap  ;  and  at  Long- 
ford bridge  divides  into  2  branches, 
one  terminating  at  3Ianchester,  the 
other  at  Pennington,  near  the  town  of  Leigh.  The  whole  lockage  is  the  83  feet  at 
the  Mersey,  in  rising  from  tide-water,  by  10  locks.  This  canal,  with  a  part  of  the 
Trent  and  Mersey  canal  connected  with  it,  makes  a  level  of  70  miles,  30  of  which 
are  on  this  canal.  JMr.  Cary  states  that  there  are  about  16  miles  of  canal  under 
gi-ound  within  the  mountains  at  Worsley.  It  has  3  j)rincipal  aqueduct  bridges, 
and  several  smaller  ones.  Arched  branches  pass  off  from  it  at  considerable 
distances,  under  the  town  of  INIanchester,  from  one  of  which  coals  are  hoisted 
up  to  supply  the  inhabitants,  which  tlie  proprietors,  successoi-s  to  the  duke  of 
Bridgewater,  are  bound  to  furnish  them  at  4rf.  for  140  lbs. — an  advantage  to  which 
much  of  tiie  prosperity  of  that  town  has  been  atti-ibuted.  The  embankment  over 
Stratford  meadows  is  900  yards  long,  17  feet  high,  and  112  feet  wide  at  the  base ; 
that  at  Barton  bridge  is  200  yards  long  and  40  feet  high.  The  tonnage  is 
2*.  Qd. 


CANALS  OF  GREAT  BRITAIN. 


455 


Bristol  and 
Tauutou, 


BuiTowstonness, 

Caistor, 

Caldon  and  ) 
Uttoxeter,  ^ 
Caledonian,  .  . 


If 

II 
41 

Jtcatt  ^  Daant, 
m  fat  mul  deci- 
mal parli. 

t8 

1 

TobL 

ir.mile. 

1790 

7 

1793 

9 

28 

13G 

4.8 

1822 

21i 

190.5 

8.6 

40  bot. 

20 

From  Taunton  bridge  to  the 
mouth  of  the  Avon,  below  Bristol. 
The  operations  on  this  canal  were 
at  a  stand  in  1824. 


From  Auchohne  to  Caistor. 
A  branch  of  the  Grand  Trunk 
canal,  terminating  at  Uttoxeter. 

This  stupendous  canal  passes 
through  a  chain  of  lakes,  or  lochs, 
and  nan-ow  arms  of  the  sea ;  and, 
by  making  21f  miles  of  canal,  and  deepening  the  beds  of  the  rivers  Lochy  and  Oich, 
and  dredging  to  deepen  a  part  of  Loch  Ness  (in  the  whole  a  distance  of  4  J  miles, 
making  the  total  length  of  excavation  25  miles,  with  a  lockage,  uj)  and  down,  of  190 
feet),  an  interior  navigation  of  250  miles  is  opened  across  the  central  part  of  Scotland, 
from  the  IMurray  Firth,  on  the  eastern  coast,  to  Cantyre,  on  the  western,  and  about 
opposite  to  the  northern  coast  of  Ireland ;  being  one  half  of  the  distance  of  the  navi- 
gation between  the  same  extreme  points,  round  the  northern  coast  by  the  Orkneys, 
It  has  27  locks,  mcluding  tlie  tide-locks,  one  of  them  170,  but  most,  if  not  all,  the 
•othei-s  180  feet  long,  and  all  40  feet  wnde  ;  thus  opening  a  ship-navigation  through 
the  midst  of  the  countrj^,  rising,  at  the  summit-level,  94  feet  above  the  tide-water  of 
the  eastern  coast,  and  9(>i  feet  above  that  of  the  western,  showhig  the  ocean  to  be  2^ 
feet  higher  on  the  eastern.  At  fort  Augustus,  where  it  leaves  Loch  Ness  in  a  north- 
westerly direction,  this  canal  is  cut  through  the  glacis  of  the  fortification,  thus  adding 
to  the  militaiy  defences  as  well  as  to  the  api)earance  of  the  fort,  which,  with  the  five 
locks  of  masonry  rising  behind,  presents  a  grand  combination  of  civil  and  miUtaiy 
engineering  amid  romantic  mountain  scenery.  From  Loch  Ness,  passing  ui  the 
westwardly  direction  of  the  canal  to  Loch  Oich,  1|  mile,  the  land  is  20  feet  above 
tlie  water  line,  which,  with  the  depth  of  water  in  the  canal,  makes  an  excavation,  in 
tliis  distance,  of  40  feet  in  depth,  with  a  bottom  of  40  feet  in  breadth.  To  save  rock- 
cutting,  in  descending,  in  the  westwardly  direction,  as  before,  fi-om  Loch  Oich  to 
Loch  Lochy,  the  natural  difference  of  the  surfaces  of  the  two  lakes  being  22  feet, 
tlie  whole  area  of  Loch  Lochy,  which  is  10  miles  in  length  and  1  in  breadth,  is 
raised  12  feet.  In  the  last  2  miles,  before  the  canal,  in  its  westerly  direction,  enters 
Loch  Eil,  there  is  a  descent  of  64  feet,  which  is  passed  by  8  connected  locks,  each 
180  feet  long  by  40  in  breadth.  These  locks  are  founded  on  inverted  arches,  exhib- 
ituig  a  solid  and  continuous  mass  of  masonry  500  yards  in  length  and  20  yards  Avide, 
in  which,  as  late  as  1824,  and  5  years  after  its  construction,  no  flaw  had  been  dis- 
covered. The  gates  are  of  cast-iron.  This  system  of  locks  has  received  the  fitnciful 
appellation  of  ^eptune^s  Staircase ;  and  the  appearance  of  large  vessels,  with  their 
masts  and  rigging,  descending  these  stupendous  locks,  fi"om  the  hill  towards  Loch 
Eil,  is  most  majestic  and  imposing,  exhibiting  a  striking  instance  of  the  triumph  of 
art.  In  the  distance  of  8  miles,  from  Loch  Lochy  to  tide-water  in  Loch  Eil,  the 
canal,  in  passing  along  tlie  north-westerly  bank  of  die  river  Lochy,  crosses,  by  aque- 
duct bridges,  3  large  streams  and  23  smaller  ones.  Since  the  construction  of  this 
canal,  upwards  of  a  million  of  forest-trees  have  been  planted  along  its  borders.  The 
cost  of  this  great  national  work  was,  for 


Management  and  travelling  ex- 
penses,   £29,000 

Timber, 68,600 

Machinery,  cast-iron  work,  &c.,  121,400 
Quarries  and  masonrj',   ....    195,800 

Shipping, 11,000 

Labor  and  workmanship,  .  .  .    418,000 
Houses  and  buildings, 4,600 


Purchase  and  damage  of  land,  .  .  47,900 

Hoi-se  labor, 3,000 

Road-making, 4,000 

Incidental  expenses, 2,000 

£905,300 
Add,  to  complete  the  dredging, .  .  .  7,200 

£912,500 


Assuming  the  number  of  miles  operated  upon  to  be  25,  the  canal  cost  £36,500  per 
mile.    It  was  constructed  under  the  direction  of  Thomas  Telford,  Esq. 


450 


CANALS  OF  GREAT  BRITAIN. 


Cardiff,  or  Gla-) 
morganshire, ) 


Chester,  .... 


Chesterfield, .  . 


Coventry, 
Criuan, .  . 


Cromford,  .  .  . 


Croydon, .... 


Deame  and 
Dove, 


Derby, 


II 


1775 


1775 


1776 


1790 

1805 

1794 


Dorset     and 
Somerset, 


1801 


1804 


1794 


1803 


E 

25 


m 


46 


9i 


9h 


42 


^utait  if  Dttcaity 
infect  ajid  dtci' 
mal  parts. 


Toial.   (I'r.mtlc. 


600 


170 


380 


96 
117 

80 


150 


125 


78 


24 


9.7 


8.2 


3.6 
13 

4.4 


15.8 


6.6 


8.6 


26 


44—24 


From  a  sea-basin  on  the  Severn, 
near  Cardiff,  to  Mertbyr;  is  con- 
nected with  various  railways,  one 
of  which  is  26|  miles  long.  Num- 
ber of  shares,  600 ;  cost,  £172  13*. 
4rf. ;  price  in  1824,  £265. 

From  the  Dee,  at  Chester,  to 
Nantvvich,  where  it  communicates 
with  tlie  Whitchurch  branch  of 
the  Ellesmere  canal. 

From  the  Trent,  at  Stockwitl), 
to  Chestei"field  ;  has  65  locks  an(l 
2  tunnels,  together  2850  yards  long, 
and  9i  feet  wide.  The  lower  part 
of  the  canal  is  navigable  for  boats 
of  from  50  to  60  tons  burthen,  and 
the  higher,  being  but  26  or  28  feet 
broad,  is  navigable  for  boats  of  on- 
ly 20  or  22  tons  burthen.  These 
boats  are  70  feet  long  and  7  feet 
broad.  Number  of  shares,  1500; 
cost,  £100  ;  price  in  1824,  £120. 

A  part  of  the  hne  of  canal  be- 
tween London  and  Liverjjool. 

From  lake  Gilp  to  lake  Crinan. 
Number  of  shares,  1851 ;  cost,  £50 ; 
price  in  1824,  £2  10*. 

From  the  Erewash  canal,  at 
Langley,  to  Cromford.  It  has  sev- 
eral tunnels,  and  passes  the  river 
Derwent  by  an  aqueduct  200  yards 
long  and  30  feet  high.  Tlie  arch 
over  tlie  channel  of  the  river  is 
60  feet  broad.  Anotlier  aqueduct 
over  a  branch  of  tlie  Derwent  is 
200  ycirds  long  and  50  feet  liigh. 
Each  aqueduct  cost  about  £3000, 
Number  of  shares,  460 ;  cost,  £31 
2*.  lOd. ;  price  in  1824,  £270. 

From  Grand  Surry  canal  to 
Croydon.  It  has  23  locks.  Num- 
ber of  shares,  4546 ;  originally, 
£100 ;  price  in  1824,  £4  10s. 

From  the  river  Dove,  between 
Swinton  and  IMexburgh  to  Barnes- 
ley  canal.  The  boats  are  from  50 
to  60  tons  burthen.  It  has  two 
branches,  of  3|  and  1|  miles  in 
length. 

From  the  river  Trent  to  Derby. 
Number  of  shares,  600 ;  cost,  £110 ; 
price  in  1824,  £140.  It  has  a 
branch,  the  Erewash,  8i  miles  in 
length. 

From  the  Kennet  and  Avon  ca- 
nal to  the  river  Stour;  but  not 
completed  in  1824 ;  has  a  branch 
9  miles  long. 


CANALS  OF  GREAT  BRITAIN. 


Dublin  and  ) 
Shannon,  ^ 
Lawton  branch, 
Miltoun  branch, 
Bog  of  Allen  br., 
Edenderry  br., 
Kildare  br., .  .  . 
Dudley,    .  .  .  . 
Stourbridge  br., 
Dudley  br.,  .  .  . 


Eldinburgh  & 
Glasgow, 


Ellesmere  and  i 
Chester,  and  > 
branches,      ) 


Erewash, 
Fazeley,  . 


Forth  and  } 
Clyde,       I 
Glasgow  branch, 


1776 


1776 


1804 


1777 
1790 


1790 


65i 

21 

7 

3 

1 

6 
lOd 

2 

II 


50 


109 


111 
11 


35 
2i 


Ascent  ^  IJucent, 
in  fat  aaid  deci- 
mal jjorts. 


35 


755 


181 


3.3 


6.9 


15.4 


From  Dublin,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
LifFey,  to  the  river  Shannon,  near 
the  town  of  Moy.  It  passes  24  miles 
across  a  marsh,  in  which  the  absorb- 
ing nature  of  the  soil  rendered 
the  work  enormously  expensive. 

From  the  Worcester  and  Bir- 
mingham canal.  It  has  61  locks ; 
3  tunnels,  one  3776  yards  in  length, 
another  623  yards,  and  the  other 
2926  yards,  all  13i  feet  wide ;  and 
near  one  of  them,  the  Laplat  tun- 
nel, it  passes  9  locks,  nearly  con- 
tiguous. Number  of  shares,  2060 ; 
originally,  £100;  price  in  1824,  £6-3. 

This  canal  is  proposed  to  com- 
mence at  Leith,  in  the  Forth,  and 
terminate  in  the  Clyde,  at  Glasgow. 
The  enterprise  was  suspended  on 
account  of  a  supposed  insufficiency 
of  water,  and  is  not  known  (1829) 
to  have  been  resumed. 

This  canal  is  said  to  be  the  first 
constmcted  in  England  for  agri- 
cultural purposes,  as  well  as  trade. 
It  has  1262  yards  of  tunnelling. 
Number  of  shares,  3575 ;  cost, 
£133;  price  in  1824,  £(58. 
From  the  Trent  toCromford  canal. 

Is  a  i)ait  of  the  Liverpool  line, 
joining  the  Grand  Trunk  with  the 
Coventiy  canal.  It  is  entirely  lev- 
el. The  Fazeley  and  Birmingham, 
and  the  Birmingham,  are  continu- 
ations of  this. 

From  the  tide- water,  at  the  junc- 
tion of  the  river  Carron  with  the 
Forth,  to  Glasgow.  It  was  the 
first  considerable  work  of  the  kind 
undertaken  in  Scotland,  having 
been  commenced  in  1777  and 
completed  in  1790.  It  ascends, 
from  the  Fortli  to  the  summit,  by 
20  lock.",  156  foet,  in  lOi  miles, 
and  keeps  this  level  18  miles,  to 
Glasgow,  and,  one  mile  l>eyond 
that  city,  terminates  in  the  Monk- 
land  canal  basin.  About  2|  miles 
north  of  the  j)ort  of  Dundas,  near 
Glasgow,  a  branch  of  the  canal 
passes  oft'  8%  miles,  crossing  the 
Kelven  by  a  magnificent  stone 
aqueduct,  to  the  tide-water  at 
Bowling  bay,  to  which  it  descends 
by  19  locks,  74  feet  ui  length  and 
20  in  breadth.  When  full,  it  has 
8  feet  of  water. 


TOL.  II. 


39 


4^ 


CANALS  OF  GREAT  BRITAIN* 


Foss  Dyke,    .  . 

Glasgow  and  ) 
Saltcoats,    ^ 
Glenkenns,    .  . 

Gloucester,    .  . 
Hockcrib  branch, 


Grand  Junction, 
Paddington  br., 
6  other  branches, 


Grand  Siurey, 


Grand  Western, 
Tiverton  br.,  .  . 


Grand  Trunk, 
Its  branch,  ,  . 


Grand  Union,  . 


1812 
1802 

1793 


1805 


1801 


1796 


1777 


11 

33i 
27 

18i 
2* 


931 
131 
40 


12 


23i 


Ascait  Xf  Descent^ 
in  feet  and  deci- 
malparU. 


Total.  iPr.mile, 


0 
168 


587 


642 


130 


0 


6.3 


6.9 


5.5 


r        I 


70 


36—24 


U 


From  the  Trent,  at  Torksey,  to 
the  Witham.     It  is  a  level. 


From  the  Dee,  at  Kirkcudbright, 
to  Dairy. 

A  channel  for  ship  navigation, 
to  avoid  the  windings  of  the  Sev- 
ern from  Berkley  Pill,  where  it 
leaves  that  river,  to  Gloucester, 
where  it  joins  the  river  again. 
Number  of  shares,  1960 ;  price  in 
1824,  £100,  and  a  loan  of  £60  per 
shaie,  making  the  investment  £160 
per  share. 

A  part  of  the  line  between  Lon- 
don and  Liverpool,  from  Brentford 
to  the  Oxford  canal  at  Braunston. 
It  has  101  locks ;  passes  the  river 
Ouse  and  its  valley  by  an  embank- 
ment about  half  a  mile  in  length  and 
30  feet  high.  It  has  a  tunnel  at 
Blisworth,  3080  yards  in  length, 
18  feet  high,  and  16^  wide ;  and  an- 
other at  Braunston,  2045  yards  long, 
the  other  dimensions  being  the 
same  as  those  of  the  Blisworth 
tunnel.  Number  of  shares,  11,657^ ; 
originally,  £100  ;  price  in  1824, 
£270. 

From  the  Thames,  at  Rother- 
hithe,  to  Mitcham.  It  is  of  lai-ge 
dimensions,  being  navigable  by  the 
Thames  boats.  The  company  pays 
to  London,  annually,  £60,  for  the 
junction  of  the  canal  with  the 
Thames. 

From  the  mouth  of  the  Ex,  at 
Topsham,  to  Taunton  bridge ;  in 
1824,  was  but  partially  finished. 
Number  of  shares,  3096  ;  cost, 
£79;  price  in  1824,  £6. 

A  part  of  the  line  between  Lon- 
don and  Liverpool.  It  has  4  tun- 
nels, in  length  3940  yards,  and  9 
feet  wide.  Number  of  shares, 
1300i  ;  price  in  1824,  £2150.  The 
tonnage  is  from  3d.  to  4irf.  per 
mile. 

From  the  Leicester  and  North- 
ampton Union  canal,  near  Foxton, 
to  the  Grand  Junction,  east  of 
Braunston  tunnel.  Number  of 
shares,  1521 ;  cost,  £100  ;  price  in 
1824,  £50.  The  canal  has,  besides, 
a  loan,  at  5  per  cent,  interest,  of 
£19,327. 


CANALS  OF  GREAT  BRITAIN. 


459 


Grantham, 


Haslingden, 


Hereford  and 
Gloucester, 


Huddersfield, 


Kennet  and ) 
Avon,         ^ 


Kingston  and  ? 
Leominster,  ^ 

Lancaster,  .  .  . 


Leeds  and 
Liveqiool, 


1799 


1793 


1790 


1798 


1801 


1797 


1799 


1771 


331 


13 


m 


m 


57 


451 


76 


130 


Asceiit  ^  Ik$cent, 
in  feet  and  deci- 
mal parts. 


Total.    Pr.mile. 


148 


225 


770 


263 


544 


287 


841 


4.4 


6.1 


39.5 


4.6 


11.8 


3.8 


6.4 


From  tlie  Trent,  near  Holme 
Pierpoint,  to  Grantliam.  It  has 
divided  8  per  cent,  and  left  a  clear 
surplus  of  £3000  to  meet  unfore- 
seen accidents.  Number  of  shares, 
749;  cost,  £150;  price  in  1824, 
£160.  It  is  supplied  with  water 
wholly  from  reservoirs. 

From  the  Manchester,  Bolton 
and  Bury  canal,  at  Bury,  to  the 
Leeds  and  Liverpool,  at  Church. 

From  the  Severn,  at  Gloucester, 
to  the  Wye,  at  Hereford.  It  has  3 
tunnels,  of  2192,  1320  and  440, 
making,  in  all,  3952  yards.  In  con- 
sequence of  the  opening  of  this 
canal,  the  price  of  coals  at  Ledbu- 
ry was  reduced  from  24«.  to  6*. 
per  ton.  Shares,  originally,  £100 ; 
price  in  1824,  £60. 

From  Ramsden's  canal,  at  Hud- 
dersfield, to  the  Manchester,  Ash- 
ton  and  Oldham  canal,  at  Ducken- 
field  bridge,  near  Marsden.  It  has 
a  tunnel  of  5280  yards  in  length. 
Number  of  shares,  6312 ;  cost, 
£57  14s. ;  price  in  1824,  £26. 

From  the  Avon,  at  Dole-mead, 
near  Bath,  to  the  Kennet  and 
Newbury.  It  has  an  aqueduct 
bridge  over  the  Avon.  The  boats 
are  of  25  or  26  tons  burthen. 
Number  of  shares,  25,328;  cost, 
£35  5*.;  price  in  1824,  £24. 

From  the  Severn,  at  Areley,  to 
Kingston.  It  has  two  tunnels  of 
3850  and  1250,  making  5100  yards. 

From  Kirby  Kendall  to  Hough- 
ton. It  has  tuimels  at  Hincaster 
and  Chorley,  800  yards  long  in  the 
wjiole.  It  passes  the  Loyne  by  a 
stone  aqueduct,  50  feet  high,  on  5 
arches,  each  of  70  feet  span.  It 
has  also  a  road  aqueduct,  near 
Blackmill,  60  feet  high.  The 
boats  are  56  feet  long  and  14 
broad.  Number  of  shares,  1 1,699^ ; 
cost,  £47  6s.  8d.;  price  in  1824, 
£29. 

From  Liverpool  to  Leeds.  The 
boats  na^^gating  between  Leeds 
andWigan  are  of  42  tons  burthen; 
those  below  Wigan,  and  on  this 
side  Leeds,  of  30.  tons.  The  turmels  at  Foulbridge  and  Finnloy  are,  in  the  whole, 
1609  yards  long.  It  has  a  beautiful  aqueduct  bridge  over  the  Ayre.  The  locks  are 
70  feet  long  and  15^  wide.  The  number  of  shares  is  2897| ;  originally,  £100  each  ; 
price  in  1824,  £380.  Tonnage  on  merchandise,  l^rf.  per  mile ;  on  coals  and  lime. 
Id. ;  on  stone,  hd. 


42 


U 


460 


CANALS  OF  GREAT  BRITAIN. 


Leicester, 


Leicestershire" 
aiid  North-! 
amptonshire/ 
Union,  * 


Loughborough, 


Manchester,  ^ 
Bolton  and  > 
Bury,  > 

Haslingden  br., 

Market  Weigh- ) 

ton,  ) 

Monkland, .  .  . 

Monmouthshire, 


Montgomery- 
shire, 
Welahpool  br., 


Neath, 


North  Wilts, 
Nottingham, . 


Oakham, 


Oxford, . 


1805 


1776 


1797 


1770 


1796 


1797 


1798 


1798 
1802 


1803 


1790 


2U 


431 


9h 


15 


11 
12 

171 


27 

3i 

14 


15 


15 


9l!i 


Ascent  4^  Dtsctnt^ 
in  ftei  and  deci' 
mal  parts. 


230 


407 


41 


187 


35 

96 

1057 


225 


126 


269 


10.7 


9.3 


4.3 


12.4 


3.2 


53.5 


8.3 


8.4 


2,9 


From  the  Loughborough  basin 
to  tlie  Soar,  wliich  has  been  ren- 
dered navigable  as  far  as  Leicester. 
Number  of  shares,  545 ;  cost,  £140 ; 
price  in  1824,  £330. 

From  Leicester  to  Market  Har- 
borough.  It  has  4  tunnels,  1056, 
990,  880  and  286,  in  the  whole 
3212,  yards  in  length.  Number  of 
shares,  1895 ;  cost,  £83  10s. ;  price 
in  1824,  £82. 

From  the  Trent,  near  Sawley,  to 
Loughborough.  No.  shares,  70; cost, 
£142  17».  8rf. ;  price  in  1824,  £4000. 

From  the  Mersey  and  Irwell 
navigation  to  Bolton.  The  locks 
have  been  reconstructed  and  en- 
larged. Number  of  shares,  477 ; 
originally,  £250 ;  price  in  1824, 
£112. 

A  continuation  of  the  Forth  and 
Clyde  canal. 

This  canal  is  remarkable  for  the 
extent  of  its  i-ailways  and  inclined 
planes.  Number  of  shares,  2409 ; 
cost,  £100;  price  in  1824,  £198. 
It  has,  besides,  a  loan  of  £43,526, 
at  an  interest  of  5  per  cent. 

From  a  branch  of  the  Ellesmere 
canal  to  Newtown.  Number  of 
shares,  700 ;  originally,  £100 ;  price 
m  1824,  £71. 

From  the  river  Neatli,  at  the  Gi- 
ant's Grave,  to  the  Aberdare  canal, 
at  Abernant.  It  serves  for  the 
transportation  of  copper  and  lead 
ore  from  Cornwall  to  Glamorgan- 
shire. Number  of  shares,  247 ;  cost, 
£107  10«. ;  price  in  1824,  £'SS3. 

From  the  Thames  and  Severn 
canal  to  the  Wilts  and  Berks. 

From  the  Trent,  at  Nottingham, 
to  the  Cromford  canal,  near  Lang- 
ley  bridge. 

From  Melton  Mowbray  to  Oak- 
ham. Number  of  shares,  522 ; 
cost,  £130  ;  price  m  1824,  £50. 

From  the  Coventry  canal  to  the 
river  Isis  at  Oxford,  and  a  part  of 
the  grand  line  between  Liverpool  and  London.  It  has  3  aqueducts  of  very  consid- 
erable magnitude,  a  tunnel  at  Newbold  125  yards  long  and  12i  feet  wide,  and  one 
at  Fenny  Compton  1188  yards  long  and  9 J  feet  wide.  It  rises,  from  the  level  of  the 
Coventry  canal,  in  45^  miles,  to  tlie  summit  at  Marston  ToUs,  74  feet  1  inch,  by  12 
locks ;  and  descends,  from  the  summit  at  Claydon,  in  35  miles,  to  the  Isis,  195i  feet,  by 
30  locks.  It  has  188  stone  and  brick  bridges.  It  cost  £178,648  stock,  besides  £130,000 
loan,  above  half  of  which  has  been  paid  off.  Number  of  shares,  1786 ;  originally, 
£100 ;  price  in  1824,  £780. 


30—16 


CANALS  OF  GREAT  BRITAIN. 


461 


^s 


Atcent  Sf  Dacent, 
in  fax  a-nd  iLxi- 
mal  parts. 


Total.   IPr-mile. 


Peak  Forest, 


1800 


21 


Portsmouth  & 
x\rundel 


..^ 


Ramsden's,    . 
Regent,    .  .  . 


1815 

1774 

1820 


14i 


Ripon,  .  .  . 
Rochdale,  . 


Royal  Irish, 


Sankey, 


56 


9      86 


1767 
1804 


1760 


68 


m 


29' 


613 


614 


78 


19.7 


6.2 


48 


From  the  Manchester,  Ashton 
and  Oldham  canal,  at  Dnckenfield, 
to  the  Chapel  Milton  basin.  It 
has  a  railway  6  miles  long.  It 
passes  the  Mersey,  by  a  bridge  100 
feet  high,  of  .3  arches,  each  of 
60  feet  span.  Number  of  shares, 
2400;  cost,  £77;  price  in  1824, 
£94. 

From  the  river  Arun,  near  Little 
Hampton,  to  the  bay  connected 
with  Portsmouth  harbor.  Number 
of  shares,  2520 ;  cost,  £50 ;  price 
in  1824,  £25. 

From  the  Calder  and  Hebble 
navigation  to  the  Huddersfield 
canal. 

The  last  link,  near  London,  of 
the  chain  connecting  that  city  and 
Liverpool.  It  commences  at  Pad- 
dington,  from  the  Grand  Junction 
canal,  and  meets  the  Thames  at 
Limehouse,  descending,  by  12  locks, 
to  a  basin  communicating  with  a 
ship  lock.  The  locks  have  double 
chambers,  which  are  estimated  to 
make  a  saving  of  one  third  of  the 
usual  quantity  of  water.  It  has  2 
tunnels,  one  at  Maida  Hill,  370 
yards  long,  the  other  under  Ishng- 
ton,  900  vai-ds.  Number  of  shares, 
12,294 ; 'cost,  £40  10s.;  price  in 
1824,  £49  10s. 

From  the  river  Ure,  at  Milby, 
to  Ripon. 

From  the  Bridgewater  canal,  in 
the  town  of  Manchester,  to  the 
Calder  and  Hebble  navigation,  at 
Sowerby  bridge.  It  has  49  locks, 
8  aqueducts,  a  tunnel  of  70  yards 
in  length,  and  several  reservoirs. 
Number  of  shares,  5631 ;  cost, 
£85  ;  price  in  1824,  £94. 

From  Dublin,  in  a  westward  di- 
rection, to  the  Shannon,  at  Tas- 
monbarry,  nearly  parallel  to  the 
Dublin  canal,  and  about  10  miles 
distant  from  it.  Its  greatest  eleva- 
tion above  the  sea  is  307  feet,  to 
which  it  ascends  from  Dublin  by 
26  locks,  and  descends  to  the 
Shannon  by  15  locks. 

From  the  Mersey  and  Irwell 
navigation,  at  Fiddler's  Ferry,  to 
Sutton  Heath  mines.  It  has  10 
locks,  and  also  a  tunnel,  near  St. 
Helen's.  It  was  the  first  canal 
constructed  in  England. 


402 


CANALS  OF  GREAT  BRITAIN, 


sl 


infect  and  deei' 
mat  parts. 


Tola).  IPr.mile 


Shomcliff  jind : 
Rye,orJi.oy- 
al  Military,    ' 


1809 


18 


Shrewsbury,   . 


Shropshire. 


Somerset  Coal, 
Radstock  br.,.  . 


Southampton 

&  Salisbury, 

Stafford  and 

Worcester, 


Stainforth  and } 

Keadby,       I 

Stourbridge,.  . 


Stover, 

Chudleigli  br.,  . 
Stroudwater,  . 


Swansea,    .  .  . 
Llansamlet  br., 


1797 


1792 


1802 


1804 
1772 


m 


7i 


m 


155 


453 


138 
138 


60.4 


16.2 

18.4 


394 


8.4 


30 


1798 
1776 


1792 
1796 

1798 


15 

5 

191 

6k 

8 

50 
108 

I7i 
3 

366 

38.2 


28 


las 


20.9 


From  the  sea,  at  Hythe,  to  the 
mouth  of  the  river  Rother,  It  is  a 
level,  having  locks  to  keep  in  the 
water  at  low  tide-  It  is  large 
enough  to  receive  vessels  of  200 
tons  burthen.  Each  of  its  extrem- 
ities is  defended  by  strong  batteries. 
It  was  constructed  on  account  of 
Bonaparte's  projected  descent  on 
England,  and  hence  its  name  of 
Royal  Military  canal. 

From  Shrewsbury  to  the  Shrop- 
shire canal.  One  half  of  the  ascent 
is  effected  by  locks,  the  other  half 
by  inchned  planes.  It  has  one 
tunnel.  Number  of  shares,  500 ; 
originally,  £125;  price  in  1824, 
£180. 

From  the  Severn,  at  Coalport, 
to  the  Shrewsbury  canal,  at  Down- 
ington  wood.  It  has  several  in- 
clined planes  and  railways,  but  no 
locks. 

From  the  Kennet  and  Avon  ca- 
nal, at  Monkton  Coombe,  to  Paul- 
ton.  The  boats  are  72  feet  long 
and  7  broad.  It  has  22  locks. 
Number  of  shares,  800 ;  original 
cost,  £50  ;  price  in  1824,  £135. 

From  the  Itchin,  at  Northam, 
to  the  Avon,  at  Salisbury. 

From  the  river  Severn,  at  Stour- 
port,  to  the  Grand  Trunk  canal. 
It  has  44  locks.  Its  boats  are  of 
20  tons  burthen.  It  has  3  tun- 
nels. Number  of  shares,  700 ;  cost, 
£140 ;  price  in  1824,  £800.  The 
tonnage  is  not  to  exceed  lid.  per 
mile. 

From  the  river  Trent,  at  Kead- 
by, to  the  Don,  at  Fishlake. 

From  the  Stafford  and  Worces- 
ter canal,  at  Stourton,  to  the  Dud- 
ley canal.  It  has  20  locks.  Num- 
ber of  shares,  300 ;  originally, 
£245  ;  price  in  1824,  £212.       ' 

From  the  river  Teign,  at  New- 
town, to  Bovey  Tracey. 

From  the  river  Severn,  at  Fra- 
miload,  to  the  Thames  and  Severn 
canal,  at  Wallbridge. 

From  Swansea  harbor  to  Hen 
Noyadd.  Like  the  Neath  canal,  it 
serves  to  transport  copper  ore  from 
Cornwall  to  Glamorganshire  foun- 
deries.  Number  of  shares,  533; 
originally,  £100;  price  in  1824, 
£195. 


CANALS  OF  GREAT  BRITAIN. 


463 


Atcent  ^  Dexait, 

in  fax  anddeei' 
inai  parts. 


Tolal.    Pr.iuile, 


Tavistock, .  .  . 
Mill  Hill  branch, 


1810 


237 


52.7 


Thames  and ) 
Medway,     ^ 


Thames  and 
Severn, 


1800 


1789 


8i 


m 


377 


12.3 


40-30 


Warwick  and/ 
Birmingliain,^ 


Warwick  and 
Napton, 

Wey  &  Arun 
Junction, 


Wilts  and  Berks, 
Calne  branch,   . 

Worcester  and  ^ 
Birmingham,  ^ 


Wjrley  and  ? 

Essington,  ^ 
Hay  head  br.,  .  . 
Lordshery  br.,  . 
Wyrley     Bank  j 

br.,  < 

Essington  br.,  . 
Norwich  anrl  J 

Lowestoff    > 

Navigation,  j 


1799 


1799 


1801 


1797 


1796 


25 


15 


16 


23 

5i 
2i 

4 

1 


376 


128 


270 


7.2 


4.3 


11.6 


42 


28 


U 


The  works  near  Yarmouth  open 
1829  50  50  an  inland  navigation  in  two  direc- 

tions ;  one  30  miles,  by  the  Yare, 
the  other  20  miles,  by  the  Wave- 
ney,  without  a  lock.  The  river  Yare  discharges  at  Yarmouth,  about  30  miles  below 
Nonvich,  but  the  navigation  is  obstructed  by  shoaJs  and  shifting  sands   at  its 


From  tlie  river  Tamar,  at  Cal- 
stock,  to  Tavistock.  It  has  a  tun- 
nel at  Morwellham,  460  feet  below 
the  surface.  This  tunnel  led  to 
the  discovery  of  a  copper-mine. 
Its  boats  are  15^  feet  in  length  and 
5  in  breadth.  Number  of  shares, 
350 ;  originally,  £100 ;  price  in 
1824,  £150. 

From  the  Thames,  at  Gravesend, 
to  the  river  Medway.  Number  of 
shares,  2670  ;  cost,  £42  9^.  5d.; 
price  in  1824,  £26.  This  canal 
has  loans  to  a  large  amount. 

From  the  Stroudwater  canal  to 
the  Thames  and  Isis  navigation. 
The  boats  are  of  70  tons  burthen, 
being  80  feet  long  and  5  broad. 
It  has  a  tunnel  at  Sapperton,  250 
feet  below  the  top  of  the  hill  of 
rock  under  which  it  passes.  The 
bottom  of  this  tunnel  is  an  invert- 
ed arch. 

From  the  Warwick  and  Napton 
canal,  near  Warwick,  to  the  Dig- 
beth  branch  of  the  old  Birming- 
ham canal.  It  has  a  tunnel  at 
Fazeley  300  yards  in  length.  It 
has  32  locks. 

From  the  Warwick  and  Bir- 
mingham to  the  Oxford  canal. 
Number  of  shares,  980  ;  originally, 
£100  ;  in  1824,  £215. 

From  the  river  Wey,  near  God- 
ahning,  to  the  north  branch  of  the 
Arun  river  navigation.  Number 
of  shares,  905;  cost,  £110;  price 
in  1824,  £25. 

From  the  Kennet  and  Avon  ca- 
nal, at  Semington,  to  the  Thames 
and  Isis  navigation. 

From  the  Severn,  at  Diglis,  be- 
low Worcester,  to  tlie  Birming- 
ham and  Fazeley  canal,  at  Farmer's 
bridge. 

From  a  detached  part  of  the 
Fazeley  canal,  at  Htuldlesford,  to 
the  Birmingham  canal,  at  Wolver- 
hampton. The  boats  are  of  18 
tons  burtlien.     It  has  28  locks. 


464 


CANALS  OF  GREAT  BRITAIN— AMERICAN  CANALS. 


mouth.  To  avoid  these  obstructions,  the 
river  is  to  be  made  navigable  for  sea- 
borne vessels  from  Norwich  to  a  place  20 
miles  lower  down  the  river,  called  Reed- 
1mm  Ferry,  where  a  new  cut  of  2i  miles 
is  to  be  made  across  the  marshes,  to  join 
the  river  Waveney  at  St.  Olave's  bridge, 
wlience  the  water  communication  pro- 
ceeds by  a  small  stream  (Oulton  Dyke) 
and  two  lakes  (Oulton  Broad  and  Lo- 
thing),  from  the  latter  connected  with 
the  sea  by  a  channel  700  yards  long  and 
40  feet  wide,  with  a  sea-lock  50  feet  wide 
in  the  clear  and  24  feet  deep,  for  the  ]Hir- 
pose  of  admitting  sea-borne  vessels.  Oul- 
ton Dyke  and  Oulton  Broad  are  to  be 
deepened.  The  lock  constructed  at  the 
outlet  of  lake  Lothing  makes  an  artificial 
harbor,  the  first  that  has  been  formed  in 
England.  This  lock  has  folding  gates 
pointing  both  landward  and  seaward,  so 
as  to  admit  of  vessels  passing  in  or  out  at 
any  time  of  tide,  and  whether  the  water 
be  higher  on  the  outside  or  inside.  The 
harbor  covers  about  200  acres,  the  whole 
contents  of  which  it  is  proposed,  occasion- 
ally, to  let  off  at  low  water,  to  keep  open 
the  channel  from  the  sea. 

American  Canals.  It  is  proposed  to 
give  a  more  particular  description  of  the 
American  canals  under  the  article  In- 
land Navigation.  In  the  mean  time,  a 
very  geueml  enumeration  will  be  here 
made  of  the  principal  works  of  this  kind 
already  completed  or  in  progress,  which 
will  show  the  astonishing  extent  to  which 
canal  navigation  has  been  opened  in  the 
U.  States,  during  the  short  period,  now 
(1829)  only  13  or  14  years,  since  these 
works  began  to  be  undertaken  upon  a 
large  scale.  It  will  appear,  from  the  fol- 
lowing outline,  that  not  less  than  2500 
miles  of  canal  are  constj-ucted,  or  in  the 
progress  of  execution  in  the  U.  States, 
and  will  probably  soon  be  completed, 
making  a  liberal  allowance  for  a  suspen- 
sion of  some  of  the  works  projected  and 
commenced.  The  extent  of  canal  in  the 
U.  States  will  soon  equal  that  in  Great 
Britain.  The  canals  constructed  and  now 
in  progress  in  the  state  of  Pennsylvania 
have  been  estimated  at  a  length  of  900 
miles ;  very  nearly  equal  to  that  of  the 
canals  of  France,  but  doubtless  inferior  in 
the  style  and  durability  of  execution. — 
The  fVeUand  canal,  in  Canada,  is  intended 
for  opening  a  sloop  naviga^jon  between 
lakes  Erie  and  Ontario.  It  is  not  com- 
pleted.— The  Middlesex  canal  opens  a 
boat  navigation  between  Boston  and  the 
Merrimack  river,  and  runs  28  or  29  miles, 
in  a  northwesterly  direction,  from  its  out- 


let into  the  harbor  of  Boston,  in  the  town 
of  Charlestown. — The  Blackstone  canal 
is  constructed  along  Blackstone  river  from 
Providence,  in  Rhode  Island,  north-west- 
erly 45  miles,  to  Worcester,  in  Massachu- 
setts.— The  Faitnington  canal  leaves  the 
coast  of  Long  Island  sound  at  New  Ha- 
ven, in  Connecticut,  and  takes  a  north- 
easterly course,  towards  Northampton  in 
Massachusetts,  65  n)iles  distant,  where  it 
is  to  communicate  with  Connecticut  river. 
A  great  part  of  it  is  finished  and  in  opera- 
tion, but  a  portion,  towards  the  north- 
eastern termination,  remains  to  be  con- 
strticted. — The  Hudson  and  Erie  canal 
passes  from  Albany,  in  the  state  of  New 
York,  along  the  western  bank  of  Hudson 
river,  until  it  meets  the  IMohawk ;  then 
nms,  in  a  north-westerly  direction,  up  the 
south-western  bank  of  that  river,  to  the 
town  of  Rome,  where  it  turns  more  west- 
erly, on  a  summit  level  of  about  60  miles, 
without  a  lock,  and,  passing  in  a  line  cor- 
responding, in  some  measure,  to  the  di- 
rection of  the  southern  shore  of  lake 
Ontario,  and  crossing  the  Seneca  and 
Genesee  rivere  in  its  course,  communi- 
cates with  lake  Erie  at  Buffalo,  363  miles 
from  Albany.  This  canal  is  connected 
with  lake  Champlain  by  the  Champlain 
canal,  63  miles  in  length  ;  with  lake  On- 
tario by  the  Oswego  canal,  about  38  miles 
long ;  and  with  Seneca  lake  by  the  Seneca 
canal,  about  20  miles  long. — The  Hudson 
and  Delaware  canal  begins  at  the  west 
bank  of  Hudson  river,  near  Kingston,  in 
New  York,  about  85  or  90  miles  north 
of  the  city  of  New  York,  and  nms  in  a 
south-westerly  direction  65  miles,  to  the 
Delaware  river,  near  to  the  north-east 
corner  of  Pennsylvania,  and  the  north- 
west of  New  Jei-sey.  It  theji  takes  a 
general  direction  a  little  to  the  north-west, 
and  keeps  the  northern  bank  of  the  Dela- 
ware river  for  25  or  30  miles,  to  the  en- 
trance of  Lackawaxen  creek,  from  the 
0[)i)osite  side  ;  rrosses  the  Delaware  at  a 
point  about  110  miles  north  of  Phila- 
delphia, and,  leaving  that  river,  keeps  the 
northern  bank  of  Lackawaxen  creek ;  then 
crosses  it,  in  a  westerly  direction,  to  Ris- 
cis  Gap,  a  distance,  added  to  the  former, 
of  between  40  and  50  miles,  a*  nearly  as 
can  be  estimated  fiom  Mr.  Tanner's  maj) 
of  Pennsylvania,  of  1829.  This  canal 
opens  the  liackawaxen  coal  district  to 
Hudson  river. — The  Morris  canoZ,  now  in 
progress,  commences,  at  its  western  ex- 
tremity, at  the  river  Delaware,  near  Eas- 
ton,  and  passes  across  the  state  of  New 
Jereey  in  a  north-easterly,  then  in  an  east- 
erly, then  in  a  southerly  direction,  86 


AMERICAN  CANALS, 


465 


miles,  to  Newark,  in  that  state.    Its  west- 
ern extremity  is  at  the  eastern  termination 
of  the  Lehigh  navigation  in  Pennsylvania, 
and  it  is  intended  for  the  transportation 
of  Lehigh  coal  to  New  York. — The  Ohio 
state  canal  commences  at  the  moutli  of 
Sciota  river,  where  it  discharges  into  the 
river  Ohio,  and  takes  a  northerly  course, 
for  alwut  306  miles,  to  lake  Erie,  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Cuyahoga  river,  in  the  town 
of  Cleveland.      This   work  is   in   rapid 
progress. — The  Miami  canal  is  also  a  line 
of  communication  between  the  river  Ohio, 
which  it  leaves  at  Cincinnati,  and  lake 
Erie.     Its  northerly  termination  is  in  the 
Maumee,  which  discharges  into  the  west- 
erly part  of  lake  Eric.     Tlie  proposed 
length  of  this  canal  is  265  miles.     It  is 
now  in  progress. — Illinois  and  Michigan 
canal.    An  act  was  passed  in  the  legisla- 
ture of  Illinois,  Jan.  22, 1829,  authorizing 
commissioners,  "as  soon  thereafter  as  they 
could  command  funds,  and  might  deem 
it  expedient  to  commence  the  work,  to 
effect  a  navigable  communication  between 
lake   Michigan   and   the    Illinois    river." 
This  is  the  fourth  projected  work  for 
making  a  communication   l>etween  the 
great  northern  and  westera  waters ;  one 
of  the  others  being  projected  by  Penn- 
sylvania, li-om  Pittsburg  to  Erie,  of  which 
a  very  small  part  is  executed ;  tlie  other 
two  are  undertaken  by  Ohio,  and  both  in 
progi-ess. — ^The  Lehigh  canal  commences 
at  the  Maunch  Chunk  coal-mine,  on  the 
river  Lehigh,  and  runs  to  Easton,  on  the 
Delaware  ;    the  whole  distance  of  this 
navigation  being  46|  miles  ;  but  a  part  of 
it  is  river  navigation,  the  length  of  the 
canal  being  37  miles.     Its  eastern  termi- 
nation at  Easton  meets  tlie  western  ter- 
mination of  the  Morris  canal  in  New 
Jersey. — The  Delaware  canal  conimences, 
at  its  northern  extremity,  at  Eactou,  about 
55  miles  in  a  right  line  nearly  north  from 
Philadelphia,  on  the  north-western  bank 
of  Delaware  river,  the  general  course  of 
which,  for  about  50  miles  from  this  place, 
is  south-easterly,  when  it  turns,  in  nearly 
a  south-westerly  direction,  about  30  miles, 
to   Philadelphia.     This   canal,  which  is 
now  (182^))  in  progress,  is  to  follow  the 
general  course  of  the  Delaware,  keeping 
its  westerly  bank  to  Morrisville,  where  it 
bears  off"  froin  the  river,  to  avoid  a  bend, 
and  proceeds,  in  a  pretty  direct  course,  a 
little  to  the  west  of  south,  to  Bristol,  on  the 
westerly  bank  of  the  Delaware,  19-^  miles 
N.  E.  from  Philadelphia.— The  Schuyl- 
kill canal  is  constructed  on  tlie  banks  of 
Schuylkill  river,  from  Philadelphia,  about 
110  miles,  to  mount  Carhop,  the  region 


of  the  Anthracite,  in  Schuylkill  county, 
the  general  direction  being  nearly  north- 
west.— The  Union  canal.    A  little  to  the 
westward  of  the  to-vvn  of  Reading,  in 
Berks  county,  Pennsylvania,    about  60 
miles  from  Philadelphia,  the  Union  canal 
branches  off  from  the  Schuylkill  canal  in 
a  general  south-westerly  direction,   first 
jiassing  up  a  branch  of  the  Schuylkill,  and 
then  down   the  valley  of  the   Swatara, 
somewhat  circuitously,  about  80  miles,  to 
Middletown,  a  little  above  the  junction  of 
tlie   Swatara  with   the    Susquehanna. — 
Pennsylvania  canal  commences  at  Mid- 
dletown, at  the  termination  of  the  Union 
canal,  whence  it  is  projiosed  to  proceed 
up  along  the  Susquehanna,  in  a  westerly 
direction,  to  the  AUeghanies,  which  are 
to  be  passed  by  a  rail-road,  now  in  prog- 
ress, about  50  miles  in  length,  into  the 
valley  of  the  Ohio,  where  the  canal  again 
commences,  and  is  continued  to  Pitts- 
burg, a  distance,  in  the  whole,  of  320 
miles  of  canal  and  rail-road  ;  the  part  of 
the  canal  beyond  the  AUeghanies  being 
already  completed,  and  the  part  on  the 
eastern  side  being  in  progress. — The  Little 
Schuylkill  canal  is  27  miles  in  length,  from 
the  mouth  of  the  Little  Schuylkill  river 
to  the  coal-mines. — Conestoga  canal  passes 
from  Lancaster,  in  Pennsylvania,  about 
62  miles  directly  west  from  Philadelphia, 
down  the  Conestoga  creek,  18  miles,  in 
nearly  a  south-west  direction,  to  Susque- 
hanna river. — The  Chesapeake  and  Dela- 
ware canal,  18  miles  in  length,  from  the 
Delaware  river  to  Elk  river,  which  dis- 
charges into  Chesapeake  bay,  is  of  suffi- 
cient dimensions  for  the  passage  of  coast- 
ing vessels,  in  the  route  between  Phila- 
delphia and  Baltimore. — Dismal  Swamp 
canal  is  a  channel  of  sloop  navigation,  be- 
ing 6  feet  deep  and  70  wide,  along  the 
low  land  between  Chesapeake  bay  and 
Albemarle  sound,  and  thence  to  Pamlico 
sound.     Several  branches  have  been  con- 
structed, and  the  whole  is  in  operation, 
being  a  very  important  work,  as  will  be 
apparent  by  an  inspection  of  tlie  map,  and 
somewhat  similar  to  that  of  the  Ch';sapeake 
and    Delaware    canal. — The   Chesapeake 
and  Ohio  canal  is  a  gigantic  enterprise,  in 
progress,  for  opening  a  navigation  of  360 
miles,  from  Wahsington,  along  the  Poto- 
mac and  its  branches,  across  the  Allegha- 
ny mountains,  and  thence  down  the  val- 
ley of  the  Youghiogeny  and  Monongahela 
rivers,  to  Pittsburg,  on  the  Ohio.    The 
execution  of  this  work  was  commenced 
in  1828,  at  the  eastern  extremity. — The 
Louisville  canal,  though  only  3  or  4  miles 
in  length,  is  a  work  of  great  import?mce, 


466 


AMERICAN  CANALS— CANARIES. 


as  well  as  great  expense.  It  is  now  in 
progress,  and  is  intended  to  form  a  pas- 
sage along  the  side  of  the  rapids  of  the 
Ohio,  near  to  Louisville,  in  Kentucky. 
The  canal  is  constructing  of  sufficiently 
large  dimensions  to  admit  of  the  passage 
of  steamboats ;  and  the  difficulty  and  ex- 
pense, as  in  the  case  of  the  canal  at  Trol- 
liatta  falls,  in  Sweden,  is  occasioned  by 
the  necessity  of  excavating  rock. — The 
James  and  Kanhawa  canal  is  a  name  given 
to  works  intended  to  form  a  line  of  trans- 
portation, partly  by  water  and  partly  by 
land,  from  the  Atlantic  coast  to  tlie  Ohio ; 
being  a  navigation  along  James  river  to 
the  Blue  Ridge,  pfutly  by  an  artificial 
chamiel,  but  mostly  by  the  river,  and, 
across  the  Ridge,  by  a  well-constructed 
road,  graduated  to  an  inclination  not  ex- 
ceeding 3  degrees,  which  has  been  com- 
pleted, and  descending,  by  river  or  canal 
navigation,  along  the  Kanhawa  river,  to 
the  Ohio.  A  canal  was  commenced, 
along  the  bank  of  James  river,  to  pass 
tlie  falls  at  Richmond,  before  the  revolu- 
tion. The  work  was  resumed,  and  com- 
pleted, after  the  establishment  of  the 
present  government,  by  a  private  com- 
pany ;  but  the  state  has  since  assumed 
tliese  works,  and  greatly  enlarged  them, 
upon  an  improved  construction,  in  the 
execution  of  the  plan  of  the  extended 
line  of  transi^ortation  above  described.  In 
Mr.  Boye's  map  of  Virginia,  the  canal  is 
laid  down  along  the  north-western  bank 
of  tlie  James  river,  fi'om  Richmond  to 
Venture  falls  ;  a  distance  of  about  20 
miles,  and,  by  the  coui-se  of  the  canal, 
probably  as  much  as  24  or  25. — The  Ap- 
pomattox canal  is  about  5  miles  of  canal, 
in  detached  portions,  being  a  part  of  a 
system  of  improvement  of  the  Appomat- 
tox navigation  in  Virginia. — The  Roanoke 
canal  is  a  sunilar  work  on  Roanoke  river. 
— The  Santee  canal  is  a  proposed  and 
partly  executed  line  of  navigation  from 
Charleston  to  Columbia,  and  thence  to 
Cambridge,  in  South  Carolina.  The 
whole  distance  is  160  miles.  A  canal  has 
been  cut.  and  for  many  years  in  operation, 
22  miles  in  length,  across  fi-om  Cooper's 
river,  which  discharges  into  the  ocean 
at  Charleston,  to  Santee  river.  Thence 
the  route  of  this  navigation  is  proposed 
to  pass  along  Santee,  Broad  and  Saluda 
rivers ;  the  project  being  an  improvement 
of  the  river  navigation,  by  removing  ob- 
structions, deepening  the  water  in  shal- 
low places,  and  locking  round  falls.  The 
work  has  not,  hitherto,  been  prosecuted 
with  great  success. — The  canal  Carondo- 
let  is  a  short,  artificial  channel,  connecting 


the  Mississippi  with  lake  Pontchartrain, 
near  New  Orleans.  It  has  no  locks. — 
Such  is  a  general  geographical  outline  of 
the  most  important  artificial  channels  of 
inland  navigation,  completed  or  com- 
menced in  the  U.  States,  down  to  1829. 
The  table  of  dimensions,  and  the  most 
striking  features  of  constniction,  of  these 
works,  is  deferred  to  the  article  on  inland 
navigation,  where  a  more  satisfactory  de- 
scription, in  these  respects,  may  be  given, 
when  the  results  or  prospects  of  some  of 
the  great  enterprises  in  progress,  at  the 
tune  of  writing  this  article,  shall  be  more 
fully  ascertained. 

Canaletto  ;  1.  a  Venetian  painter, 
born  in  1(387,  whose  true  name  was  ,4n/o- 
nio  Canale.  He  is  celebrated  for  his  land- 
scapes, which  are  true  to  nature,  and  his 
architectural  paintings.  He  died  at  Lon- 
don, in  1768.  There  is  a  bird's-eye  view 
of  Venice  painted  by  him.  He  is  also 
said  to  have  first  used  the  camera  obscura 
for  perspective. — 2.  Bernardo  Bellotti, 
who  was  likewise  a  good  artist,  and  paint- 
ed at  Dresden  many  Itahan  landscapes, 
also  goes  by  this  name.  He  lived  in 
Dresden,  where  he  was  a  member  of  the 
academy  of  painters,  and  died  in  1770. 

Canaries  ;  a  cluster  of  islands  in  the 
Atlantic,  considered  as  belonging  to  Afri- 
ca, the  most  easterly  being  about  150 
miles  from  cape  Non.  They  are  13  in 
number,  7  of  which  are  considerable,  viz., 
Palma,  Ferro,  Gomera,  Teneriffe,  Grand 
Canar}',  Fuerteventura  and  Lancerota: 
tlie  other  6  are  very  small ;  Graciosa,  Ro- 
ca  or  Rocca,  Allegranza,  Sta.  Clara,  In- 
ferno and  Lobos.  Lon.  13°  20'— 18°  10' 
W.;  lat.  27°  30'— 29°  30'  N.  The  extent 
and  population  of  the  seven  largest,  ac- 
cording to  Ledru,  are  given  in  the  follow- 
ing table : — 

^  Pop. 

Sq.  leagues.     Pop.         to  sq.  I. 

Teneriffe, 73  . . .  70,000  ...  958 

Fuerteventura, . .  63 9,000  ...  142 

Grand  Canary,. .  60  . .  .  50,000  ...  833 

Palma, 27  . . .  22,600  ...  837 

Lancerota, 26  . .  .  10,000  ...  384 

Gomera, 14 7,400  ...  528 

FeiTo, 7 5,000  . . .  714 

270      174,000        644 

Hassel  states  the  population  of  the  whole 
at  181,000,  and  the  square  miles  at  3213. 
The  soil  of  these  islands  is  very  fertile, 
and  produces  all  kinds  of  grain,  friiits  and 
pulse  in  great  abundance;  so  that  the 
name  of  Fortunate  Islands,  which  the  an- 
cients gave  them,  was  well  deserved  ;  but 
the  method  of  cultivation  practised  by  the 
natives  tends  very  little  to  its  improvement. 


CANARIE&-CANCER. 


467 


All  the  islands  fiirnish  good  wine ;  but  the 
preference  is  given  to  the  wines  of  Palma 
and  Teneriife.  The  situation  of  the  C, 
the  salubrity  of  their  chmate,  the  fertiUty 
of  their  soil,  and  the  quality  of  their  pro- 
ductions, all  conspire  to  render  them  the 
most  valuable  of  the  Spanish  colonies. 
The  exports  amount  to  242,000  dollars 
annually,  and  consist  of  wine,  raw  silk, 
soda  and  fruits.  One  of  the  most  recent 
works  on  these  islands,  and  probably  the 
most  valuable  one,  is  Leopold  von  Buch's 
Physikalische  Beschreibung  der  Canaris- 
chen  Iiiseln  (Physical  Description  of  the 
Canary  Islands,  by  Leop.  vou  Buch  ;  Ber- 
lin, 1825, 4to.  They  are  of  volcanic  origin, 
and  were,  as  has  been  stated,  known  to 
the  ancients.  Juba  II,  king  of  Maurita- 
nia, described  them  first  with  some  degree 
of  accuracy.  He  graced  a  triumphal  en- 
try of  Caesar  into  Rome,  was  instructed  in 
all  branches  of  liberal  knowledge,  and 
became  a  highly  accomplished  prince. 
Pliny  followed  his  description  of  the  isl- 
ands. Juba  called  the  C.  Proper  Fortu- 
Tiatw,  but  Madeira  and  Porto  Santo,  Pur- 
purea. Of  the  island  of  Ferro,  which  he 
calls  Ombrios,  aiid  of  the  others,  he  gives 
an  interesting  account  Tlie  loss  of  this 
work  is  the  more  to  be  regretted,  as  we 
might  reasonably  hope  to  find  in  it  some 
information  respecting  that  mysterious 
tribe  who  originally  inhabited  tiiese  isl- 
ands. This  people  understood  how  to 
embalm  their  dead,  who  were  sewed  in 
goat-skins,  put  into  coflins  of  one  piece 
of  wood,  and  placed  in  grottoes.  These 
mummies  smell  agreeably,  but  fall  to  dust 
if  they  are  taken  out  of  their  goat-skin 
coverings.  The  Spaniards  relate  strange 
things  of  the  civilization  of  these  tribes, 
called  Guanches,  of  their  respect  for  wo- 
men, of  tliejr  chastity,  and  aristocratic 
constitution.  Their  language  resembled 
that  spoken  on  the  neighboring  continent; 
but  we  know  too  little  of  it  to  be  able  to 
give  any  opinion  respecting  it.  Between 
131G  and  1334,  the  Spaniards,  pressed  by 
the  Moors,  discovered  and  conquered 
these  islands;  and  they  are  laid  down  with 
accuracy  in  the  old  map  whicli  Andreas 
Bianco  published  in  Venice,  1436.  The 
Spaniards  seem,  however,  not  to  have 
esteemed  these  islands  much ;  for  the 
infante  of  Portugal,  Henry  the  Navigator 
(q.  v.),  ordered  them  to  be  taken  posses- 
sion of,  and  prosecuted  his  discoveries 
from  them  to  the  coast  of  Guinea.  In 
1478,  the  Spaniards  undertook  again  the 
conquest  of  the  C.  At  the  end  of  the 
15th  century,  they  had  subdued  the  origm- 
alinhabitants  entirely ;  and  they  extirpated 


them  at  a  later  period.  At  present,  the 
islands  are  inhabited  almost  entirely  by 
Spaniards :  only  a  few  Portuguese  reside 
there.  Teneriffe  (q.  v.)  is  an  island  of 
basaltic  formation,  thrown  up  by  internal 
convulsions.  The  fortified  capital  is  the 
seat  of  the  governor,  has  8400  inhabitants, 
and  an  excellent  harbor  on  the  eastern 
side  of  the  island.  Another  city,  Laguna 
(8800  inhabitants),  is  the  seat  of  the  bish- 
op (who  has  an  income  of  about  £6000 
sterling),  and  of  the  tribunals.  The  island 
Lancerota,  or  Lancelotta,  contains  three 
volcanoes,  and,  in  1823,  experiefiiced  vio- 
lent eruptions.  Five  islands  of  this  clus- 
ter are  uninhabited.  The  people  of  the 
C.  are  rigid  CathoUcs. 

Canary-Bird,  or  Canary  Finch.  (See 
Finch.) 

Canary,  Grand,  or  Canaria  ;  an  island 
in  the  Atlantic  ocean,  about  180  miles 
fi-om  the  coast  of  Africa.  It  is  the  most 
fertile  and  important  of  the  Canary  isl- 
ands, to  which  it  gives  name.  Canary, 
or  Cividad  de  Palmas,  is  the  capital  of  the 
island.    (See  Canaries.) 

Cancer,  in  astronomy  ;  the  fourth  sign 
in  the  zodiac  (q.  v.),  marked  thus  £5, 
which  the  sun  enters  on  the  21st  day  of 
June,  thence  called  the  summer  solstice. 
It  consists,  according  to  Kepler,  of  17, 
according  to  Bayer,  of  35  stars,  2  of 
which  are  of  the  third  magnitude.  Flam- 
stead  made  a  catalogue  of  83  stars,  the 
comparative  brightness  of  several  of 
which  will  be  found  estimated  bv  doctor 
Herschel  (PhU.  Tran.  Ixxxvii.,  31 1).  The 
tropic  of  cancer  is  a  small  circle  of  tlie 
sphere,  parallel  to  the  equator,  fi-om  which 
it  is  23i°  distant,  and  marks  the  sun's 
greatest  noithern  declination.  It  is  so 
called  because  it  passes  through  tlie  be- 
ginning of  the  sign  Cancer. 

Cancer.  In  medicine,  this  name  is 
given  to  a  roundish,  unequal,  hard  and 
livid  tumor,  generally  seated  in  the  glan- 
dular texture.  Tliough  this  is  the  texture 
in  which  it  is  beheved  always  to  origin- 
ate, it  may  extend  to  othei-s.  This  is 
doubted  by  some  ;  and  the  disease  which 
is  often  met  with  in  the  immediate  neigh- 
borhood of  advanced  cancer,  and  in  dif- 
ferent textures,  is,  by  them,  ascribed  to 
mechanical  pressure  of  the  cancerous  tu- 
mors, aided  by  the  acrid  discharges  wliich 
accompany  its  ulceration.  The  name 
was  derived  from  a  supposed  resemblance 
of  the  tumor  to  a  crab,  and  furnishes  a 
good  examjjle  of  the  nomenclature  from 
resemblance,  whicli  was  very  much  in 
use  in  the  early  periods  of  the  sciences. 
Two  forms  of  cancer  are  recognised  by 


468 


CANCER— CANDELABRA. 


physicians.  They  may  rather  be  called 
two  states  or  stages  of  the  same  disease. 
One  of  these,  and  the  first,  is  carcinoma, 
scirrhus,  or  concealed  cancer,  of  some 
writers.  The  second  is  the  open,  or  ul- 
cerated cancer — ulcerated  carcinoma,  as 
it  is  designated  by  writers.  Under  proper 
internal  treatment,  the  second  stage  may 
be  ke{)t  off  for  some  time  ;  and,  in  favor- 
aljle  cases,  the  extirpation  of  the  tumor 
by  the  knife  may  eifect  a  cure.  The 
disease  is  kept  in  check,  in  the  first  case, 
but  is  not  removed,  and  is  very  prone  to 
pass  into  the  ulcerative  stage.  The  fact 
that  this  can  be  deferred,  by  proper  treat- 
ment, is  an  important  one.  The  suffer- 
ings of  the  patient  are  thus  made  less, 
especially  during  the  first  stage ;  and,  even 
in  the  last,  their  severity  is  nmch  miti- 
gated. One  very  early  symptom  of  car- 
cinoma is  pain.  This  pain  diflfers  from 
that  which  ordinarily  accompanies  local 
diseases  of  a  different  kind.  It  is  de- 
scribed as  lancinating,  occurring  some- 
what in  paroxysms,  and  resembling  the 
suffering  which  the  sudden  passage  of  a 
sharp  and  pointed  instrument  would  pro- 
duce in  the  part.  Besides  this,  there  is 
always  more  or  less  dull  pain  present. 
The  progress  of  the  disease,  and  the  oc- 
currence of  the  second  stage,  are  marked 
by  increased  pain  of  both  kinds ;  by  in- 
crease in  the  size  of  the  tumor,  augment- 
ed heat,  greater  inequality  in  the  surface, 
a  darker  color,  and  increased  tenderness 
on  pressure.  When  ulceration  is  just 
estabUshed,  and  even  a  little  before,  the 
patient  complains  of  general  irritation  of 
the  skin ;  the  stomach  is  disturbed ;  and 
symptoms  of  constitutional  irritation, 
more  strongly  marked,  make  their  ap- 
pearance. Ulceration  begins  on  the  sur- 
face of  the  tumor,  and  parts  are  destroyed, 
in  succession,  fi-om  without,  until  the 
whole  textiu"e  presents  a  mass  of  disease. 
Instead  of  this  destructive  ulceration,  we 
have,  in  many  cases,  fimgous  masses  pro- 
jecting from  the  diseased  surface ;  and 
these,  at  times,  attain  considerable  size. 
But  it  is  not  a  character  of  carcinoma  to 
grow,  and  become  as  large  as  other  dis- 
eases of  some  of  the  organs  in  which  it 
appears.  This  is  especially  true  of  it 
when  seated  in  the  womb.  An  offensive, 
sanious  discharge  proceeds  from  the  ulcer. 
Bleeding  often  takes  place  from  it,  es- 
pecially when  fungous,  either  fi-om  me- 
chanical irritation,  though  slight,  or  fi-om 
accidental  excitement  of  the  arterial  sys- 
tem only. — Carcinoma  is  a  malignant  dis- 
ease. Its  tendency  is  to  death.  The 
constitution  has  not  power  to  overcome 


it ;  and  hence,  when  left  to  itselfj  it  it 
certainly  mortal.  Internal  remedies  do 
little  more  than  palliate  symptoms,  or 
prevent  the  rapid  progress  to  ulceration, 
which  belongs  to  the  disease.  The  only 
remedy  is  the  knife  ;  and,  in  cases  in 
which  the  constitution  and  neighboring 
parts  are  not  contaminated,  extirpation  by 
the  knife  has  removed  the  disease  en- 
tirely. There  are  parts  of  the  body  which 
are  liable  to  carcinoma,  in  which  extirpa- 
tion cannot  be  practised,  and  some  in 
which,  though  an  operation  has  been  per- 
formed, death  has,  nevertheless,  followed. 
In  cases  of  this  sort,  especially  those  of 
the  first  class,  palliatives  only  can  be  re- 
sorted to ;  such  remedies,  namely,  as 
mitigate  suflfering,  and  retard  the  progress 
of  the  disease. 

Cancer-Root,  or  Beech-Dhop  {oro- 
banche  mrginiana,  L.) ;  a  parasitic  plant, 
indigenous  in  America,  growing  almost 
exclusively  on  the  exposed  root  of  the 
beech  tree.  The  whole  plant  is  powerful- 
ly astringent,  and  the  root  of  a  brownish 
color,  spongy,  and  of  a  very  nauseous, 
bitter  taste.  It  has  been  applied  more 
externally  than  internally  to  the  cure  of 
cancer.  The  one-Jlowertd  cancer^oot  (oro- 
banche  luniflora)  is  used  in  the  same  man- 
ner. All  parts  of  the  plants  are  used  in 
medicine. 

Candelabra.  Torches  and  lamps  were 
the  means  used  by  the  ancients  for  obtain- 
ing aitificial  light.  The  latter  were  either 
suspended  from  the  ceilings  of  their 
rooms,  with  chains,  or  placed  upon  small, 
movable  tables  {lampadaria,  candelabra, 
and  candelabri).  The  candelabra  were 
originally  made  of  cane,  with  one  plate 
fixed  above  and  another  underneath,  or 
with  feet,  for  supporters.  The  Greeks 
called  these  >vxvovxoi.  The  Grecian  art- 
ists produced,  in  ornamenting  these  lamp- 
stands,  the  richest  forms,  which  always, 
however,  had  reference  to  the  original 
cane,  and  were  encu-cled  with  an  infinite 
variety  of  beautiful  ornaments.  Some- 
times they  were  shafts  in  the  shapes  of 
columns,  which  could  be  shortened  or 
drawn  out ;  sometimes  the  luxuriant  acan- 
thus, with  its  leaves  turned  over ;  some- 
times they  represented  trunks  of  trees, 
entwined  with  ivy  and  flowers,  and  ter- 
minated by  vases  or  bell-flowers  at  the 
top,  for  the  reception  of  the  lamps.  Ex- 
amples of  these  forms  may  be  found  in 
the  British  museum  and  the  Louvre,  but 
particularly  at  the  Vatican,  where  a  gal- 
lery is  filled  with  marble  candelabra. 
Candelabra  of  yet  more  dehcate  forms,  of 
bronze,  inlaid  with  silver  and  other  met- 


CANDELABRA— CANDIA. 


im 


als,  have  been  found  in  Herculaiieum. 
In  ancient  times,  Tarentnui  and  -(Egiua 
were  famous  for  tlieir  elegant  candelabra. 
The  graceful  and  expressive  fonn  of  this 
utensil  was  made  use  of  for  colossal 
works  of  art,  particularly  on  account  of 
its  resemblance  to  the  holy  torches  em- 
ployed in  the  worship  of  ^sculapius. 
The  largest  and  grandest  of  those  monu- 
njents  was  the  Pharos,  at  the  harbor  of 
Alexandria.  In  modern  times,  this  an- 
cient form  has  been  used  for  an  ingenious 
Christian  monument.  At  the  place  where 
(721)  the  first  chureh  in  Thuringia  was 
founded  by  Boniface,  the  apostle  of  tlie 
Germans,  only  a  few  rehcs  remaining  of 
the  building,  which  had  served  for  more 
than  10  centuries  as  a  Christian  temi)le,  a 
candelabrum,  30  feet  high,  formed  of 
sand-stone,  was  erected  (Sept.  1, 1811),  as 
a  symbol  of  the  Ught  which  spread  from 
this  spot. 

Caxdi,  or  Candy  (anciently  Maaeram- 
mum) ;  a  city  of  Ceylon,  and  capital  of  a 
country  to  which  it  gives  name  ;  80  miles 
from  Columbo;  Ion.  80°  44'  E.;  lat.  7°3G' 
N.  The  town  is  a  poor,  miserable  place, 
surrounded  by  a  mud  wall.  The  king- 
dom is  fertile,  intersected  with  rivers,  and 
well  furnished  with  woods.  It  was  an- 
nexed to  the  British  dominions  in  1816. 
(See  bishop  Heber's  JVarrative  of  a  Jour- 
ney through  the  Upper  Provinces  of  India, 
&c.,  tmth  JVotes  upon  Ceylon,  vol.  ij,  p.  188 
et  seq.) 

Candia  (in  the  Turkish  language,  KirifL, 
called,  in  the  most  ancient  times,  Idcea, 
from  mount  Ida,  afterwards  Crete),  one  of 
the  most  important  islands  of  the  Turkish 
empire,  situated  in  the  Mediterranean  (Ion. 
23°  40^—26^  40'  E.,  and  lat.  34°  50'— 35= 
55'  N.,  81  miles  from  the  southern  extrem- 
ity of  the  INIorea,  92  from  Rhodes,  and  230 
from  the  African  coast),  is  160  miles  long, 
14 — 50  broad,  and  contains  4026  square 
miles.  A  high  chain  of  mountains,  cov- 
ered with  forests,  runs  through  the  whole 
length  of  the  island,  in  two  ranges,  the 
western  part  of  which  is  called  by  the 
Venetians  Monte  di  Sphachia  (formerly 
Leuce) ;  the  eastern  part,  Lasthi  or  Sethia 
(formerly  Dicte).  On  the  north  side,  it 
decUnes  moderately  to  a  fertile  coast,  pro- 
vided with  good  harbors ;  on  the  south 
side,  steeply  to  a  rocky  shore,  with  few 
roadsteads ;  and  reaches  its  greatest  height 
in  the  lofty  Psiloriti  (the  ancient  Ida), 
7670  feet  high,  and  always  covered  with 
snow.  Mountain  torrents,  which  are 
swollen  m  the  winter  and  spring,  but  al- 
most dry  in  summer,  conduct  the  waters 
to  the  sea.  Numerous  springs  give  fertility 

VOL.  II.  40 


to  most  of  the  valleys,  in  which,  and  on 
the  declivities  of  the  mountains,  is  seen  a 
luxuriant  vegetation.  The  air  is  mild  ;  the 
summer  is  cooled  by  the  north  winds; 
the  winter  is  distinguished  only  by  show- 
ers of  rain.  The  island  would,  therefore, 
be  a  most  delightful  residence,  and  supply 
its  inhabitants,  as  formerly,  with  grain, 
wine  and  oil,  wool,  flax,  silk  and  cotton, 
fish,  honey,  game,  cattle,  the  noblest  fruits 
of  the  south,  and  even  with  metals,  in 
abundance,  did  not  the  oppressions  and 
cruelties  of  the  Turks  prevent  all  cultiva- 
tion, and  render  it  impossible  for  the  dis- 
couraged inhabitants  (who,  instead  of  be- 
ing 1,200,000,  as  in  the  time  of  the  Greeks, 
or  900,000,  as  in  the  time  of  the  Venetians, 
amount  only  to  300,000,  half  Greeks,  half 
Turks)  to  attain  more  than  the  most  in- 
dispensable necessaries  of  life.  Manufac- 
tures, trade,  navigation,  the  arts  and  sci- 
ences, are  not  to  be  thought  of  All  the 
liarbors,  with  the  exception  of  that  of 
Canea,  are  filled  with  sand,  and  the  cities 
are  mere  aggregations  of  rubbish.  The 
capital,  Candia,  the  seat  of  the  pacha,  has 
15,000  inhabitants ;  Retimo,  6000 ;  Canea 
(the  ancient  Cydonia),  the  most  important 
place  of  trade  on  the  island,  12,000.  Ac- 
cording to  Homer,  king  Idomeneus  sailed 
from  this  island  to  Ilium,  with  80  vessels. 
The  Greek  mj'thology  made  Crete  the 
scene  of  many  of  the  adventures  of  the 
gods  and  heroes.  Here  Saturn  reigned, 
and  afterwards  Minos,  1300  yeai^s  before 
Christ.  After  the  banishment  of  the  kings, 
Crete  became  a  republic,  and  then  a  seat 
of  the  Cihcian  pirates,  till  it  was  conquer- 
ed by  the  Romans.  In  the  year  823,  it 
passed  from  the  hands  of  the  Roman 
emperors  in  the  East  mto  those  of  the 
Saracens,  who  built  the  capital,  Candia, 
on  the  ruins  of  Heraclea,  but  were  expel- 
led again,  in  962,  by  the  Greeks.  Against 
the  will  of  the  inhabitants,  the  Byzantine 
sovereign  sold  the  island  to  the  Venetians 
in  1204,  who,  aware  of  its  importance, 
fortified  most  of  the  cities,  won  the  good 
will  of  their  new  subjects  by  a  mild  gov- 
ernment, and  repelled  all  the  assaults  of 
the  Genoese  and  Turks,  till  the  middle  of 
the  17th  century.  About  this  time,  the 
attacks  of  the  Turks  became  more  vio- 
lent, on  account  of  a  prize  taken  by  the 
Maltese,  on  board  of  which  was  the  aga 
of  the  eunuchs,  and,  according  to  a  re- 
port then  very  generally  spread  through- 
out Europe,  the  favorite  wife  and  son  of 
the  sultan  Ibrahim,  but  probably  only  a 
slave  of  the  aga,  who  had  been  employed 
in  tlie  seraglio  as  a  nurse,  with  her  son,  to 
whom,  however,  the  sultan  was  much  at- 


470 


CANDIA. 


taclied.  This  vessel  was  carried,  for  a 
short  time,  into  Calismene,  a  harbor  of 
Candia,  without,  however,  the  consent 
of  the  Venetians,  Avho  had  no  garrison 
tliere.  The  sultan  was  highly  incensed, 
ascribed  all  the  fault  to  the  Venetians,  and 
landed  a  large  force  in  Candia,  in  June 
1645,  which  soon  tookCanea  and  Retinio, 
and  besieged  the  capital  with  vigor.  The 
attack  was  bravely  repelled,  but  repeated 
in  1649;  and  was  this  time  also  unsuccess- 
ful. In  1656,  the  Turks  made  a  third  ef- 
fort, Ijut  aftenvaixls  changed  the  siege  into 
a  hiockade,  which  they  continuetl  lor  10 
years  without  success,  since  the  Venetians, 
being  masters  of  the  sea,  supi)lied  the  for- 
tress, without  difficulty,  with  provisions, 
men  and  ammunition.  In  1667,  after  the 
peace  of  Vasvar,  the  gi-and  vizier,  Kio- 
purli,  in  order  to  restore  his  re[)utation, 
which  had  been  tarnished  by  the  loss  of 
the  battle  of  St.  Gothard,  and  to  regain  the 
favor  of  Mohammed  IV  by  an  im[)ortant 
conquest,  took  vigorous  measures  for  the 
entire  reduction  of  Candia,  investing  the 
capital.  May  14th,  with  80,000  men.  A  wall 
with  7  bastions  suiTounded  the  fortress ; 
tlie  same  number  of  ravelins  were  situated 
in  front  of  the  wall,  and  several  detached 
works  still  farther  in  advance :  a  numerous 
fleet  held  the  Turks  in  check  by  sea,  and 
the  garrison,  commanded  by  the  chevalier 
de  Ville  and  Morosini,  was  i-eady  to  be 
buried  under  the  ruins  of  the  fortress. 
The  attack  of  the  Turks  was  directed 
against  the  bastion  called  Panigra.  The 
Christians  contested  every  step  of  their 
advance  ;  but  the  Turks  were  soon  at  the 
foot  of  a  breach,  which  was,  however,  so 
well  defended  by  mines,  salhes,  and  in- 
trenchments,  that  the  most  furious  assaults, 
directed  by  ICiopurli  in  person,  who  fear- 
ed the  displeasure  of  his  master,  were 
without  success.  The  winter  found  the 
Turks  still  before  the  breach,  and  com- 
pelled them  to  withdraw  to  their  intrench- 
ments.  The  natives  of  the  East,  unac- 
customed to  a  winter  campaign,  were  car- 
ried oft'  by  sickness ;  and  new  masses  of 
troops,  with  all  the  materials  for  a  siege, 
supphed  the  loss.  Changes  occurred  also 
in  the  fortress.  In  tlie  spring  of  1668, 
the  brave  chevalier  de  Ville  was  recalled, 
on  account  of  the  jealousy  of  his  superi- 
ors, and  a  quarrel  with  Morosini.  His 
place,  however,  was  well  supplied  by  the 
chevalier  St.  Andr6  Montbrun.  Volun- 
teei-s,  likewise,  poured  in  from  all  the  coun- 
ti'ies  of  Europe,  to  display  their  courage 
on  so  bloody  a  field,  and  to  leani  the  art 
of  war.  Numerous  engineers  made  tlie 
place    theu-   school,   and    Werthmuller, 


Rim  pier  and  Vauban  were  together  here. 
Tlie  pope  sent  troops  and  money ;  the 
Maltese,  knights  and  soldiers.  Tlie  duke 
de  la  Feuillade  led  hither  600  Frenchmen, 
some  of  them  of  the  noblest  families, 
who,  with  French  thoughdessTiess,  rushed 
into  needless  danger,  and  Avere,  for  the 
most  part,  destroyed.  The  count  of  Wal- 
deck  subsequently  came  with  3  regi- 
ments of  Luneberg  troops,  so  that  the 
garrison  was  always  kept  from  8000  to 
10,000  strong.  Treachery  had  given  the 
Turks  information  that  the  bastions  of  St. 
Andre  and  Sabionetta  were  the  weakest 
points  of  the  fortress :  they  therefore  al- 
tered their  plan,  and  attacked  the  last- 
mentioned  works.  Departing  from  the 
hue  of  operations  which  they  had  hitherto 
followed,  they  approached  the  fortress  by 
employing  a  great  number  of  men  in  dig- 
ging a  deep  ditch,  throwing  up  the  earth 
towards  the  place,  and  continuing  to 
move  it  forward  Avith  shovels,  till  they 
reached  and  filled  the  ti-ench.  Daring  sal- 
lies and  well-applied  mines,  however,  kept 
the  Turks  in  check  for  a  longtime,  and  often 
destroyed  their  works  ;  but,  having  finally 
succeeded  in  establishing  themselves  on 
the  bastion  of  St.  Andre,  they  found  be- 
yond it  strong  intrenchments,  which  with- 
stood the  most  violent  assaults ;  and  the 
approach  of  winter  found  the  besiegers 
no  fai'ther  advanced.  In  the  spring  of 
1669,  the  Turks  pursued  their  labors 
slowly,  but  surely  and  successfully.  In  a 
short  time,  nothing  but  a  heap  of  earth 
and  stones  remained  to  tlie  Venetians  of 
the  bastion  of  St.  Andr6,  and  their  last 
defence  was  a  wall,  thrown  up  during  the 
winter,  as  a  general  intrenchment.  In 
this  extremity,  the  dukes  of  Beaufort  and 
Navailles  appeared  Avith  a  French  fleet 
and  7000  troops.  A  desperate  sally  Avas 
undertaken  with  this  new  reinforcement. 
A  mine,  Avhich  was  to  serve  as  a  signal, 
and  throAv  the  Turks  into  confusion,  did 
not  exjilode :  on  the  contrary,  a  Turkish 
powder-magazine  blcAv  up  Avhen  the 
French  had  already  got  ])ossession  of  the 
trenches,  and  repelled  an  attempt  of  the 
Turks  to  recover  them.  This  explosion 
filled  the  French  with  such  a  fear  of  con- 
cealed mines,  that  they  fled  in  disorder  to 
the  fortress,  and  left  200  men  dead  on 
tlie  field,  among  whom  were  many  brave 
officers,  and  the  duke  of  Beaufort.  At  the 
same  time,  the  Christian  fleet,  consisting 
of  80  ships  and  50  galleys,  which  Avere  to 
attack  the  Turkish  camj)  in  the  flank,  was 
thrown  into  disorder  by  the  batteries  on 
the  coast,  and  the  bloAving  up  of  a  ship  of 
70  guns,  and  the  sally  was  entirely  un- 


CANDIA— CANDIDATE. 


471 


successful.     This    misfortune    increased 
the  discord  which  ah'eady  existed  to  such 
a  degree,  tliat  the  duke  of  Navaiiles,  con- 
vinced that  the  preservation  of  the  for- 
tress was   hnpossible,    re-enibarkcd    his 
corps,  and  returned  to  France.     Individ- 
uals belonging  to  the  other  troops  joined 
the  French ;  the  Maltese,  and  almost  all 
the  volunteers,  also,  departed  shoitly  after ; 
a  new  assault  of  the  Turks  was  more  suc- 
cessful tiian  the  previous  ones,  and  brought 
tlieni  to  the  palisades  of  the  last  intrench- 
inent ;  the  garrison,  amounting  to  scarcely 
3000  men,  was  desponding  and  disobedi- 
ent ;  quarrels  distracted  the  conu7ianders, 
and  every  thing  announced  that  the  place 
must  fall  at  the  next  assault.     It  was  re- 
solved, therefore,  in  a  council  of  war,  to 
surrender.      The    terms   of  caj)itulution 
gave  the  garrison  and  inhabitants  liberty 
to  depart  within  12  days,  and  to  take  with 
them  all  their  proj)erty,  even  the  artillery 
which  had  been  introduced  into  the  city 
during  the  siege,  and  left  the  Venetians 
in  possession  of  Suda,  Garabusa  and  Spi- 
nalonga.    Sept.  27,  1669,  the  city   was 
surrendered,  after  a  war  of  25  yeai*s,  a 
blockade  of  13  years,  and  a  siege,  in  which 
the   trenches  had   been  open   2  years  3 
months  and  27  days.     Its  defence  nuist 
serve  as  a  model  to  the  latest  ages,  as  one 
of  the  bravest  recorded  in   history,   and 
proves  what  Christian  courage  could  ef- 
fect against  Turkish  fury  and  superiority 
of  numbei-s,  even  at  a  time  when  the  Eu- 
ropean art  of  war  was  imperfect,  and  the 
Turkish  empire  was  at  tiic  zenith  of  its 
prosperity.     At  the  time  of  the  capitula- 
tion, the  garrison  consisted  of  only  2500 
soldiers.     30,J)85  Christians  and  118,754 
Turks  were  killed  or  wounded  during  the 
siege;    56  assaults    were   made    by   the 
Turks  ;  96  sallies  by  the  Christians  ;  472 
mines  were  si)rung  by  the  former,  1173 
by  the  latter;  509,692  cannon  shot  were 
fired  by  the  fortress,  and  180,000  cwt.  of 
lead  used  for  musket  balls  by  the  Chris- 
tians.    The  Turks  found  the  city  in  a  ru- 
inous state;  eveiy  thing  of  any  value  was 
taken  away ;  only  33  men,  for  the  most 
{)art  far  advanced  in  years,  remained  be- 
liuid,  and  350  miserable  cannon  stood  on 
the  walls.      The  Turks  inunediately  re- 
paired all  the  works.      Having  obtained 
possession  of  the  capital,  they  now  en- 
deavored to  expel  tJie  Venetians  from  the 
strong  holds  which  remained  to  them  on  the 
island  ;  and,  before  the  expiration  of  the 
17th  century, Garabusa  fell  into  their  power 
by  treacliery,  and  Suda  and  Spinalonga  by 
surrender.     They  managed  Candia  in  the 
usual  mantier.    Three  pachas,  at  Candia, 


Canea  and  Retimo,  governed  the  island. 
On  account  of  the  feuds  of  these  pachas, 
the  inhabitants  of  the  western  mountains 
succeeded  in  forming  a  government  of 
their  own,  under  Turkish  protection,  in 
the  agalic  of  Sphachia.  As  the  compacts 
made  with  them  were  not  always  observ- 
ed, they  were  wont,  in  such  cases,  to  take 
uj)  arms,  were  often  defeated,  but  never 
entirely  subdued.  The  pachas  having 
demanded  hostages  of  them  m  1821,  they 
joined  the  Greek  insurgents.  Even  under 
the  Venetian  government,  the  Candiotes 
had  the  reputation  of  suftering  no  infringe- 
ment of  their  privileges,  and  would  not 
permit  the  Venetians  to  establish,  as  in  the 
other  districts  of  Greece,  a  nobility,  degli 
possidcnti,  by  whose  means  they  might 
hold  the  other  inhabitants  under  the  yoke 
of  the  podestas.  Had  the  mountaineers 
been  armed,  when  the  Turks  made  their 
fii-st  descent  on  the  island,  it  would  prob- 
ably have  been  im])Ossible  for  the  invaders 
to  have  maintained  themselves  in  Candia, 
The  Sphachiotes  have  played  the  same  part 
in  Candia  as  the  Mainotes  in  the  Morea, 
excepting  that  they  liave  not  escaped  the 
tribute  of  the  jioU-tax.  The  energy  of  the 
inhabitants  seems  to  be  now  relaxed.  (See 
Greek  Insurrection. )  The  histori  cal  i  m j)or- 
tance  of  ancient  Crete,  in  a  mythological 
point  of  view,  and  as  a  seat  of  ancient  civ- 
ilization, is  shown  bv  Hock's  Kreta  (Gott, 
1823).  Li  1817,  F.  W.  Sieber,  a  German 
physician,  penetrated  far  into  Crete,  and 
made  many  observations  on  it,  which  had 
principally  in  view  the  improvement  of 
natural  history  and  medical  science.  See 
his  Reise  nach  der  Insel  Kreta — Voyage  to 
the  Island  of  Crete  (Leips.  1823),  2  vols, 
with  plates  and  a  map. 

Candidate  (from  the  Latin  candidatus, 
ivhite-rohed,  because,  among  the  Romans, 
a  man  who  solicited  an  office  apjjcared  in 
a  shining  white  garment — toga  Candida). 
The  candidati  of  the  Romans  wore  no 
tunic ;  either  as  a  sign  of  humility,  or  in 
order  to  show  the  wounds  received  on 
their  breasts.  The  time  of  their  canvass- 
ing was  two  j'ears,  during  which  they 
wore  the  toga  Candida.  In  the  first  year, 
they  delivered  speeches  to  the  people,  or 
had  them  delivered  by  others,  witli  the 
consent  of  the  magistrates.  This  was 
called  prqfiteri  nomen  suum,  and  the  year, 
annus  professionis.  After  this  year,  they 
requested  the  magistrate  to  enter  their 
names  on  the  list  of  candidates  for  the 
office  sought  for.  An  aspirant  was  sel- 
dom refused  permission  to  deliver  hia 
speeches  ;  but  he  was  not  yet  necessarily 
treated  as  a  candidate  by  the  magistrates, 


«B 


CANDIDATE— CANGA-ARGUELLES. 


or  proposed  by  theni  to  the  people  on  the 
day  of  election.  Before  that  was  done, 
his  life  was  subjected  to  a  scrutiny  in  the 
senate,  after  tlie  pretor  or  consul  had  re- 
ceived his  name.  If  the  senate^  accepted 
hun,  he  was  permitted  to  otfer  hin)self, 
on  the  day  of  election,  as  a  candidate. 
The  formula,  by  which  permission  was 
granted,  was,  rationem  habebo,  renuntiabo  ; 
if  he  was  not  accepted,  he  received  the 
answer  rationem  non  habebo  ;  non  renun- 
tiabo. The  tribunes  often  opjjosed  a 
candidate  who  had  been  accejJted  by 
the  senate.  The  morals  of  tlje  aspirants, 
in  the  purer  ages  of  the  re])ublic,  were 
always  severely  examined.  In  tlie  later 
period  of  the  repubhc,  nobody  could  ob- 
tain an  office  if  he  was  not  present,  and 
if  he  had  not  offered  hunself  on  three 
market-days.  (Sail.  Cat.  18.,  Cic.  Fam. 
xvi.  12.)  On  these  days,  the  candidates 
tried  to  insinuate  themselves  into  the 
favor  of  the  people.  They  went  from 
house  to  house  {ambiendo),  shook  hands 
with  every  body  whom  they  met  [pren- 
sando),  addressed  each  one  by  his  name, 
for  which  purpose  they  generally  had  a 
nomendaior  with  them,  who  whispered 
the  names  of  those  whom  they  met  into 
tlieir  ear.  Cicero,  therefore,  calls  the  can- 
didates natio  officiosissima.  They  placed 
themselves,  on  market-dajs,  in  elevated 
places,  in  order  to  be  seen.  On  the  day 
of  election,  they  did  the  same.  Favor- 
ites of  the  people  accompanied  them  (de- 
ductores) ;  some  of  their  suite  {diinsores) 
distributed  money  among  the  people, 
which,  though  prohibited,  was  done  pub- 
hcly.  Interpretes  were  employed  to  bar- 
gain with  tlie  people,  and  the  money 
was  deposited  in  the  hands  of  sequestres. 
Sometunes  a  number  of  candidates  imited 
into  parties  [coitiones),  in  order  to  defeat 
the  endeavors  of  the  othere.  At  last,  the 
grounds  on  which  each  cauditiate  rested 
liis  claims  to  the  office  were  read,  and  the 
tribes  delivered  their  votes.  The  success- 
ful candidate  then  sacrificed  to  tlie  gods 
m  the  capitol.  To  oppose  a  candidate 
was  called  n  refragari;  to  support  him, 
suffragari,  or  suffragaiorts  esse. — We  have 
dwelt  so  long  on  this  subject,  on  accomit 
of  the  similarity  between  the  ancient  and 
the  modem  modes  of  seeking  office. — The 
word  candidate  is  also  used,  by  Protestants, 
to  designate  a  theologian,  w  ho,  having  fin- 
ished his  studies  at  a  university,  is  waithig 
for  an  appointment  in  the  church. 

Candidk  ;  the  name  of  a  famous  tale 
of  Voltaire's,  forming  an  ejioch  in  French 
Uterature,  in  which  he  ridicules  the  sys- 
tem of  optimism  with  his  usual  spirit,  and 


attacks  revelation  with  plausible  but  su- 
perficial arguments.  Voltaire  is  unsur- 
passed in  the  art  of  treating  the  most 
serious  subjects  with  light  raillery,  while 
he  seduces  the  reader  by  the  charms  of 
his  style.  Some  descriptions  in  this  tale, 
for  instance,  that  of  die  carnival  at  Venice, 
are  excellent. 

Candlemas  ;  a  Catholic  feast,  insti- 
tuted by  pope  Gelasius  I,  in  492,  in  com- 
memoration of  the  presentation  of  Christ 
in  the  temple,  and  of  the  purification  of 
Mary  ;  perhaps  intended  to  take  the  place 
of  tlie  rude  heathen  feast  called  the  Lu- 
percalia,  which  was  abolished  by  him. 
It  is  celebrated  on  February  2,  and  has 
its  name  from  the  consecrated  torches 
which  are  carried  about  in  procession,  in 
allusion  to  the  words  of  Simeon,  "  a  light 
to  enlighten  the  Gentiles." 

Ca.ne.     (See  Bamboo  and  Ratan.) 

Canea  ;  the  principal  port  of  Candia  ; 
lat.  35°  28'  45"  N. ;  Ion.  24°  12'  45"  E. ; 
sup]X)sed  to  be  on  the  site  of  tlie  ancient 
Cydonia.  Population,  7150.  The  city 
has  been  fortified  from  the  time  of  the 
Venetian  govcnmieiit. 

Canga-Arguelles,  don  Jos^,  Sjmni.sh 
minister  of  finance  from  1820  to  JIarch, 
1821,  distinguished  himself  in  the  cortes 
of  1812,  no  less  by  his  talents  than  by  his 
zeal  for  the  estabhshment  of  a  constitu- 
tion. When  he  was  minister,  he  laid 
before  the  cortes  a  statement  of  all  the 
possessions  of  the  crown  and  of  the 
church  in  Spain,  from  which  it  appeared 
that  the  latter  sui-passed  the  former  by  a 
third  part.  When  king  Ferdinand,  in 
1814,  resumed  the  government,  C.  was 
confined  in  Penniscola,  but,  in  181 G,  was 
restored  to  liberty,  and  employed  in  Va- 
lencia. In  his  Memoria  Sobre  el  Credito 
Publico,  he  rejiresented  tlie  condition  of 
the  treasury,  at  the  time  when  the  king 
swore  to  observe  the  constitution,  and  set 
forth  the  measures  of  the  ministry  for 
improving  the  condition  of  the  finances. 
According  to  this  report,  the  annual  defi- 
cit of  340,050,231  reals  was  more  than 
the  whole  revenue.  Among  other  means 
of  remedying  the  evil,  the  minister  pro- 
posed to  raise  140,000,000  reals  by  direct 
taxes ;  to  sell  a  7th  part  of  the  property 
of  the  church  and  monasteries  ;  also  the 
small  possessions  of  the  crown  in  North 
Africa,  and  to  make  proposals  for  a  loan 
of  200,000,000  reals.  He  presented  a 
plan,  likewise,  for  diminishing  the  great 
number  of  officers,  and  reducing  the 
amount  of  exclusive  privileges.  His  pro- 
jects were  executed  only  in  part.  Id 
1821,  he  resigned  his  office,  together  \Yith 


CANGA-ARGUELLES— CANNING. 


478 


the  other  ministers,  and  waa  chosen,  in 
1822,  a  member  of  the  cortes.  In  tliis 
body,  he  joined  the  party  of  the  moderate 
hberals.  After  tlie  fall  of  the  constitution 
in  Cadiz,  he  fled  to  England. 
Cange,  Dc.  (See  Du  Frtsrie.) 
Canisius,  Petrus,  born  in  1524,  at 
Nimeguen,  was  tlie  lirst  man  in  Germany 
who  entered  the  order  of  the  Jesuits,  of 
wliieh  he  became  a  verj'  active  member. 
In  1549,  he  was  made  professor  of  the- 
olog)',  rector  and  vice-chancellor  of  the 
univei-sity  at  Ingolstadt.  He  afterwards 
reformed  tlie  university  of  Vienna,  ac- 
cording to  the  views  of  tlie  order.  His 
catechism  is  yet  in  use.  He  persuaded 
Ferdinand  I  to  adopt  violent  measures 
against  tlie  Protestants,  and  founded  the 
colleges  at  Prague,  Augsburg,  DiUiugen, 
and  Friburg,  in  Swirzerland,  in  the  latter 
of  which  he  died,  in  1597. 

Ca>">.5:  ;  a  city  in  the  Neapolitan  prov- 
ince Puglia,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Auiidus, 
on  tlie  Adriatic,  lamous  for  the  gi-eat  bat- 
tle in  which  the  Romans  were  here  de- 
feated by  Haimibal  (21(3  B.  C).  Tlie  con- 
suls ^niilitis  Paulus  and  Terentius  Varro 
contented  themselves  with  actuig  on  the 
defensive  against  the  Carthaginian  gen- 
eral, who  endeavored  to  decide  the  fate 
of  Rome  bj'^  one  blow ;  but  the  senate, 
considering  that  the  Roman  army  con- 
sisted of  87,000  men,  while  that  of  the 
enemy  amounted  only  to  50,000,  among 
whom  were  10,000  horse,  antl  would  have 
no  point  of  support  when  beateji,  com- 
manded the  consuls  to  give  battle,  Han- 
nil)al,  seeing  that  their  plan  was  changed, 
allowed  Vairo  to  gain  a  sUght  advantage 
in  a  skirmish  of  cavahy.  The  Romans 
left  their  strong  position  at  Canusium,  on 
the  banks  of  the  Aulidus,  and  the  whole 
army  crassed  the  river.  Tlie  consul  Varro 
drew  up  his  troops  on  the  plain,  with  his 
right  wing  protected  by  the  river.  At 
the  same  time,  Hannibal  forded  the  Auli- 
dus, and  led  his  small  army  to  the  attack. 
The  Remans  liad  their  own  cavalrj'  on 
the  right  wing,  that  of  their  allies  on  the 
left,  and  the  infantry,  as  usual,  in  tlie 
centre.  Hannibal  opposed  the  Numidian 
cavalry  to  that  of  the  Roman  allies,  and 
that  of  the  Spaniards  and  Gauls  to  the 
Roman.  His  infantiy  from  Africa  he 
divided  into  two  bodies,  each  of  them 
near  the  cavalry.  At  some  distance  from 
both  wings,  the  Si)aniar(]s  and  Gauls,  on 
foot,  arranged  ui  an  olituse  angle,  occut 
pied  the  centre.  Behind  them  was  a 
strong  reserve.  Hannibal  himself  com- 
manded the  centre.  He  had  calculated 
that  the  wuid  called  VoUurnus,  which 
40* 


blew  regularly  at  certain  hours  in  that 
counirj,  would,  at  the  time  of  attack, 
throw  dust  and  sand  jn  the  eyes  of  the 
Romans,  and  hide  his  own  evolutions. 
Tlie  consul  ^milius  Paulus  was  wounded 
by  a  Balearian  sUnger,  soon  after  the 
light  troops  had  begun  the  engagement. 
The  first  shock  of  the  Roman  cavalry 
ujjon  the  Spaniards  and  Gauls  was  vio- 
lent. After  the  fight  had  lasted  for  a  long 
time,  they  alighted,  and  fought  on  foot. 
The  Gauls  and  Spaniards  then  broke 
through  the  dismounted  Romans,  and  cut 
them  down.  Tlie  Roman  infantrj',  to 
assist  their  horse,  moved  in  a  cuned  line 
towards  the  wing,  under  very  disadvan- 
tageous circumstances,  and  attacked  the 
Spanish  and  Gallic  infantry,  which  retired 
in  good  order  into  the  intervals,  as  Han- 
niiial  had  commanded.  By  this  means, 
Hannibal  was  enabled  to  attack  the  Ro- 
mans m  flank,  as  they  advanced  incaur 
tious'y,  with  the  African  uifantrj',  which 
he  had  kept  back  for  this  purpose.  Thus 
suiTounded,  aijd  contracted  into  a  small 
compass,  the  Romans  fell  in  great  num^ 
bers,  among  them  the  consul  ^milius 
Paulus,  and  both  the  proconsuls  Servilius 
and  Atilius.  The  Numidian  lioi-se  de- 
stroyed tliose  who  fled  from  the  field  of 
battle.  The  victor  made  13,000  prison- 
ers. The  Romans  lost,  according  to  their 
own  lowest  statements,  45,000  men  ;  ac- 
cording to  the  highest,  70,000.  Hannibal 
collected  the  gold  rings  of  the  knights 
who  had  fallen,  and  sent  some  bushels 
thereof  to  Carthage.  But  the  victory  had 
also  weakened  his  own  army.  He  was 
in  want  of,  money  to  recruit  his  troops. 
This  want,  rather  than  the  short  period 
of  luxurious  living  in  winter-quartere  at 
Capua,  obhged  him,  at  length,  to  give  up 
the  hope  of  conquering  Italy,  after  a  M'ar 
of  17  campaigns.     {See  Hannibal.) 

Cannes,  or  Cases  ;  a  small  seaport  of 
France,  on  the  shore  of  the  3Iediten'a- 
nean,  in  the  department  of  the  Var ;  pop- 
ulation, about  2800.  C.  is  famous  as  the 
])Iace  where  the  memorable  march  of 
Napoleon  through  Fi-ance  began,  when 
he  returned  from  Elba.  He  landed  here 
March  1,  1815. 

Cannibals.  (See  ^Anthropophagi  and 
Caribs.) 

Cannijv-g,  George,  was  bom  in  London, 
April  11,  1770.  His  father,  a  man  of 
considerable  abilities  and  literary  cultiva- 
tion, had  offended  his  family  by  marrving 
a  lady  of  beauty  and  accomplishments, 
but  without  fortune,  and  died  in  1771, 
leaving  his  widow  destitute.  She  had 
recoui'^  to  the  stage  for  support,  but  was 


474 


CANNING. 


not  very  successfiil,  and  was  aftenvards 
twice  niaiTJed.  Her  second  husband  was 
an  actor ;  her  third,  Mr.  Ilunn,  a  linen- 
dra[)er  of  Exeter.  She  lived  to  see  the 
success  of  her  son,  from  whom  she  ever 
received  the  tenderest  marks  of  filial  love. 
C,  who  had  inhei'ited  a  small  estate  in 
Ireland,  was  educated  at  Eton,  where  he 
was  distinguished  for  industry,  vigor  of 
mind,  and  elegance  of  taste,  and,  at  the 
age  of  15,  fonned  the  j)lan  of  a  periodical 
paper,  called  the  Microcosm,  of  which  he 
was  the  principal  editor.  In  1787,  he  was 
entered  at  Oxford.  Ilis  vacations  were 
passed  with  Sheridan,  by  wliom  he  was 
introduced  to  Burke,  Fox,  and  other  dis- 
tinguished whigs.  But,  although  Sheri- 
dan had  already  announced  him,  in  par- 
liarnent,  as  the  future  ornament  of  his 
party,  C.  entered  into  tenns  with  Pitt,  by 
whom  he  was  brought  into  parhameut  in 

1793.  During  tlie  first  session,  he  re- 
mained silent.  His  maiden  effort  was 
made  in  1794,  on  the  Sardinian  treaty, 
and  i-ather  disappointed  expectation.    In 

1794,  he  took  the  degree  of  M.  A.,  and, 
from  that  time,  resided  constantly  in  Lon- 
don. In  1796,  he  was  under-secretary 
of  state.  In  1797,  he  projected,  with  some 
of  his  friends,  the  Anti-Jacobin,  or  Week- 
ly Examiner,  of  which  Gifford  was  ap- 
pointed editor.  C.  conti-ibuted  many 
poetical  and  other  articles  to  this  period- 
ical. In  1798,  he  supported  Wilberforce's 
motion  for  the  aboUtion  of  the  slave-trade, 
and  continued  always  an  advocate  for  the 
amelioration  of  the  condition  of  the 
blacks.  In  July,  1800,  C.  increased  his 
fortune  and  influence  by  a  marriage  with 
Joanna,  daughter  of  general  Scott,  a  lady 
with  a  fortune  of  £100,000.  The  admin- 
istration being  dissolved  in  1801,  C.  be- 
came a  member  of  the  opposition,  until 
the  restoration  of  Pitt  in  1804.  In  1807, 
he  was  appointed  secretary  of  state  for 
foreign  affairs  in  the  Portland  administra- 
tion. A  political  misunderstanding  with 
lord  Castlereagh  led  to  a  duel  between 
that  minister  and  C,  in  which  the  latter 
was  slightly  wounded.  This  dispute  oc- 
casioned the  dissolution  of  the  ministry. 
In  1810,  he  opposed  the  reference  of  the 
Catholic  claims  to  the  committee  of  the 
whole  house,  on  the  ground  that  no  se- 
curity or  engagement  had  been  offered 
by  the  Catholics.  Some  of  his  most 
brilliant  speeches  were  on  this  subject. 
He  invariably  supported  the  admission  of 
the  Catholics  to  power,  not  as  an  abstract 
question  of  right,  but  as  a  matter  of  expe- 
diency— of  hourly  increasing  expediency. 
The  adoption  of  the  measure  being  then 


a  matter  of  policy,  the  state  of  ophiion, 
the  condition  of  affairs,  and  the  securities 
with  which  it  should  be  accompanied, 
were,  with  him,  elements  of  the  question. 
He  proposed  securities,  in  1813,  which, 
witli  the  bill,  were  rejected.  He  sup- 
ported, in  1812  and  1813,  the  same  motion 
which  he  had  opposed  in  1810;  and,  in 
1821,  two  bills  in  favor  of  the  Catholics 
having  been  introduced  into  tlie  house  of 
commons,  he  obsei-ved,  "  that  the  moment 
was  pecidiarly  favorable  for  discussion  ; 
that  they  were  in  possession  of  a  peace 
achieved  by  Catholic  arms,  and  cemented 
by  Catholic  blood."  To  C.  was  princi- 
pally owing  the  fii-st  blow  which  shook 
the  throne  of  Na])oleon  ;  the  British  i)oli- 
cy  in  Spain  was  directed  and  animated 
by  him.  "If  there  was  any  part  of  his 
political  life,"  he  declared,  on  one  occa- 
sion, "  in  which  he  gloried,  it  was  that,  in 
the  face  of  every  difficulty,  discourage- 
ment, and  prophecy  of  failure,  his  had 
been  the  hand  which  had  committed 
England  to  an  alliance  with  Spain." 
"Never,"  said  he,  on  another  occasion, 
"  ought  Ave  to  relinquish  our  hold  of  the 
Peninsula.  The  ruler  of  France  has  one 
gi'and  object,  to  which  he  stands  pledged 
— the  establishment  of  his  dominion  in 
the  Peninsula.  If  he  fail  in  this,  his  de- 
feat must  be  most  signal."  In  1812,  he 
was  elected  member  of  parliament  for 
Liverpool ;  from  which  he  was  also  re- 
turned in  1814,  1818,  1820.  In  1814, 
he  was  appointed  minister  to  Poitugal, 
and  remained  absent  about  two  years. 
In  1819,  he  declared  his  decided  hostility 
to  parliamentary  reform,  in  whatever 
shape  ;  and  his  speech  on  lord  John  Rus- 
sell's motion  for  reform,  in  1822,  is  among 
the  most  finished  specimens  of  his  elo- 
quence. On  the  occasion  of  the  pro- 
ceedhigs  relative  to  the  queen,  he  de- 
clared, tliat  "toward  the  object  of  that 
investigation,  he  felt  an  unaltered  regard 
and  affection  ,•"  and  soon  after  resigned 
the  presidency  of  the  board  of  control, 
and  went  abroad.  Having  been  nomi- 
nated governor-general  of  India,  he  was 
on  the  point  of  embarking,  when  the 
death  of  the  marquis  of  Londondcny 
called  him  to  the  cabinet  as  secretary  for 
foreign  afiairs  (Sept.  16,  1822).  One  of 
his  earliest  acts,  in  this  situation,  was  to 
check  the  F'rench  influence  in  Spain  ; 
and,  in  a  debate  on  this  subject  (April  28, 
1823),  he  observed,  "  It  is  true  that  there 
is  a  contest  going  on  in  the  world  between 
the  spirit  of  unlimited  monarchy  and  the 
spirit  of  unlimited  democracy.  Between 
these  two  spirits  there  is  a  strife  openly  in 


CANNING— CANNON. 


475 


action,  or  covertly  at  work,  throughout 
tlie  greater  portion  of  Europe."  It  was 
in  this  session  that  Brougliam  accused 
him  of  "the  most  monstrous  truckling 
whicli  the  whole  history  of  poUtical  ter- 
giversation could  funiish."  C.  rose  im- 
mediately, and  exclaimed,  "  That  is  false." 
The  affair  was  settled,  after  some  expla- 
nations on  the  part  of  Mr.  Broughau}. 
He  continued  to  support  the  propositions 
in  favor  of  the  Catliolics,  and,  in  1825, 
communicated  to  foreign  ministers  the 
determination  of  his  majesty  to  appoint 
charges  d'affaires  to  Colombia,  Mexico 
and  Buenos  Ayres.  In  consequence  of 
llie  attempts  made  by  Spain  to  assist  the 
malcontents  of  Portugal,  it  was  inmie- 
diately  determined,  by  the  ministry,  to 
support  the  regency  of  that  country.  On 
lliis  occasion,  C.  concluded  his  speech 
with  these  remarks  :  "  Some  years  ago,  I 
said  that  I  feared  that  the  next  war,  which 
should  be  kindled  in  Europe,  would  be  a 
war  of  opinions.  It  is  the  contemplation 
of  this  new  power,  in  any  future  war, 
which  excites  my  most  anxious  appre- 
hensions." And,  in  answer  to  the  argu- 
ment that  the  ministers  had  encouraged 
tlie  attack  upon  Portugal,  by  having  jjcr- 
mitted  the  occupation  of  Spain  by  France, 
he  uttered  the  memorable  worcls :  "  Was 
it  necessary  that  we  should  blockade 
Cadiz  ?  No.  I  looked  another  way ;  I 
resolved  that  if  France  had  Spain,  it 
should  not  be  Spain  with  the  Indies.  I 
called  the  new  world  into  existence,  to 
redress  the  balance  of  the  old."  April 
12,  1827,  his  appointment  to  be  prime 
minister  was  announced.  His  adminis- 
tration was  terminated  by  his  death,  the 
8th  of  August  following ;  but  not  until  it 
had  been  cro-wned  by  the  treaty  of  Lon- 
don (July  0),  for  the  settlement  of  the 
affairs  of  Greece. — As  a  statesman,  he 
was  liberal,  profound,  consistent  and  in- 
dependent. His  foreign  j)olicy  was  mark- 
ed by  the  three  great  measures  of  the 
recognition  of  the  South  American  states, 
the  maintenance  of  the  indej)endence  of 
Portugal,  and  the  treaty  in  behalf  of 
Greece.  His  uniform  support  of  the 
Catholic  claims,  and  his  constant  and  ar- 
dent exertions  in  favor  of  the  slave  popu- 
lation of  the  colonies,  are  not  less  honor- 
able to  his  humanity  than  to  his  policy. 
His  eloquence  was  persufisive  and  impas- 
sioned ;  his  reasonuig  clear  and  logical ; 
Ills  manner  graceful ;  his  expression  win- 
ning, and  his  whole  appearance  prepos- 
sessing. His  wit  was  brilliant,  and  his  sat- 
ire was  extremely  caustic.  He  died  poor. 
His  body  is  deposited  in  Westminster 


abbey.  (See  Speeches  of  the  Right  Hon, 
G.  Canning,  with  a  Memoir,  by  R.  Therry, 
London,  1828.)— The  cousin  of  G.  Can- 
ning, the  honorable  Stratford  Canning, 
is  well  known  by  the  consj)icuous  part 
which  he  has  played  during  the  late  diffi- 
culties between  the  Porte  and  the  other 
European  powers. 

Cannon  ;  a  heavy  metallic  gun,  which  is 
moved  by  the  strength  of  men  and  horees. 
It  is  mounted  on  a  carriage,  and  iron  (for- 
merly stone  or  leaden)  balls  are  projected 
to  a  distance  from  it  by  the  force  of  gun- 
])owdcr.  The  interior  of  the  cannon  is, 
called  the  bore.  The  solid  ])iece  of  metal 
behind  is  named  the  breech,  and  termi- 
nates in  the  button.  The  dolphins  (so 
called  because  they  used  to  be  made  in 
the  form  of  this  animal)  are  the  handles 
by  which  the  piece  is  mounted  or  dis- 
mounted. The  aperture  through  which 
the  fire  is  introduced  into  the  bore,  to  ig- 
nite the  charge,  is  called  the  vent  or  touch- 
hole,  in  which  a  small  tube,  used  to  contain 
the  piuming,  is  placed  previous  to  firing. 
The  sujjports,  which  are  denominated  car- 
riages, are  mounted  on  trucks,  as  in  the 
case  of  ship-guns  or  garrison-guns,  or  on 
two  wheels,  as  in  the  case  of  field-pieces. 
When  a  field-piece  is  to  be  moved,  a 
two-wheeled  frame  is  fixed  to  tlie  car- 
riage, which  is  called  a  limber,  and  this 
process  is  called  to  limber  up.  The  charge, 
or  cartridge,  is  a  bag  filled  with  powder, 
carried  near  the  cannon.  The  cannon 
is  fired  by  means  of  the  match,  which  is 
a  lighted  bunch  of  tow,  wound  round  a 
small  stick ;  or  by  a  tube,  filled  with  the 
])riming-powder,  from  which  a  piece  is 
broken  oft"  every  time,  and  forced  into  a 
stick,  to  light  the  charge.  On  boai'd  most 
of  the  English  ships  there  are  cannon 
fired  by  means  of  locks.  To  perform  the 
labor  required  in  managing  cannon  is 
called  to  serve  the  guns.  Cannon  were 
formerly  dignified  with  great  names.  12, 
cast  by  Louis  XII,  were  called  after  the 
12  peers  of  France.  Charles  V  had  12, 
which  he  called  tlie  Twelve  apostles.  One 
at  Bois  le  Due  is  called  the  Devil;  a  GO 
pounder,  at  Dover  castle,  is  named  Queen 
Ellzabetfis  pocket-pistol ;  an  80  pounder, 
at  Berlin,  is  called  the  Tlmnderer ;  another 
at  Malaga,  the  Terrible ;  two  60  pounders 
at  Bremen,  the  Mtsseiigers  of  bad  news.  In 
the  beginning  of  the  i5th  ceiitury,  names 
of  this  sort  were  abolished,  and  the  follow- 
ing came  into  general  use : — cannon  royal, 
or  carthoun,  carrying  48  pounds ;  bastard 
cannon,  or  5  carthoun,  36;  i  carthoun, 
24  ;  whole  culverins,  18 ;  demi-culverins, 
9 ;  falcon,  6 ;  saker,  lowest  sort,  5 ;  ordi- 


476 


CANNON— CANOE. 


nary,  6 ;  largest  sort,  8 ;  basilisk,  48 ;  ser- 
pentine, 4 ;  aspick,  2 ;  dragon,  6 ;  siren,  CO ; 
falconet,  3,  2  and  1 ;  n)oyens,  wliich  car- 
ried a  ball  of  10  or  12  ounces :  rabinets 
earned  one  of  16  ounces.  Cannons  are, 
at  present,  named,  from  the  weight  of  the 
balls  which  they  carry,  6  pounders,  12 
pounders,  &c.  The  length  of  the  cannon 
is  in  proportion  to  the  caliber.  Cannoii 
took  their  name  from  the  French  word 
canne  (a  reed).  Before  their  invention, 
machines  were  used  lor  projecting  mis- 
siles by  mechanical  force.  These  were 
imitated  from  the  Arabs,  and  called  inge- 
nia ;  whence  engineer.  The  fi)"st  cannon 
were  made  of  wood,  wrapt  hi  numerous 
folds  of  linen,  and  well  secured  by  iron 
hoops.  They  were  of  a  conical  fonii, 
w  idest  at  the  muzzle.  Afterwards,  they 
received  a  cyhndrical  shape.  At  length 
they  were  made  of  iron  bars,  firmly  bound 
together,  like  casks,  by  iron  hoops.  In 
the  second  half  of  the  14th  centuiy,  they 
were  formed  of  an  alloy  of  copper  and 
tin,  and,  in  process  of  time,  other  metals 
were  added.  Some  attribute  the  inven- 
tion of  cannon  to  the  Chinese,  and  say 
that  there  are  now  cannon  in  China,  which 
were  made  in  the  80tli  yeai*  of  the  Chris- 
tian era.  From  the  Chinese  the  Saracens 
probably  learned  to  manufacture  them, 
and  Callinicus,  a  deserter  from  Helio{)olis, 
ni  PhcBuicia,  made  them  known,  in  G70 
(676),  to  the  Greek  emperor  Constanlinus 
Pogonatus.  Bombards  were  brought  into 
use  in  Fiance  in  13^38,  and,  according  to 
another  and  more  doubtful  authority,  Sol- 
omon, king  of  Hungary,  used  them,  in 
1073,  at  the  siege  of  Belgrade.  From  all 
these  accounts,  it  appeai-s  that  the  true 
epoch  of  the  invention  of  cannon  cannot 
be  exactly '  determined :  it  is  certain, 
however,  that  they  were  actually  in  use 
about  the  middle  of  the  14th  centuiy.  In 
1370,  the  people  of  Augsburg  used  cast 
cannon-.  In  the  begimiing  of  the  15th 
century,  nearly  all  the  countries  of  Eu- 
ro[)e,  except  Russia,  where  cannon  were 
first  cast  in  1475,  were  provided  with 
them.  The  lead  cannon,  which  were 
invented  and  employed  by  the  Swedes, 
between  1620  and  lft32,  in  the  30  years' 
war,  were  lined  with  tubes  of  wood  or 
co{)per,  and  secured  on  the  outside  with 
iron  rings.  The  art  of  firing  red-hot  balls 
from  cannon  was  invented  by  major-gen- 
eral Weiler,  of  the  electorate  of  Branden- 
burg. In  the  commencement  of  the  16th 
cenuiry,  Maurice  of  Switzerland  discov-^ 
ered  a  method  of  casting  cannon  whole, 
and  boring  them,  so  as  to  draw  out  the 
interior  in  a  single  piece.    Arms  for  ex-< 


peditious  firing,  loaded  from  behind,  and 
having  the  charge  closed  in  with  a  wedge^ 
were  introduced  by  Daniel  Spekle  (who 
died  1589)  and  Uffanus.  Charles  Millon 
invented  a  kind  of  air  cannon,  2  feet  long, 
3  inches  diameter  in  the  thickest  part,  12 
lines  caliber,  charged  with  inflammable 
air,  and  fired  with  a  Leyden  jar,  or  a  jiiece 
of  cat-skin,  by  which  12  discharges  car* 
be  made  in  a  minute.  It  stands  on  a 
frame  of  glass,  and  may  be  directed  to 
any  point.  In  1740,  cannons  were  made 
of  ice  at  St.  Petei-sburg,  and  balls  of  ma-, 
ny  pounds  weight  were  projected  without 
injuring  the  pieces.  (See  Steam-Chm^ 
Gun-Boat.)  Cannon-clock  is  a  contrivance 
invented  by  one  Rousseau,  and  placed  in 
the  garden  of  the  pcdais  royal,  and  in  the 
Luxembourg  at  Paris.  A  buming-glasa 
is  fixed  over  the  vent  of  a  cannon,  so 
that  the  sun's  rays,  at  the  moment  of  its 
})assing  the  meridian,  are  concentrated,  by 
the  glass,  on  the  priming,  and  the  piece  is 
fired.  The  burning-glass  is  regulated,  for 
this  purjiose,  every  month.  (For  the  use 
of  cannon  in  naval  warfare,  see  Ship.) 

Cano,  Alonzo  or  Alexis ;  a  painter, 
sculptor  and  architect.  The  variety  and 
extent  of  his  talents  made  him  the  Michael 
Angelo  of  Spain,  whom  he  also  resembled 
in  his  private  character.  He  was  born  in 
1608,  at  Grenada,  studied  in  Seville,  with 
Pacheco,  and  first  made  himself  known 
by  the  statues  which  he  executed  lor  the 
great  church  of  Lebrija.  In  his  24th  year, 
he  had  acquired  the  fame  of  a  great  artist, 
and  was  (1638)  appointed  painter  to  the 
king.  In  this  capacity,  he  executed  sev- 
eral celebrated  pictures,  and  was  at  the 
summit  of  his  prosperity,  when  a  dreadiUl 
event  destroyed  his  happiness.  His  wife 
was  one  day  found  murdered,  and  his 
house  plundered.  Instead  of  a  suspected 
Italian  servant,  who  had  fled,  C.  himself, 
convicted  of  a  connexion  with  another 
woman,  was  condemned  by  the  judges  as 
guilty  of  the  murder.  He  was  ])ut  to  the 
torture ;  but  his  right  arm  was  spared,  from 
respect  for  his  talents.  He  bore  the  tor-, 
ture  witli  silent  fortitude.  The  king  paiv 
doned  him.  He  became  a  priest,  and  was 
made  a  racionero  (resident)  of  Grenada, 
where  he  passed  the  remainder  of  his  life 
in  a  pious  and  exemplary  manner,  and 
died  in  1676. 

Canobus.    (See  Canopus.) 

Canoe,  also  Canoa;  the  term  generally 
used  to  designate  the  small  vessels  which 
uncivilized  people,  living  near  the  water, 
use.  In  the  East  Indies,  there  is  a  kind 
of  boat  which  goes  by  this  name,  some- 
times from  40  to  50  feet  loiig,  and  5  or  Q 


CANOE— CANON. 


477 


broad.  The  North  American  Indians 
generally  impel  their  canoes  with  paddles, 
which  have  a  very  large  blade,  and  are 
managed  perpendicularly.  The  canoes 
of  Canada  are  of  the  most  fragile  texture, 
and  of  so  little  weight,  that,  in  passing 
from  one  river  to  another,  the  boat-men 
carry  them  on  their  heads  across  their 
portages.  They  are  mostly  covered  with 
bark,  the  pieces  of  which  are  sewed  to- 
gether with  a  kind  of  grass.  This  bark 
is  generally  not  more  than  a  quarter  of  an 
inch  in  thickness;  yet,  in  these  frail  ves- 
sels, the  Indians  and  Canadians  do  not 
hesitate  to  descend  very  dangerous  rap- 
ids. The  Esquimaux  are  exceedingly 
dexterous  in  the  management  of  their 
canoes.  These  consist  of  a  light,  wooden 
frame,  covered  with  seal-skuis,  sewed 
together  with  sinews.  The  skins  are  not 
only  extended  round  the  bottom  and  sides, 
but  hkewise  over  the  top,  forming  a  com- 
plete deck,  and  having  only  one  opening 
to  admit  the  Indian  to  his  seat.  To  this 
liole  a  flat  hoo]),  rising  about  four  inches, 
is  fitted,  to  which  is  fastened  the  sur- 
rounding skin.  The  paddle  is  about  10 
feet  long,  light,  and  flat  at  each  end.  In 
tlie  Esquimaux  language,  the  canoe  is 
called  a.  kaiak,  or  man^s  fcoaf,  to  distinguish 
it  from  umiak,  the  woman^s  boat,  which 
latter  is  a  large  boat  for  transporting  the 
women,  with  their  families  and  posses- 
sions. The  Greeulanders  and  Esqui- 
maux use  the  same  kind  of  canoes,  and  it 
is  astonishing,  when  we  consider  their  in- 
pignificant  construction,  at  what  a  distance 
from  the  regions  they  commonly  inhabit, 
lliese  people,  especially  the  former,  are 
found  in  them.  In  the  islands  of  the 
South  sea,  the  natives  have  a  double  ca- 
noe, united  by  a  strong  platform,  serving, 
in  tliis  Avay,  as  one  vessel.  Such  a  canoe 
is  capable  of  carrying  a  number  of  per- 
sons, and  a  considerable  lading.  Captain 
Cook  gives  us  a  long  account  of  the  cUf- 
ferent  kinds  of  canoes  used  in  Otaheite. 

Canon  ;  a  person  who  possesses  a  preb- 
end, or  revenue  allotted  for  the  perform- 
ance of  divine  service  in  a  cathedral  or 
collegiate  church. 

Ca.\o\,  in  the  arts.  When  art  has 
succeeded  in  producing  beautiful  forms, 
the  question  arises,  with  what  propor- 
tions beauty  of  form  is  united.  Artists 
of  genius  flrst  started  this  question,  and 
imitators,  inferior  to  them  hi  talents,  scru- 
pulously followed  their  results,  and  natu- 
rally exalted  some  existing  work  into  a 
model  for  every  performance.  Among 
the  Greeks,  the  celebrated  statuary  Poly- 
cletus  (q,  V.)  first  instituted  such  inquiries ; 


and,  as  he  generally  represented  youthful, 
pleasing  figures,  it  is  probable  that  he  fix- 
ed the  standard  of  beauty  hi  the  youthful 
form.  The  canon  (the  model  statue) 
of  Polycletus  was  accordingly  a  statue, 
which  Avas  made  principally  for  the  pur- 
pose of  showing  the  Ijeautiful  proportions 
of  tlie  human  form  in  a  youth  just  ripen- 
ing into  manhood.  No  copy  of  it  is 
known  to  exist  ;  the  artist  prolmbly  gave 
his  model  of  proportion  a  quiet,  simple 
attitude,  without  any  strong,  distinguish- 
ing marks.  His  successors  imitated  it 
without  deviation.  Polycletus  was  not 
the  only  Greek  artist  who  pursued  such 
investigations  respecting  the  proportions 
of  form.  Euphranor,  for  instance  (in  the 
10th  Olympiad),  is  celebrated  in  the  same 
way.  Among  the  moderns,  Diirer  and 
Leonardo  da  Vinci  have  devoted  them- 
selves to  similar  inquiries.  See  A.  Hirt's 
Ahhandlung  uberden  Canon  in  der  bilden- 
den  Kunst  in  the  Abhandl.  der  Histor-phi- 
lolog.  Classe  der  ki'migl.  Akad.  der  Wiss. 
in  Berlin  (1814  and  1815),  a  table  annexed 
to  which  gives  the  average  proportions 
(ascertained  by  careful  measiaements)  of 
tlie  best  ancient  statues. 

Canon,  in  music,  signified,  with  the  an- 
cient Greeks,  what  now  is  called  mono- 
chord.  At  present,  it  signifies  a  composi- 
tion in  which  the  several  voices  begin  at 
fixed  intervals,  one  after  the  other,  and  in 
which  each  successive  voice  sings  tlie 
verse  or  the  strain  of  the  preceding  one. 
In  Itahan,  therefore,  it  is  called  fiiga  di 
conseguenza ;  in  Latin,  canon  perpetuus, 
or  continuous  fiigue ;  in  German,  Kreis- 
fuge  (circulating  fugue).  Sometimes 
each  voice  begins  with  the  same,  some- 
times with  different  notes.  Canons  may 
be  finite  or  infinite.  The  former  end,  like 
any  other  compositions,  with  a  cadence, 
while  the  infinite  canon  is  so  contrived, 
tliat  the  theme  is  begun  again  before  the 
parts  which  follow  are  concluded.  By 
this  means,  the  performance  might  be 
contimied  to  an  indefinite  length.  A 
canon  may  consist  of  two,  three,  four  or 
more  voices.  Generally  only  one  voice  of 
a  canon  is  written,  and  a  sign  shows  the 
place  where  the  other  voices  are  to  begin. 
Formerly,  at  the  beginning  of  canons,  it 
was  the  custom  to  place  the  directions  by 
which  they  were  to  be  deciphered  and  sung. 
These  directions  were  caJled  the  nde  or 
canon,  and  thence  ai'ises  the  title  which 
such  compositions  have  since  retained. 
Canons  differ  from  ordinary  fiigues  ;  for, 
in  the  latter,  it  is  sufficient  that  the  subject 
be  occasionally  repeated  and  imitated  ac- 
cording to  the  laws  of  counterpoint ;  but. 


478 


CANON— CANON  OF  THE  HOLY  SCRIPTURES. 


in  the  former,  it  is  essential  that  the  sub- 
ject be  strictly  repeated  by  all  the  suc- 
ceeding parts;  which  rejjctition  may  be 
made  in  the  unison  or  octave,  the  fourth, 
or  llie  fifth,  or  any  other  interval  of  the 
scale.  There  are  several  other  canons,  as 
canon  polymorphus,  canon  pertonos,  canon 
per  diminntionem,  and  canon  per  augmen- 
tationem,  which  to  explain,  would  exceed 
our  limits.  Sometimes,  also,  a  musical 
passage  of  a  composition,  in  which  one 
voice  repeats,  for  a  short  time,  another,  is 
called,  improperly,  a  canon. 

Cano.x  ( Greek)  ;  properly  a  measure,  a 
rule,  a  standard  ;  thence  canon  is  used  to 
denote  the  rule  or  standard  of  j)rimitive 
Christianity.  The  same  term  is  emj)loyed  to 
designate  the  collection  of  books  contain- 
ing this  rule ;  that  is,  the  canonical  books 
of  the  Holy  Scriptures,  whose  divine  ori- 
gin the  church  acknowledges.  The  can- 
on of  the  books  of  the  Old  Testament,  as 
drawn  up  by  the  Jews  in  tlie  4th  century 
before  Chiist  (see  Hebrew  Language  and 
lAterature),  receives  in  this  form  equal 
respect  among  all  Christians,  because 
Christ  and  the  apostles  have  expressly 
appealed  to  them,  and  pronounced  them 
-writings  inspired  by  God.  The  apociy- 
phal  books  of  the  Old  Testament,  whose 
canonical  chai-acter  the  Jews  did  not  ac- 
knowledge, the  Eastern  church  has  never 
received  ;  but  the  Western  church  declar- 
ed them  canonical,  in  the  African  council, 
about  the  end  of  the  4th  century.  Nev- 
ertheless, the  opinions  of  the  clergy  re- 
specting the  canonical  authority  of  the 
apocrj'-|)hal  books  of  the  Old  Testament 
remained  for  a  long  time  divided.  Je- 
rome, one  of  the  fathers  of  the  church, 
denied  it,  and  many  theologians  coincided 
with  him.  {See  the  foUoiving  article.) 
The  Protestant  churches  reject  the  Apoc- 
rypha as  books  not  belonging  to  the  rule 
of  faith.  Respecting  the  value  and  the 
immber  of  the  books  belonging  to  the 
canon  of  tlie  New  Testament,  the  opin- 
ions of  Christians  were  nuich  divided  till 
the  Gth  century.  As  early  as  the  2d  cen- 
tury, the  separation  was  made  into  the 
Evangelicon  (the  four  evangelists)  and 
tlie  Apostohcon  (the  Acts  and  Epistles  of 
the  Apostles).  The  five  historical  books, 
the  Epistles  of  Paul,  the  First  Epistle 
of  Peter,  and  the  First  Epistle  of  John, 
were  universally  acknowledged  to  be  geli- 
uine  in  the  3d  century ;  iience  tiiey  are 
called,  by  Eusebius,  in  his  Ecclesiastical 
History,  written  about  A.  D.  325,  Homo- 
logotnena  (universally  received).  The 
other  five  Catholic  Epistles  (Second  of  Pe- 
ter, Second  and  Third  of  John,  Jude  and 


James)  he  calls  Antilegomena  (doubtful, 
not  universally  received).  At  that  time, 
the  E])istle  to  the  Hebrews  was  consid- 
ered genuine  by  most  persons,  and  the 
Apocalypse  by  many.  These  books  were 
received,  in  the  second  half  of  the  4th 
century,  in  the  Egyptian  church  (where 
Athanasius  first  used  the  term  canonical), 
and  in  the  Western  church.  In  the  East- 
ern church,  jiroperly  so  called  (the  dio- 
ceses of  the  patriarchs  of  Constantinople, 
Antioch  and  Jerusalem),  only  the  Catho- 
lic Epistles  were  of  canonical  authority 
at  that  time  ;  the  Apocalypse  not  till  the 
(jth  century.  The  canon  of  the  New 
Testament  has  since  remained  unaltered, 
and  the  Protestant  churches  hold  it  in 
common  with  the  Greek  and  Catholic 
churches.  The  results  of  critical  exami- 
nations of  the  genuineness  and  canonical 
character  of  the  single  books  of  the  Bible, 
even  when  they  were  unfovorable  to  the 
books,  have  produced  no  alteration  in  the 
established  canon.  The  reasons  of  tlie 
ancient  fathers  of  the  church  for  or  against 
the  canonical  character  of  the  Biblical 
books  were  merely  historical  and  tradi- 
tional, and  built  on  philological  criticism  ; 
they  are  still  the  most  tenable  and  ration- 
al :  the  philosophical  grounds  are  more 
subject  to  be  affected  by  extraneous  in- 
fluences. Modern  criticism  has  attacked, 
with  success,  the  genuineness  of  single 
passages  ;  but  it  has  failed  in  its  attempt  to 
destroy  the  canonical  authority  of  whole 
books.  With  respect  to  the  Apocalypse,  or 
Revelation  of  John,  however,  a  large  num- 
ber of  the  Protestant  commentators  incline 
to  the  side  of  the  assailants. — Canon  is 
also  the  name  of  the  })rayei-s  which  the 
Catholic  priests  repeat  before,  at  and  af- 
ter the  consecration  of  the  host. — In  arith- 
metic, algebra,  &c.,  canon  denotes  a  for- 
mula obtained  by  the  solution  of  a  prob- 
lem, and  containing  the  rule  by  which  all 
examples,  comprehended  imder  tlie  gene- 
ral problem,  may  be  solved. 

Canon  of  the  Holy  Scriptures 
[written  by  a  Catholic].  The  distinguish- 
ing characteristic  of  the  Catholic  religion, 
as  is  fully  explained  in  the  article  Caiholi- 
cism,  is,  the  authority  which  it  attributes 
to  tradition,  by  which  revelation  continues 
in  life  and  power.  The  Holy  Scrips 
tures  are  esteemed  sacred  by  the  Catho- 
lics, because  the  church  has  transmitted 
them  from  age  to  age  as  sacred,  and  illus- 
trative of  revelation,  as  far  as  any  writings 
can  be.  The  church  has  only  declared 
what  writings  have  been  handed  down  as 
of  divine  origin.  The  catalogue  of  these 
Holy  Scriptures  is  the  canon ;  the  writ- 


CANON  OF  THE  HOLY  SCRIPTURES— CANON  LAW. 


479 


ings  themselves  are  called  Canonical 
Books.  In  this  sense,  the  Protestant 
church  has  no  canon  ;  it  rejects  the  au- 
thority of  dl  the  traditions  of  the  churcii. 
Hence,  in  order  to  be  consistent,  it  must 
leave  every  Protestant,  on  free  uivestiga- 
tlon,  to  decide  what  books  he  will  regard  as 
canonical.  But  the  Bible,  the  pillar  of  the 
Protestant  faith,  is  made  up  of  separate 
canonical  books ;  and,  l)y  ])ursuing  such  a 
coui-se,  the  basis  of  the  Protestant  faith 
might  be  undermined.  It  has  been 
agreed,  therefore,  however  uiconsistently, 
to  adopt  the  New  Testament  canon  of  the 
Catholic  church.  But,  in  fixing  the  canon 
of  the  Old  Testament,  the  decisions  of  the 
Catholic  church  have  been  rejected  ;  and, 
contrary  to  the  African  councils  and  the 
usage  of  the  Roman  church,  established 
by  tlie  council  of  Trent,  part  of  Es- 
ther, also  Baruch,  Tobit,  Judith,  Wisdom, 
Ecclesiasticus  or  Jesus  the  Son  of  Sirach, 
tlie  two  books  of  Maccabees,  the  Song 
of  the  Three  Youths  in  the  Fiery  Fur- 
nace, described  in  Daniel,  together  with 
the  two  last  chaptei-s  of  this  prophet,  are 
thrown  out  as  uncanonical  and  apocry- 
phal. It  is  worthy  of  mention,  that  a 
controvei-sy  on  this  subject  broke  off  the 
negotiations  for  a  union  of  the  Catholic  and 
Protestant  churches,  which  commenced 
in  the  beginning  of  the  18th  century,  be- 
tween Leibnitz,  Molanus  and  Bossuet. 

Cason  and  Caput  ix  Councils.  A 
council  is  not  only  the  church  universal 
assembled,  which  declares  the  faith  of  the 
members,  and  fixes  the  doctrines  to  be  de- 
lended,  but  it  also  possesses  the  supreme 
])ower  in  the  administration  of  all  ecclesi- 
astical afTaii-s,  which  have  not  inunediate 
reference  to  doctrines  (as  liturgies  and 
rules  of  discipline).  In  the  language  of 
the  church,  a  distinction  is  made  between 
these  two  kinds  of  ordinances.  Such  as 
respect  doctrine  are  called  canons  ;  and 
every  other  precept  or  regulation,  caput 
or  decrdum.  The  latter  are  subject  to  be 
changed  as  the  spirit  of  the  age  requires, 
and  hence  lay  no  claim  to  infallibility: 
the  former  are  the  unalterable  truths  and 
doctrines  of  the  infallible  church  of  the 
Lord.  The  council  of  Trent  makes  a 
distinction  between  the  two,  and  the  cap- 
ita on  church  discipline  are  superscribed 
Dc  Reformatione.  It  would  be  a  great 
mistake  to  view  these  capita  as  doctrinal 
truths,  and  tiien  to  reproach  the  church 
with  establishing  erroneous  dogmas  as 
truths  essential  to  salvation. 

Ca?jo-v  Law  [written  by  a  Catholic]. 
Tlie  famous  Gravina  begins  his  Institutes 
of  the  canon  law  tlius : — Since  the  word 


law  is  imperative,  and  includes  the  idea 
of  physicfil  enforcement,  the  ancient 
chincli  preferred  to  ap{)!y  to  its  precepts 
the  milder  term  of  rule  or  canon  (from  the 
Greek  Kdvm;  rule),  which  agrees  with  the 
language  of  the  council  of  Trent,  and  the 
most  able  canonists,  as  Van  Espen,  &c. 
Canons,  therefore,  are  the  laws  which 
the  church  has  promulgated;  and  by 
canon  laic,  in  English,  is  undei-stood  the 
whole  body  of  ecclesiastical  laws,  ordi- 
nances and  regulations.  The  church  haa 
been,  from  the  time  of  its  establishment, 
a  free  society,  possessing  and  exercising 
the  riglit  of  forming  laws  for  itself,  either 
by  positive  enactment,  or  by  the  gradual 
growth  of  custom.  The  regulations  of 
the  apostles,  the  decrees  of  the  general 
and  particular  councils,  and  of  the  bish- 
ops, constitute  these  laws.  Even  when, 
after  the  downfall  of  paganism,  the  Chris- 
tian church  became  connected  with  the 
state,  it  retained  this  legislative  power. 
If  the  Theodosian  code  acquired  author- 
ity, it  was  only  in  consequejice  of  recep- 
tion. The  more  the  organization  of  the 
church  became  settled,  the  more  frequent 
became  the  regidations  and  ordei-s  of  the 
sui)reme  bishop  (the  decretals).  There  is 
no  question  about  the  authority  which 
was  allowed  to  these  decretals,  and  it  is 
useless  to  inquire  here  whether  this  au- 
thority originated  from  positive  enactment 
or  from  customary  observance.  The  ec- 
clesiastical as  well  as  the  political  law  is 
to  be  traced,  in  pait,  to  each  of  these 
sources.  In  the  couree  of  time,  collec- 
tions were  made  of  these  canons,  arranged 
in  chronological  order {Collectio  Canonum). 
These  collections  came  into  use  in  the 
fifth  and  sixth  centm-ies.  The  chief  basis 
of  them  was  a  translation  of  the  decrees 
of  the  four  first  general  councils,  to  which 
other  decrees  of  particular  synods  and 
decretals  of  the  pojies  were  added.  In 
the  time  of  Charlemagne,  the  collection 
of  Dionysius  the  Little  acquired  almost 
the  authority  of  laws.  Equal  authority, 
also,  was  allowed  to  the  collection  of  can- 
ons ascribed  to  Isidore,  bishop  of  Seville, 
which  appeared  in  the  ninth  century. 
This  famous  collection  is  falsely  attributed 
to  Isidore,  and  abounds  in  spurious  inter- 
polations. It  was  entitled  the  Isidorian 
Code,  and  is  said  to  have  been  brought 
from  Spain.  The  object  of  the  interpola- 
tions of  the  Psendo- Isidore  was  probably 
to  give  a  historical  basis  to  a  system 
grown  up  out  of  obsei-vance,  which  trans- 
ferred many  of  the  former  rights  of  the 
metroijolitans  to  the  pope.  After  the  10th 
century,  the  custom   which  had  before 


CANON  LAW. 


prevailed,  of  collectinff  chronologically 
tlie  ordinances  of  the  church,  and  study- 
ing them  from  the  sources,  was  given  up, 
and  systematical  compendiums  of  ecclesi- 
astical law  began  to  be  drawn  from  these 
canons.  In  these  compendiums,  it  is  true, 
literal  extracts  of  the  canons  were  retained, 
but  often  mutilated,  and  separated  from 
their  proper  connexion.  The  most  im- 
portant of  these  compendiums  is  that  of 
the  Benedictine  Gratian  (of  Chiusi),  which 
he  finished  in  1151,  in  the  convent  of  St. 
Felix,  at  Bologna.  Gratian  treated  the 
subjects  of  the  canon  law  according  to  a 
system  which  he  had  formed  himself,  and 
under  each  division  laid  down  principles, 
which  he  established  by  quotations  from 
the  original  decrees.  By  means  of  these 
authorities,  with  additions  of  his  own,  he 
extended  his  principles  further,  and  en- 
deavored to  reconcile  apparent  contradic- 
tions in  the  law,  or,  where  they  could  not 
be  reconciled,  to  determine  which  part 
was  binding.  Hence  the  title  of  his  work 
— Concordantia  Discordantium  Canonum. 
He  divides  the  whole  subject  into  three 
parts :  in  the  first,  he  begins  with  a  gen- 
eral essay  on  law,  particularly  ecclesiasti- 
cal law,  and  treats  of  the  officers  of  the 
church,  tlieir  character,  rights,  duties,  con- 
secration, and  share  in  the  government  of 
the  church :  the  second  part  contains  the 
system  of  the  powers  of  the  church,  par- 
ticularly of  its  jurisdiction  and  judicial 
processes:  the  third  part  embraces  the 
rules  respecting  religious  rites,  the  liturgy, 
the  sacraments,  &c.  This  new  collection 
met  with  great  success.  Witliin  10  years 
after  its  appeai-ance,  the  universities  of 
Bologna  and  Pai'is  had  their  professoi-s  of 
canon  law,  who  taught  fi-om  Gratian's 
work;  and,  within  a  short  time,  it  super- 
seded all  former  chronological  collections. 
As  the  civil  law  acquired  authority  in  so 
many  countries  from  the  circumstance 
that  it  was  taught  in  the  univei-sities,  so 
the  Decretum  Gratiani,  in  the  same  way, 
became  a  code,  and  with  more  reason, 
since  it  expounded  a  law  really  existing ; 
and  what  Gratian  had  added  was,  to  a 
certain  degree,  considered  as  commentary. 
Any  direct  cooperation  of  the  popes  in 
elevating  the  Decretum  Gratiani  to  the 
authority  of  a  code  has  never  been  proved. 
This  Decretum,  however,  is  only  the  first 
part  of  the  present  Corpus  Juris  Canonici. 
After  the  api)earauce  of  the  Decretum, 
new  decrees  of  councils  and  new  decre- 
tals were  promulgated,  which  several  au- 
thors collected  mto  appendices.  All  tiiese 
new  collections  pope  Gregory  IX  ordered 
to  be  put  in  order,  which  was  done  by  the 


Dominican  Raymond,  of  Pennaforte.  The 
work  was  divided  into  five  books.  This 
authentic  collection  was  finished  in  1234, 
and  sent  to  the  universities  of  Bologna 
and  Paris.  It  bears  the  name  of  Decre- 
tales  Gregorii  A^oni,  and  has  the  authority 
of  law.  The  later  decretals  and  decrees 
of  councils  were  collected  by  Boniface 
VIII,  and  publislied  as  the  sixth  book 
(Liber  Sextus)  of  tlie  Gregorian  Decretals, 
in  1298.  They  have  also  the  atithority  of 
laws.  Pope  Clement  V  published,  in 
1313,  a  collection  of  his  decrees,  mostly 
issued  at  the  council  lield  at  Vienne,  in 
France  :  they  are  also  a  part  of  the  Corpus 
Juris  Canonici.  About  the  year  1340,  the 
decretals  of  John  XXII  were  publislied  ; 
tliey  are  called  Extravagantes  Johannis 
XXJ[;  and,  at  a  later  period,  the  subse- 
quent decretals,  to  the  time  of  Sixtus  IV, 
Avho  died  in  1484,  called  Extravagantes 
Communes,  appeared.  These  Extrava- 
gantes have  not  altogether  the  autiiority 
of  law.  Under  pope  Pius  IV,  a  commis- 
sion of  35  persons  (the  correctores  Roma- 
ni)  was  appointed  to  revise  the  Decretum 
Gratiani.  The  labor  was  continued  un- 
der Pius  V,  and  completed  under  Gregory 
XIII,  and  sanctioned  by  a  bull  of  July  1, 
1580.  The  later  bulls  have  the  force  of 
law,  if  they  concern  a  subject  on  which 
the  pope  has  an  unquestionable  right  to 
legislate,  or  as  far  as  the  secular  govern- 
ments accept  them.  The  canon  law,  ex- 
cepting some  of  its  regulations,  is  in  force 
in  Germany,  even  in  civil  cases.  Luther, 
it  is  well  known,  burned  a  copy  of  the 
canon  law  at  AVittemberg,  but  the  Protest- 
ant courts  have  continued  to  apply  it,  ex- 
cept where  it  disagrees  with  Protestaiit 
principles.  The  canons,  even  those  of 
the  general  councils,  which  respect  the 
disciphne  of  the  church,  have  no  authori- 
ty in  the  Gallican  church,  unless  it  is 
proved  that  they  have  been  admitted  as 
laws  of  the  kingdom.  The  celebrated 
declaration  of  the  clergy  of  France,  of 
1682,  is  a  series  of  very  important  canons. 
They  are  to  be  considered  as  rules  of  tlie 
Gallican  church  and  ktws  of  the  kingdom. 
Many  Catholics  are  willing  to  admit  that 
there  exist  arbitrary  canons  in  the  eccle- 
siastical codes,  as  much  as  unconstitution- 
al laws  m  civil  governments.  In  Eng- 
land, when  the  Catliolic  faith  prevailed  in 
that  countiy,  there  existed,  besides  the 
general  canon  law,  tlie  legatiBe  and  pro- 
vincial constitutions ;  the  former  being 
laws  enacted  in  national  synods,  held  un- 
der the  cardinals  Otlio  and  Otiiobon,  le- 
gates from  pope  Gregory  IX  and  Clement 
IV,  about  the  years  1220  and  1268 ;  the 


CANON  LAW— CANOSA. 


481 


latter  being  decrees  of  various  provincial 
synods,  under  several  archbishops  of  Can- 
terbur>'.  The  authority  of  the  canon  law 
in  England,  since  the  reformation,  depends 
upon  the  statute  25th  Heniy  VIII,  ac- 
cording to  Avhich  the  ecclesiastical  laws 
were  to  be  i-evised  by  the  king  and  a 
commission  of  nobles  and  clergymen,  and 
such  as  were  not  repugnant  to  the  laws 
of  the  realm  and  the  king's  ])rerogative 
were  to  remain  in  force  till  so  revised. 
This  revision  was  never  made.  There 
are  tour  species  of  courts  in  England,  in 
which  the  canon  law,  as  well  as  the  civil, 
is,  under  different  restrictions,  j)ermitted 
to  be  used :  1.  the  courts  of  the  archbish- 
ops and  bishops,  and  their  derivative  offi- 
cers, usually  called,  in  the  English  law, 
courts  Christian  [curiae.  Christianitatis),  or 
ecclesiastical  courts ;  2.  the  military  courts ; 
3.  the  courts  of  admiralty ;  4.  the  courts 
of  the  two  universities.  The  rece])tion  of 
these  laws  in  general,  and  the  different 
degrees  of  their  reception  in  these  courts, 
are  grounded  entirely  u])on  custom,  cor- 
roborated, in  the  case  of  the  universities, 
by  acts  of  parliament.  The  courts  of 
common  law  have  a  superintendence  over 
these  courts.  An  appeal  lies  from  all  of 
them  to  the  king. 

Canonical  Books.  (See  Canon,  and 
Apocryphal.) 

Canonical  Hours  are  certain  stated 
times  of  the  day,  devoted,  more  es|)ecially 
by  the  Roman  church,  to  the  otiices  of 
prayer  and  devotion,  as  matins,  lauds,  sixth, 
ninth,  vespers,  In  England,  the  canonical 
hours  are  from  8  to  12  in  the  forenoon, 
before  or  after  which  marriage  cannot  be 
legally  performed  in  any  parish  church. 

Canonization  ;  a  ceremony  in  the  Ro- 
man church,  by  which  deceased  pei*sons 
are  declared  saints.  Alexander  III,  in 
1 170,  pronounced  it  an  exclusive  privilege 
of  the  papal  chair.  This  ceremony  is  one 
of  the  most  solemn  in  the  Roman  church. 
The  pope  institutes  a  foi-mal  investigation 
of  the  qualifications  of  the  deceased  per- 
son recommended  for  canonization,  in 
which  his  manner  of  life  and  the  genuine- 
ness of  the  miracles  ascribed  to  him  are 
strictly  examined ;  and  an  advocate  of  the 
devil,  as  he  is  called,  is  ajipointed,  to  assail 
the  memory  of  the  candidate,  but,  of 
course,  always  loses  his  cause.  If  the 
examination  is  satisfactory,  the  pope  pro- 
nounces the  beatification  (q.  v.)  of  the 
candidate ;  but,  in  order  to  collect  new 
proofs  of  his  merits  (e.  g.,  of  miracles  per- 
formed by  his  relics),  the  actual  canoniza- 
tion generally  takes  place  many  years 
afterwards ;  and  then  a  day,  usually  the 

VOL.  11.  41 


anniversary  of  the  death  of  the  new  saint, 
is  dedicated  to  his  honor,'  his  name  is  hi- 
seited  in  the  Canon  or  the  Litany  of  the 
Saints  in  the  Mass  (thence  caivonization), 
churches  and  altars  are  consecrated  to 
him,  and  his  remains  are  preserved  as 
holy  rehcs.  The  last  instance  of  canon- 
ization occurred  in  1803.    (See  Saints.) 

Canopus,  orCANOBDS,  in  Egyptian  an- 
tiquities, is  the  name  given  to  large-bellied 
vessels,  used  formerly  for  presening  the 
water  of  the  Nile  fresh  and  fit  for  drink- 
ing. They  were  frequently  made  of  basalt 
(as  the  fine  canopus  of  green  basalt  in  the 
villa  Albani),  and  decorated  with  figures 
in  relievo  or  paintings;  or  of  costly  white 
alabaster,  like  that  in  the  Mus.  Pio.  Cle- 
inentinum,  with  spiral  flutings ;  or  they 
Avere  formed  from  black,  burned  clay. 
Under  the  shape  of  such  a  vessel,  sur- 
mounted by  a  human  head,  connected 
also  sometimes  with  serpents,  and  similar 
attributes,  the  Egyptians  worshipped  one 
of  their  beneficent  deities.  The  city  Ca- 
nobus  or  Canopus,  between  Alexandria 
and  the  western  mouth  of  the  Nile,  is  said 
to  have  derived  its  name  from  this  deity. 
The  woi'ship  of  Serapis  was  introduced, 
in  the  room  of  that  of  this  rude  idol,  under 
the  fii-st  Ptolemy.  (See  Part  1st  of  Creu- 
zer's  Syinbolik,  where  representations  of 
this  idol  are  given.  For  information  re- 
specting the  worship  of  the  same,  see 
Creuzer's  Dionysos.)  According  to  Eu- 
sebius,  the  si)herical  shape  of  the  vessel 
was  to  express  the  universal  nature,  or  the 
world.  The  human  head  upon  it  signified 
the  all-enlivening  spirit  (vouj),  which  was 
denoted  also,  in  former  tunes,  by  the  fig- 
ures of  a  ball  and  a  serpent.  According 
to  Zoega  [JVumi  Mgyptii  Imperatorii,  page 
34),  Canopus  was  the  same  as  Knuph, 
which  seems  to  come  from  the  same  root, 
and  denotes  the  kind,  protecting  god. 
There  are  traces,  in  Italy,  of  the  worship 
of  this  deity,  in  that  countrj',  in  the  time 
of  Adrian. 

Canosa;  a  city  in  Lower  Italy  {Terra 
di  Bari),  famous  for  the  tombs  in  its  vi- 
cinity, near  the  field  where  Hannibal  de- 
feated the  Romans.  They  are  cut  in 
rocks,  on  a  hill.  Vases  of  coarse,  whitish 
clay  have  been  found  in  them.  In  1813, 
a  beautiful  burial-chamber  was  opened. 
It  had  a  small  ante-chamber,  supported  by 
})illai-s,  and  contained  the  corpse  of  a  war- 
rior in  armor,  with  a  helmet  on  his  liead, 
but  one  leg  bare.  The  body  crumbled  to 
dust  as  soon  as  it  was  exposed  to  the 
exterior  air.  The  wall  of  the  apartment 
contained  a  fine  basso-relievo.  A  copper 
lamp  and  a  number  of  beautiful  vases 


m 


CANOSA— CANOVA. 


were  also  found  here.  (See  Millin's  De- 
scription des  Tombeaux  de  Canosa  ainsi 
que  des  Bas-reliefs,  des  Annures,  et  des 
Fasts  peints  qui  y  ont  He  decouvetis  en 
1813  (Paris,  1813,  folio),  with  correct  rep- 
resentations). The  paintings  upon  tlie 
vases  are  the  most  important  part  of  this 
discovery.  They  refer  to  the  Greek-Ital- 
ian mysteries  of  the  eldest  inhabitants. 

Canosa  (near  Reggio,  hi  the  duchy  of 
Modena) ;  a  mountain  castle,  now  in  ruins. 
Adelheid,  widow  of  king  Lotharius,  was 
besieged  here,  in  951,  by  Berenger  II., 
when  she  offered  her  hand  and  the  crown 
of  Italj'  to  Otho  the  Great,  emperor  of 
Germany.  In  the  11th  century,  Canosa 
belonged  to  Matilda,  duchess  of  Tuscany, 
with  whom  Gregory  VII  resided,  in  1077, 
when  he  imposed  a  severe  penance  upon 
the  excommimicated  emperor  lleniy  IV^. 

Canova,  Antonio ;  the  third  sculptor 
of  modern  times,  who  has  formed  an 
epoch  in  Itahan  statuary.  Michael  Ange- 
lo  Buonarotti  was  the  first,  Beniini  the 
second.  C.  may  be  considered  as  the 
restorer  of  the  graceful  and  lovely  style, 
and  the  founder  of  a  new  school,  as  far  as 
it  respects  softness  and  delic.icy  of  exe- 
cution, and  excellent  handling  of  the 
marble.  He  was  bom,  Nov.  1,  1757,  at 
Possagno,  in  the  Venetian  territory. 
AVhile  a  boy  of  12  years  old,  he  displayed 
his  talents  by  modelling  the  figure  of  a 
lion  in  butter,  which  was  placed  on  the 
table  of  Falieri,  the  seigneur  of  the  place. 
The  Falieri,  father  and  son,  sent  him, 
therefore,  as  an  apprentice,  to  a  statuaiy 
in  Bassano,  where  he  acquired  skill  in 
the  mechanical  part  of  the  ait.  His  first 
work,  executed  in  bis  17th  year,  was  an 
Eurydice,  in  soft  marble,  of  half  the  nat- 
ural size.  He  was  now  sent  to"  the  acad- 
emy of  V^enice,  where  his  proper  study 
of  the  art  commenced.  He  gained  several 
prizes,  and  excited  expectations  M'hich  he 
more  than  equalled  in  the  sequel.  The 
first  work,  which  he  was  commissioned  to 
execute,  was  the  statue  of  the  marchese 
Poleni,  of  the  natural  size,  for  the  city  of 
Padua.  In  his  25th  year,  he  finished"  the 
group  of  Daedalus  and  Icarus,  of  the  nat- 
ural size,  in  Carrara  marble.  It  is  re- 
markable as  a  juvenile  work,  but  is  only 
a  faithful  imitation  of  common  nature. 
The  senate  of  Venice  sent  him,  in  1779, 
to  Rome,  with  a  salary  of  300  ducats. 
Here  tlie  first  fruit  of  his  study  was  an 
Apollo  crowning  himself  with  laurel,  three 
palms  higlv,  in  marble.  It  is  weak,  and 
without  character.  Yet  the  artist,  in  this 
production,  has  advanced  beyond  the 
mere  imitation  of  nature ;  and  this  statue 


is  to  be  considered  as  his  transition  to  the 
ideal.  A  group  as  large  as  life — Theseus 
sitting  upon  the  slain  Minotaur — was  the 
first  large  work  by  which  C.  made  him-  ' 
self  known  in  Rome  (1783).  It  is  one  of 
liis  best  works.  Theseus  has  the  charac- 
ter of  a  hero ;  and  the  forms  show  the 
study  and  style  of  the  antiques.  It  was 
received  with  universal  applause,  and 
count  Fries,  in  Vienna,  purchased  it.  In 
1783,  C.  undertook  the  execution  of  the 
tomb  of  poj)e  Clement  XIV,  in  the  church 
Degli  Apostoli.  He  retained  the  usual 
style  of  composition,  and  only  improved 
on  the  depraved  taste  of  the  school  of 
Bernini.  He  next  made  the  group  of 
Cupid  and  Psyche,  where  he  first  dis- 
played his  own  peculiar  style,  of  which 
loveUness  is  a  striking  characteristic.  The 
figures  are  exceedingly  delicate  and  gi'ace- 
ful ;  yet  there  is  no  point  of  view  from 
which  the  countenances  of  both  can  he 
seen  at  the  same  time ;  besides,  the  wings 
of  Cupid  project  disagreeably  from  the 
group,  which  presents  too  many  inter- 
stices. About  the  same  time,  he  executed 
the  Ukeness  of  the  young  prince  Czarto- 
riski,  in  the  character  of  Cupid.  He  was 
employed  on  a  second  public  monument, 
the  tomb  of  pope  Clement  XIII,  in  St. 
Peter's.  It  was  finished  in  1792,  and  is 
distinguished  by  its  colossal  size  and 
simple  style.  (See  the  engi-avin^of  Ra- 
phael Morghen.)  The  figure  of  Religion 
is  objected  to  Jis  stift';  the  long  rays,  tlie 
huge  cross,  and  the  petty  folds  of  the 
lower  dress,  give  her  a  tasteless  air.  The 
Genius  has  more  beauty  of  appeai-ance 
than  depth  of  expression.  Meanwhile, 
the  fame  of  the  artist  continually  in- 
creased. He  established,  in  the  palace 
of  the  Venetian  ambassador,  a  school  for 
the  benefit  of  young  Venetians.  His  next 
works  were  a  w  inged  Cupid,  standing ; 
another  group  of  Cupid  and  Psyche ;  a 
p'oup  of  Venus  and  Adonis  (in  which  the 
figure  of  llie  latter  is  particularly  beauti- 
ful), for  the  marchese  Verio,  in  Naples ; 
the  tomb  of  the  Venetian  admiral  Emo, 
for  the  republic  of  Venice.  This  is  a  com- 
bination of  basso-relievos,  with  figures  in 
full  relief.  C.  also  made  a  very  lovely 
Psyche,  standing,  half-dressed,  with  a  but- 
tei^y  in  her  lell  hand,  which  she  holds 
by  the  wings  with  her  right,  and  contem- 
plates with  a  calm,  smihng  mien.  He 
also  modelled,  at  this  time,  many  basso- 
relievos,  mostly  scenes  from  the  life  of 
Socrates,  taken  from  ancient  fable  and 
history,  which  cannot  all  be  called  suc- 
cessful. Only  one  of  these  models,  which 
represents  the  city  of  Padua  as  a  sitting 


CANOVA. 


483 


female  figure,  he  executed  in  marble.  A 
repentant  Magdalen,  of  the  natural  size, 
belongs  to  the  works  in  marble,  in  which 
he  ha-i  carried  the  expression  of  the  melt- 
ing and  the  soft  to  the  highest  degree. 
The  relaxing  effect  of  repentance  is  ex- 
pressed witli  great  tnith.  His  Hebe  is  a 
delightful  figure.  In  an  easy  and  ani- 
mated attitude,  the  smiling  goddess  of 
youth  hovers  ufX)n  a  cloud,  pouring  nec- 
tar, with  her  right  hand,  into  a  bowl, 
which  she  holds  in  her  left.  Both  vessel?:, 
as  well  as  the  coronet  of  Hebe,  and  the 
edges  of  her  garment,  are  gilt.  C.  is  fond 
of  a  variety  ol"  material,  and  often  endeav- 
oi-s  to  give  to  his  statues  the  eflect  of 
j)ictures.  He  repeated  this  and  the  pre- 
ce<ling  statue.  He  next  displayed  his 
taleiit  for  the  tragical,  in  the  raging 
Hercules  hurling  Lichas  into  tiie  sea, 
The  group  is  colossal,  and  Hercules  some- 
what larger  than  the  Farnesian ;  but  it 
makes  a  disagreeable  impression,  which 
])roves  that  the  genius  of  C.  was  not 
adapted  to  such  subjects.  His  represent- 
ation of  the  two  pugilists,  Kreugas  and 
Demoxenos,  is  much  more  successful.  A 
standing  group  of  Cupid  and  Psyche, 
M'hich  has  been  often  repeated,  was  the 
triumph  of  his  art.  Psyche  here  appeanj 
again  holding  the  butterfly.  A  Palamedes, 
subsequent!}'  executed  by  C  in  iriarble, 
was  overthrown,  in  the  winter  of  1805, 
bv  an  inundation,  and  broken  in  pieces. 
In  1796  and  1797,  C.  finished  the  model 
of  the  celebrated  tomb  of  the  late  arch- 
duchess Christina  of  Austria,  wife  of  duke 
Albert  of  Saxe-Teschen,  wliich,  in  1805, 
was  placed  in  the  church  of  the  Augus- 
tines,  at  Vienna.  The  design  of  it  is 
original ;  for  the  first  time,  the  gi-eat  artist 
ventured  to  leave  the  common  track.  In 
1797,  he  made  the  colossal  model  of  a 
statue  of  the  king  of  Naples,  one  of  his 
finest  works.  In  the  beginning  of  the 
revolution,  the  studio  of  C.  was  in  great 
danger  from  the  Jacobins ;  but  the  lovely 
Psyches,  Hebes  and  Cupids  softened  the 
rage  of  the  mob,  and  saved  the  work-shop 
of  the  artist,  in  the  back  part  of  which 
the  royal  colossus  was  concealed.  This 
gtatne,  15  palms  high,  was  executed  in 
marble,  in  1803.  During  the  revolution 
of  1798  and  1799,  C.  accompanied  the 
senator  prince  Rezzonico  on  a  journey 
through  Germany.  After  his  return,  he 
remained  for  some  time  in  the  Venetian 
territory,  aud  painted,  for  the  cliurch  of 
his  native  village,  Possagno,  an  altar- 
piece,  in  which  are  represented  the  dead 
Christ,  the  Maries,  Nicodemus  and  Jo- 
seph, and,  on  higli,  God  the  Father.     He 


afterwards  executed,  in  Rome,  his  Perseus 
with  the  head  of  Medusa,  which,  when 
the  Apollo  of  Belvedere  was  carried  to 
France,  occupied  its  place  and  pedestal. 
This  statue  increased  the  fame  of  C.  more 
than  any  of  the  preceding  works.  But 
Perseus  has  no  decided  character.  It  is 
only  an  imitation  of  the  Apollo.  The 
separate  parts  are  of  exquisite  beauty  in 
form,  as  v/ell  as  in  masterly,  delicate  fin- 
ishing. The  magical  chann  of  the  finish 
dazzles  the  eye,  and  makes  us  often  for- 
get the  more  severe  forms  of  art.  Far 
less  successful  is  the  Mars  padfer,  of 
equal  size.  In  1802,  C.  was  made,  by 
Pius  VII,  superintendent  of  the  Roman 
works  of  art,  and  knight  of  the  Golden 
Spur.  In  the  same  year,  he  was  invited 
by  Bonaparte  to  Paris,  to  make  the  model 
of  his  colossal  statue.  In  the  beginning 
of  1803,  the  model  of  the  emperor's  bust, 
and  afterwards  that  of  his  colossal  statue, 
was  to  be  seen  in  the  workshop  of  the 
artist.  It  is  impossible  to  conceive  a 
more  characteristic  likeness,  exhibiting,  at 
the  same  tinie,  the  ideal  character  of  the 
ancient  heroic  style.  We  have  not  a 
more  successful  work  of  the  kind  than 
this  bust :  the  figure  of  the  statue  is  not 
so  good.  George  IV  has  since  i)resented 
the  latter  to  the  duke  of  Wellington.  The 
statue  of  madame  Laetitia  Bonaparte  was 
purchased,  in  1819,  in  Paris,  by  the  duke 
of  Devonshire,  for  36,000  francs.  Among 
the  later  works  of  the  artist  are  a  Wash- 
ington, of  colossal  size,  in  a  sitting  atti- 
tude, now  in  the  state-house  at  Raleigh, 
the  seat  of  government  of  North  Carolina ; 
the  tombs  of  tlie  cardinal  of  York  and  of 
Pius  VII ;  the  busts  of  Pius  VII  and  of 
Francis  II ;  an  imitation  of  the  Medicean 
Venus  ;  a  Venus  rising  from  the  bath  ;  a 
portrait  statue,  lying,  half-dressed,  upon  a 
couch ;  the  tomb  of  the  late  engraver 
Volpato  ;  the  colossal  group  of  Theseus 
killing  the  Minotaur,  far  suiiiassing  his 
earlier  works  in  the  heroic  style ;  the 
tomb  of  Alfieri,  for  the  countess  of  Stol- 
berg,  in  Florence,  and  erected  in  that 
place  (the  weeping  Italia,  a  colossal  statue 
in  marble,  is  particularly  admired) ;  the 
Graces  rising  from  the  bath  ;  the  monu- 
ment of  the  marchioness  of  S.  Croce  ;  a 
colossal  basso-relievo,  in  marble ;  a  Ve- 
nus ;  a  dancing  girl,  with  almost  transpa- 
rent garments ;  the  portrait  statue  of  the 
wife  of  Lucien  Bonaparte,  with  the  IjTe 
in  her  arms,  a  large  marble  statue,  with 
beautiful  draper}^ ;  a  colossal  Hector ;  a 
Paris  ;  a  Muse,  larger  than  the  natural 
size  ;  a  model  of  a  colossal  Ajax ;  and  the 
model  of  a  sitting  statue,  in  rich  robes,  of 


484 


CANOVA— CANTACUZEXO. 


the  archdiicliess  Maria  Louisa  of  Austiia. 
After  the  second  fall  of  Napoleon,  in 
1815,  C.  was  commissioned,  by  the  pope, 
to  demand  the  restoration  of  the  works 
of  art  carried  from  Rome ;  went  from 
Paris  to  London,  and  returned  to  Rome 
in  1816,  where  Pius  VII  inscribed  his 
name  in  the  golden  book  of  the  capitol, 
declared  him  "  to  have  deserved  well  of 
the  city  of  Rome,"  and  made  him  marquis 
of  Ischia,  with  a  pension  of  3000  scudi. 
C.  died  at  Venice,  Oct.  13,  1822.— In  his 
manner  of  treating  the  marble,  a  particu- 
lai"  endeavor  to  produce  the  appearance 
of  the  greatest  softness  is  visible.  Not 
satisfied  with  giving  to  the  surface  of  the 
marble  the  most  delicate  finish,  by  means 
of  the  rasp  and  the  pumice-stone,  he  has 
invented  a  corrosive  color,  of  a  yellowish 
hue,  and  prepared  with  soot,  which  he 
applies,  after  the  last  polish,  in  order  to 
break  the  dazzling  white  of  the  marble, 
and  to  giAe  it  the  soft,  mellow  appearance 
of  ivory  or  wax.  This  excessive  refine- 
ment in  finishing  is  more  attractive  to 
amateurs  than  to  true  connoisseur.  C 
used  to  make  his  models  first  of  a  small 
size,  in  wax,  then  in  clay,  of  the  same 
size  as  the  work  was  to  be.  From  this 
Inst  a  cast  was  taken  in  gy])sum.  The 
first  shaping  of  the  marble  from  the  cast 
he  left  to  skilful  workmen. — As  a  man, 
C.  was  respectable  and  amiable.  He  was 
active,  open,  mild,  obliging  and  kind  to- 
wards every  body.  He  had  neither  the 
pride  nor  the  envy  of  an  artist.  His  opin- 
ion of  himself  was  veiy  modest,  notwith- 
standing his  fame  was  spread  through  all 
Europe.  He  was  not  only  disinterested, 
but  animated  by  the  noblest  benevolence. 
He  assisted  promising  young  artists,  and 
established  prizes  for  the  encouragement 
of  the  arts.  In  short,  his  moi-al  character 
was  so  excellent,  that,  even  among  his 
many  rivals,  there  is  but  one  voice  re- 
specting his  worth  as  a  man.  His  last 
work  was  a  large  group,  the  principal 
figure  of  which  represents  Religion  victo- 
rious. It  was  intended  to  be  placed  in 
Rome,  as  a  monument  connnemorative 
of  late  events,  the  expense  to  be  defrayed 
by  a  subscription  in  England.  C.  was 
also  an  agreeable  painter,  but,  strangely 
enough,  more  of  a  colorist  than  a  correct 
designer.  (See  the  LAfe  of  Canova,  by 
Missuiini  ;  4  vols.,  Prato,  1824 :  also,  the 
Biograjia,  by  the  coimt  Cicognara ;  Venice, 
18^).  Engraved  representations  of  all 
his  works  have  appeared  in  Italy  and  at 
Paris. 

Canstein  (Charles  Hildebrand,  von), 
founder  of  a  famous  estabUshment  for 


printing  Bibles,  which  goes  under  his 
name,  was  bom,  in  1667,  at  Lindenberg, 
in  Germany,  studied  at  Frankfort  on  the 
Oder,  travelled  much  in  Europe,  went,  in 
1688,  to  Berlin,  where  he  was  appointed 
page  of  the  elector  of  Brandenberg,  and 
served  as  a  volunteer  in  the  Netherlands. 
A  dangerous  sickness  obliged  him  to 
leave  the  military  service.  He  went  to 
Halle,  where  he  became  familiarly  ac- 
quainted with  Spener.  His  wish  to  spread 
the  Bible  among  the  poor  led  him  to 
fonn  the  idea  of  printing  it  with  stereo- 
type plates.  Thus  originated  the  famous 
institution,  called,  in  German,  Die  Can- 
steinsche  Bibelanstalt,  of  which  we  shall 
sj)eak  more  in  the  article  Franke.  Can- 
stein  pubUshed  some  works,  wrote  the 
life  of  Spener,  and  died,  in  1719,  in  Halle, 
leaving  to  the  great  orphan  asylum  his 
hbraiy,  and  a  part  of  his  fortune. 

Caxt  Timbers, in  ship-building;  those 
timbers  which  are  situated  at  the  two 
ends  of  a  ship.  They  derive  their  name 
from  being  canted,  or  raised  obliquely 
from  the  keel,  in  contradistinction  from 
those  the  planes  of  whicli  are  perpendic- 
ular to  it. 

Cantabile  ;  a  term  applied  to  move- 
ments intended  to  be  performed  in  a 
graceful,  elegant  and  melodious  style. 

Cantabki  ;  the  nidest  and  most  valiant 
of  all  the  Iberian  tril)es,  who  dwelt  in  the 
ancient  Hispania  Tarraconensis,  and  in- 
habited the  greater  part  of  what  is  now 
La  Montana,  and  the  north-west  part  of 
the  present  province  Burgos.  In  ancient 
history,  Cantabri  is  generally  used  to  de- 
note all  the  inhabitants  of  the  northern 
mountains  of  Spain.  Cantabria  is  the 
name  which  was  given  to  the  country 
they  inhabited. — Oceanus  Cantabricus  is 
the  ancient  name  of  the  bay  of  Biscay. 

Caktacuze>o,  George  and  Alexander. 
These  Greek  princes  are  descendants  of 
the  ancient  Byzantine  family  of  the  same 
name,  of  which  the  emperor  John  Canta- 
cuzenus  was  a  member.  (See  the  next 
article.)  Under  the  dominion  of  the 
Turks,  the  Cantacuzenes  belonged  to  the 
fii-st  famihes  of  the  Fanar,  in  Constanti- 
nople, called  the  Fanariotes.  Many  years 
ago,  they  settled  in  Russia,  where  the 
brothers  George  and  Alexander  were 
employed  in  tlie  Russian  service.  As 
members  of  the  Hetseria  (q.  v.),  tliey  fol- 
lowed prince  Alex.  Ypsilanti,  in  1821,  to 
Moldavia.  George  accompanied  Alex. 
Ypsilanti  to  Jassy,  Feb.  22,  aiid  Alexander 
repaired  to  Kisclienaw,  Feb.  28,  O.  S. 
(March  12,  N.  S.),  where  the  Heteerists, 
who  wished  to  fight  m  the  cause  of  Gre- 


CANTACUZENO— CANTATA. 


485 


cian  freedom,  were  assembled.     He  re- 
ceived, at  this  place,  from  Alex.  Ypsilanti, 
orders  to  repair  to  the  Morea.     April  16, 
O.  S.,  he  proceeded  to  Trieste,  by  way  ol' 
Vienna  and   Laybach.     At  Lay  bach,  he 
had  two  interviews  with  count  Nesseirode, 
the   Russian  minister,  who  said,  among 
other  tilings,  "  It  is  the  will  of  his  majesty, 
that  yoti  do  not  go  to  Greece  ;  but  you  may 
continue  your  travels."     This  made  Alex. 
Cantacuzeno  irresolute  what  to  do ;  but, 
being  informed,  during  his  residence  of 
four  weeks  in  Venice,  of  tiie  murder  of 
the  patriarch,  and  the  breaking  out  of  the 
Greek  insurrection  in  the  Morea,  xhe  idea 
that  his  absence   might   corroborate  the 
suspicion   that  the   revolution   met  with 
the    disapprobation   of   Russia,   induced 
him  to  sacrifice  every  thing  to  the  cause 
of  his  countiy.     He  obtained  from  the 
Russian  consul  a  pa?sport  to  return   to 
Odessa  by  water,  and   went  to  Greece 
witliont  interru|)tion.     For  this  step,  he 
was  sid)sequently  forbidden  to  return  to 
Russia.     60  young  Greeks,  from  tlie  vari- 
ous univereities,  the  French  captain  Ba- 
lestras,   and    Demetrius    Ypsilanti,   who 
Jbiad  been  intrusted,  by  liis  brother  Alex^ 
ander,  willi  the  management  of  the  insur- 
rection in  the  Morea,  embarked  with  him. 
June  19,  they  reached  Hydra,  where  they 
were  received  with  the  greatest  rejoicings. 
Alex.   Cantacuzeno  immediately  under- 
took the  charge  of  the  department  of  war, 
organized  a  general  administration  of  the 
islands,  and  tbrmcd  a  band  of  volunteers, 
whom  Balestras  commanded.     But  they 
w^ere  soon  in  want  of  arms  and  powder. 
June  20,  Cantacuzeno    and    Demetrius 
Ypsilanti  proceeded  to  the  Peloponnesus, 
to   Gerusia,   in  Vervena,  a  village   near 
Tripolizza.    Cantacuzeno  immediately  in- 
vested the  fortress  of  Malvasia  (Epidau- 
rus),  and  reduced  it  by  famine,  July  21, 
1821.     He  next  deliberated  with  the  Hy- 
driots  and  Spezziots  respecting  the  form- 
ation of  a  national  senfite,  and  was,  in 
other  respects,  active  in  establishing  order. 
He  then  proceeded  to  Tripolizza,  and,  at 
the  head  of  tlie  Albanian  soldiei-s,  took 
part  in  the  siege  of  the  place  ;  refused,  in 
the  meanwhile,  an  offer  of  the  Cretans, 
who  wished  to  confer  on  him  the  com- 
mand of  their  island ;  travelled  through  the 
provinces  of  Hellas,  in  order  to  establish 
elective  assemblies,    and   undertook   the 
charge  of  fortifying  Missolonghi,  though 
he  had  to  contend  with  great  obstacles, 
confusion  and  discord  prevailing  every- 
where.    The  management  of  Greek  af- 
fairs having  ])assed  into  other  hands,  he 
received,  from  the  Greek  senate,  the  comT 
41* 


mission  to  convey  to  Petersburg  the  so» 
licitations  of  the  Greeks  for  succor  from 
the  Russian  government ;  but,  being  un- 
able to  obtain  a  ])assport  for  this  purpose, 
he  remained  in  Dresden,  His  brother 
George,  under  the  conunand  of  Ypsilanti, 
was  engaged  in  the  unsuccessful  struggle 
in  3Ioldavia  and  Walachia,  and  pid)lished 
a  memorial  on  the  subject  at  Kischenaw, 
Oct.  28,  containing,  likewise,  a  vindica- 
tion of  his  conduct.  Both  of  the  brothers 
have  been  erroneously  estimated  by  many. 
Even  Pouquevillo,  in  his  Hist,  de  la  Re- 
generation de  la  Greet  (Paris,  1824, 4  vols.), 
has  represented  the  two  Cantacuzenos  as 
one  person,  and  given  an  incorrect  view 
of  their  character.     (See  Ypsilanti.) 

Ca>'tacuzf,nus,  John,  a  Byzantuie  em- 
peror and  historian,  was  bom  in  1295, 
While  minister  of  Andronicus  III,  he  ne- 
gotiated a  favorable  peace  with  the  Gen- 
oese in  1336,  and  repelled  the  encroach- 
ments of  the  Turks  in  1337.  On  the 
death  of  Andronicus  in  1341,  C.  became 
regent  during  the  minority  of  the  young 
emperor,  John  Pateologus.  He  defeated 
the  Bulgarians  and  Turks,  assumed  the 
diadem,  and  entered  Constantino[)le,  vic- 
torious over  his  rivals,  in  1346,  He  used 
his  power  with  moderation,  and  endeav- 
ored to  heal  the  wounds  which  five  years 
of  civil  war  had  infllicted  on  the  state ; 
but  religious  disputes,  civil  dissensions 
and  foreign  enemies  soon  disturbed  his 
govenmient ;  and  the  jealousy  of  Palse-r 
ologus,  the  rebellion  of  his  own  son,  war, 
j)lague,  the  frightful  disorders  which  pre- 
vailed in  the  empire,  and  his  own  loss  of 
popular  favor,  induced  him  to  renounce 
the  croAvu,  He  retired  to  a  monastery 
(1355),  where  ho  employed  himself  in  lit- 
erary labors.  He  is  considered  one  of  the 
greatest  among  the  successors  of  Constan- 
tine.  His  Four  Books  of  Byzantine  His- 
tory were  printed  in  1(345  (Paris,  3  vols., 
folio),  and  belong  to  the  collection  of  the 
Byzantine  historians.  His  other  works, 
principally  theological,  are  partly  printed, 
and  partly  in  manuscript. 

Ca.ntal  ;  a  chain  of  mountains  in  Up-r 
per  Auvergne,  France,  the  highest  peak  of 
which,  called  le  plomh  de  Cantal,  is  said  to 
be  nearly  6000  feet  above  the  level  of  the 
sea.  They  give  name  to  a  department, 
(See  Department.) 

Cantata  ;  an  elegant  and  passionate 
species  of  vocal  composition,  consisting 
of  an  intermixture  of  air  and  recitative, 
It  was  invented  by  Barbara  Strozzi,  a  Ve^ 
Xietian  lady,  who  flourished  about  the 
middle  of  the  17th  century,  and  was  at 
one  time  extended  to  such  length  as  tQ 


486 


CANTATA— CANTHARIDES. 


form  a  little  opera,  but  has  since  been 
cultivated  in  Italy,  Germany  and  England 
only  as  chamber  music. 

Canteen  (from  the  French  cantine, 
Spanish  cuntina)  signifies  both  a  bottle- 
case  and  a  tavern  for  soldiers. — In  milita- 
ry language,  it  denotes  a  little  coffer  divid- 
ed into  minute  partitions  for  holding  an 
officer's  eating  utensils ;  likewise,  a 
semi-cylindric  tin  case,  carried  over  a 
soldier's  knapsack,  to  hold  his  cooked 
victuals  in  ;  also  a  vessel  to  hold  the  ra- 
tion of  spirits  or  wine  served  out  to  the 
English  troops  when  employed  abroad. 
— Canteen,  moreover,  signifies  a  public 
house,  licensed  in  English  barracks  or  forts, 
to  sell  hquors  and  tobacco  to  the  soldiei-s. 

Ca.ntemir,  Demetrius,  was  born  in 
Moldavia,  in  1673.  At  the  age  of  15,  he 
was  sent  as  a  hostage  to  Constantinople, 
where  he  remained  4  yeai-s.  He  served 
Jiis  firet  campaign  in  1692,  under  liis  fa- 
tjier,  upon  whose  death,  in  the  succeeding 
year,  he  was  chosen  prince  of  Moldavia, 
at  the  age  of  20.  This  choice  was  not 
confirmed  by  the  Porte,  and  he  was  or- 
dered to  reside  at  Constantinople,  where 
bis  abiUties  soon  gained  him  the  favor  of 
the  government ;  and  he  was  twice  nomi- 
nated hospodar  of  Moravia.  He  success- 
fully used  his  influence  to  transfer  that 
dignity  to  his  brother.  He  was  appoint- 
ed the  third  time,  in  1710,  with  the  prom- 
ise of  the  amiexatiou  of  Walachia,  and 
exemption  fiom  tribute.  Notwithstand- 
ing this  promise,  as  soon  as  he  was  in- 
vested witii  his  office,  he  was  called  upon 
for  the  amount  usually  paid  on  such  occa- 
sions. He  entered,  therefore,  into  a  trea- 
ty with  the  czar  Peter,  by  the  terms  of 
which  the  principality  was  to  be  heredi- 
tary in  the  family  of  C,  under  the  protec- 
tion of  the  czar,  whom  Cantemir  weis  to 
assist  in  his  war  with  Turke)-.  The  czar, 
however,  being  abandoned  by  the  Poles 
and  betrayed  by  the  Moldavians,  was 
obliged  to  retire,  and  C.  took  refuge  in 
his  dominions,  with  the  rank  of  prince  of 
the  Russian  empire.  He  died  at  Astra- 
can,  in  172-3.  C.  spoke  8  languages,  and 
understood  the  ancient  Greek,  French 
and  Sclavonian.  He  was  a  member  of 
the  academy  of  Berlin.  His  principal 
work  is  called  Historj'  of  the  Growth  and 
Decay  of  the  Ottoman  Empire  (in  Latin). 
It  has  been  translated  into  Enghsh  (Lon- 
don, 1734,  2  vols.,  folio),  French  and  Ger- 
man. He  is  the  author,  hkewise,  of  the 
Present  State  of  Moldavia  (in  Latin),  and 
the  System  of  the  Mohammedan  Religion, 
which  have  both  been  published.  His 
other  works  are  in  MS. 


Canterbury  (ancient  Darvenum,  Du- 
rovemum,  Dorobemia,  and  Cantu-ara-byrg], 
citv,  Eng.,  ca])ital  of  Kent ;  .^(5  E.  Lon- 
doii ;  Ion.  0°  55'  E. ;  lat.  51°  17'  N.  ;  pop. 
10,498  ;  houses,  2,093.  It  is  the  see  of  an 
archbishop,  pritnate  of  all  England,  situ- 
ated in  a  valley,  between  geiuly-risiiig 
hills,  on  the  river  Stour ;  founded  before 
the  Christian  era.  It  is  a  county  of  itsflf, 
and  the  magistrates  have  authority  to  de- 
termine all  law-suits  between  the  citizens, 
and  to  try  for  capital  crimes  committed 
within  the  city.  There  are  two  markets 
weekly,  on  Wednesday  and  Satin-day. 
It  contains  a  cathedral,  and  12  parish 
churches  within  the  walls,  and  3  in  the 
suburbs.  The  cathedral  is  spacious  and 
magnificent,  built  in  the  form  of  a  double 
cross,  514  feet  long ;  the  height  of  the 
great  tower  is  2.35  feet.  The  Jews  have  a 
synagogue  here ;  Methodists,Baptists,Pres- 
byterians  and  Quakers  have  eacli  a  place 
of  public  worship.  It  sends  2  mciiibei-s 
to  parliament.  The  principal  manufac- 
tures are  cotton  and  silk.  It  is  famous 
for  its  brawn.  The  country  round  it 
produces  a  great  quantity  of  hops.  In 
foraier  times,  this  place  was  distinguished 
for  the  festivals  celebrated  here  in  memo- 
ry of  St.  Thomas  a  Becket,  who  was 
murdered  here.    (See  Becket.) 

Ca>-tharides,  or  Spanish  fly  (in  medi- 
cine) ;  the  name  of  a  kind  of  fly,  the  c«7i- 
thans  vesicatoria,  Geoffi*ay  ;  meloe  vesica- 
toria,  Lin.  ;  lyita  vesicatoria,  Fab.  ;  l)e- 
longing  to  the  family  of  the  trachelides. 
They  are  very  common  in  S])ain,  Italy 
and  France,  where  they  are  found  in 
large  families  on  the  ash,  lilac,  viburnum, 
&c.  Their  body  is  from  6  to  10  lines 
long ;  the  feelere  are  black,  setaceous, 
composed  of  12  articulations ;  the  elytra 
long,  flexible,  of  a  shining,  golden  green, 
and  the  tarses  of  a  deep  brown.  Their 
odor  is  strong,  penetrating,  pecuhar  and 
unpleasant ;  their  taste  extremely  acrid  ; 
their  powder  is  of  a  brownish  gray,  inter- 
mixed wdth  shining  particles  of  a  metallic 
green  color.  Acconhng  to  Robiquet, 
they  contain,  with  several  other  ingredi- 
ents, a  peculiar  substance,  called  canthaii- 
din.  (q.  v.)  These  insects  are,  of  all  the 
vesicating  substances,  those  which  are 
most  commonly  used.  Their  action  is 
principally  confined  to  the  skin  ;  how- 
ever, their  active  principles  may  be  ab- 
sorbed, and  cause  serious  accidents.  The 
application  of  a  blister  is  often  followed 
by  strangurj',  hsematuria,  priapism,  6tc. 
Taken  internally,  they  act  as  the  most  en- 
ergetic acrid  poison  ;  they  produce  iirita- 
tion  on  tlie  intestines,  and  especially  affect 


CANTHARIDES— CANTON. 


487 


the  genito-urinary  organs,  which  they 
stimulate  violently.  In  certain  disorders, 
they  are  administered  in  small  doses,  as 
powerful  stimulants.  The  medichie  is  of 
a  very  dangerous  cliaracter,  and  its  use 
requires  the  greatest  caution  on  the  part 
of  the  physician.  Several  species  of  blis- 
tering fly  are  found  in  the  U.  States,  some 
of  wliich  are  more  powerful  than  the 
Spanish  fly. 

Ca-xtharidix,  the  vesicating  principle 
of  tlie  cantharides,  or  Spanish  fly,  is  white, 
in  small,  crjstalline  scales,  insoluble  in 
water  and  cold  alcohol,  soluble  in  ether, 
boiUng  oils  and  alcohol,  from  which  it 
])rccipitates  by  cooling.  The  vesicating 
properties  could  be  extracted  from  can- 
tharides by  oil  of  turpentine,  and  probably 
a  satisfactory  ointment  be  prepared  by 
merely  evaporating  the  oil  of  turpentine 
at  a  moderate  temperature.  (See  Can- 
tharides.) 

Canticles.    (See  Solomon,  Song  of.) 

Cantilm  ;  an  ancient  territory  in 
South  Britain,  whence  the  English  word 
Kent  is  derived,  supposed  to  have  been 
the  first  district  which  received  a  colony 
from  the  continent.  The  situation  of  Can- 
tium  occasioned  its  being  much  frequent- 
ed by  the  Romans,  who  generally  took 
their  way  through  it  in  their  marches  to 
and  from  the  continent.  Few  places  in 
Britain  are  more  frequently  mentioned  by 
the  Roman  writci-s  than  Portus  Rutupen- 
sis.  Portus  Dubris  (now  Dover),  Duro- 
brivfe  and  Durovernum  (now  Rochester 
and  Canterbury)  were  also  Roman  towns 
and  stations.  Cantium,  in  the  most  per- 
fect state  of  the  Roman  government, 
made  a  part  of  tiie  province  called  Flavia 
CcEsariensi3.     (See  Kent.) 

Canto  fermo  ;  the  name  given  to  the 
ancient  chants  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
church,  which  were  adopted  as  standing 
melodies.  These  chants,  imtil  counter- 
point was  discovered,  were  unaccompa- 
nied, or  only  harmoniz«^d  with  octaves. 

Canto  figcrato.  This  term  was  ap- 
phed,  by  the  old  Christian  ecclesiastics, 
to  the  canto  fermo  in  its  more  cultivated 
state,  when  harmony  began  to  assume 
modulation. 

Canton,  principal  city  of  the  Chinese 
province  of  the  same  name,  otiierwise 
called  Qiiang-tong,  or  Koanton,  is  situated 
in  23°  30'  N.  lat.,  and  113°  2'  45"  E.  ion., 
on  the  banks  of  the  river  Taho,  which  is 
here  very  wide.  This  city,  distinguished 
for  size,  wealth,  and  a  numerous  popula- 
tion, is  the  only  seaport  in  China  open  to 
the  ships  of  Europe  and  America.  The 
estimate  of  missionaries,  that  it  contains 


1,000,000  of  inhabitants,  is  exaggerated. 
The  number  is  probably  nearer  750,000. 
The  circuit  of  the  walls,  which  are  of  a 
moderate  height,  is  over  9  miles.  Only 
about  a  third  part,  however,  of  the  space 
enclosed  is  covered  with  buildings ;  the 
rest  is  occupied  with  pleasure-gardens 
and  fish-ponds.  The  neighboring  coun- 
tiy  is  very  charming,  hilly  towards  the 
east,  and  presenting,  in  that  quarter,  a 
beautiful  prospect.  The  houses  are  most- 
ly of  one  storj' ;  but  those  of  the  manda- 
rins and  principal  merchants  are  high  and 
well  built.  In  every  quarter  of  the  town 
and  the  subitrbs  are  seen  temples  and  pa- 
godas, containing  the  images  of  Chinese 
gods.  The  populous  streets  are  long  and 
nan"ow,  paved  with  flat  stones,  and  adorn- 
ed at  intervals  with  triumphal  arches.  Shops 
line  the  sides,  and  an  unbroken  range  of 
jiiazza  protects  the  occupants  of  the 
houses,  as  well  as  foot-passengers,  from 
the  rays  of  the  sun.  At  night,  the  gates 
are  closed,  and  bars  are  thrown  across  the 
entrances  of  the  streets.  The  traders 
express  themselves  with  sufficient  fluen- 
cy in  the  languages  of  their  European  and 
American  customers,  witli  whom  they 
deal  almost  exclusively,  selling  thetn 
porcelain,  lackered  wares,  &c.  The 
Americans  trade  here  to  a  greater  extent 
than  any  other  nation :  next  to  them  come 
the  English.  The  greatest  part  of  the 
silver,  which  is  earned  from  America  to 
Europe,  eventually  circulates  through 
China,  by  means  of  the  ports  of  Canton 
and  Batavia,  to  which  large  supplies  of 
the  productions  of  tiie  empire  are  trans- 
mitted. The  principal  articles  of  export 
are  tea,  India  ink,  varnish,  porcelain,  rhu- 
barb, silk  and  nankeen.  A  compan}', 
consisting  of  12  or  13  merchants,  called 
the  Cohong,  is  established  here,  by  order 
of  the  government,  for  the  purpose  of 
})urchasing  the  cargoes  of  foreign  ships, 
and  supplj-ing  them  with  return  cargoes 
of  tea,  raw  silk,  &c.  This  society  inter- 
feres, undoubtedly,  with  private  trade,  but 
adds  greatly  to  the  security  of  the  foreign 
dealer,  as  each  member  is  answerable  for 
all  the  rest.  Carriages  are  not  used  here, 
but  all  burdens  are  transported  on  bam- 
boo poles  laid  across  the  shonldere  of 
men.  All  the  inhabitants  of  distinction 
make  use  of  littei-s.  Chinese  women  are 
never  seen  in  the  streets,  and  Tartar 
women  but  seldom.  The  European  fac- 
tories, to  wit,  the  Dutch,  French,  Swe- 
dish, Danish  and  English,  are  situated  on  a 
very  commodious  quay,  on  the  bank  of 
the  river.  Nearly  a  league  from  Canton 
is  the  Boat-tmon,  which  consists  of  about 


488 


CANTON— CANUTE. 


40,000  barks,  of  various  kinds,  arranged 
close  to  each  other  in  regular  rows,  with 
passages  between  tlicin,  to  allow  other 
vessels  to  pass.  In  this  manner  they 
form  a  kind  of  floating  city,  the  inhabit- 
ants of  which  liave  no  other  dwellings, 
and  are  prohibited  by  law  from  settling 
on  sliore.  As  this  is  the  only  emporium 
in  the  empire  for  foreign  commei'ce,  which 
is  carried  on  not  only  by  Europeans  and 
Americans,  but  also  to  a  great  extent  by 
the  Chinese  themselves,  with  almost  all 
the  ports  of  India  and  the  eastern  Archi- 
pelago, the  number  of  vessels  frequently 
seen  in  the  river,  at  once,  is  said  to  exceed 
5000.  An  American  j)aj)er,  issued  twice 
a  month,  called  the  Canton  Register,  has 
lately  been  estabUshed  at  Canton.  The 
following  table  gives  the  amount  of  im- 

1)oits  from  Canton  into  the  ports  of  the 
J.  States,  also  the  exports  of  domestic 
and  foreign  goods  from  the  U.  States  to 
Canton,  from  1821  to  1827. 

Year.      Imports.     Dam.  Exp.    For.  Exp, 

1821  $3,111,951    8388,5.35    $3,902,025 

1822  5,242,536  429,230  5,506,138 

1823  6,511,425  288,375  4,347,686 

1824  5,618,502  a30,466  4,970,705 

1825  7,573,115  160,0.59  5,410,456 

1826  7,422,186  242,451  2,:324,193 

1827  3,617,183  290,8<;2  3p73,543 

The  climate  of  Canton  is  healthy,  warm 
in  summer,  but  pretty  cold  in  winter. 
Provisions,  including  various  luxuries,  are 
abundant. 

Canute  I,  king  of  England  and  Den- 
mark, ascended  the  throne  of  both  king- 
doms A.  D.  1015.  He  was  called  the 
Great,  on  account  of  his  power,  as  Alfred 
had  been  for  his  virtue.  The  barbarities 
committed  by  the  Danes  in  England  ex- 
cited Ethelred  II,  the  12th  king  of  Sax- 
on descent,  to  a  bloodj'  vengeance.  In 
1002,  he  caused  all  the  Danes,  women 
and  children,  to  be  massacred  on  the  same 
day.  The  sister  of  Sweyn,  then  king  of 
Denmark,  he  caused  to  be  beheaded  in 
his  presence.  Sweyn  landed  in  England, 
and  laid  waste  the  countiy  with  fire  and 
sword.  Ethelred  had  escaped  to  Nor- 
mandy. Sweyn  died  1014,  before  he  had 
time  to  confirm  the  Danish  ]iower  in  the 
island.  This  was  accomplished,  however, 
by  his  son  and  successor,  Canute.  He 
began  his  reign  by  devastating  all  the 
eastern  coast  of  his  new  kingdom,  and 
causing  the  English,  who  were  given  to 
bis  fatlier  as  hostages,  after  he  had  cut 
off  their  noses  and  liands,  to  be  dro^vned 
at  Sandwich.  He  then  received  rein- 
forcements tronj  Denmark,  and  extended 


his  ravages  in  the  south  of  England.  The 
valiant  Edmund  marched  against  him 
with  an  army,  and,  although  he  was  seve- 
ral times  overcome,  through  the  treachery 
of  Edric,  his  brother-in-law,  he  still  main- 
tained himself  against  Canute,  so  that  the 
English  and  Danish  nobles,  weary  of  the 
long-continued  contest,  sought  to  bring^ 
about  a  division  of  England  between  the 
two  princes.  A  solemn  treaty  secured  to 
Canute  the  north  of  England,  and  to  Ed- 
mund the  south.  But  only  a  month  after 
this  contract,  Edmund  was  assassinated 
by  two  chamberlains,  hired  by  Edric  ;  and 
Canute  became  master  of  all  England. 
At  a  general  assembly  of  the  states,  lie  in- 
duced false  witnesses  to  affirm  that  Ed- 
nnmd  had  appouited  him  heir  to  his 
crown,  to  the  prejudice  of  his  two  minor 
children.  After  the  assembly  had  con- 
firmed this  settlement,  Canute  sent  the 
two  young  princes  to  the  king  of  Sweden, 
with  the  request  that  he  would  put  them 
to  death.  The  latter,  however,  sent  them 
to  Hungarj',  where  they  met  with  the 
kindest  reception.  Canute,  who  had  be- 
gun his  reign  with  barbarity  and  crime, 
afterwards  became  humane,  and  finally 
pious,  and  even  superstitious.  He  com- 
menced a  more  equitable  administration, 
by  punishing  the  Enghsh  natives,  who 
had  betrayed  their  king,  and  by  causing 
Edric  to  be  hanged,  and  thrown  into  the 
Thames.  He  restored  the  Saxon  customs 
at  a  general  assembly,  anil  ensured  to  the 
Danes  and  Englishmen  equal  rights  and 
equal  protection  of  person  and  property, 
so  that  the  horror  which  had  been  excited 
by  his  tyranny  was  changed  into  respect 
and  gratitude.  His  power  was  confirmed 
by  his  marriage  widi  Emma,  Ethelred'3 
widow.  He  now  made  two  exj)ediiions 
to  the  continent,  one  to  conquer  Sweden, 
and  the  other  to  reduce  Norway.  But 
the  most  powerful  prince  of  his  age  was 
at  length  bn)ught  to  feel  the  vanity  of 
earthly  greatness.  He  erected  churches 
and  monasteries,  and  even  performed  a 
pilgrimage  to  Rome,  where  he  obtained 
important  privileges  for  the  schools  of 
England.  It  was  this  spirit  of  piety  that 
animated  him,  when,  to  confound  his  flat- 
terers, he  seated  himself  upon  the  strand, 
and  commanded  the  waves  to  retire.  As 
they  advanced,  and  bathed  his  feet,  Car 
nute  arose,  and  said,  that  He  only  was 
almighty,  whom  the  ocean  obeyed  when 
he  proclaimed,  "  Thus  far  slialt  thou  go, 
and  no  farther."  His  last  expedition  was 
against  Malcolm,  king  of  Scotland.  He 
died  four  years  after,  A.  D.  1036,  at 
Shaftsbury.     By  his  will,  he  left  Norway 


CANUTE— CAOUTCHOUC. 


to  his  eldest  son,  Sweyn ;  to  the  second, 
Harold,  England ;  to  the  third,  Hardica- 
nute,  Denmark. 

Caxzona  ;  a  kind  of  lyric  poem,  of 
Provencal  origin.  It  is  found  in  the  Ital- 
ian poetry  of  the  1.3th  century.  At  first, 
it  was  quite  irregular,  but  was  confined 
by  Petrarch  to  more  fixed  and  regular 
foniis.  Hence  it  is  called  canzone  Pe- 
trarchesca :  it  is  also  called  canzone  Tos- 
cana,  because  it  originated  in  Tuscany. 
It  is  divided  into  several  stanzas,  in  which 
tiie  nature  and  disposition  of  the  vei-ses, 
which  are  of  11  and  7  syllabh^s,  and  the 
place  of  the  rhymes,  are  uniform.  The 
canzona  usually  concludes  with  a  stanza 
wliich  is  shorter  than  the  others,  and  is 
called  ripresa,  congedo,  comiato  (signifying 
dismission  or  taking  leave).  With  Pe- 
trarch, this  is  rarely  wanting ;  in  the  elder 
poets,  it  is  often  omitted.  It  generally 
contains  the  poet's  apostrophe  to  his  song, 
bidding  it  farewell,  &c.  There  are  dif- 
ferent kinds  of  canzonas,  and  difierent 
names  are  given  to  the  different  parts. 
The  canzona  Anacreontica  is  divided  into 
small  stanzas,  consisting  of  short  verses, 
^vith  a  regular  disposition  of  the  rhymes 
through  all  the  stanzas.  In  the  selection 
of  his  vei-se,  however,  and  of  the  disposi- 
tion of  the  rhymes  which  he  will  observe 
in  the  poem,  the  poet  may  follow  his 
pleasure.  Not  only  light,  pleasing  songs 
of  love,  gayety  and  mirth,  but  poems  on 
solemn  and  lofty  subjects,  and  of  an  ele- 
vated dithyrambic  strain,  are  included 
under  this  name.  The  latter  subjects, 
however,  are  better  adajrted  to  the  canzona 
Pindarica,  which  was  first  introduced  in- 
to Italian  i)oetry,  in  the  16th  century,  by 
Luigi  Alamanni,  and  owes  its  perfection 
chiefly  to  Chialjrera.  It  is  distinguished 
from  that  of  Petrarch  by  a  bolder  flight, 
loftier  ideas,  greater  freedom  in  the  choice 
and  disposition  of  the  verses,  and  by  the 
form  of  the  stanzas,  which  is  borrowed 
from  the  Greek  chorus.  The  Pindaric 
canzonas  are  divided  into  strophe,  anti- 
strophe  and  epode,  and  are  also  called 
canzoni  alia  Greca.  Those  divisions  are 
sometimes  called  ballata,  contraballata  and 
stanza ;  or  volta,  rivolta  and  stanza  ;  almost 
all  of  which  signify  the  same  as  the  Greek 
divisions :  the  Greek  names  are  the  most 
common.  There  is  also  the  canzona  a  ballo, 
an  old  Italian  poem,  originally  intended 
to  be  sung  at  a  dance  (ballo).  It  is  called, 
also,  ballata.  It  is  not  employed  by  the 
Italian  poets  later  than  the  16th  century. 

Ca.xzonet,  CA.NZO?fETTA  [poctry  and 
music);  in  Italian  poetry,  a  canzona  (q.  v.), 
consisting  of  short  verses,  much  in  use 


with  the  poets  of  the  15th  century.  Ri- 
nuccini,  and,  after  him,  Chiabrera,  have 
used  it  in  modern  times,  and  given  it 
more  grace.  Canzonets  are  generally  ex- 
pressive of  tender  feehngs. — In  music, 
canzonet  signifies  a  short  song,  in  one, 
two  or  three  ])arts  ;  but,  in  England,  it  is 
more  generally  ap])licd  to  the  two  latter. 

Caoctchouc.  This  substance,  miprop- 
erly  termed  elastic  gum,  and  more  com- 
monly, from  its  apphcation  to  remove 
pencil-marks  from  paper,  India  rubber,  is 
obtained  from  the  milky  juice  of  several 
])lants,  which  are  natives  of  the  torrid  zone. 
The  chief  of  these  are  the  hcevea  Guianensis, 
the  jatropha  elastica,  and  urceola  elastica. 
Caoutchouc  is  brought  principally  from 
South  America.  This  juice,  obtained  from 
incisions,  is  applied,  in  successive  layers, 
over  a  mould  of  clay,  and  dried  by  expo- 
sure to  the  sun,  and  to  the  smoke  from 
burning  fuel.  When  perfectly  dry,  the 
mould  is  broken,  leaving  the  caoutchouc  in 
the  form  of  a  hollow  ball.  In  its  soUd  state, 
caoutchouc  is  of  a  close  texture,  distinctly 
fibrous,  of  a  light-brown  color,  or  some- 
times nearly  white.  Its  elasticity  is  such 
that  it  can  be  stretched  to  a  great  extent ; 
and,  on  removing  the  stretching  force,  it 
recovers  its  original  dimensions.  Its  soft- 
ness and  pliancy  are  increased  by  heat. 
Boiling  water  renders  it  so  soft,  that  two 
slips,  newly  cut  and  pressed  closely  to- 
gether, may  be  finnly  united.  By  a  great- 
er heat,  it  is  fiised,  and  may,  in  that  state, 
be  applied,  as  pro})osed  by  Mr.  x\itkin,  to 
the  surface  of  steel  instruments,  which  it 
will  cover  with  a  transparent  film,  that 
effectually  preserves  them  fi-oni  rust.  It 
is  insoluble  in  alcohol  and  in  water.  Sul- 
phuric ether,  when  purified  by  washing  in 
water,  dissolves  it ;  and,  by  evafioration, 
the  caoutchouc  may  be  recovered  un- 
changed. Oil  of  turpentine  softens  it,  and 
forms  with  it  a  sort  of  paste,  that  may  l>e 
spread  as  a  vaniisli,  but  is  very  long  in 
drying.  The  fluid  now  commonly  used 
to  dissolve  it  is  the  purified  naphtha  from 
coal  tar,  which  is,  at  the  same  time,  a 
cheap  and  eft'ectual  solvent,  and  which 
does  not  change  its  properties.  This  so- 
lution is  employed  to  give  a  thin  covering 
of  caoutchouc  to  cloth,  which  is  thus  ren- 
dered impervious  to  moisture.  Caout- 
chouc is  also  readily  soluble  in  cajeput 
oil. — Caoutchouc,  from  its  softness,  elas- 
ticity, and  impermeability  to  water,  is  ap- 
plied to  the  formation  of  catheters,  bou- 
gies, and  tubes  for  conveying  gases.  These 
are  formed  by  twisting  a  slip  of  it  round  a 
rod,  and  causing  the  edges  to  adhere  by 
pressure,  when  softened  by  maceration  ia 


490 


CAOUTCHOUC— CAPE  BRETON. 


warm  water.  It  is  also  used  for  over- 
shoes; and  its  solution  in  oils  forms  a  flex- 
ible vaniisli. — It  was  not  until  about  the 
year  1736  that  this  very  extraordinary  nat- 
ural production  was  made  known  in  Eu- 
roj)e.  It  is  obtained  by  making  incisions 
through  the  bark  of  the  tree,  chiefly  in 
wet  weather.  From  the  wounds  thus 
formed  the  juice  flows  abundantly.  It  is 
of  a  milky-white  color,  and  is  conducted 
by  a  tube  or  leaf,  supported  by  clay,  into 
a  vessel  placed  to  receive  it.  Some  wri- 
ters assert  that,  on  mere  exposure  to  the 
air,  it  gradually  hardens,  and  othei*s,  that 
it  goes  through  a  certain  process  for  this 
purpose,  wliich  the  Indians  of  South 
America  keep  a  profound  secret.  It  is 
usually  brought  to  Europe  in  the  form  of 
pear-shaped  bottles,  wliich  ai^e  formed  by 
spreading  the  juice  over  a  mould  of  clay, 
exj)osing  it  to  a  dense  smoke,  or  to  a  fire, 
till  it  becomes  so  dry  as  not  to  stick  to  the 
fingers,  Avhen,  by  certain  instruments  of 
iron  or  wood,  it  is  ornamented  on  tlie  out- 
side with  various  figures.  This  done,  the 
clay  in  the  inside  is  moistened  with  wa- 
ter, and  picked  out.  India  rubber  is  re- 
markable for  the  flexibility  and  elasticity 
which  it  acquires  on  attaining  a  solid 
state,  and  also  for  the  numerous  useful 
purposes  to  which  it  is  capable  of  being 
applied.  By  the  Indians,  it  is  sometimes 
formed  into  boots,  which  are  impenetrable 
by  water,  and  which,  when  smoked,  have 
the  appearance  of  leather.  Bottles  are 
made  of  it,  to  the  necks  of  which  are  fas- 
tened hollow  reeds,  through  which  the 
liquor  contained  in  them  can  be  squirted 
at  pleasure.  One  of  these,  filled  with 
water,  is  always  presented  to  each  of  the 
guests  at  their  entertainments.  Flam- 
beaux are  likewise  foi-med  of  this  sub- 
stance, which  give  a  very  brilliant  light ; 
and  it  is  said  that  a  torch  of  it,  an  inch 
and  a  half  in  diameter,  and  two  feet  long, 
will  burn  12  hours.  The  inhabitants  of 
Quito  also  prepare  a  species  of  cloth  with 
the  hardened  juice  of  this  tree. 

Cap  :  the  cover  of  the  end  or  head  of 
any  thing.  The  word  is  very  often  used 
in  the  mechanical  arts. — In  ship-building, 
cap  is  a  square  piece  of  timber  placed 
over  the  head  or  upper  end  of  a  mast,  in 
which  is  a  round  hole  to  receive  the  top 
or  top-gallant-masts,  which  are  thus  kept 
steady  and  firm. — Cap  of  a  block;  asemi- 
cii-ciilar  projection  from  the  sides  and 
round  the  end  of  a  block  above  the  pins. — 
Cap-7nerchant ;  the  purser  of  a  ship. — Tb 
cap  verses  is  an  exenfise  of  the  memoiy 
anjong  school-boys ;  the  one  repeating  a 
verse,  and  the  second  proceeding  where 


he  lefl  oflT,  and  so  on  with  the  rest. — Caps 
were  not  worn  by  the  Romans  for  many 
ages.  When  either  the  rain  or  sun  was 
troublesome,  the  lappet  of  the  gown  was 
thrown  over  the  head ;  and  hence  all  the 
ancient  statues  appear  bareheaded,  ex- 
cejJting,  sometimes,  a  wreath  or  the  like. 
The  same  usage  prevailed  among  the 
Greeks,  to  whom,  at  least  during  the  hero- 
ic age,  cai)s  were  unknown.  The  sort  of 
caps  or  covers  of  the  head  in  use  among 
the  Romans,  on  divers  occasions,  were 
the  piira,  pihus,  cucullus,  gulerus  and  pal- 
liolum,  which  are  often  confounded  by 
ancient  as  well  as  modern  writei"s.  The 
general  use  of  caps  and  hats  is  refer- 
red to  the  year  1449.  The  first  seen  in 
Etirope  were  used  at  the  entiy  of  Charles 
VII  into  Rouen.  From  that  time,  they 
began  to  take  the  place  of  chaperons,  or 
hoods.  When  the  cap  was  of  velvet,  they 
called  it  mortier ;  when  of  wool,  simply 
bonnet.  None  but  kings,  princes  and 
knights  were  allowed  to  use  the  mortier. 
The  cap  Avas  the  head-dress  of  the  clergy 
and  graduates.  Pasquin  says  that  it  was 
anciently  a  part  of  the  hood  worn  by  the 
peoftle  of  the  robe ;  the  skirts  whereof^ 
being  cut  off,  as  an  incumbrance,  left  the 
round  cap  an  easy,  commodious  cover  for 
the  head;  Avhich  cap,  being afterivards as- 
sumed by  the  people,  those  of  the  gown 
changed  it  for  a  square  one,  first  invented 
by  a  Frenchman,  called  Patrouillet.  He 
adds,  that  the  giving  of  the  cap  to  the 
students  in  the  university  was  to  denote 
that  they  had  acquired  full  liberty,  and 
were  no  longer  subject  to  the  rod  of  their 
superiors,  in  imitation  of  the  ancient  Ro- 
mans, who  gave  a  pileiis,  or  cap,  to  their 
slaves,  in  the  ceremony  of  making  them 
free :  whence  the  proverb  vocare  servos  ad 
pileum :  hence,  also,  on  medals,  the  cap  is 
the  symbol  of  Liberty,  who  is  represented 
holding  a  cap  in  the  right  hand,  by  the 
point. — Of  the  derivation  of  this  word, 
and  its  use  in  almost  all  P^uropean  lan- 
guages, Adelung  gives  an  interesting  ac- 
count in  his  German  dictionary. 

Cape.  Of  the  immense  number  of 
cajies,  which  have  received  names  fi"om 
navigators,  the  limits  of  the  present  work 
will  permit  us  to  enumerate  only  a  few. 

Cape  Ann ;  a  cape  on  the  coast  of  Mas- 
sachusetts, in  the  township  of  Gloucester, 
forming  the  northern  limit  of  Massachu- 
setts bay  ;   lat.  42°  35'  N. ;  Ion.  70°  37'  W, 

Cape  Breton ;  an  island  of  North  Amer- 
ica, belonging  to  Great  Britain ;  situated  in 
the  gulf  of  St.  Lawrence;  separated  fi-om 
Nova  Scotia  by  the  strait  of  Fronsac,  about 
3  miles  wide. '  This  island  is  about  IIQ 


CAPE  BRETON— CAPE  OF  GOOD  HOPE. 


491 


miles  in  length,  and  from  20  to  84  in 
breadth,  full  of  mountains  and  lakes,  and 
intersected  by  a  great  number  of  creeks 
and  bays.  Tlie  soil  is  fertile,  and  abounds 
in  timber.  In  the  mountains  are  coal- 
inines;  in  the  valleys,  excellent  pasture; 
and  the  coast  abounds  in  fish.  Tlie  chief 
towns  are  Louisburg,  Sydney  and  Ari- 
chat.  Population,  3000.  Lat.  45°  34'  to 
47°  o'  N. ;  Ion.  59°  to  61°  20'  W. 

Cape  Cod;  a  noted  cape  and  peninsula 
on  the  coast  of  Massachusetts,  on  the 
south  side  of  Massachusetts  bav ;  lat.  of  the 
cape,  42°  5'  N.;  Ion.  70°  14'  W.  The 
peninsula  is  G5  miles  in  length,  and  from 
1  to  20  in  breadth,  and  is  in  the  form  of  a 
man's  arm,  bent  inward  both  at  the  elbow 
and  the  wrist.  Though  mostly  sandy 
and  barren,  it  is  nevertheless  ])opulous; 
and  the  inhabitants  derive  their  subsistence 
chiefly  from  the  sea.  The  cape  was  dis- 
covered in  1G02,  by  liartholomew  Gos- 
nold,  who  gave  it  its  name  from  having 
taken  a  great  quantity  of  cod-fish  near  it. 

Cape  Fear ;  a  dangerous  cape  on  the 
coast  of  North  Carolina,  being  the  south- 
ern extremity  of  Smith's  island,  at  the 
mouth  of  Cape  Fear  river ;  lat.  33°  32' 
N.;  Ion.  78°2.V  W. 

Cape  Fear ;  a  river  of  North  Carolina, 
the  largest  and  most  important  that  flows 
wholly  within  that  state.  The  north- 
west, or  princijjal  branch,  rises  in  the 
northern  part  of  the  state,  flows  southerly, 
passing  by  Fayetteville,  and  above  Wil- 
mington. 35  miles  from  its  entrance  into 
the  ocean,  it  is  joined  by  the  north-east- 
ern branch.  The  Cape  Fear  is  navigable 
for  vessels  of  300  tons  to  Wilmington, 
and  for  steam-boats  to  Fayetteville. 

Cape  tVancois.    (See  Cape  Haytien.) 

Cape  of  Good  Hope ;  in  the  southern 
part  of  Africa ;  Ion.  1 8°  24'  E. ;  lat.  33°  55' 
S.  Bartholomew  Diaz  discovered  it  in 
1493.  The  tempestuous  sea  which  beat 
against  it  prevented  him  from  landing;  he 
therefore  called  it  Cabo  dos  Tormenlos 
(see  Camoens) ;  but  John  II  changed  it  to 
Cabo  da  Bona  Esperanza.  It  wjis  first 
doubled  by  Vasco  de  Gama.  The  Portu- 
guese never  formed  any  permanent  settle- 
ment here.     (See  next  article.) 

Cape  of  Good  Hope  ;  a  British  colony, 
near  the  southern  extremity  of  Afiica. 
The  Dutch,  who  had  early  fixed  upon 
this  point  as  a  watering-pjace  for  their 
ships,  fii-st  colonized  it  in  the  middle  of 
the  17th  centurj'.  Reducing  the  Hotten- 
tots (q.  V.)  to  slaveiy,  or  driving  them 
beyond  the  mountains,  they  extended  the 
Cape  settlement  to  nearly  its  present  lim- 
its.    It  was  captured  by  the  English  in 


179.5,  restored  at  the  peace  of  Amiens, 
1802,  and  again  taken  in  1806;  since 
which  time  it  has  remained  in  their  pos- 
session. The  colony  extends  about  230 
miles  from  north  to  south,  and  550  from 
east  to  west ;  from  30°  to  34°  30'  S.  lat., 
and  from  18°  to  28°  E.  Ion.  The  space 
included  within  these  limits  is  about 
120,000  scjuare  miles,  with  a  population 
of  about  one  to  a  square  mile.  On  the 
west  and  south,  it  is  washed  by  the  ocean, 
and,  on  the  north,  it  is  bounded  by  a  range 
of  lofty  mountains.  The  principal  bays 
on  the  coast  are  Salilanha,  TaI)Ie,  Platten- 
burg,  Algoa  bays.  Cape  Aguiilas  is  the 
most  southern  point  of  the  old  world.  In 
the  interior,  almost  eveiy  variety  of  soU 
and  surface  is  foimd.  Several  ranges  of 
mountains,  running  nearly  parallel  to  the 
southern  coast,  divide  the  countiy  into 
successive  terraces,  between  which  lie 
belts  of  fertile  land,  or  vast  barren  plains. 
One  of  these,  called  the  Great  Karroo,  is 
300  miles  long  and  100  broad,  presenting 
a  scene  of  complete  desolation.  In  fact, 
according  to  Barrow,  nearly  seven  tenths 
of  the  colony  are  destitute  of  vegetation 
during  a  great  part  of  the  year.  The 
summits  of  the  Nieuweldt  Gebirgte,  the 
highest  chain  of  southern  Africa,  are  cov- 
ered with  perpetual  snow.  The  Table 
mountain  is  a  stupendous  mass  of  naked 
rock,  rising,  almost  perpendicularly,  about 
3585  feet  in  height.  The  colony  is  defi- 
cient in  navigable  rivers  for  vessels  of 
any  considerable  burthen.  The  principal 
streams  are  the  Doom  and  the  Berg,  flow- 
ing into  the  Atlantic  ;  the  Breede,  Groot, 
and  Great  Fish,  emptying  themselves  into 
the  Indian  ocean.  The  last,  in  part  of  its 
couree,  separates  the  Cape  colony  from 
Caffraria.  The  spring  and  autumn  are 
temperate,  and  the  most  agreeable  part  of 
the  year.  The  heat  is  excessive  in  sum- 
mer, and,  on  accoutJt  of  the  elevation  of 
the  surface,  many  parts  experience  the 
extreme  of  cold  in  winter.  The  soil  is, 
of  coui-se,  various,  but  its  general  charac- 
ter is  not  that  of  fertility.  The  cultivation 
is  very  imperfect,  the  inhabitants  depend- 
ing princi|)ally  on  pasturage.  Wheat  and 
maize  thrive  well ;  the  vine  flourishes  lux- 
uriantly ;  oranges,  lemons  and  figs  are 
good,  but  all  kinds  of  nuts  have  failed. 
The  aloe  and  myrtle  grow  to  a  great  size. 
Timber  is  scarce :  the  chestnut,  wild  al- 
mond and  plum  are  indigenous.  The 
domestic  animals  of  civilized  man  have 
all  been  introduced.  The  sheep  are  of 
the  broad-tailed  kind.  Lions,  tigere, 
wolves,  hya?nas,  bufl^aloes  and  jackals  are 
numerous  in  the  vicinity  of  the  settle- 


CAPE  OF  GOOD  HOPE— CAPE  TOWN. 


ments.  In  the  more  remote  parts  are  the 
elephant,  the  rhinoceros,  the  qiiagga,  the 
giraffe,  &;c.  The  spring-bock  is  seen  in 
herds  of  10,000.  JNIonkeys,  armadillos, 
and  other  small  animals,  are  niunerous. 
The  ostrich  is  common.  Vultures,  eagles, 
kites,  and  the  gigantic  condor  inhabit  the 
mountains.  There  are  also  pelicans,  fla- 
mingoes, parrots,  and  many  kinds  of 
aquatic  birds.  Noxious  reptiles  are  not 
numerous.  Fish  are  plentiful  on  the  coasts. 
The  capital  is  Cape  Town.  (q.  v.)  Scai-ce- 
ly  any  manufactures  have  been  intro- 
duced into  the  colony,  and  its  commerce 
is  very  limited.  Some  British  merchants 
have  settled  at  Cape  Town,  and  the  trade 
appears  to  be  increasing.  The  principal 
export  is  Cape  wne.  The  imi)orts  are 
in  small  quantities,  and  consist  of  cloths, 
hardware,  furniture,  hats,  &c.  The  aver- 
age amount  is  about  a  million  of  dollars. 
The  value  of  the  colony  to  Great  Britain 
must  not,  however,  be  estimated  by  its 
revenue.  It  is  important,  principally,  as 
l>eing  tlie  connecting  hnk  between  that 
kingdom  and  her  possessions  in  the  East. 
The  Dutch  settlei-s,  who  live  in  the  inte- 
rior, are  called  boors,  and  are  in  a  veiy 
degraded  condition.  Indolent  and  stu- 
pid, every  thing  about  them  exhibits  the 
utmost  wretchedness  in  the  midst  of  plen- 
ty. (See  Barrow's  Travels  in  Soidhem 
Africa ;  Vaillant,  Lichtenstein  and  Camp- 
bell's Travels,  and  the  reverend  Mr.  La- 
trobe's  Visit  to  South  Africa,  in  1815  and 
181G.  Beauvois,  the  French  traveller,  has 
also  lately  given  interesting  information 
on  the  south  of  Africa.) 

Cape  Hatteras ;  a  noted  and  danger- 
ous cape  on  the  coast  of  North  Carolina ; 
being  the  projecting  point  of  a  long  reef 
of  sand,  extending  from  Ocracoke  inlet  to 
New  inlet ;  lat.  35°  14'  N. ;  Ion.  75° 
30'  W. 

Cape  Haytien  (formerly  called  Cape 
Francois,  or  Le  Cap,  and,  during  the  reign 
of  Cnristophe,  Cape  Henry) ;  a  town  of 
Hayti,  and  the  capital  of  the  island  and 
republic ;  Ion.  72°  10'  W. ;  lat.  19°  46'  N. 
It  is  situated  on  tlie  north  coast  ;  was 
founded  in  1670 ;  bunit  in  1792,  by  the 
blacks ;  Avas  the  last  town  retained  by  the 
French  in  the  island,  but  was  surrendered 
by  them  to  the  blacks  in  1803 ;  it  then 
became  the  capital  of  the  black  emperor, 
Henry  Christophe.  Before  it  suffered  so 
severely  by  intestine  convulsions,  it  con- 
tained a  number  of  elegant  buildings, 
about  900  houses  of  stone  and  brick,  and 
a  population  of  from  8  to  12,000 ;  soine 
say  20,000,  12,000  being  slaves.  It  is 
situated  in  a  very  fertile  tract,  and  has 


one  of  the  most  secure  and  convenient 
harbors  in  tlie  island.  It  is  built  on  a 
cape,  at  the  edge  of  a  large  plain,  60  miles 
long  and  12  broad,  between  the  sea  and 
the  mountains.  Its  situation  is  not  fortu- 
nate, as  it  is  screened  from  the  land  wind 
l)y  the  mountains,  and  thus  lefl  exposed 
to  the  unmitigated  fervor  of  the  sun's 
rays.  The  plain  is  well  watered  and 
highly  cultivated.  It  is  cut  through  by 
straight  roads,  40  feet  broad,  liuoil  with 
hedges  of  lime  and  lemon  trees,  leading 
to  plantations  which  produce  as  great  a 
quantity  of  sugar  as  any  spot  of  tlie  same 
size  in  the  world. 

Cape  Horn  :  a  cape  on  the  south  coast 
of  Terra  del  Fuego.  It  is  the  southern 
extremity  of  South  America ;  lat.  55°  58' 
S.;  Ion.  67°  21'  W.  The  navigation 
round  cape  Horn  is  very  dangerous,  on 
account  of  frequent  tempests ;  yet,  of  late, 
it  has  been  the  common  course  of  vessels, 
being  found  much  preferable  to  the  te- 
dious passage  through  the  straits  of  3Ia- 
gellan.  The  shore  is  inhabited  by  Indians, 
of  whom  little  is  known.  The  cape  was 
discovered  by  Jacob  le  Maire,  a  Dutch- 
man, in  1616.  It  is  cold,  lofty,  and  cov- 
ered with  wood. 

Cape  Lookout;  a  dangerous  cape  on 
the  coast  of  North  Carolina  ;  lat.  34°  22' 
N. ;  Ion.  76°  37'  W. 

Cape  Town;  capital  of  the  cape  of 
Good  Hope  ;  lat.  33°  6'  S.  Jon.  18°  23'  E. : 
population  in  1818,  18,173;  of  whom 
7460  were  whites,  1905  free  blacks,  810 
apprentices,  536  Hottentots,  7462  slaves. 
It  is  agreeably  situated,  rather  more  than 
30  miles  from  the  cape  of  Good  Hope, 
properly  so  called,  at  the  head  of  Table 
bay,  in  a  valley  between  the  Table  and 
Lion  mountains.  It  is  defended  by  a 
castle  of  considerable  strength,  and  con- 
tains a  court-house,  a  guard-house,  a  Cal- 
vinistic  church,  a  Lutheran  church,  a 
theatre,  and  1145  houses,  many  of  which 
are  fine.  The  tone  of  society  is  wholly 
commercial,  the  minds  of  all  classes  being 
bent  on  trade.  There  was  not,  in  1818, 
a  public  school  nor  a  bookseller's  shop  in 
the  town.  The  streets  are  broad,  but  ill- 
paved.  The  price  of  provisions  is  very 
reasonable.  The  town  is  well  supplied 
with  springs  of  excellent  water,  sufficient 
also  for  the  ships  which  stop  at  the  port. 
The  harbor  is  tolerably  secure  fiom  Sep- 
tember to  May,  whife  the  S.  E.  winds 
prevail.  During  the  rest  of  the  year,  when 
the  wind  blows  generally  from  the  N. 
and  N.  W.,  ships  are  obliged  to  resort  to 
False  bay,  on  the  opposite  side  of  the 
peninsula. — A    missionary  is   supported 


CAPE  TOWN— CAPELLO. 


here  by  the  London  missionary  soci- 
ety. 

Cape  Verde  (anciently,  Arsenarium) ;  on 
the  west  coast  of  Africa ;  lat.  14°  44'  N.  j 
Ion.  17°  31'  W. 

Cape  Verde  Islands  ;  islands  of  Af- 
rica, in  the  Atlantic  ;  so  called  from  cape 
Verde,  opposite  to  which  they  are  situ- 
ated ;  390  miles  W.  cape  Verde,  and  be- 
tween 15°  and  18°  N.  lat.  They  belong 
to  Portugal.  As  to  their  number,  some 
reckon  10,  otliers  14  or  more,  by  giving 
tlie  name  oi'  islands  to  those  which  are 
only  rocks.  They  are,  in  general,  moun- 
tainous ;  the  lower  hills  are  covered  w  ilh 
a  beautiful  verdure,  as  well  as  the  exten- 
sive valleys  between  ^  but  with  little  wa- 
ter, except  what  is  found  in  ponds  and 
wells.  They  are  said  to  have  been,  and 
probably  were,  known  to  the  ancients, 
under  the  name  oC  Gorgades.  The  air  is 
extremely  hot  and  unwholesome.  It  rare- 
ly rains;  and  the  ground  is  so  hot  that 
one  can  hm'dly  stand  in  places  exposed  to 
the  Sim.  It  is  dangerous  to  ])ass  the 
night  in  die  open  air,  for  the  great  heat  is 
often  succeeded  by  a  sudden  cold,  which 
j)roves  mortal  to  such  <is  are  exposed  to 
it.  The  soil  is,  for  the  most  part,  stony 
and  baiTen ;  nevertheless,  some  parts  pro- 
duce rice,  maize,  bananas,  lemons,  oran- 
ges, citi-ons,  pomegranates,  figs  and  mel- 
ons. Grapes  are  gathered  twice  a  year. 
The  manufacture  of  leather  and  salt  forms 
the  prijicipal  riches.  Two  of  the  islands, 
St.  Yago  and  St  Philip,  depend  immedi- 
ately on  the  king,  and  are  the  only  ones 
fortified.  The  number  of  inhabitants 
is  calcjilated  at  100,000.  Few  whites  are 
now  seen.  The  governor  and  priests  are 
often  Negroes.  The  chief  town  is  Porto 
Praya.  In  the  small  island  of  Mayo, 
nnich  salt  is  made.  Numerous  vessels, 
principally  American,  visit  this  place  for 
the  sake  of  obtaining  it,  ami  bring  flour  to 
give  in  exchange.  In  1827,  the  imports 
into  the  U.  States  from  these  islands 
amounted  to  $77,425;  the  exports  to  them 
from  the  U.  States,  to  8104,1(J5.  The 
island  of  Fuego,  otie  of  the  group,  con- 
sists of  one  single  mountain,  formerly  a 
volcano,  according  to  lieutenant  3Iudge, 
9790  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea. 

Capellen,  G.  a.  J.,  baron  de ;  gov- 
ernor-general of  all  the  Dutch  settlements 
in  Asia  ;  one  of  the  few  pohticians  of  our 
time,  who,  in  good  and  bad  fortune,  have 
preserved  integiity  of  })rinciple.  His  fa- 
ther is  known  by  his  defence  of  the  for- 
tress of  Gorkum  against  the  Prussians. 
The  son,  after  an  excellent  education,  was 
made,  in  1S08,  by  Louis  kuig  of  Holland, 

VOL.  II.  42 


prefect  of  East  Friesland,  where  he  was 
much  beloved.  Louis  afterwards  made 
him  minister  of  the  interior  and  counsel- 
lor of  state,  and  it  was  very  i)robably  he 
who  advised  the  king  to  resign  his  throne. 
Under  Napoleon,  he  accepted  no  oflice. 
King  William  made  him  minister  of  the 
colonies.  When  the  congi-ess  of  Vienna 
united  Belgium  with  Holland,  he  was 
conmiissioned  to  prepare  the  Belgians  for 
the  new  government.  Since  1815,  Ca- 
pellen, in  his  high  post  in  Batavia,  has 
increased  the  productiveness  of  the  Dutch 
possessions  in  Asia,  particularly  of  Java, 
by  his  excellent  institutions.  Batavia  has 
been  made  a  free  port,  at  which  the  ships 
of  the  U.  States  of  America,  in  particular, 
prociu-e  great  quantities  of  cofiee,  sugar, 
rice,  rum  and  spices,  for  ready  money. 
The  commerce  of  Banda  and  Amboyna, 
as  well  as  that  of  Borneo,  has  also  been 
increased. 

Capello,  Bianca ;  a  noble  Venetian 
lady,  whose  singidar  adventures  and  final 
elevation  have  rendered  her  exceedingly 
remaikable.  She  was  born  about  1542, 
being  the  daughter  of  Bartolomeo  Capel- 
lo, a  patrician  of  Venice.  She  early  fell 
in  love  with  a  young  and  handsome  clerk 
in  the  banking-house  of  Salviati,  named 
Buonaventuri.  The  consequence  of  the 
intrigue  was  the  pregnancy  of  the  lady, 
and  the  flight  of  the  lovers  to  Florence, 
where  they  mamed,  and  Bianca  lay  in  of 
a  daughter.  Here  they  lived  some  time 
in  great  apprehension  and  obscurity,  until 
some  accident  or  contrivance  introduced 
Bianca  to  the  notice  of  Francis,  son  of 
Cosmo,  grand-duke  of  Tuscany.  Her 
uncommon  beauty  and  engaging  man- 
ners made  an  immediate  imj)ression  on  a 
prince  notorious  for  his  attachment  to  the 
sex ;  and  the  consequence  was,  that  she 
and  her  husband  were  quickly  settled  in 
a  splendid  palace,  and  the  latter  made 
chamberlain  to  the  duke,  and,  to  the  great 
disgust  of  the  Florentines,  intrusted  with 
a  large  share  of  public  business.  Bianca 
was,  in  the  mean  time,  introduced  at 
court,  and  became  the  object  of  great 
admiration  ;  and  it  is  asserted,  that,  even 
at  that  time,  Francis  promised  to  marry 
her,  should  they  become  released  from 
the  marriage  ties  by  which  they  were 
each  of  them  bound.  This  took  place  in 
a  verj-  few  years  on  her  part.  Buonaven- 
turi, having  engaged  in  an  intrigue  with  a 
woman  of  rank,  was  assassinated  by  her 
family  ;  and  Francis  now  avowedly  pro- 
claimed Bianca  his  mistress.  As  Francis, 
who  liad  no  issue,  passionately  desire<l 
even  a  natural  child,  Bianca,  whose  in- 


IM 


CAPELLO— CAPERNAUM. 


temperate  mode  of  living  was  not  favora- 
ble to  his  wishes,  carried  on  all  the  forms 
of  pregnancy,  and  presented  to  her  de- 
luded lover  a  new-bom  male  child,  of 
poor  parents,  whom  he  joyfully  received 
as  his  own,  and  christened  Antonio.  A 
legitimate  son,  produced  to  him  soon  after 
by  his  duchess,  induced  him  to  be  less 
open  in  his  attentions  to  Bianca ;  but  the 
death  of  his  wife,  very  soon  after,  opened 
to  the  latter  a  road  to  her  final  elevation, 
and  she  was  quickly  united  to  Francis  by 
a  private  marriage.  Her  ambition,  how- 
ever, was  not  to  be  gratified  without  jjub- 
licity ;  and  slie  induced  the  grand-duke 
to  send  a  solemn  embassy  to  Venice,  to 
inform  the  senate  of  his  marriage,  and  to 
request  them  to  confer  on  Bianca  the 
title  of  daughter  of  the  republic,  which 
honor  was  supposed  to  entitle  those  on 
whom  it  was  bestowed  to  a  royal  alliance. 
That  government  assented,  and  Bianca, 
being  crowned  daughter  of  the  state,  was 
solemnly  ijistalled  grand-duchess  of  Tus- 
cany in  1579.  In  1582,  the  legitimate  son 
of  Francis  expired ;  and,  soon  after,  he  de- 
clared Antonio  his  lawfiil  son,  although,  it 
is  said,  Bianca  had  acknowledged  her 
imposition.  Ferdinand,  the  brother  of 
Francis,  and  his  lawful  heir,  was  not 
blind  to  these  proceedings,  and  paid  the 
greatest  attention  to  the  subsequent  re- 
ported pregnancies  of  the  duchess,  until, 
the  state  of  her  health  setting  all  idea  of 
further  progeny  aside,  she  essayed  to  ef- 
fect a  reconciliation  between  the  brothers, 
and  Ferdinand  paid  a  visit  to  Florence. 
He  had  been  there  but  a  short  time,  when 
Francis  fell  ill,  at  his  hunting  village  of 
Poggio,  where  his  brother  was  a  guest ; 
and,  two  days  after,  the  duchess  being 
seized  with  the  same  symptoms,  they 
both  died,  after  about  a  week's  illness,  in 
October,  1587,  Bianca  being  then  in  her 
45th  year.  The  known  character  of  the 
Medici  family  caused  this  catastrophe  to 
be  attributed  to  poison  ;  and  a  story  is 
current,  that  Bianca,  intending  to  poison 
Ferdinand  with  a  prepared  viand,  he  had 
the  address  to  make  the  duke  and  duchess 
eat  of  it  themselves.  As  there  Avas  no 
direct  motive  for  the  attempt  at  the  pe- 
riod, and  it  rests  only  on  the  character  of 
the  parties,  it  is  more  reasonable  to  sup- 

EoseMhat  a  malignant  fever,  at  an  un- 
ealthy  season,  was  the  real  cause  of  the 
sudden  termination  of  so  extraordinary  a 
career.  The  hatred  of  the  Florentines 
has  made  Bianca  a  monster  of  vice  and 
cruelty ;  a  thousand  absurd  stories  were 
propagated  of  her  propensity  to  magic, 
and  other  crimes ;  and,  perceiving  the 


impossibility  of  gaining  their  affections, 
she  employed  trains  of  spies  and  inform- 
ers, which  added  still  more  to  their  ani- 
mosity. The  truth  seems  to  be,  that  she 
was  a  woman  of  consummate  beauty  and 
address,  with  little  or  no  principle ;  and 
such  was  the  character  of  the  ItaUan 
courts,  at  the  period  in  which  she  flourish- 
ed, that  she  liad  only  to  act  in  the  spirit 
of  the  times,  to  become  verj'  nearly  as 
vicious  as  the  Florentines  described  her. 

Caper.  Capers  are  the  unopened  flow- 
er-buds of  a  low  shrub  {capparis  sjnnosa), 
which  grows  from  the  crevices  of  rocks 
and  walls,  and  among  rubbish,  in  the 
southern  parts  of  France,  in  Italy  and  the 
Levant.  The  stems  of  the  caper-bush 
are  trailing,  and  two  or  three  feet  long. 
The  leaves  are  alternate,  of  somewhat 
oval  shape,  veined,  and  of  a  bright-green 
color ;  and  the  flowers  are  large  and 
beautiful,  with  four  petals,  and  white, 
with  a  tinge  of  red. — In  the  south  of 
France,  the  caper-bush  is  very  common. 
It  grows  wild  upon  the  walls  of  Rome, 
Sienna  and  Florence,  and,  when  trained 
against  a  wall,  flourishes  even  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Paris ;  notwithstanding 
which,  it  is  almost  unknown  in  English 
gardens,  where  it  cannot  be  made  to 
flower  without  the  aid  of  artificial  heat. 
It  is  cidtivated,  on  a  large  scale,  between 
Marseilles  and  Toulon,  and  in  many  parts 
of  Italy.  In  the  early  part  of  the  sum- 
mer, it  begins  to  flower,  and  the  flowers 
continue  successively  to  appear,  until  the 
commencement  of  winter.  The  buds  are 
picked  every  morning,  before  the  petals 
are  expanded  ;  and,  as  they  are  gathered, 
they  are  put  into  vinegar  and  salt.  When 
a  sufiicient  quantity  is  collected,  they  are 
distributed,  according  to  their  size,  into 
diflferent  vessels,  again  put  into  vinegar, 
and  then  packed  u])  for  sale  and  exporta- 
tion. This  pickle  is  much  used  in  sauce 
for  boiled  mutton.  To  persons  unaccus- 
tomed to  it,  the  taste  of  capers  is  unpleas- 
ant ;  but,  after  a  little  while,  the  palate 
becomes  perfectly  reconciled  to  it.  The 
flower-buds  of  the  marsh-marigold  {cal- 
tha  palustris)  and  nasturtiums  are  fre- 
quently pickled,  and  eaten  as  a  substitute 
for  capers.  The  bark  of  the  root,  cut 
into  slices,  and  dried  in  small  rolls  or 
quills,  like  cinnamon,  is  sometimes  used 
in  medicine,  in  cases  of  obstruction  of  the 
liver. 

Caper,  in  shipping,  is  the  Dutch  and 
German  name  for  privateer, 

Capernaum  ;  a  town  in  ancient  Pales- 
tine, on  the  west  side  of  the  sea  of  Tibe- 
rias ;  Ion.  35°  44'  E. ;  lat.  32°  45'  N.    Near 


CAPERNAUM— CAPI  AGA. 


m 


h  were  a  mountain  and  rivulet  of  the 
same  name.  This  place  is  famous,  in 
Christian  history,  because  Jesus  used  to 
reside  here  during  the  time  of  his  minis- 
try ;  and  in  its  vicinity  he  delivered  the 
sermon  on  the  mount  Nothing  of  it  now^ 
remains.  As  Capernaum  is  not  men- 
tioned in  the  Old  Testament,  it  may  have 
been  built  after  the  return  from  the  Baby- 
lonish captivity.  It  stood  on  the  coast  of 
Galilee,  on  the  Iwrders  of  Zabulon  and 
Nephthalim. 

Capet  ;  the  name  of  the  French  race 
of  kings,  which  has  given  118  sove- 
reigns to  Europe,  viz.  3()  kings  of  France, 
22  kings  of  Portugal,  1 1  of  Naples  and 
Sicily,  5  of  Spain,  3  of  Hungary,  3  em- 
perors of  Constantinople,  3  kings  of  Na- 
vaiTe,  17 dukesof  Burgundy,  12  dukes  of 
Brittany,  2  dukes  of  Lon-aine,  and  4  dukes 
of  Parma.  The  historj-  of  this  royal  race 
is,  at  tlie  same  time,  the  liistoiy  of  the 
rise  and  progress  of  the  French  mon- 
archy. (See  France.)  The  fate  of  one 
of  the  most  interesting  coiuitries  and  na- 
tions in  Europe  is  connected  with  the 
name  of  Capet.  After  having  been  de- 
prived of  four  thrones,  and  again  i-estored 
to  them,  this  family  stands  forth  as  the 
first  and  most  ancient  support  of  the  Eu- 
ropean principle  of  political  legitimacy, 
that  divine  right,  which,  hi  this  house, 
connnenced  with  treason.  Its  origin  is 
remarkable.  Pepin  the  Short,  the  father 
of  Charlemagne,  and  mayor  of  the  palace 
imder  the  Merovingian  dynasty,  had  dis- 
placed that  roj^al  house,  and  usurped  the 
throne  of  the  ancient  kings  of  the  Franks. 
After  a  space  of  2;)5  years,  his  own  de- 
scendants, the  Carlovingian  monarchs, 
experienced  a  similar  fate.  Under  the 
last  Carlovingians,  destitute  alike  of  ener- 
gy and  wisdom,  Ilugh  the  Great,  duke  of 
France  {by  which  was  then  understood 
the  Isle  of  France),  Orleans  and  Burgun- 
dy, exercised  a  power  as  unlimited  as 
that  of  the  mayor  of  the  i)alace  under  the 
Merovingians.  On  the  death  of  Louis  V, 
without  children,  in  987,  his  uncle  Charles, 
duke  of  Lower  Lorraine,  laid  claim  to  the 
throne,  which  the  Franks  had  sworn  to 
preserve  to  the  family  of  Charlemagne, 
The  French  nobility,  supported  by  pope 
John  XV,  proclaimed  Hugh,  son  of  Hugh 
the  Great,  duke  of  France  and  count  of 
Paris,  king,  \yith  the  surname  of  Capet 
(capetus,  capita,  broad-head  ;  or,  more 
probably,  from  a  sort  of  hat,  capatus). 
The  valiant  Charles  of  Lorraine  was  sur- 
prised in  Laon,  by  the  treachery  of  a 
bishop,  and  made  prisoner.  He  died, 
Boon  afterwards,  in  prison,  and  his  son 


Otho,  duke  of  Lower  Lorraine,  died  in 
1006.  Both  his  younger  brothers  died 
childless  in  Germany.  Thus  the  race 
of  Capet  was  left  in  possession  of  the 
throne  of  France.  According  to  some 
historians,  Hugh  Capet  was  descended 
from  a  German  family.  He  was  married 
to  a  German  princess,  Adelaide,  daughter 
of  king  Henry  I  of  Gennany  (duke  of 
Saxony).  Hugh  was  crowned  at  Rheims, 
and  swore  to  preserve  to  the  nation,  and 
j)articularly  to  the  powei-ful  feudal  nobil- 
ity and  clergy,  all  their  existing  privilege*. 
By  his  wise  measures,  he  gave  j)erma- 
ncnce  to  his  dynasty,  which,  next  to  the 
family  of  Guelpli,  is  the  eldest  sovereign 
house  at  present  existing.  (See  Bourbon.) 
Hugh,  and  the  succeeding  monarchs,  till 
Louis  VII,  took  the  precaution  to  have 
their  successor  invested  with  the  royal 
title  during  their  own  life-time.  Thus 
Hugh  had  his  son  Robert  crowTied  and 
anointed,  as  his  colleague,  as  early  as  Jan. 
1,  988.  He  abolished,  by  law,  the  parti- 
tion of  the  hereditary  estates  among  the 
sons  of  the  kings,  and  forbade  the  aliena- 
tion of  the  family  domains.  The  daugh- 
ters of  the  kings  were  endowed,  from 
that  time,  with  money,  and  the  appanage 
which  was  giveii  to  the  princes  of  the 
blood  returned  to  the  crown  in  default 
of  male  heirs.  Both  these  principles  were 
more  fully  confinned  by  later  laws.  Thus 
Hugh  Capet,  by  uniting  his  hereditary 
duchy,  consisting  of  Paris,  Isle  de  France 
and  Burgundj^j  imalienably  with  the 
crown,  may  be  regarded  as  the  founder 
of  the  French  monarchy.  What  he  had 
begim  was  completed  by  his  successors, 
particularly  in  the  times  of  the  crusades, 
and  by  the  establishment  of  standing  ar- 
mies. All  the  political  statements  illus-. 
trative  of  this  subject  are  collected  by  the 
marquis  de  Pastoret,  peer  of  France,  in 
his  continuation  of  the  Ordonnances  des 
Rois  de  France  de  la  troisihne  Race,  vols. 
XV.  xvi.  xvii,  (Paris,  1811, 1814, 1820,  fol.), 
with  which  may  be  compared  the  essay 
of  the  advocate  Beugnot,  which  obtained 
the  prize  of  the  academy  of  inscriptions, 
Essai  sur  les  Institutions  de  St.  Louis 
(Paris,  1821), 

Capi  Aga  ;  in  the  Turkish  court,  the 
superintendent  of  the  eunuchs.  He  also 
announces  all  who  desire  to  speak  to  the 
grand  vizier,  and  introduces  foreign  am^ 
bassadors  to  an  audience.^CfJ/JJg^*  {capid- 
schi)  is  a  name  applied  to  the  guards  or 
door-keepers  of  the  seraglio,  in  number 
about  400.  Their  superintendent  is  called 
Capigi  Baschi.  They  Ukewise  convey 
the  sultati's  orders.     Aniong  their  duties 


496 


CAPI  AGA— CAPIAS. 


is  that  of  carrying  the  cord  to  those  who 

are  to  be  strangled. 

Capias.  A  writ  or  process  of  capias  is 
one  wliereby  tlie  sheriff  is  ordered  to  ar- 
rest the  body  of  tlie  defendant,  either 
before  judgment,  to  comiiel  him  to  an- 
swer to  a  suit ;  and  tliis  is  called  a  capias 
ad  respondendum;  or,  after  the  judgment, 
to  compel  him  to  satisfy  the  judgment ; 
and  this  is  called  a  capias  ad  satisfacien- 
dum, commonly  abbreviated  ca.  sa.  In 
case  of  injuries  without  force,  the  civil 
law,  and,  originally,  the  connnon  law,  did 
]iot  authorize  the  arrest  of  the  defendant 
before  judgment,  that  is,  the  arrest  to  an- 
swer ;  and  upon  feudal  principles,  says 
sir  WiUiam  Blaekstone,  3  Com.  281,  "the 
person  of  a  feudatory  was  not  liable  to 
be  attached  for  injuries  njerely  civil,  lest, 
thereby,  the  lord  should  be  deprived  of 
his  senices."  The  first  writ  of  capias 
ad  respondendum  was  given  by  act  of 
parliament  in  12G7,  52  Henry  III,  c.  2-3, 
§  1,  which  provided,  that,  "if  bailiffs, 
which  ought  to  make  account  to  their 
lords,  do  withdraw  themselves,  and  have 
no  lands  nor  tenements  whereb)'^  they 
may  be  chstrained,  they  shall  be  attached 
by  their  bodies,  sO  that  the  sheriff  shall 
cause  them  to  come  to  make  their  ac- 
count." This  act  applied  to  a  particular 
description  of  receivers,  and  suj)poses 
them  not  only  to  be  debtors,  but  also  to 
have  in  their  own  hands  the  evidence  of 
the  amount  of  the  debt,  the  yjroduction 
of  which  was  one  object  of  the  process. 
The  statute  of  13  Edward  I,  c.  11,  passed 
in  1285,  18  years  after  the  former,  extends 
this  process  to  "all  manner  of  receivers 
bound  to  yield  account,"  and  provides  "  if 
they  be  found  in  an-earages  upon  this 
account,  their  bodies  shall  be  iurested, 
and,  by  the  testimony  of  the  auditors,  shall 
be  sent  into  the  next  gaol,  and  be  impris- 
oned in  irons  under  safe  custody,  and 
remain  in  prison  at  their  own  cost,  until 
tliey  have  satisfied  their  master  [the  cred- 
itor] fully  of  their  arrearages."  This 
statute  seems  to  suppose  the  proof  and 
establishment  of  the  debt  before  the  ar- 
rest,  and,  so  far,  seems  to  have  the  char- 
acter of  a  ca.  sa. :  but  it  is  considered  a 
capias  ad  respondendum  by  sir  William 
Blaekstone ;  so  in  Jacobs's  Law  Dictiona- 
ry, and,  indeed,  generally.  And  it  ap- 
pears that  the  practice  of  arresting  on 
mesne  process,  that  is,  before  judgment, 
to  answer,  in  civil  suits,  grew  out  of  these 
statutes ;  for  the  sulisequent  statutes  of 
2.5  Edward  III,  c.  17  (A.  D.  1350),  pro- 
viding  that  "  .such  process  shall  be  made 
in  writ  of  debt,  detume  of  chattels,  and 


taking  of  beasts,  by  writ  of  capias,  as  is 
used  in  writ  of  account ;"  and  of  21  Hen- 
ry VII,  c.  9  (A.  D.  1503),  providing  that 
"  like  process  shall  be  hereafter,  in  actions 
ujion  the  case,  as  in  action  of  trespass  or 
debt ;"  evidently  have  reference  to  an  ar- 
rest to  answer.  A  writ  upon  which  a  suit 
is  commenced  is  either  a  capias,  distress 
or  summons ;  either  the  person  of  the 
defendant  is  seized,  and  (unless  he  is 
bailed)  imprisoned  until  the  trial,  or  his 
goods  or  lands  are  seized  as  a  guarantee 
of  his  appearance  to  answer ;  and  more 
often,  in  modem  times,  to  obtain  a  lien  to 
secure  satisfaction  of  the  judgment ;  or  he 
is  only  sunmioued,  that  is,  merely  has 
notice,  that  a  suit  has  been  commenced  be- 
fore such  a  court,  by  such  a  plaintiff,  and 
is  to  be  heard  at  such  a  time.  This  last 
is  uniformly  the  process  adopted  in  claims 
of  land.  But  by  the  statute  of  5  Geo.  II, 
c.  27,  since  made  perpetual  by  another 
statute,  it  is  provided,  that,  "  in  all  cases 
where  the  cause  of  action  shall  not 
amount  to  ten  })ounds,  the  plaintiff  shall 
not  arrest  the  body  of  the  del(?ndantf 
and  "  in  all  cases  where  the  cause  of  ac- 
tion shall  amount  to  ten  pounds,  an  affi- 
davit shall  be  made  and  filed  of  such 
cause  of  action,  and  the  sum  si>ecified  in 
such  affidavit  shall  be  endoi-sed  on  the 
writ,  for  which  sum  the  sheriff  shall  take 
bail,  and  no  more."  "It  is  curious  to 
remark,"  says  jNIr.  Tidd,  "the  changes 
which  the  law  of  arrest  has  undergone  at 
different  jieriods.  Anciently,  an  arrest  was 
not  allowed,  except  in  action  of  trespass 
vi  et  armis ;  afterwards,  an  arrest  was  in- 
troduced with  a  capias  in  other  actions ; 
now,  by  the  operation  of  the  before-men- 
tioned statutes,  an  arrest  cannot  be  made 
in  the  only  action  wherein  it  was  for- 
merly allowed."  But,  as  has  been  justly 
remarked  in  a  Pennsylvania  case  (6  Binn, 
302),  the  reason  for  not  requiring  bail  in 
trespass  is,  the  difficulty  of  fixing  the 
amounts  for  which  it  ought  to  be  required. 
In  the  U.  States,  except  Louisiana,  the 
form  of  process  is  usually  adopted  from 
the  English  law,  but  with  so  gi-eat  modi- 
fications on  this  paiticular  subject,  that  it 
is  not  easy  to  lay  down  any  general  rule ; 
and  to  state  the  particular  cases  in  which 
an  arrest  of  tlie  person  on  mesne  process 
is  allowed  in  each  of  the  states,  would  far 
exceed  the  limits  prescribed  by  the  plan 
of  this  work.  The  general  principle  was 
laid  do^vn,  in  the  trial  of  judge  Chase  on 
articles  of  impeachment,  in  1804,  that,  in 
criminal  proceedings,  wherever  the  of- 
fence charged  subjects  the  party  to  the 
punishment  of  imprisonment,  the  process 


CAPIAS— CAPITAL. 


m 


may  be  commenced  by  an  arrest  of  the 

Eerson,  that  the  party  charged  may  be 
eld  in  custody,  to  receive  punishment  in 
case  of  his  beuig  found  guilty.  In  civil 
suits,  the  capias  ad  respondendum  was 
anciently  adopted  very  extensively,  if  not 
universally,  under  the  colonial  govern- 
ments, in  actions  of  account,  assumpsit, 
covenant,  debt  and  case.  The  capias  was 
adopted  early  and  implicitly,  in  many  of 
the  states,  as  a  part  of  the  common  law  ; 
and  a  large  part  of  tlie  legislation  on  the 
subject,  subsequent  to  the  adoption  of  the 
constitutions  of  the  states,  is  a  modifica- 
tion of  a  practice  already  existing.  And 
the  very  laws  authorizing  the  arrest  are 
not  to  be  found,  except  by  implication 
from  those  modifying  and  regulating  the 
practice.  In  many  of  the  states,  however, 
arrest  on  mesne  process  for  debt  is  abol- 
ished, except  in  cases  where  it  is  appre- 
hended the  debtor  intends  to  escape.  In 
other  states,  the  debtor  is  arrested  on  the 
capias  ad  respondendum,  but  set  at  large 
immediately  on  surrendering  his  property, 
on  oath,  for  the  benefit  of  his  creditoi-s. 
It  seems,  indeed,  to  be  putting  a  slight 
value  upon  personal  liberty  to  permit  ar- 
rest, in  any  case,  without  the  intervention 
of  a  magistrate  ;  and,  in  case  of  debt  or 
contract,  there  does  not  appear  to  be  any 
good  reason  for  an-esting  the  person  on 
mesne  process,  unless  it  be  made  to  ap- 
pear satisfactorily  to  a  magistrate,  that 
there  is  reason  to  apprehend  the  defend- 
ant will  depart  beyond  the  jurisdiction  of 
the  court.  The  capias  ad  satisfaciendum, 
or  arrest  on  execution,  issues,  in  England, 
in  those  cases  where  the  capias  ad  respon- 
dendum lies,  and  so  was  the  original  com^ 
nion  or  statute  law,  generally,  in  the  U, 
States ;  but  the  bankrupt  and  insolvent 
laws  of  England,  and  the  insolvent  laws 
of  several  of  the  U.  States,  enable  the 
defendant,  by  suiTendoring  his  property 
for  tlie  benefit  of  his  creditors,  to  defeat 
the  capias  ad  satisfaciendum. 

Capigi.    (See  Capi  Ago,) 

Capillart  Tubes,  in  physics;  little 
pipes,  the  canals  of  which  are  extremely 
naiTOvv,  their  diameter  being  only  a  half, 
third  or  fourth,  &c.  of  a  line.  If  one  end 
of  a  tube  of  this  sort,  open  at  both  ends, 
be  immersed  in  a  fluid  which  adheres  to 
glass,  as  water,  the  liquor  within  the  tube 
will  rise  to  a  sensible  height  above  the 
surface  of  that  without,  and  the  height  to 
which  it  will  rise  is  inversely  as  the  di-. 
ameter  of  the  tube,  at  least  unless  the 
tubes  are  excessively  fine.  This  phe^ 
nomenon  is  explained  by  the  attraction 
which  exists  between  the  glass  and  the 
40* 


fluid.  Such  liquids  as  do  not  adliere  to 
glass  (e.  g.,  quicksilver)  do  not  rise  in  the 
tube :  on  the  contrary,  they  stand  lower 
within  than  without  it.  The  phenome- 
non of  the  rise  of  liquids  in  such  tubes  is 
exliibited  in  numberless  instances  in  na- 
ture, as  in  the  rising  of  the  sap  in  plants, 
(See  the  article  Adhesion  ;  also,  Laplace's 
Theorie  de  V Action  Capillaire,  Paris,  1806, 
4to.,  and  the  Supplemeni  to  the  same, 
Paris,  1807,  4to.,  also  annexed  to  the 
third  volume  of  his  Mecanique  Celeste.) 

Capillary  Vessels  ;  the  minute  ves- 
sels in  which  the  arteries  terminate,  and 
from  which,  in  a  way  not  well  under- 
stood, the  veins  conmience.  The  distinc- 
tion between  the  arteries  and  veins  is, 
therefore,  lost  in  these  vessels.  The  sup- 
port of  the  solid,  and  the  formation  of  the 
fluid,  parts  of  the  system  take  place 
esj)ecially  in  these  vessels. 

Capital,  in  political  economy,  is  the 
stock  of  valuable  exchangeable  commodi- 
ties possessed  by  in<lividuals  or  a  com- 
munity. This  is  the  usual  and  more 
limited  meaning  of  the  term ;  for,  in  com- 
paring the  capital  of  one  individual  with 
that  of  another,  we  have  in  mind  the 
amount  of  money  for  which  the  stock  of 
each  can  be  exchanged.  The  market 
value  is  in  view.  In  estimating  the  capi- 
tal of  any  individual,  we  necessarily  take 
into  considemtion  the  debts  due  to  and 
from  him;  and  many  men  of  large  capital 
are  only  possessed  of  claims  upon  others; 
their  whole  stock  is  in  the  hands  of  others 
at  interest ;  and  they  have  only  promises 
for  a  certain  amount  of  money,  and  actu- 
ally possess  neither  lands  nor  goods  to 
any  considerable  value ;  while  others 
possess  large  quantities  of  both,  and  yet 
have  little  or  no  capital,  since  they  owe, 
in  money,  the  value  of  the  greater  part  or 
the  whole  of  their  possessions.  Now  it 
is  plain  that  no  individual  can  undertake 
production,  to  any  large  extent,  without 
an  extensive  stock.  He  must  have  land 
to  cultivate,  or  materials  to  work  up,  and 
implements  to  work  with.  Even  a  sav- 
age must  have  a  cajiitul,  such  as  his  hut, 
clothes,  cooking  utensils,  food  enough 
to  support  liim  until  he  can  obtain  a  new 
supply,  and  implements,  such  as  a  hatch- 
et, gun,  canoe,  fishing  gear,  Avith  which 
to  procure  this  supply.  The  first  eflTort 
of  industry  is  to  supply  the  implements, 
apparatus  and  machinery  for  his  own  em- 
ployment ;  and  as  society  and  the  arts 
advance,  and  the  operations  of  industry- 
are  extended,  the  implements,  apparatus, 
machinery  and  materials,  requisite  in  con- 
duotuig  the  processes  of  production,  must 


498 


CAPITAL. 


be  proportionally  accumulated ;  and  these 
will  constitute  a*  part  of  the  capital  of  a 
community,  and  also  of  an  individual, 
which  is  essential  to  success  m  ])roductive 
processes.  And  these  can  be  command- 
ed by  any  one  in  proportion  to  the  extent 
of  his  individual  capital ;  or,  if  he  have 
credit,  then  his  resources  for  production 
will  depend  upon  the  capital  of  others — 
in  otlier  words,  that  of  the  community  to 
which  he  belongs. — In  considering  the 
aggregate  capital  of  a  community,  we 
may  put  out  of  the  question  all  the  debts 
due  from  any  of  the  memljers  to  others ; 
for,  whether  these  be  great  -or  small, — 
and  they  will  vaiy  according  as  the  prac- 
tice of  giving  credit  is  more  or  less  in  use, 
— still  tJie  capital  of  the  community  will 
consist  in  its  lands,  buildings,  ships,  ma- 
chinery, materials  on  band,  implements; 
in  short,  in  all  those  things  which  bear  a 
value  in  the  market.  Provided  the  com- 
munity owes  no  debts  abroad,  these  will 
constitute  its  aggregate  capitid  ;  and,  if  its 
members  are  indebted  abroad,  we  find  its 
actual  net  capital,  as  in  the  case  of  an  in- 
dividual, by  deducting  the  amount  of  its 
debts  from  the  value  of  its  possessions, 
without  regarding  the  debts  due  from 
some  of  its  members  to  others. — In  com- 
paring the  capital  or  wealth  of  two  com- 
munities, we  may  be  led  into  an  error  by 
comparing  the  value  of  their  possessions 
in  gold  and  silver,  since  the  value  of  these 
metals  is  well  known  to  differ  in  differ- 
ent countries,  by  wliatever  standard  the 
comparison  be  made.  If,  for  instance, 
we  compare  the  value  of  the  metals  in 
reference  to  the  wages  of  a  common  day 
laborer,  we  find  he  has  2  or  3  pence  a 
day  in  Egypt,  and  from  50  to  72  pence  in 
tJie  U.  States,  We  shall  find  the  same 
diversity  in  other  things.  If  we  take  a 
horse,  of  the  same  beauty  and  serviceable 
qualities,  for  an  example,  we  shall  find 
his  price,  in  money,  to  be  twice  as  gi-eat 
in  one  place  as  in  another.  In  order, 
therefore,  to  make  such  a  comparison 
tlirough  the  medium  of  tlie  metals,  or  by 
adopting  them  as  a  common  measure,  we 
should,  in  the  first  place,  con-ect  the 
measure  itself,  and  ascertain  whether  an 
ounce  of  gold,  in  one  of  the  places  be^ 
tweeu  which  the  comparison  is  to  be 
made,  is  \\'orth  a  half  of  an  ounce  or  an 
ounce  and  a  half  in  the  other ;  and  the 
way  of  coiTecting  the  standard  would  be, 
to  lake  equal  quantities  of  a  great  num- 
ber of  articles  of  tiie  same  quality,  in  the 
two  places,  or  equivalent  quantities  of 
equivalent  articles,  as  neariy  as  their 
equivalence  can  be  ascertained,  and  com- 


pare their  money  prices  in  the  two  places. 
But  tliis  correction  of  the  common  meas- 
ure is  not  very  easily  made.  The  means 
of  comparing  the  value  of  money  at  suc- 
cessive periods,  in  the  same  community, 
are  very  defective  ;  and  the  only  attempt 
at  any  scale  of  value,  of  this  description, 
known  to  the  writer  of  this  article,  is  that 
of  Mr.  Evelyn,  published  in  the  Transac- 
tions of  the  royal  society  of  London  for 
1798,  and  corrected,  since,  by  Mr.  Col- 
quhoun.  But  suppose  the  comparative 
value  of  money,  in  two  states  or  king- 
doms, to  be  ascertained,  and  then  a  valu- 
ation of  all  the  property  in  each,  of  every 
description,  to  l>e  made,  the  capital  of 
each  and  the  comparative  capital  of  the 
two  are  thus  ascertained.  But  this  com- 
parison would  not  show  the  comixu-ative 
resources  of  the  two,  either  for  war  or  for 
production.  This  will  appear  from  the 
obvious  fact,  that  a  river  like  the  Hudson 
is  a  greater  facility  to  transportation  than 
the  Languedoc  canal ;  yet,  in  making  a 
return  of  the  property,  or  the  estimation 
of  the  capital  of  France,  the  Languedoc 
canal  would  be  a  great  item,  whereas  the 
Hudson  river,  though  of  equal  or  greater 
utihty,  would  not  appear  as  constituting 
a  part  of  tlie  capital  of  New  York.  The 
inhabitants  are  the  great  agents  of  pro- 
duction in  everj-  country ;  and,  though 
their  productive  efficiency  will  be  influ- 
enced, very  essentially,  by  the  amount  of 
capital,  fertility  of  the  soil,  quality  of  its 
products,  facilities  of  transportation,  and  ar- 
rangenjents  of  industry,  still  the  character, 
habits  and  skill  of  the  agents  themselves 
are  the  most  important  circumstances  in 
estimating  the  productive  resources  of  a 
community.  Industiy  and  skill  will  rapidly 
create  capital.  Mr.  Phillips,  in  his  Man- 
ual of  Political  Economy,  estimates  that 
the  whole  value  of  the  capital  of  a  coun- 
try is  consumed  and  reproduced  every 
lliree  or  four  yeai-s.  But  the  training 
of  a  population,  and  forming  its  character 
and  habits,  is  a  work  of  many  years.  The 
most  important  uigredient  in  the  national 
resources  is,  therefore,  not  only  no  part 
of  its  capital,  but  is  a  thing  of  very  slow 
growth,  and  results  from  the  combined 
and  long-continued  influence  of  a  thou- 
sand causes,  moral,  physical  and  political, 
too  comphcated  to  be  disentangled,  and 
so  blended  that  the  action  of  each  cannot 
be  distinctly  traced.  Economists  have 
confined  their  views  of  production  too 
much  to  considerations  of  capital,  and 
neglected,  or,  at  least,  not  given  sufficient 
weight  to,  the  other  economical  capacities 
and  resources. — Capital  is  distinguished 


CAPITAL. 


499 


iato  Jloaiing,  or  movable,  and  fixed;  the 
former  consisting  of  things  that  may  be 
moved,  and  are  susceptible  of  manual  de- 
livery ;  the  latter,  of  those  confined  to  one 
place,  as  a  house  or  piece  of  land.  We 
use  the  terms  in  a  different  sense  when 
applied  to  any  particular  establishment, 
by  the  floating  capital  of  which  is  meant 
that  which  remains  afterpayment  is  made 
for  all  their  apparatus  and  the  implements 
of  their  business,  and  which  is  usually  in- 
vested in  the  materials  to  be  manufactur- 
ed or  transported,  or  to  pass  through  the 
process,  whatever  it  is,  which  constitutes 
the  business  conducted.  Thus  one  car- 
rjing  on  a  flouring-mill  wants  a  floating 
or  disposable  capital,  over  and  above  the 
cost  of  his  works,  to  be  invested  in  wheat 
to  be  floured,  and  flour  not  yet  disposed 
of.  This  instance  illustrates  what  is 
meant  by  the  floating  or  disposable  capi- 
tal of  a  wliole  community  being  tliat 
movable,  exchangeable  stock  of  things  on 
hand,  over  and  above  the  fixtures  and  ap- 
paratus of  i)roduction,  including  lands, 
buildings,  ships,  working  animals,  all  the 
implements  of  the  arts,  with  necessary 
food,  clothing,  and  a  stock  of  seed  sulfi- 
cient  for  the  time  requisite  for  reproduc- 
tion. What  remains  over  these  is  the 
disposable  capital,  and,  in  a  flourishing 
community,  the  disposable  floating  capital 
is  constantly  invested  in  new  fixed  capi- 
tal, implements  and  apparatus  of  produc- 
tion. A  dechning  community,  on  the 
contrary,  consumes  a  part  of  its  imple- 
ments and  a2)paratus  of  industry',  or,  what 
is,  in  effect,  the  same  thing,  it  does  not 
repair  and  replace  the  damage  of  use  and 
decay.  The  idea  is  held  out  in  many 
economical  treatises,  that  a  community 
cannot  have  a  surplus  cajiital ;  that  is,  it 
cannot  have  more  capital  than  it  can 
make  use  of  in  its  consumption  and  re- 
production. As  no  grounds  whatever  are 
given  for  this  doctrine,  it  seems  to  be 
hardly  entitled  to  a  consideration  ;  for  the 
})Osition  is  certainly,  at  the  first  view,  very 
improbable,  since  we  know  very  well  that 
men  may  accumulate ;  and  why  tliey  may 
not,  in  any  possible  case,  accuiniilate  a 
surplus,  does  not  appear  by  any  plausible 
reason  ;  and  wlietiier  such  surplus  accu- 
mulation may  be  useful  or  not,  will  de- 
pend entirely  upon  the  kind  of  articles 
of  which  such  accumulation  consists.  If 
it  consist  in  articles  the  value  of  which 
depends  on  the  prices  in  foreign  mar- 
kets, the  excess  may  be  of  no  value  at 
all ;  for  it  may  so  depress  the  foreign 
prices  as  to  countenail  all  the  indirect 
advantage  arising  from  the  cheaper  sup- 


ply, for  a  time,  of  the  domestic  demand. 
—Fictitious  capital  generally  means 
nothing  more  nor  less  than  excessive 
credits,  which  throw  the  management 
and  disposition  of  a  great  deal  of  proper- 
ty into  the  hands  of  pei-sons  who  are  not 
able  to  answer  for  the  risks  of  loss  from 
its  bad  management,  or  other  causes.  A 
whole  community,  in  the  aggi'egate,  can 
have  fictitious  capital  only  in  case  of  its 
membei-s  having  aji  excessive  credit  in  a 
foreign  couutrj".  Bat  the  members  may, 
among  themselves,  have  a  fictitious  capi- 
tal, by  too  great  facility  of  credits  in  their 
dealings  with  each  other,  and  the  fiction, 
in  this  case,  is  in  their  false  promises  of 
payment. 

Capital,  in  geography ;  a  city  in  which 
reside  the  highest  authorities  of  a  district, 
province,  country,  &c.  Capitals,  in  the 
modern  meaning  of  the  word,  can  hardly 
be  said  to  have  existed  in  ancient  times ; 
at  least,  they  were  then  only  the  seat  of 
the  sovereign,  but  not  the  centre  of  all  the 
national  activity,  Rome  only,  perhaps,  ex- 
cepted ;  but  this  city  was,  for  a  veiy  long 
time,  the  state  itself,  and,  at  a  later  period, 
the  tyrant  of  the  whole  empire,  rather 
than  the  head  of  a  well-organized  body. 
In  Asia,  there  existed,  indeed,  in  ancient 
times,  capitals  of  very  large  empires;  but 
they  are  not  to  be  compared  to  the  capi- 
tals of  large  modern  empires,  since  the 
channels  of  communication  and  inter- 
course had  not  then  reached  that  degree 
of  perfection  which  enables  them,  in  our 
days,  to  bring  into  close  connexion  all 
parts  of  a  countr}'.  Each  province  Avas, 
tlierefore,  left  much  more  to  itself  It 
would  be  difficult  to  determine  whether 
the  good  or  evil  consequences  of  large 
capitals,  in  modem  times,  are  greater,  and 
such  an  examination  would  far  exceed 
our  limits ;  otherwise,  it  would  be  very 
easy  to  point  out,  in  eveiy  department  of 
civilization,  in  science,  social  intercoui"se, 
politics,  arts,  &c.,  both  salutarj'  and  per- 
nicious eftects,  resulting  fi'om  the  influ- 
ence of  capitals.  It  seems  to  us  a  matter 
of  little  doubt,  that  it  must  be  regarded 
as  disadvantageous  to  any  countrv',  if 
the  capital  ceases  to  be  the  concentration 
of  the  skill,  genius  and  strength  of  a  na- 
tion, for  the  benefit  of  the  whole,  and  by 
a  disproportionate  superiority  destroys  the 
importance  of  the  rest  of  the  countrj',  as 
we  find  to  be  the  case  with  Paris,  which, 
as  lias  been  often  ol)sened,  contains 
France.  In  Germany,  the  state  of  things 
is  quite  the  reverse.  There  is  no  city 
which  maj'  boast  of  being  the  point  of  iia-  , 
tional  concentration.    The  consequences 


500 


CAPITAL-CAPITOL. 


have  been  very  advantageous  to  science, 
and  somewhat  disadvantageous  to  litera- 
ture. In  politics,  this  want  of  a  central 
point  has  had  melancholy  consequences 
for  Germany.  London  never  exercised 
that  degree  of  influence  over  England 
which  Paris  has  over  France  ;  one  reason 
of  whicli  may  be,  that  the  two  most  ex- 
tensive institutions  for  the  diffusion  of 
knowledge  are  not  seated  in  the  metrop- 
oUs.  The  system  of  concentration  has, 
there  is  little  doubt,  been  carried  to  an 
extreme  in  Europe ;  the  best  of  every 
thing  having  been  collected  in  the  capi- 
tals, and  the  provinces  having  been  al- 
most stripped  of  pictures,  libraries,  &c. 
In  many  countries,  this  fault  is  acknowl- 
edged, and  a  return  to  a  more  equitable 
system  is  perceptible.  The  great  increase 
of  wealth  and  consequence,  which  the  cap- 
itals of  large  empires  in  Europe  have  ac- 
quired, in  modern  times,  by  the  introduc- 
tion of  the  bureau  system  (q.  v.),  which  has 
brought  together,  in  one  place,  the  differ- 
ent departments  of  administration,  has  had 
much  influence  on  military  operations, 
liaving  made  the  capture  of  the  capitiU 
no\v  far  more  important  than  formerly. 
— In  the  U.  States,  the  word  capital  is  not 
used  officially,  but,  instead  of  it,  the 
phrase  seat  of  government,  which  is,  in 
most  cases,  not  the  largest  place  of  the 
state.  It  is  not  here  tlie  place  to  dis- 
cuss, whether  it  would  be  more  benefi- 
cial to  the  whole  country  if  the  seat  of 
the  general  government  were  in  one  of 
the  largest  cities  of  the  U.  States.  As  it 
is  now,  to  use  the  words  of  a  traveller, 
"Washington  must  by  no  means  be 
considered  as  the  capital  of  tlie  nation, 
but  only  as  the  capital  of  governmental 
business.     It  is  a  camp  of  business." 

Capital,  in  architecture.  (See  Archi- 
tecture.) 

Capital  Offence.    (See  Crime.) 

Capital  Punishment.  (See  Death, 
punishment  of.) 

Capitanata  ;  a  province  of  Naples, 
bounded  N.  and  E.  by  the  Adriatic,  S.  by 
the  country  of  Bari  'and  Basilicata,  and 
W.  by  the  Molise.  This  was  the  ancient 
Apulia  Daunica.  The  whole  country  is 
a  vast  plain,  and  the  soil  generally  sandy, 
with  few  trees,  and  scarcely  any  springs 
or  rivers  of  fr^sh  water;  yet  the  land  pro- 
duces a  great  deal  of  corn,  and  feeds  a 
great  number  of  cattle.  Salt  is  made  along 
3ie  coast  The  Gargano  is  the  only 
mountain :  on  the  sides  are  plantations 
of  oranges.  The  coasts  are  defended  by 
22  towers.  The  principal  towns  are  Lu- 
cera,  Foggia,  St.  Severo  and  Volturara. 


Population,  254,809.  Square  miles,  3289. 
Manfredonia  is  the  principal  seaport. 
Capitanata  forms  what  is  generally  called 
the  spur  of  Italy. 

Capitam,  or  Ca  PA  tans  ;  the  heredi- 
tary chieftains  who  have  taken  possession 
of  the  district  of  Maina,  the  mountain- 
ous country  of  the  ancient  Messenia. 
They  exercised,  under  the  Turkish  gov- 
ernment, an  arbitrarj- jurisdiction,  without 
any  kind  of  responsibility.  With  the  bey, 
whom  they  chose  from  among  them- 
selves, they  formed  a  kind  of  gi-eat  coun- 
cil. The  bey  took  care  that  the  haratsch, 
or  poll-tax,  was  paid  to  the  Turks,  and 
was  tlie  agent  in  all  deaUngs  with  the 
pacha.  Genendly,  the  capitani  were 
robber  chieftains,  who  lived  retired  in 
rocky  fastnesses,  and  defied  the  Turks 
and  their  neighbors.  They  united  only 
if  resistance  against  the  Turks  became 
necessarj'.  At  other  times,  they  lived  at 
war  amongst  themselves.  From  this 
wild  oligarchy  most  of  the  genemls  of  the 
modern  Greeks  have  s])rung  up  ;  their  Co- 
locotroni,  Odysseus,  Niketas  (called  Tur- 
kophagus)  and  others.  The  palikaris,  or 
the  Greek  warrioi-s,  also  called  klephtes 
(i.  e.,  robbers),  followed  the  orders  of  the 
capitani  as  long  as  they  hail  confidence 
in  them,  and  met  with  good  success.  The 
French  colonel  Voutier  has  given  us  in- 
teresting information  concerning  them. 

Capite  censi  were  the  Roman  citi- 
zens, of  the  lowest  class,  who  possessed 
no  property.  They  had  tliis  name  be- 
cause tliey  were  counted  by  their  heads, 
not  by  their  property,  in  the  divisions  of 
the  centuries. 

Capitol,  now  Campidoglio ;  the  cita- 
del of  ancient  Rome,  standing  on  the 
Capitoline  hill,  the  smallest  of  the  seven 
hills  of  Rome,  anciently  called  the  Satur- 
nine and  the  Tarpeian  rock.  It  was  be- 
gun A.  C.  614,  by  Tarquinius  Priscus,  but 
not  completed  till  after  the  expulsion  of 
the  kings.  At  the  time  of  the  civil  com- 
motions under  Sylla,  it  was  burnt  down, 
and  rebuilt  by  the  senate.  It  again  suf- 
fered the  same  fate  twice,  and  was  restor- 
ed by  Vespasian  and  Domitian.  The 
latter  caused  it  to  be  built  with  great 
splendor,  and  instituted  there  the  Capito- 
line games.  Dionysius  says  the  temple, 
with  the  exterior  pillare,  was  200  feet  long 
and  185  broad.  The  whole  building  con- 
sisted of  three  temples,  which  were  dedi- 
cated to  Jupiter,  Juno  and  Miverva,  and 
separated  from  one  another  by  walls.  In 
the  wide  portico,  triumphal  banquets  were 
given  to  the  people.  The  statue  of  Jupi- 
ter, in  the  capitol,  represented  him  sitting 


CAPITOL— CAPITULATION. 


501 


on  a  throne  of  ivory  and  gold,  and  con- 
sisted, in  the  earliest  times,  of  clay,  paint- 
ed red.  Under  Trajan,  it  was  formed  of 
gold.  The  roof  of  the  temple  was  made 
of  bronze :  it  was  gilded  by  Q,  Catulus. 
The  doors  were  of  the  same  metal. 
Splendor  and  expense  were  lavished  upon 
the  whole  edifice.  The  gilding  alone 
cost  12,000  talents  (about  9,000,000  dol- 
lars), for  which  reason  the  Romans  called 
it  the  golden  capital.  On  the  pediment 
stood  a  chariot,  drawn  by  four  hoi-ses, 
at  first  of  clay,  and  afterwards  of  gilded 
brass.  The  temple  itself  contained  an 
immense  quantity  of  the  most  magnifi- 
cent presents.  The  most  important  state 
papers,  and  particularly  the  Sibylline 
books,  were  preserved  in  it.  The  present 
Capitol  (Campidogho),  standing  near,  and 
partly  on,  the  site  of  the  old  one,  is  a 
modern  edifice,  after  the  design  of  Mi- 
chael iVngelo.  The  principal  entrance  to 
it  commands  a  most  splendid  prospect, 
but  tlie  buildings,  as  connoisseurs  tell  us, 
are  among  Michael  Angelo's  inferior 
works.  The  modem  caj)ilol  consists  of 
three  buildings  (in  the  principal  one  re- 
sides the  senator  of  Rome),  which  do  not, 
however,  cover  the  whole  Capitoline 
mount.  On  the  ruins  of  the  former  tem- 
ple of  Jupiter  Capitolinus,  of  which  some 
pillars  are  still' to  be  found,  a  Franciscan 
church  is  now  erected.  The  present 
capitol  is  one  of  the  most  interestmg  spots 
in  Rome.  From  the  summit  of  the  mid- 
dle building,  the  spectator  has  a  splendid 
view  of  one  of  the  most  remarkable  re- 
gions in  the  world — ^the  Campagna  up  to 
the  moimtains.  The  museums  contain 
some  of  the  finest  collections  of  statues 
and  paintings.  The  stairs  leading  up  to 
the  equestrian  statue  of  Marcus  Aurelius 
are  beautiful.  Every  thing  contributes 
to  render  the  capitol  venerable  and  interest- 
ing.— The  name  of  capitol  is  also  given  to 
tiie  edifice  in  Washington,  where  congi-ess 
assembles.  Some  of  the  states  of  North 
America  also  call  their  state-houses  cffpiYo/s. 
Capitulart.  The  woi-d  capitulary  is 
generic,  and  denotes  every  kind  of  htera- 
ry  composition  divided  into  chapters. 
Laws  of  this  description  were  promul- 
gated by  Childebert,  Clothaire,  Carloman 
and  Pepin,  kings  of  France  ;  but  no  sove- 
reign seems  to  have  put  forth  so  many  of 
them  as  the  emperor  Charlemagne,  who 
appears  to  have  wished  to  effect,  in  a  cer- 
tain degree,  auniformity  of  law  throughout 
his  extensive  dominions.  With  this  view, 
it  is  supposed,  he  added  to  the  existuig 
codes  of  feudal  laws  many  other  laws,  di- 
vided iiito  capitularies,  or  small  chapters  or 


heads,  sometimes  to  explain,  sometimes 
to  amend,  and  sometimes  to  reconcile  or 
remove  the  difference  between  them. 
They  were  generally  promulgated  in 
public  assembfies,  composed  of  the  sove- 
reign and  the  chief  men  of  the  nation,  both 
ecclesiastical  and  secular.  They  regu- 
lated' equally  the  spiritual  and  temporal 
administration  of  the  kingdom  ;  and  the 
execution  of  them  was  intrusted  to  the 
bishops,  the  courts  and  tlie  missi  regii^ 
officers  so  called  because  they  were  sent, 
by  the  French  kings  of  the  fii-st  and  sec- 
ond race,  to  dispense  law  and  justice  in 
the  provinces.  Many  copies  of  these 
capitularies  were  made,  one  of  which 
was  generally  preserved  in  the  royal  ar- 
chives. The  authority  of  the  capitularies 
was  very  extensive.  It  prevailed  in  eveiy 
kingdom  under  tlie  dominion  of  the 
Franks,  and  was  submitted  to  in  many 
parts  of  Italy  and  Germany.  The  earliest 
collection  of  the  capitularies  is  that  of 
Angesise,  abbot  of  Fontenelles.  It  was 
adopted  by  Louis  the  Debonnaire  and 
Charles  the  Bald,  and  was  publicly  ap- 
l)roved  of  in  many  councils  of  France 
and  Germany.  But,  as  Angesise  had 
omitted  many  capitularies  m  his  collec- 
tion, Benedict,  the  LeAite  or  deacon  of 
the  chui'ch  of  Mentz,  added  three  books 
to  them.  Each  of  tlie  collections  was 
considered  to  be  authentic,  and  of  course 
was  appealed  to  as  law.  Subsequent 
additions  have  been  made  to  them.  The 
best  edition  of  them  is  that  of  Baluze,  in 
1697.  The  capitularies  remained  in  force 
in  Italy  longer  than  in  Gennany,  and  in 
France  longer  than  in  Italy.  The  incur- 
sions of  the  Nonnans,  the  intestine  con- 
fusion and  weakness  of  the  govenuuent 
imder  the  successors  of  Charlemagne, 
and,  above  all,  the  jjublication  of  the 
epitome  of  canon  law,  termed  the  De- 
cretum  of  Gratian,  in  the  year  1150,  which 
totally 'superseded  them  in  all  rehgious 
concerns,  put  an  end  to  their  authority  in 
France.  (Butler's  Horce  Juridicce  Subseci- 
v(B,  p.  128—131.) 

Capitulation  formerly  signified  a 
writing  drawn  up  in  heads ;  now  com- 
monly used,  in  military  language,  to  sig- 
nify the  act  of  surrendering  to  an  enemy 
upon  stipulated  terms,  in  opposition  to 
surrender  at  discretwn.  In  the  15th 
century,  capitulations,  as  they  were  call- 
ed, were  presented  by  the  ecclesiastical 
establishments  in  Germany  to  their  new- 
ly chosen  abbots  and  bishops,  who  were 
obliged  to  swear  to  observe  them  as  laws 
and  conditions  for  their  future  rule.  The 
ecclesiastical  electors  obtained,  after  the 


MS 


CAPITULATION— CAPO  D'ISTRIA. 


fall  of  the  Hohenstaufen  family,  certain 
advantageous  promises  from  the  new 
emperors,  wJiich  were  called  capitulations. 
When  Charles  V  was  proposed  as  empe- 
ror, and  it  was  ap))rehended,  on  account 
of  his  foreign  education,  that  he  would 
disregard  the  German  constitution,  he  was 
obliged  to  make  oath,  that  he  would  not 
reside  without  the  German  empire,  nor 
appoint  foreigners  to  office  in  the  empire, 
&c.  This  was  called  his  election  capitu- 
lation. Such  a  ffdhlcapitulation  was 
afterwards  presented  to  every  new  empe- 
ror, as  a  fundamental  law  of  the  empire, 
and  shook  the  constitution  of  the  German 
go\  ernment  to  its  veiy  foundations,  since 
the  electors,  at  tlie  choice  of  every  new 
emperor,  made  sojue  new  infringement  on 
tlie  imperial  privileges.  The  Wahlcapii- 
vlaiionen  were  acknowledged  bai'gains, 
certainly  unique  in  history. 

Cap>ist,  or  Kapnist,  Wassil  Wassilje- 
witsch,  Russian  counsellor  of  state,  mem- 
ber of  the  academy  of  St.  Petersburg  and 
other  learned  societies,  one  of  the  fii-st 
lyric  poets  of  Russia,  Ijorn  in  1756,  was 
tlie  rival  of  his  friend  and  relation,  the 
celebrated  poet  Derschavin.  (q.  v.)  He 
translated  Horace  with  applause.  The 
collection  of  his  works  appeared  at  Pe- 
tereburg,  in  1806  (Lyric  Poems,  by  Was- 
sil Capnist).  He  wrote  a  comedy,  called 
Jabeda,  in  1799,  and  a  tragedy,  called  An- 
tigone, in  1815.  His  critique  on  Ho- 
mer's Odyssey,  published  in  Russian  and 
French,  is  more  acute  than  profound. 
His  odes  have  not  the  easy  and  bold 
chai-acter  by  which  those  of  Derschavin 
are  distinguished,  but  they  have  a  charm 
of  another  kind.  Purity  of  style,  richness 
of  thought,  and  a  soimd  philosophy,  con- 
nected with  deep  and  genuine  feeling,  are 
Capnist's  characteristic  traits.  Some 
years  ago,  he  retired  to  Obuchowka,  liis 
country-seat,  in  Little  Russia,  where  he 
lived  devoted  to  the  muses  till  his  death, 
which  took  place  Oct  28,  1823,  iii  his 
67th  year. 

Capo  d'Istria,  John,  coiuit  of,  for- 
merly Russian  secretary  of  state,  now 
president  of  Greece,  was  born  at  Corfu, 
1780,  where  his  father  was  a  physician, 
and  studied  mediciiie  at  Venice.  When 
the  Russian  troops  occupied  the  Ionian 
islands,  in  1799,  Anthony  Maria  de  Capo 
d'Istria,  his  father,  was  at  tlie  head  of 
tlie  government.  But,  after  the  isljmds 
were  again  niade  dependent  on  France, 
in  1807,  in  consequence  of  the  peace  of 
Tilsit,  he  entered  into  the  Russian  service. 
He  afterwards  returned  to  Corfu,  became 
a  senator  there,  and  died,  April  17, 1821, 


aged  80  years.  The  son  still  continued 
in  Russia,  where  he  was  first  employed  in 
the  office  of  count  Rumanzoff,  and  after- 
wards went  as  Russian  ambassador  to 
Vieima.  In  1812,  he  conducted  the 
diplomatic  business  of  the  army  of  the 
Danube,  of  which  admiral  Tschitschagoff 
was  commander-in-chief.  When  this 
army  was  united  with  the  great  Russian 
army,  after  the  retreat  of  the  French, 
Capo  d'Istria  managed  the  diplomatic 
correspondence  at  head-quarters,  under 
the  emperor's  direction,  and  soon  gained 
the  confidence  of  his  monarch  to  such  a 
degree,  that  he  was  afterwards  engaged 
in  the  most  important  jiublic  business, 
and  appomted  secretarj-  of  state  for  the 
department  of  foreign  affairs.  He  was 
made  grand-cross  of  the  Wladimir  order, 
knight  of  St.  Ann,  grand-cross  of  the  royal 
Austrian  Leopold  ordei-,  and  of  ihe  Prussian 
order  of  the  red  eagle.  In  1813,  he  was 
Russian  ambassador  to  Switzerland,  ne- 
gotiated with  the  Austrian  ambjissadors 
the  new  relations  of  this  republic,  and, 
in  Sept.,  1814,  was  present  at  the  con- 
gress of  Vienna  as  Russian  pleniiiotentia- 
rj',  from  which  the  downfall  of  Napoleon, 
in  1815,  recalled  him  to  the  head-quarters 
of  the  alhes  at  Paris.  As  imperial  Rus- 
sian plenipotentiary,  he  subscribed  the 
treaty  of  Paris,  Nov.  20,  181.5,  and  re- 
turned with  his  monarch  to  Petersburg, 
where  he  took  a  very  active  part  in  the 
business  of  the  council  of  state.  His  en- 
deavoi-s  for  the  restoration  of  the  republic 
of  the  Ionian  islands,  for  the  support  of 
the  established  religion  in  Russia  against 
the  intrigues  of  the  Jesuits,  and  for  the 
deliverance  of  the  Greeks  from  the  Turk- 
ish yoke,  are  well  known.  But,  as  Russia 
disapproved  of  the  attempts  of  the  Greeks, 
and  StroganofF  (q.  v.)  returned  from  his 
mission  to  Constantinople,  in  1822  count 
Cajio  d'Istria  left  the  pubhc  service,  and 
retired,  as  a  private  man,  to  Gennany  and 
Switzerland,  living  chiefly  at  Geneva,  till 
the  year  1827,  when  he  was  elected  pres- 
ident of  the  Greek  republic.  He  stands 
now  at  the  bead  of  this  government ;  but 
his  means  have  been  as  yet  so  feeble,  and 
the  whole  state  of  Greece  such,  that  we 
are  not  able  to  judge  of  his  talents  for 
administration.  So  much,  however,  is 
certain,  that  he  immediately  brought 
Greece  mto  closer  connexion  with  the 
other  governments  of  Europe,  and  has 
thus  exerted  a  salutary  influence. 

Capo  d'Istria  (the  ancient  Mgidd)  ; 
a  seaport  of  Austria,  on  the  gulf  of 
Trieste,  8  miles  south  of  Trieste  ;  Ion.  \^ 
43'  E. ;  lat.  45°  31'  N. ;  population  5,119 ; 


CAPO  D'ISTRIA- CAPSTAN. 


90S 


is  a  bishop's  see,  and  the  capital  of  a  dis- 
trict, containing  65,150  inhabitants.  The 
town  is  two  miles  in  circumference,  has, 
besides  the  cathedral,  30  other  churches, 
six  convents,  hospitals,  &c. 

Capoc  ;  a  sort  of  cotton,  so  short  and 
fine,  that  it  cannot  be  spun.  It  is  used,  in 
the  East  Indies,  to  line  palanquins,  to 
make  beds,  mattresses,  &c. 

Caponier,  or  Caponniere,  in  fort- 
resses ;  a  place  which  is  covered  against 
the  fire  of  the  enemy,  on  the  sides,  some- 
times also  above,  and  serves  for  the 
connexion  of  two  works,  or  for  maintain- 
ing an  important  point.  In  particular — 
1.  a  passage  secured  by  two  parapets,  in 
the  form  of  glacis,  which  leads  through 
the  dry  ditch,  from  one  work  to  anotlier ; 
for  instance,  from  the  chief  wall  to  the 
ravelin.  If  danger  is  to  be  apprehended 
only  from  one  side,  and  consequently 
only  one  parapet  is  made,  it  is  called  a 
demi-caponniere :  if  it  is  covered  above 
with  hurdles  or  widi  wood,  it  is  called  a 
coffer :  but  this  word  is  often  used  indif- 
ferently for  caponniere. — 2.  Small  block- 
houses in  the  covered  Avay,  for  its  defence. 
Coehorn  laid  out  similar,  but  less  useful 
works  below  the  glacis,  and  Scharnhoi-st 
proposes  them,  under  the  name  of  fidd- 
caponnieres,  for  the  saliant  angles  of  field- 
fortifications. 

Cappadocia,  in  antiquity ;  one  of  the 
most  important  provinces  of  Asia,  once  a 
famous  kingdom ;  bounded  W.  by  Lyca- 
onia,  S.  by  Giiicia  and  Syria,  E.  by  Arme- 
nia, and  N.  by  the  Pontus  Euxinus.  In 
the  period  of  the  Persian  government, 
Cappadocia  comprehended  all  the  coun- 
try between  the  Ilalys  and  Euj)hrates. 
By  the  former  river,  it  was  separated  from 
Phrygia  and  Pai)hlagonia ;  by  the  latter, 
from  Armenia  :  therefore  the  region  after- 
wards called  Pontus  was  comprehended 
in  this  territory.  The  Persians  divided  it, 
according  to  Strabo,  into  two  stitrapies, 
which  bore  the  name  of  Cappadocia  Mag- 
na (afterwards  Cappadocia  Proper)  and 
Cappadocia  Minor  (afterwards  Pontus). 
This  division,  however,  was  not  always 
stricdy  observed.  The  Persian  satraps 
governed,  at  a  later  time,  under  the  title 
ot'kings,  and  sometimes  made  themselves 
independent  At  the  time  of  the  famous 
retreat  of  the  10,000  Greeks,  both  the 
Cappadocias  seem  to  have  been  under  the 
ride  of  3Iithridates,  who  had  participated 
in  the  conspiracy  of  Cyrus  the  Younger, 
but  retained  his  government,  and  became, 
after  the  defeat  of  Cyrus,  again  depend- 
ent upon  the  kings  of  Persia.  Cappado- 
cia Magna  was  a  poorly-cultivated  coun- 


try, httle  favored  by  nature,  the  plains  of 
which  were  only  fit  for  breeding  sheep. 
The  climate  was  rough,  and,  wood  being 
scarce,  the  habitations  of  the  people  were 
low  and  mean.  Even  the  capital,  Ma- 
zaca,  was  more  like  a  camp  than  a  city. 
The  Cappadocians,  also  called  LeuJeosyri 
(the  .Wiiite  Syrians),  because  they  had  a 
language  resembling  the  Syrian,  were 
considered  stupid  and  ill-tempered. 
Caprf.a,  or  Capreje.  (See  Capri.) 
Capri  ;  an  island  in  the  beautiful  gulf 
of  Naples,  which  contributes  not  a  little 
to  the  charms  of  this  favorite  scene  of 
nature.  Capri,  five  miles  long  and  two 
broad,  lies  at  tlie  entrance  of  the  gulf,  and 
consists  of  two  nioimtains  of  limestone, 
remarkable  for  their  picturesque  shape, 
and  a  well-cultivated  valley.  The  inhab- 
itants, amoimting  to  3000,  are  occupied 
in  the  production  of  oil  and  wine,  in  fish- 
ing antl  in  catching  quails,  which  come  hi 
immense  numbers  from  Africa  to  the 
shores  of  Italy.  Every  sjiot  on  the  island, 
which  can  be  made  productive,  is  culti- 
vated. In  fact,  agriculture  all  around 
Naples  is  in  the  highest  state  of  perfection. 
The  town  of  Capri  (Ion.  14°  8'  E.;  lat.  40? 
11'  N.)  is  the  seat  of  a  bishop,  to  whom 
all  the  quails  l>elong.  A  high  rock  sepa- 
rates Capri  from  Anacapri,  ICOO  feet  high, 
with  3500  inhabitmits,  to  which  a  stair- 
Avay  in  the  rock,  of  522  steps,  leads  from 
the  lower  part  of  the  island.  With  the 
Romans,  Capri  was  called  Caprem.  Au- 
gustus obtained  it  by  exchange  from  the 
Neapolitans,  and  made  it  a  place  of  agree- 
able retreat,  but  never  made  use  of  it 
Tiberius  spent  here  the  last  seven  years 
of  his  life  in  degrading  voluptuousness 
and  infamous  cruelty.  The  ruins  of  his 
palace  are  still  extant,  and  other  ruins  are 
scattered  over  the  island. 

Capriccio.  Caprice  is  the  name  appli- 
ed to  a  sort  of  musical  composition,  in 
which  the  composer  follows  the  bent  of 
his  humor.  The  capriccio  may  be  used 
with  propriety  in  pieces  for  exercise,  in 
which  the  strangest  and  most  difticult  fig- 
ures may  be  introduced,  if  they  are  not  at 
variance  with  the  nature  of  tlie  instrument 
or  of  the  voice. 

Caprification.  (See  Figs.) 
Capsicin.  Cayenne  pepper  contains  a 
pecidiar  substance,  discovered  by  Forch- 
hammer,  and  called  capsicin  by  doctor  C 
Conwell,  which,  according  to  the  latter, 
when  perfectly  pure,  is  tasteless,  inodor- 
ous, and  crystallizes  in  acicular  fiug- 
ments.     It  is  neither  acid  nor  alkaline. 

Capstan,  in  shipping  (in  French,  cahes- 
tan;  Butch,  kapstani);  a  strong,  massy 


504 


CAPSTAN— CAPTAIN. 


column  of  limber,  in  the  form  of  a  trun- 
cated cone,  and  having  its  upper  extrem- 
ity divided  into  several  squares,  with  lioles 
in  tijeni,  to  receive  bars  or  levers.  It  is 
let  down  jierpendicularly  through  the 
deck  of  a  ship,  and  is  fixed  in  such  a  man- 
ner, that  the  men,  by  turning  it  horizon- 
tally with  their  bars,  are  able  to  weigh  tlie 
anchors,  and  to  perform  other  work  re- 
quiring great  exertion. 

Captain.  This  is  one  of  those  many 
•words  derived  from  the  Latin  of  the  mid- 
dle ages,  and  now  to  be  found  m  all  the 
difterent  idioms  of  Europe.  Captain 
comes  from  the  Latin  capitaneus,  from 
caput,  head,  and  signified,  first,  a  governor 
or  a  province,  who,  in  the  fii"st  half  of  the 
middle  ages,  was  generally  a  military 
man.  Thus  the  word  captain  soon  came 
to  be  used  chiefly  to  denote  a  high,  or 
rather  the  highest,  militaiy  officer.  Opitz, 
an  early  German  poet,  calls  God,  Lord, 
Master,  Captain  ;  and,  in  English,  Christ 
is  called  the  Captain  of  our  salvation.  Like 
many  other  words,  however,  this  has,  in 
the  course  of  time,  lost  much  of  its  dig- 
nity, and,  in  military  technology,  now  sig- 
nifies the  commander  of  a  small  body — a 
company — and,  in  maritime  language,  the 
master  of  a  vessel.  Li  the  United  States 
of  America,  the  master  of  the  smallest 
crafi,  and  even  the  chief  man  on  a  raft,  is 
styled  captain.  In  the  latter  part  of  the 
middle  ages,  when  ai'mies  were  not  yet 
so  regularly  divided  and  subdivided  as  at 
the  present  time,  captains  were  the  com- 
manders of  those  small  bodies  of  which 
the  annies  consisted.  These  were  gener- 
ally collected  by  their  commander,  who 
entered,  with  his  companj',  into  the  ser- 
vice where  most  pay  or  most  booty  could 
be  obtained.  The  practice  of  cairying  on 
wars,  by  troops  collected  in  this  manner, 
prevailed  to  the  greatest  extent  in  Italj^, 
where  the  continual  quarrels  of  the  nu- 
merous small  states  aftbrded  ample  cm- 
j)loymcnt  to  the  unsettled  and  the  disso- 
lute. These  companies  play  an  important 
part  in  the  historyof  the  middle  ages,  par- 
ticularly that  of  the  two  centuries  pre- 
ceding the  reformation,  and  had  a  very 
important  influence  on  the  manners  and 
morals  of  the  south  of  Europe.  They  are 
further  interesting  to  the  student  of  liisto- 
rj^,  because  they  are  so  unlike  any  thing 
at  present  existing.  We  refer  the  reader, 
for  some  further  remarks  on  this  subject, 
to  an  able  article  on  Macchiavelli,  in  the 
Edinburgh  Review,  March,  1627. — Cap- 
tain, in  modern  armies,  is  the  commander 
of  a  company  of  foot,  or  a  troop  of  horse. 
In  the  English  army,  be  appoints  the  Ser- 


jeants, corporals  and  lance-corporals  of 
his  company — a  right  which  belongs,  in 
other  armies,  to  the  commander  of  the 
regiment.  In  the  horse  and  foot-guards, 
the  captains  have  the  rank  of  Ueutenant- 
colonels  in  the  army.  In  the  French 
army,  besides  the  commandere  of  the 
companies  of  the  hue,  conmianders  of 
certain  detached  bodies  of  guards,  &c., 
are  called  captain,  and  have,  sometimes,  a 
veiT  high  rank  in  the  army. — Captain- 
lieutenant  is,  in  the  English  army,  a  lieu- 
tenant, who,  with  the  rank  of  captain, 
commands  a  troop  or  company  in  the 
name  of  some  other  person.  Thus,  the 
colonel  being  usually  ca})tain  of  the  first 
company  of  his  regiment,  that  company 
is  commanded  by  his  deputy  as  captain- . 
lieutenant. — Captain  of  a  merchant  ship  ; 
he  who  has  the  direction  of  the  ship,  her 
crew,  lading,  &c.  In  small  vessels,  he  is 
more  ordinarily  called  master.  In  the 
jMediterranean,  he  is  called ^afroon. — Post- 
captain  ;  an  English  officer  commanding 
any  man-of-war,  from  a  ship  of  the  line 
down  to  a  ship-rigged  sloop.  Formerly, 
a  twenty-gim  ship  was  the  smallest  that 
gave  post-rank ;  but,  by  a  late  regula- 
tion, the  largest  class  of  ship-sloops  has 
been  added  to  the  list  of  i)ost-ships ;  and 
post-captains,  under  three  years'  standing, 
are  now  appointed  to  them,  unless  they 
happen  to  be  selected  as  flag-captains  to 
admirals'  ships.  After  being  three  years 
jjosted,  they  are  appointed  to  frigates, 
which  they  may  continue  to  command 
till  they  are  of  10  years'  standing,  when 
they  are  generally  removed  to  50  or  C4 
gun-ships,  preparatoiy  to  their  taking  the 
command  of  ships  of  the  line. — Captain- 
general  signifies,  in  England,  the  fii"st  mil- 
itary' rank,  power  and  authority  in  the 
realm  ;  therefore  the  king  is,  by  the  con- 
stitution, captain-genend,  or  generalissimo, 
of  all  the  forces  in  the  United  Kingdoms. 
In  1799,  the  king  delegated  this  rank, 
Avith  the  powers  annexed  to  it,  to  the 
duke  of  York.  In  France,  it  is  an  ancient 
title,  which  conferted  an  almost  unlimited 
power  on  the  pei-son  who  possessed  it,  in 
the  district  where  he  commanded.  But  it 
never  coiresponded  to  that  of  geiieralissi- 
7)10,  except  in  the  case  of  the  duke  of  Sa- 
voy, in  1635,  in  the  time  of  Louis  XIII. 
The  count  de  Tesse  was  French  captain- 
general  in  Italy  in'1702.  The  title  is  not 
in  use  at  present,  nor  would  it  agree  with 
the  existing  organization  of  the  adminis- 
tration. In  Si)ain,  the  rank  of  a  captain- 
general  corresponds  with  that  of  a  mar- 
shal of  France,  who  has  the  command  of 
an  army.    This  title  was  also  given  to  the 


CAPTAIN— CARACALLA. 


505 


head  of  a  province,  in  the  Spanish  colo- 
nies in  South  America,  wliich  was  divided 
into  viceroyalties  and  captain-generalships 
{capitanias-generales) ;  thus  Chili  was  a 
captain-generalship.  The  captain-gener- 
als were  not  placed  under  the  viceroys, 
but  accountable  only  to  the  king,  through 
the  council  of  the  Indies.  The  captain- 
general  of  Venezuela,  for  instance,  had  no 
connexion  with  the  viceroy  of  New  Gre- 
nada. They  decided,  in  the  last  instance,  on 
all  legislative,  judicial  and  military  affairs, 
and  presided  in  the  real  audieiicia.  The 
lime  during  which  these  governoi-s  remain- 
ed in  power  was  limited  to  a  few  years, 
probably  in  order  to  prevent  them  from  l>e- 
coming  too  powerful.  The  consequence 
•  was,  that  the  colonies  were  oppressed  the 
more  to  enrich  the  governors,  for  rich 
every  one  was  when  lie  left  his  office. 

Capture.    (See  Prize.) 

Capua;  a  fortified  place  in  the  Terra 
di  Lavoro,  in  the  kingdom  of  Naples,  on 
the  Volturno ;  the  see  of  an  archbishoj) ; 
contains  a  military  school,  and  7300  in- 
habitants ;  one  league  distant  from  tlie  an- 
cient Capua,  out  of  the  ruins  of  which  it 
was  partly  built,  in  the  i)th  ccntuiy ;  Ion. 
14°  &  E.;  lat.  41°  5'  N. ;  15  miles  north  of 
Naples.  There  are  12  convents  in  this 
city.  Jan  11,  1797,  it  was  taken  ijy  the 
French,  and,  in  1820,  it  did  not  resist  the 
Austrians.  The  ancient  Capua,  one  of 
the  finest  and  most  agreeable  cities  of 
Italy,  was  so  important,  that  it  was  com- 
pared to  Rome  and  Carthage.  Hannibal 
went  uito  quarters  here,  after  the  battle  of 
CaniiEB,  and  jjromised  to  make  the  city 
the  capital  of  Italy.  Capua  therefore  fonn- 
ed  an  alliance  with  him,  but  was  recon- 
quered after  five  years.  The  Vandals  laid 
it  waste.  Narses  restored  it,  but  the  Lom- 
bards devastated  it  again.  There  are  still 
many  ruins  here.  Around  Capua  lie  the 
fertile  Campanian  fields,  which  produced 
three  crops  a  year.  Living  was  cheap  here, 
and  the  climate  healthy,  so  that  it  was  a 
favorite  place  of  resort  of  the  Romans. 

Capcchi:^s.    (See  Franciscans.) 

Capdt-mortuum  {dead  head) ;  a  tech- 
nical expression,  in  chemistry,  for  the  de- 
posit in  the  retort,  arising  from  dry  dis- 
tillation ;  because,  if  the  operation  is  con- 
tinued, volatile  substances  cease  to  be 
given  oflT. 

Caqueta  ;  a  large  river  in  South  Amer- 
ica, which  rises  about  60  miles  south  of 
Pojjayan.  Being  enlarged  by  the  addition 
of  several  streams,  it  takes  a  course  due 
east  about  300  miles,  when  it  divides  into 
three  branches,  one  of  which  falls  into  the 
i<ja;  another  takes  the  name  of  Yupura, 

VOL.  II.  43 


and  the  third  forms  the  principal  streaia 
of  the  Negro.  < 

Carabi.ve  ;  formerly,  a  kind  of  guns, 
which  are  now  out  of  use.  At  present, 
short  guns,  used  by  the  cavalry,  have  this 
name.  Tacticians  entertain  very  ditfereiU 
opinions  respecting  this  kind  of  arms. 
Some  think  that  they  are  of  no  use  what- 
ever, as  tlie  aim  from  on  horseback  is  ex- 
tremely uncertain.  In  some  armies,  eve- 
ry third  man  of  certain  regiments  of  cav- 
alry is  armed  with  a  carabine.  The  word 
carabine  is  found  in  all  European  lan- 
guages, with  different  endings  only.  Many 
derive  the  word  from  Calabria,  which,  for 
a  longtime,  was  lamous  for  a  certain  light 
cavalry.  The  transformation  of  the  I 
into  r  would  not  l)e  extraordinary.  Du 
Fresne  derives  the  word  from  a  kind  of 
arms  called  chavarina,  of  which  mention 
is  made  in  the  14tli  century. 

Carabobo  ;  a  province  of  Colombia, 
formuig,  according  to  the  law  of  June  23, 
1824,  with  the  i)rovince  Cai-acas,  the 
department  of  Venezuela.  The  residence 
of  the  governor  of  Carabobo  is  Valencia. 
This  name  has  been  rendered  famous  by 
the  battle  of  Carabobo,  which  was  deci- 
sive of  the  independence  of  Colombia.  It 
was  fought  June  24,  1821,  soon  after  the 
armistice  concluded  between  Bolivar  and 
Morillo  had  expired.  Bolivar,  having 
formed  a  junction  with  Paez  in  Vainnas, 
advanced  to  attack  the  Spanish  general 
La  Torre,  who  had  taken  a  strong  posi- 
tion upon  the  heights  commanding  the 
only  pass  by  which  his  army  could  be 
approached.  The  battle  was  commenced 
by  Paez,  who  led  on  his  division  in  per- 
son, and,  by  the  valor  and  impetuosity  of 
himself  and  his  followers,  drove  the  Span- 
iards from  theur  intrenchments,  and  thus 
gained  a  complete  victory,  before  the  sec- 
ond division,  under  general  Cedeiio,  came 
up.  Of  all  the  troops,  the  Enghsh,  in  the 
sex-vice  of  the  republic,  distinguished 
themselves  most :  they  chiefly  decided  the 
day,  and  suffered  most  severely.  The 
battalion  in  which  most  of  the  English 
and  Irish  served  received  the  name  of 
battalion  of  Carabobo.  Caracas,  La  Quay  ra, 
Carthagena  and  Cumana,  and  all  that  por- 
tion of  Venezuela  which  is  dependent 
upon  them,  were  permanently  secured 
to  the  patriots  by  this  victory.  '(See 
Columbia  ii.,  495,  724.) 

Caracalla,  Antoninus  Bassianus,  eld- 
est son  of  the  emperor  Severus,  was  born 
at  Lyons,  A.  D.  188,  and  appointed  by  his 
father  his  colleague  in  the  govermnent,  at 
the  age  of  13  years.  Nevertheless,  he  at- 
tempted his  life.    Severus  died  A.  D.  211. 


506 


CARACALLA— CARACAS. 


He  was  succeeded  by  Caracalla  and  Geta. 
The    two    brothers,  from   tlieir  earliest 
years,  hated    one    another    inveterately. 
After  a  campaign  against  the  Caledoni- 
ans, they  conchided  a  disgi-acefiil  peace. 
TJiey  then  wished  to  divide  the  empire 
between  them ;  but  their  design  was  op- 
posed by  their  mother,  JuHa,  and  by  the 
principal  men  of  the  state.   Caracalla  now 
resolved  to  get  rid  of  his  brother,  by  caus- 
ing him  to  be  assassinated.  After  many  un- 
successful attempts,  he  pretended  to  desire 
a  reconciliation,  and  requested  his  mother 
to   procure   him   an   interview  with   his 
brother  in  private  in  her  chamber.     Geta 
appeared,  and  was  stabbed  in  his  mother's 
arms,  A.  D.  212,  by  several  centurions, 
who  had  received  orders  to  this  effect. 
The    pra3torian   guards    were    prevailed 
upon,  by  rich  dotiations,  to  proclaim  Car- 
acalla sole  emperor,  and  to  declare  Geta 
an  enemy  to  the  state.   The  tyrant  caused 
Gela's  children  and  friends  to  be  put  to 
death.    (See  Papinian.)    Dion  estimates 
the  number  of  victims  at  20,000.    He  af- 
terwards executed  many  of  the  murderers 
of  his  brother,  and  caused  hiin  to  be 
placed  among  the  gods.     His  pattern  was 
Sylla,  whose  tomb  he  restored  and  adorn- 
ed.   Like  this  dictator,  he  enriched  his 
soldiers  with  the  most  extravagant  lar- 
gesses, which  extortion  enabled  him  to 
furnish.    Cruel  as  Caligula  and  Nero,  but 
weaker  than  either,  he  regarded  the  sen- 
ate and  the  people  with  equal  contempt 
and  hatred.     From  motives  of  avarice,  he 
gave  all  the  free  men  of  the  empire  the 
right  of  citizenship,  and  was  the  first  who 
received  Egyptians  into  the  senate.    Al- 
exander, whose  habits  he  imitated,  and 
Achilles,  were  the  objects  of  his  deepest 
veneration.     He  went  to   Ilium  to  visit 
the  grave  of  Homer's  hero,  and  poisoned 
his  favorite  freedman,  named  Festus,  to 
knitate  Achilles,  in  his  grief  for  Patroclus. 
His  conduct  in  his  campaigns  in  Gaul, 
where  he  committed  all  sorts  of  cruelties, 
was  still  more  degrading.    He  marched 
over  the  Rhine  to  the  countries  of  the 
Catti  and  Alemanni.    The  Catti  defeated 
him,  and  permitted  him  to  rejiass  the  river 
only  on  condition  of  paying  them  a  large 
sum  of  money.     He  marched  through  the 
land  of  the  Alemanni  as  an  ally,  and  built 
several  fortifications.    He  then  called  to- 
gether the  young  men  of  the  tribe,  as  if 
he  intended  to  take  them  into  his  service, 
and  caused  his  own  troops  to  surround 
them,  and  cut  them  in  pieces.    For  this 
barbarous  exploit,  he  assumed  the  name 
Ahmannicus.    In  Dacia  he  gained  some 
advantages  over  the  Goths.    He  signed  a" 


treaty  of  peace  at  Antioch  with  Artabanus, 
the  Parthian  king,  who  submitted  to  all 
his  demands.     He  invited  to  Antioch  Ab- 
garcs,  the  king  of  Edessa,  an  ally  of  the 
Romans,  loaded  him  with  chains,  and  took 
possession  of  his  states.    He  exercised  the 
same  treachery  towards  Vologeses,  king 
of  Armenia;  but  the  Armenians  flew  to 
arms,  and  repulsed  the  Romans.     After 
this,   Caracalla    went  to  Alexandria,   to 
punish  the  people  of  the  city  for  ridiculing 
him.     While  preparations  were  njaking 
lor  a  great  massacre,  he  offered  hecatombs 
to  Serapis,  and  visited  the  tomb  of  Alex- 
ander, on  which  he  left  his  imperial  orna- 
ments, by  way  of  oflTering.    He  afterwards 
flevoted  the  inhabitants,  for  several  days 
and  nights,  to  plunder  and  butcheiy,  and 
seated  himself,  in  order  to  have  a  view  of 
the  bloody  spectacle,  on  the  top  of  the 
temple  of  Serapis,  where  he  consecrated 
the  dagger  which  he  had  drawn,  some 
years  before,  against  his  brother.      His 
desire  to  triumph  over  the  Parthians  in- 
duced him  to  violate  the  peace,  under  the 
pretence  that  Artabanus  had  refused  him 
his  daughter  in  marriage.    He  found  the 
country  undefended,  ravaged  it,  marched 
througli  Media,  and  approached  the  capi- 
tal.   The  Parthians,  who  had  retired  be- 
yond the  Tigris  to  the  mountains,  were 
preparing  to  attack  the  Romans,  the  fol- 
lowing year,  with  all  their  forces.    Cara- 
calla returned  without  delay  to  Mesopo- 
tamia, without  having  even  seen  the  Par- 
thians.    When  the  senate  received  from 
him  information  of  the  submission  of  the 
East,  they  decreed  him  a  triumph,  and 
the  surname  Parthicus.    Being  informed 
of  the  warlike  preparations  of  the  Parthi- 
ans, he  prepared  to  renew  the  contest ;  but 
Macrinus,  the  pretorian  prefect,  whom  he 
had  offended,  assassinated  him  at  Edessa, 
A.  D.  217,  on  his  way  to  the  temple  of 
Lunus.     Caracalla  erected  at  Rome  some 
splendid  monuments,  magnificent  baths, 
which  bear  his  name,  and  a  triumphal 
arch,  in  commemoration  of  the  achieve- 
ments of  Severus. 

Caracas  ;  a  province,  which,  with  the 
province  of  Carabobo,  constitutes,  accord- 
ing to  the  law  of  June  23,  1824,  the  de- 
partment of  Venezuela,  one  of  the  12  de- 
partments of  Colombia.  (See  Venezuela.) 
The  city  of  Caracas,  or  Leon  de  Caracas, 
is  the  capital  of  the  department  of  Vene- 
zuela, formerly  a  captain-generalship; 
Ion.  67°  5'  W.;  lat.  10°  31'N.  In  1812, 
the  population  was  estimated  at  50,000. 
March  26  of  that  year,  the  city  was  partly 
destroyed  by  an  earthquake,  and  nearly 
12,000  persons  were  buried  in  the  ruins. 


CARACAS— CARAMANIA. 


507 


By  the  political  events  which  followed 
this  catastrophe,  the  population  of  this 
ill-fated  city  was  reduced,  in  four  or  five 
years,  to  less  than  25,000.  The  city  is 
situated  five  leagues  from  the  sea,  from 
which  it  is  separated  by  a  chain  of  moun- 
tains, at  an  elevation  of  3000  feet  above 
the  ocean.  A  good  road  traverses  the 
mountains  to  the  port  La  Guayra.  Cara- 
cas carries  on  a  considerable  trade.  The 
greatest  part  of  the  productions  of  the 
whole  province,  consisting  principally  of 
cocoa,  coffee,  indigo,  cotton,  sai-saparilla, 
and  the  Vfu-inas  tobacco,  is  brought  here 
for  sale,  or  to  be  exchanged  for  European 
manufactures  and  productions.  The  tem- 
perature is  generally  between  77°  and  90° 
Falir.  in  the  day,  and  between  68°  and  72° 
at  night;  but  this  general  mildness  is  con- 
nected vvitli  great  fluctuations  in  the 
weather.  Humboldt,  among  the  vapors 
of  November  and  December,  could  some- 
times hardly  fancy  himself  in  one  of  the 
temperate  valleys  of  the  torrid  zone,  the 
weather  rather  resembling  that  of  the 
north  of  Germany.  Caracas  is  the  seat 
of  the  mtendant  of  Venezuela,  and  has  a 
college,  a  court  of  justice,  nine  churches, 
and  five  convents.  The  streets  are 
straight  and  well  built,  intersecting  each 
other  at  rigiit-angles,  at  a  distance  of 
about  300  feet.  The  inhabitants  consist 
of  wliites,  descendants  of  Spaniards,  free 
colored  people,  a  few  slaves,  and  Indians. 
The  first  are  either  merchants,  planters, 
professional  or  military  men,  very  proud, 
and  disdaining  all  kinds  of  labor.  The 
women  are  considered  very  handsome, 
having  large  black  eyes,  full  of  expression, 
jet-black  hair,  and  fine  complexions ;  but 
they  are  careless  of  their  figures.  They  sel- 
dom leave  their  houses  except  to  go  to  mass, 
when  they  wear  the  long  veils  called  manlil- 
las,  covering  nearly  the  whole  body.  Tiiey 
possess  considerable  natural  talent  and  vi- 
A'acity,  but  little  or  no  accomplishments. — 
Caracas,  as  is  well  known,  has  been  con- 
spicuous throughout  the  revolution  of  Ven- 
ezuela and  New  Grenada  against  Spain. 

Caracci.     (See  Carracci.) 

Caraccioli,  Louis  Antoine  de ;  bom 
in  1721,  at  Paris,  of  an  ancient  and  distin- 
guished Neapolitan  family.  His  talents 
for  convei"sation  procured  him  a  distin- 
guished reception,  in  Rome,  from  Bene- 
dict XIV  and  Clement  XIII.  He  after- 
wards went  to  Gennany  and  Poland. 
After  having  educated  the  children  of 
prince  Rzewuski,  in  the  latter  country, 
he  returned  to  Paris,  and  wrote  his  Let- 
trts  du  Pape  Clemeiii  X/F(GanganelH), 
which  display  a  kind  spirit,  a  benevolent 


philosophy,  and  fine  taste.  They  also 
contain  intelligent  observations  on  many 
situations  of  life.  For  a  long  time,  they 
were  thought  to  be  the  genuine  produc- 
tions of  the  pope,  and  excited  the  greatest 
interest  in  France,  and  throughout  Eu- 
rope.    He  died  in  1803.  ' 

Caraccioli,  marquis  de,  the  fiiend  of 
Marmontel  and  D'Alembert,  born  in  1711, 
was,  about  tlie  middle  of  the  18th  cen- 
tury, Neapolitan  ambassador  in  London 
and  Paris.  He  was  esteemed  one  of  the 
first  ornaments  of  the  accomplished  soci- 
ety of  the  capital  of  France.  He  died  in 
1789,  in  the  office  of  viceroy  of  Sicily. 

Caraccioli,  Francisco,  brother  of  the 
duke  of  Roccaromana,  was  distinguished 
as  Neapohtan  admiral,  in  1793,  at  Toulon ; 
but,  being  treated  by  his  court  with  con- 
tempt, he  entered  the  service  of  the  Pai'- 
thenopean  republic,  and  repelled,  with  a 
few  vessels,  an  attempt  of  the  Sicilian- 
English  fleet  to  effect  a  landing.  When 
Ruffo  took  Naples,  in  1799,  Caraccioli 
was  arrested,  contrary  to  the  terms  of  the 
capitulation,  was  condemned  to  death  by 
the  junta  (see  Speziale),  was  hung  at  the 
mast  of  his  frigate,  and  thrown  into  the  sea. 
His  death  is  a  blot  on  the  fame  of  Nelson. 

Caractacus  ;  a  king  of  the  ancient 
British  people  called  Silwes,  inhabiting 
South  Wales.  He  defended  his  country 
seven  years  against  the  Romans,  but  was, 
at  last,  defeated,  and  led  in  ti'iumph  to  the 
emperor  Claudius,  then  at  York,  where 
his  noble  behavior  and  pathetic  speech 
obtained  him  liberty,  A.  D.  52.  Buchan- 
an, Monipenny,  and  the  other  ancient 
Scottish  liistorians,  make  this  heroic 
prince  one  of  the  Scotch  raonarchs. 

Carafa,  or  Caraffa,  Michael ;  one  of 
the  most  popular  Itahan  composers  now 
hving.  He  was  born  at  Naples,  1787, 
stuthed  under  Fenaroli,  at  the  cojisci-va- 
toire  of  Naples,  and  enjoyed  the  advan- 
tages of  an  acquaintance  Avith  Cherubini 
during  his  residence  at  Paris.  He  has 
composed  some  agreeable  and  character- 
istic melodies,  and  is  an  imitator  of  Ros- 
sini, xlmong  his  operas,  the  opera  seria 
"  Gabriele  de  Vergy"  has  gained  the 
most  applause.  Carafa  is  also  an  excel- 
lent composer  of  music  for  songs. 

Caraites,  or  Carj:ans,  among  the 
Jews ;  those  who  reject  the  tradition  of  the 
Talmud,  and  hold  merely  to  the  letter  of 
Scripture,  in  opposition  to  the  Rabbinists. 
(See  Rabbi.) 

Caramania  ;  an  interior  province  of 
Asiatic  Turkey,  east  of  Natolia,  compris- 
ing about  35,000  square  miles.  It  is  in- 
tei-sected  by  the  Kisil  Jermalt,  which,  af- 


508 


CARAMANIA— CARAVANSARIES. 


ter  a  course  of  about  350  miles,  flows 
north  into  the  Black  sea.  Caramania 
conij)rehends  the  ancient  Pamphylia,  and 
a  great  part  of  Cilicia,  Pisidia  and  Cappa- 
docia  Minor.  Bajazet  united  it  to  the 
Ottoman  empire  iu  1488.  The  inhabit- 
ants cai"iy  on  some  trade  with  camels' 
hair,  goats'  wool  and  opium.  The  popu- 
lation probably  does  not  exceed  from  150 
to  200,000.  Cogni,  or  Konich  (lat.  38°  10' 
N.,  Ion.  32°  25'  E.,  308  miles  east  of  Smyr- 
na, and  150  north  of  the  shore  of  the  Med- 
iteiTanean)  is  the  capital.  There  is  also  a 
town  of  this  province  called  Caramania. 

Carascosa,  Michele,  baron.  This  gen- 
eral, distinguished  in  the  latest  history  of 
Naples,  rose  to  eminence  during  the  pe- 
riod of  the  Partlaenopean  repubhc,  and, 
after  1806,  under  Joseph  Bonaparte,  in 
Spain.  After  his  return,  Joachim  (Murat) 
raised  him  successively  through  various 
degrees  of  mihtary  command.  In  1814, 
he  commanded  a  body  of  troops  which 
assisted  the  Austrians  against  the  French, 
and,  in  1815,  a  division  of  NeapoUtan 
troops  against  the  Austrians,  and  signed, 
with  the  other  Neapolitan  generals,  the 
capitulation  of  Casalanza.  In  1820,  when 
minister  of  war,  he  endeavored,  unsuc- 
cessfiilly,  to  suppress  the  insurrection 
which  broke  out  in  the  army.  In  later 
times,  he  took  part  in  the  revolution,  after 
the  king  had  shown  himself  apparently 
favorable  to  constitutional  principles.  At 
the  time  of  the  invasion  of  the  Austrians, 
he  received  an  important  command,  and 
was  appointed  to  guard  the  road  from 
Terracina  to  Naples.  (See  Jlbruzzo,  JVe- 
apolitan  Revolviion,  and  Pepe.)  At  Sul- 
mona,  his  army  was  surrounded,  and 
dispersed.  He  fled  to  Barcelona,  and 
lives,  at  j)resent,  in  England,  where  he 
has  written  his  Memoirs  hist.,polit.  et  milit., 
sur  la  Revolut.  du  Roy.  de  JVaples  en  1820 
(London,  1823),  which  are  valuable  in  a 
historical  and  military  respect. 

Caravaggio,  Michael  Angelo  Amerighi, 
or  IMorigi,  called  Michael  Angelo  da  Cara- 
vaggio, a  celebrated  painter,  born  at  Ca- 
ravaggio, in  the  Milanese,  in  1569,  was, 
at  fii-st,  a  journeyman  mason,  but  soon 
applied  himself  to  the  study  of  painting, 
studied  in  Milan  and  Venice,  and  after- 
wards went  to  Rome,  where  he  distin- 
guished himself.  He  may  be  considered 
as  the  inventor  of  a  manner  which  has 
had  a  crowd  of  imitators.  His  char- 
acteiistic  traits  are  vigor  and  truth  of 
chiaro-oscuro  combined  with  excellent 
coloring.  He  was  fond  of  introducing 
broad  and  deep  masses  of  shade,  where- 
by a  great  effect  is  given  to  the  light.   To 


aid  him  in  producing  this  effect,  the  room 
in  which  he  worked  was  illuminated  by 
a  skyhght,  and  the  walls  were  jiainted 
black.  He  excelled  in  the  painting  of 
naked  figures.  His  faults  are  obvious. 
Narrow  and  servile  imitation  of  nature 
was  his  highest  aim,  Aimibal  Caracci 
and  Domenichino  were,  perhaps,  less  dis- 
tinguished than  Caravaggio  during  their 
lives,  but,  after  their  death,  were  ranked 
higher,  because,  without  neglecting  color- 
mg  and  the  study  of  nature,  they  aimed  at 
correctness  of  design  and  dignity  of  con- 
ception. His  violent  chaiacter  involved 
him  in  many  difficulties.  He  died  as 
early  as  1609.  The  paintei-s  who  have 
imitated  him  most  are  Manfredi,  Valentin, 
and  Ribeira,  called  Espagnolet. 

Caravaggio.    (See  Caldara.) 

Caravan,  or  Karavan  ;  a  Persian 
word,  used  to  denote  large  companies 
which  travel  together  in  the  Levant  and 
in  Africa,  for  the  sake  of  security  from 
robbers,  having  in  view,  principally,  trade 
or  pilgrimages.  Such  a  company  often 
has  more  than  1000  camels  to  cany  their 
baggage  and  their  goods.  These  walk 
in  single  file,  so  that  the  hne  is  often  a 
mile  long.  On  account  of  the  excessive 
heat,  they  travel,  mostly,  early  in  the 
mornuig.  As  every  Mohammedan  is 
obliged  to  visit  the  tomb  of  Mohammed 
once,  at  least,  during  his  hfe,  caravans  of 
pilgrims  go  to  Mecca,  every  year,  from 
various  places  of  meeting.  The  leader 
of  such  a  caravan  to  Mecca,  who  carries 
with  him  some  cannon  for  protection,  is 
called  Emir  Adge.  Trading  caravans 
choose  one  of  their  own  number  for  a 
leader,  whom  they  call  Caravan- Baschi. 
Much  information  on  the  subject  of  cara- 
vans is  to  be  found  in  the  travels  of  Nie- 
buhr,  who  made  many  journeys  with  them, 
and  describes  them,  as  it  is  well  known, 
minutely  and  faithfully.  (For  an  account 
of  some  of  the  most  important  routes 
pursued  by  the  caravans  in  Afiica,  see 
the  article  Africa,  p.  90,  vol.  i.) 

Caravan  Tea.    (See  Tea.) 

Caravansaries,  in  the  East ;  a  sort  of 
inn,  situated  in  countries  where  there  are 
no  cities  or  villages  for  a  considerable 
extent,  to  furnish  travellers  with  a  shelter. 
Some  of  them  are  built  with  much  splen- 
dor, though  they  are  generally  unfurnish- 
ed, and  the  traveller  is  obliged  to  bring 
with  him  his  bed  and  carpet.  In  many, 
the  hos[)itality  is  gratuitous.  It  is  com- 
mon for  a  pious  Mohammedan  to  estab- 
lish, during  his  hfe,  or  by  will,  one  or 
several  of  such  caravansaries.  This  kind 
of  benevolence  is  considered  peculiarly 


CARAVANSARIES— CARBON. 


509 


agreeable  to  the  Deity,  and  [)romotive  of 
the  eternal  happiness  of  the  founder. 
Sometimes  ])ersons  are  kept  in  tliese 
establisliments  ^to  show  the  way  to  the 
caravans  for  some  distance.    (See  Khan.) 

Caraway  Seeds  [frudus  caiTt)  are  a 
Btimulant  and  excitant,  the  fruit  of  a  bi- 
ennial j)laut  {carum  carvi,  LinniBus),  a  na- 
tive of  Europe,  growing  particularly  in 
the  south  of  France. 

Carbon.  Charcoal,  as  we  are  familiar 
witli  it  in  common  life,  contains  hydrogen 
and  saline  and  metallic  sul)stances.  Ac- 
cordingly, it  became  necessary  to  intro- 
duce a  peculiar  term  for  its  ])ure  base, 
and  the  one  adopted  by  chemists  was 
carbon.  This  element,  besides  forming 
the  inflammable  matter  of  charcoal,  ex- 
ists largely  hi  animal  substances,  and  is 
extensively  distributed  in  tlie  mineral 
kingdom. — The  only  body  in  which  car- 
bon has  been  found  to  exist  in  a  state  of 
absolute  purity,  is  the  diamond.  This 
precious  stone  has  always  been  esteemed 
as  the  most  valuable  of  the  gems — a  su- 

f)eriority  which  it  owes  to  its  hardness, 
ustre  and  high  refractive  power.  Dia- 
monds are  brought  from  India  and  from 
Brazil.  Those  of  India,  which  have  been 
the  longest  known,  are  principally  found 
in  the  kingdoms  of  Golconda  and  of  Visia- 
pour.  Those  of  Brazil,  discovered  at  the 
commencement  of  the  17th  centuiy,  be- 
long to  the  district  of  SeiTO-do-Frio.  The 
situations  in  which  they  occur  arc  such 
as  to  favor  the  idea  of  their  recent  form- 
ation ;  since  they  exist  disseminated 
tln'ough  a  loose,  ferruginous  sandstone,  or 
quite  detached  in  a  sandy  soil;  and,  in 
both  cases,  are  situated  at  no  great  dej)th 
below  the  sm-face.  In  Brazil,  the  con- 
glomerate in  which  they  exist  is  called 
f  cascalho ;  from  wliich  they  are  extracted 
by  washing,  in  the  same  njanner  as  gold. 
The  diamond  uniformly  occurs  crystal- 
lized, and  presents  a  great  variety  of 
forms ;  all  of  which  yield  readily  to  me- 
chanical division  jiaraliel  to  all  the  planes 
of  the  regular  octohcdron,  whicli,  there- 
fore, is  the  form  of  the  primarj-  crystal, 
and  under  which  figure  it  is  sometimes 
found  in  nature.  The  faces  of  its  ciys- 
tals  are  very  frequently  curved,  so  as  to 
communicate  to  them  a  rounded  appear- 
ance. They  are  commonly  limpid ;  and 
are  either  colorless,  or  of  a  yellowisli, 
bluish,  yellowish-brown,  black- brown, 
Prussian  blue  or  rose-red  color.  Specific 
gravity,  3.5.  Its  hardness  is  extreme  ;  so 
that  it  can  be  worn  down  only  by  rubbing 
one  diamond  against  another,  and  is  i)ol- 
ished  only  by  the  finer  diamond  powder, 
43* 


— The  weiglit,  and,  consequently,  the 
value  of  diamonds,  are  estimated  in  carats, 
one  of  which  is  equal  to  four  grahis  ;  and 
the  price  of  one  diamond,  compared  with 
that  of  another  of  equal  color,  transpa- 
rency and  ])urity,  is  as  the  squares  of  the 
respective  weights.  The  average  price 
of  rough  diamonds,  that  are  wortli  work- 
ing, is  about  £2  for  the  first  carat.  The 
value  of  a  cut  diamond  is  equal  to  that  of 
a  rough  diamond  of  double  weight,  ex- 
clusive of  the  price  of  workmanship;  and 
the  whole  cost  of  a  wrought  diamond  of 

1  carat  may  be  about  ^36,  or  £  8 

2  carats     is        2-  X  £8  =        32 

3  do.        is        3-X     8=.        72 

4  do.        is        4^x     8=      128 
100   do.        is    1002  X     8  =  80,000 

This  rule,  however,  is  not  extended  to 
diamonds  of  more  than  20  carats.  The 
larger  ones  are  disposed  of  at  prices  infe- 
rior to  their  value  by  that  computation. 
The  snow-white  diamond  is  most  prized 
by  the  jeweller.  When  transparent,  and 
free  fiom  cracks,  it  is  said  to  be  of  the 
Jlrst  tvaler. — The  following  are  some  of 
the  mof  t  extraordinary  diamonds  known : 
— one  in  the  possession  of  the  rajah  of 
Matlan,  in  the  island  of  Borneo,  where  it 
was  foimd  about  a  centmy  ago:  it  is 
shaped  like  an  egg,  and  is  of  the  finest 
water :  its  weight  is  367  carats,  or  2  oz. 
169  gi-s.  Troy.  Another  is  the  celebrated 
Pitt  diamond,  now  among  the  crown 
jev.els  of  France,  weighing  1-36  carats ; 
another  in  the  sceptre  of  the  emperor  of 
Russia,  of  the  size  of  a  pigeon's  egg  ;  and 
another  in  the  possession  of  the  Great 
3Iogul,  which  is  said  to  weigh  280,  and 
which,  in  a  rough  state,  weighed  79.3 
carats. — From  the  fact  that  transpai-ent 
inflanunable  bodies  refract  hght  in  a  ratio 
greater  than  their  densities,  sir  Isaac 
Newton  conjectured  that  the  diamond 
might  consist  of  an  unctuous  matter  co^ 
agulated.  The  Florentine  academicians 
had  rendered  its  combustibihty  probable, 
by  exposing  it  to  the  solar  rays  of  a  pow- 
erfixl  burning-^glass,  and  observing  that  it 
gradually  disappeared,  or  was  consumed. 
Subsequent  experiments  settled  the  ques- 
tion, by  proving,  that  the  diamond  lost 
none  of  its  weight  when  calcined  out  of 
contact  with  the  air ;  but,  on  the  contrary, 
that  it  was  dissipated  when  heated  in 
contact  with  this  fluid.  It  still  remained, 
however,  to  be  discovered,  what  was  the 
true  nature  of  the  diamond.  This  was 
accomplished  by  Lavoisier,  who  enclosed 
diamonds  in  jars  filled  with  atmospheric 
air  or   oxygen    gas,    and,  aft^er    having 


510 


CARBON. 


caused  them  to  disappear  by  the  lieat  of 
a  burning-glass,  examined  the  air  in  the 
vessels.    He  found  it  to  exhibit  precisely 
the  same  properties  as  the  air  which  re- 
sults fi-om  the   combustion  of  charcoal. 
This  experiment  was  also  pci-formed  by 
Morveau,  who  deinonstrated  the  nature 
of  the  diamond  by  still  another  an'angc- 
iiient.      A  diamond  was  enclosed  in  a 
cavity  made  in  a  piece  of  pure,  soft  iron  ; 
a  stopper  of  the  same  metal  was  driven 
into  it,  and  the  mass  was  put  into  a  small 
crucible,  which  was  covered,  and  this 
into  a  second ;  tlie  space  between  them 
being    filled  with   pure    sihcious    sand. 
The  Avhole  was  exposed,  for  some  time, 
to  an  intense  heat.    When  examined,  the 
diamond  had  disappeared,  and  the  iron, 
with  which  it  had  been  in  contact,  was 
converted  into  steel.   Now  steel  is  a  com- 
pound of  iron  and  carbon ;  and,  as  the 
diamond  was  not  visible,  and  as  there  was 
no  source  from  which  the  carbon  could 
have  been  obtahied,  the  conclusion  Avas 
unavoidable,  that  the  diamond  was  pure 
cariion.    Yet  so  different  is  this  mineral 
from  chai'coal,  that  it  was,  for  a  time, 
imagined  that  it  contained  some  other 
element  than  carbon ;  but  the  numerous 
and  delicate  experiments  of  sir  H.  Da^y, 
and  several  other  chemists,  failed  of  de- 
tecting any  thing  else  in  its  composition  ; 
and,  although  there' exists  so  great  a  dif- 
ference between  the  diamond  and  char- 
coal, in  their  external  properties,  we  are 
forced  to  believe  that  they  are  identically 
of  the  same  nature.    The  diamond  is, 
therefore,  pure  carbon,  and  differs  from 
charcoal  (leaving  out  of  question  its  tri- 
fling impurities)  only  in  the  arrangement 
of  its  molecules. — The  substance  in  which 
carbon  exists  next  in  purity  is  charcoal. 
For  common  purposes,  tliis  is  prepared  by 
piling  billets  of  wood  in  a  pyramidical 
form,  with  vacuities  between  them  for 
the  admission  of  air,  covering  them  with 
esuth,  and  inflaming  them.     In  conse- 
quence of  the  heat,  part  of  the  combusti- 
ble substance  is  consumed,  part  is  vola- 
tilized, together  witli  a  jwrtion  of  water, 
and  there  remains  behind  the  ligneous 
fibre  only  of  the  wood,  in  the  form  of  a 
black,  brittle  and  porous  body.     When 
required  pure,  and  in  small  quantities,  for 
the  purposes  of  the  chemist,  it  may  be 
obtamed  by  immersing  the  wood  in  sand 
contained  in  a  crucible  exposed  to  heat.. 
According  to  the  experiments  of  Messrs.. 
Allen  and  Pepys,  the  weight  of  charcoal 
obtained  from  100  parts  of  different  woods 
was  as  follows :— fir,  18.17 ;  hgnum  \it8e, 
17,25;  box,  20.25;  beech,  15;  oak,  17.40; 


mahogany,  15.75. — Lampblack  is  char- 
coal in  a  state  of  minute  division,  and  is 
f)repared  for  the  demands  of  trade  fi-oni 
the  dregs  which  remain  after  the  cliqua- 
tion  of  jHtch,  or  else  from  small  pieces  of 
fir-wootl,  which  are  burned  in  furnaces 
of  a  peculiar  construction,  the  smoke  of 
which  is  maile  to  pass  through  a  long 
horizontal  flue,  terminating  in  a  close, 
boai'ded  chamber.  The  roof  of  this 
chamber  is  made  of  coarse  cloth,  through 
which  the  cunent  of  air  escapes,  while 
the  soot,  or  lamplilack,  remains  behind. — 
Coke  is  a  peculiar  kind  of  charcoal,  which 
remains  in  the  retort,  after  the  heating  of 
coal  to  procure  the  coal  gas. — Jvory-blackf 
or  animal  charcoal,  is  obtained  from  bones 
made  red-hot  in  a  covered  crucible,  and 
consists  of  charcoal  mixed  with  the  earthy 
matters  of  the  lidne. — Wood  charcoal^ 
well  prepared,  is  of  a  deep-black  color, 
brittle  and  porous,  tasteless  and  inodorous. 
It  is  infusible  in  any  heat  a  furnace  can 
raise  ;  but,  by  the  intense  heat  of  a  pow- 
erful galvanic  apparatus,  it  is  hai-dened, 
and  at  length  is  volatilized,  presenting  a 
sui-face  with  a  distinct  appearance  of  hav- 
ing undergone  fusion.  The  density  of 
charcoal,  according  to  Mr.  Leslie,  is  little 
short  of  that  of  the  diamond  itself,  al- 
though its  specific  gi-avity  has  usually 
been  considered  as  low  as  2.00.  Charcoal 
is  insoluble  in  water,  and  is  not  affected 
by  it  at  low  temperatures ;  hence  wooden 
stakes,  which  are  to  be  immei-sed  in  water, 
are  often  chan-ed  to  presene  them. — 
Owing  to  its  peculiarly  j)orous  texture, 
charcoal  possesses  the  property  of  absorb- 
ing a  large  quantity  of  air,  or  other  gases, 
at  common  temperatures,  and  of  yielding 
the  greater  part  of  them  wlien  heated! 
It  appeai-s,  from  the  researches  of  Saus- 
sure,  that  different  gases  are  absorbed  by 
it  in  different  proportions.  He  found  that 
charcoal  prepared  from  box- wood  absorbs, 
during  the  space  of  24  or  36  hours,  of 

A  mmoniacal  gas,     90  tunes  its  volume ; 
Muriatic  acid,  ...  85  do. 

Carbonic  acid, ...  35  do. 

Oxygen, 955       do. 

Hydrogen, 1.75       do. 

Charcoal  likewise  absorbs  the  odoriferous 
and  coloring  principles  of  most  animal 
and  vegetable  substances.  Thus,  all  sa- 
line substances,  which,  from  the  ad- 
herence of  vegetable  or  anunal  extractive 
matter,  are  of  a  brown  color, — as  crude 
tartar,  crude  nitre,  impure  carbonate  of 
mnmoaia,  and  other  salts, — may,  after 
being  digested  through  the  medium  of 
water  with  charcoal,  be  obtained  whiter 


CARBON. 


511 


by  a  second  crystallization.    Resins,  giun- 
resius,  assafoetida,  opium,  balsams,  essen- 
tial oils,  and  many  other  substances,  even 
those  tliat  have  the  strongest  smell,  are 
rendered  nearly  inodorous  when  they  are 
rubbed  with  charcoal  and  water,  or  when 
solutions  of  tliem  in  alcohol  are  macer- 
ated with  the  charcoal,  or  filtrated  re- 
peatedly through  it.    A  number  of  the 
vegetable  tinctures  and  infusions  also  lose 
then-  color,  smell,  and  much  of  their  taste, 
by  the  same  process.    Common  vinegar, 
on  being  boiled  witli  charcoal  powder, 
becomes  colorless.     Malt  spirit,  by  distil- 
lation with  charcoal,  is  fireed  from  its 
disagreeable  flavor.    In  the  same  manner 
wines,  also,  become  colorless,  and  distilled 
waters  lose  their  odors.    Water,  which, 
iix»m  having  been  long  kept  in  wooden  ves- 
sels, as  durmg  long  voyages,  has  acquired 
an  offensive  smell,  is  deprived  of  it  by  fil- 
tration through  chai'coal  powder,  or  even 
by  agitation  witli  it  for  a  few  minutes, 
especially  when  a  few  drops  of  sulphuric 
acid  have  also  been  added.    Hence,  also, 
it  has  been  found  that,  by  chaning  tiie 
inside  of  casks  for  keeping  water,  it  may 
be  preserved  a  long  time  without  spoiling. 
Chai'coal  can  even  remove  or  prevent  the 
putrescence  of  animal  matter.     If  a  piece 
of  ilesh  has  become  tainted,  the  taste  and 
smell  may,  in  a  great  measure,  be  re- 
moved, by  rubbuig  it  with  charcoal  powder; 
and  it  may  be  presei-ved  fi-esh  for  some 
time  by  burying  it  in  the  same  substance. 
To  produce  tliese  effects,  however,  it  is 
necessary  that  the  charcoal  should  have 
been  well  calcined  and  newly  prepared. — 
The  uses  of  charcoal  are  extensive.     It  is 
used  as  fuel  in  various.arts,  where  a  strong 
heat  is  required  without  smoke,  as  in 
dyeing,  and  in  various  metallurgic  opera- 
tions.   By  cementation  with  charcoal,  iron 
is  converted  into  steel.     It  is  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  gunpowder,  in  its  finer 
state  of  aggregation,  under  the  form  of 
ivory-black,  lamp-black,  &c.     It  is  the 
basis  of  black  paint ;  and,  mixed  with  fat 
oils  and  resinous  matter,  to  give  a  due 
consistence,  it  forms  the  composition  of 
printing  ink.    It  is  used  to  destroy  color 
and  0(lor,  particularly  in  sirups ;   to  pu- 
rify honey ;  to  resist  i)utrefaction  ;  to  con- 
fine heat,  and  for  a  number  of  other 
important  purposes. — When   charcoal  is 
heated  to  a  certain  degree  in  the  open  air, 
or  in  oxygen  gas,  it  tJikes  fire,  and  burns 
with  the  production  of  an  elastic  vapor, 
which  has  been  called  carbonic  acid  gas. 
It  is  usually  obtained,  however,  by  other 
processes.     It  exists,  combined  with  lime, 
in  the  tlillercat  varieties  of  limestone. 


marble  and  chalk  ;  and,  if  any  of  these 
substances  be  exposed  to  a  strong  heat, 
the  affinity  of  the  acid  to  the  lune  is 
so  far  weakened,  that  it  assumes  the  elas- 
tic form,    and  may  be  collected.      An 
easier  mode  is  also  practised  for  effecting 
its  disunion,  through  the  affusion  of  one 
of  the  more  powerful  acids. — From  the 
experiment  of  the  direct  formation  of  this 
acid,  by  the  combustion  of  charcoal  in 
oxygen  gas,  its  composition  has  been  de- 
termined to  be  27.4  carbon  and  72.6  oxy- 
gen.   Tenneint  illustrated  its  nature  ana- 
lytically, by  passing  the  vapor  of  phos- 
phorus over  chalk,  or  the  carbonate  of 
lime,  heated  to  redness  in  a  glass  tube. 
The  phosphorus  took  oxygen  from  the 
carbonic  acid,  charcoal,  in  the  form  of  a 
light,  black  powder,  was  deposited,  and 
the  phosphoric  acid,  which  was  formed, 
united  with  the  lime. — Carbonic  acid  is  a 
colorless,  inodorous,  elastic  fluid,  which 
possesses  all  the  physical  properties  of 
the  gases  in  an  eminent  degree,  and  re- 
quires a  pressure  of  36  atmospheres  to 
condense  it  into  a  liquid.     Its  specific 
gravity,  compared  with  common  air,  is 
1.5277.     It    extinguishes    burning    sub- 
stances of  all  kinds,  and  is  incapable  of 
supporting  the  respu'ation  of  animals,  its 
presence,  even  in  a  moderate  proportion, 
being  soon  fatal.    An  animal  cannot  live 
in  air  which  contains  sufiicient  carbonic 
acid  for  extinguisliing  a  lighted  candle ; 
and  hence  the  practical  i-ule  of  letting 
down  a  burning  taper  into  old  wells  or 
pits,  before  any  one  ventures  to  descend. 
^\^^en  an  attempt  is  made  to  inspire  pure 
carbonic  acid,  a  violent  spasm  of  the 
glottis  takes  place,  which  prevents  the 
gas  from  entering  the  lungs.    If  it  be  so 
much  diluted  with  air,  as  to  admit  of  its 
passing  the  glottis,  it  then  acts  as  a  nar- 
cotic poison  on  the  system.    It  is  this  gas 
which  so  often  proves  destructive  to  per- 
sons sleeping  in  a  confined  room  with  a 
pan   of  burning  charcoal.      Lime-water 
becomes  turbid  when  brought  into  con- 
tact with  carbonic  acid,  from  the  union 
of  the  lime  with  the  gas,  and  the  insolu- 
ble nature  of  the  compound  thus  formed. 
Hence,  hme-water  is  not  only  a  valuable 
test  of  the  presence  of  carbonic  acid,  but 
is  frequently  used  to  withdraw  it  alto- 
gether from  any  gaseous  mixture  that 
contains  it.    Carbonic  acid  is  absorbed  by 
w'ater.     Recently-boiled  water  dissolves 
its  own  volume  of  carbonic  acid,  at  the 
common  temi)erature  and  pressure ;  but 
it  will  take  up  much  more  if  the  pressure 
be  increased.     Water  and  other  liquids, 
which  have  been  charged  with  carbonic 


513 


CARBON. 


acid  under  great  pressure,  lose  the  greater 
part  of  the  gas  when,  the  pressure  is  re- 
moved. The  effervescence  wliich  takes 
place  on  opening  a  bottle  of  ginger  beer, 
cider,  or  brisk  champaign,  is  owing  to 
the  escape  of  carbonic  acid  gas.  Water 
which  is  fully  saturated  with  carbonic 
acid  gas  sparkles  when  it  is  pourcnl  li-oni 
one  vessel  to  another.  The  solution  has 
an  agreeably  acidulous  taste,  and  gives  to 
litmus  paper  a  red  stain,  which  is  lost  on 
exposure  to  the  air.  On  the  addition  of 
lime-water  to  it,  a  cloudiness  is  produced, 
which  at  first  disappears,  because  the  car- 
bonate of  lime  is  soluble  in  an  excess  of 
carbonic  acid ;  but  a  permanent  precipi- 
tate ensues,  when  the  free  acid  is  neutral- 
ized by  an  additional  quantity  of  lime- 
water.  The  water  which  contains  car- 
bonic acid  in  solution  is  wholly  deprived 
of  the  gas  by  boiling.  The  agreeable 
pimgency  of  beer,  porter  and  ale  is,  in  a 
great  measure,  owing  to  the  presence  of 
carbonic  acid ;  by  the  loss  of  which,  on 
exposure  to  the  air,  they  become  stale. 
All  kinds  of  spring  and  well-water  con- 
tain carbonic  acid,  which  they  absorb 
from  the  atmosphere,  and  to  which  they 
are  paitly  indebted  for  their  agreeable 
flavor.  Boiled  water  has  an  insipid  taste, 
from  the  absence  of  carbonic  acid.  Car- 
bonic acid  is  always  present  in  the  atmos- 
phere, even  at  the  summit  of  the  highest 
mountains.  Its  origin  is  obvious.  Be- 
sides being  formed  abundantly  by  the 
combustion  of  all  substances  which  con- 
tain carlwn,  the  respiration  of  animals  is 
a  fruitful  source  of  it,  as  may  be  proved 
by  breathing  a  few  minutes  into  lime- 
water.  It  is  also  generated  in  all  the 
spontaneous  changes,  to  which  dead  ani- 
mal and  vegetable  matte j-s  are  subject. 
The  carbonic  acid  proceeding  from  such 
sources  is  commonly  diffused  equably 
through  the  air;  but,  when  any  of  these 
processes  occur  in  low,  confined  situa- 
tions, as  in  the  gallei'ies  of  mines  or  in 
wells,  the  gas  is  then  apt  to  accumulate 
tliere,  and  form  an  atmosphere  called 
cfwke  damp,  which  proves  fatal  to  any 
animals  tliat  are  placed  in  it.  These  ac- 
cumulations take  place  only  where  there 
is  some  local  origin  for  the  carbonic  acid ; 
for  example,  when  it  is  generated  by  fer- 
mentative processes  goii>g  on  at  the  sur- 
face of  the  groiuid,  or  when  it  issues 
directly  from  the  earth,  as  happens  at  the 
grotto  del  Cane,  in  Italy,  and  at  Pyrmont, 
in  Westphalia. — Though  carbonic  acid  is 
the  product  of  many  natuml  operations, 
no  increase  of  its  quantity  in  the  atmos- 
phere is  discoverable.    Such  an  increase 


appears  to  be  prevented  by  tlie  process  of 
vegetation.  Growing  plants  purify  the 
air  by  withdrawing  carbonic  acid,  and 
yielding  an  equal  vohime  of  pure  oxygen 
in  return  ;  but  whether  a  full  compensa- 
tion for  the  deterioration  of  tlie  air  by 
respiration  is  produced  in  this  way,  has 
not,  as  yet,  ])een  satisfactorily  determined. 
— Carbonic  acid  abounds  in  mineral 
springs,  such  as  tliose  of  Tunbridgc, 
Carlsbad  and  Saratoga.  In  combination 
wilh  liirie,  it  forms  extensive  masses  of 
'rock,  which  occur  in  all  countries,  and  in 
every  formation.  It  unites  with  alkaline 
substances,  and  tl)e  salts  so  i)roduced  are 
called  carbonates.  Its  acid  j)ropeilies  are 
feeble,  so  that  it  is  unable  to  neutralize 
completely  the  alkaline  properties  of  pot- 
ash, soda  and  lilhia.  For  the  same  rea- 
son, all  the  carbonates,  without  exception, 
are  decomposed  by  the  miu'iatic  and  all 
the  stronger  acids ;  the  carbonic  acid  is 
displaced,  and  escapes  in  the  form  of  gas. 
— Another  gaseous  compound  of  carbon 
with  oxygen,  called  carbonic  oxyde,  exists, 
or  may  be  obtained  by  heating  poAvdered 
chalk,  or  any  carbonate  which  can  bear  a 
red  heat  without  decomposition,  with  iron 
filings  in  a  gun-barrel.  It  is  evolved  to- 
gether with  carbonic  acid  gas,  from  which 
it  may  be  freed  by  agitating  the  mixed 
gases  with  lime-water,  when  the  carbonic 
acid  is  absorbed,  and  the  gas  in  question 
is  left  in  a  state  of  purity.  It  is  colorless 
and  insipid.  Lime-water  does  not  absorb 
it,  nor  is  its  transparency  affected  by  it. 
When  a  lighted  taper  is  introduced  into  a 
jar  of  carbonic  oxyde,  it  takes  fire,  and 
burns  calndy  at  its  surface  with  a  lam- 
bent, blue  flame.  It  is  incapable  of  sup- 
porting respiration.  A  mixture  of  100 
measures  of  carbonic  oxyde,  and  rather 
more  than  50  of  oxygen,  on  being  ex'- 
ploded  in  Volta's  eudiometer  by  electrici- 
ty, disappear,  and  100  measures  of  car- 
bonic acid  gas  occupy  tlieir  place ;  from 
which  the  exact  composition  of  carbonic 
oxyde  is  easily  deduced.  For  carbonic 
acid  contains  its  own  bulk  of  oxygen ; 
and,  since  100  measures  of  carbonic  ox- 
yde, with  50  of  oxygen,  form  100  measures 
of  carbonic  acid,  it  follows  that  100  of 
carbonic  oxyde  are  composed  of  50  of 
oxygen,  united  with  precisely  the  same 
quantity  of  carl)on  as  is  contained  m  100 
measures  of  carbonic  acid.  Consequently, 
the  composition  of  carbonic  acid  being, 

Sij  volume, 
Vapor  of  carbon,  100 
Oxygen  gas, .  .  .  100 

100  carbonic  acid  gas, 


CARBON— CARBONARI. 


513 


By  weiglu, 

Carbon, 6 

Oxygen, 16 

22  carbonic  acid, 
that  of  carbonic  oxyde  must  be, 

Bzj  volume, 

Vapor  of  carbon,  100 
Oxygen  gas,   ...  50 

100  carbonic  oxyde  gas , 
By  vxight, 

Carbon,    6 

Oxygen, ._8 

14  carbonic  oxyde. 

Its  specific  gravity  is  0.9721. — The 
process  for  generating  carbonic  oxj'de 
will  now  be  intelligible.  The  princi- 
ple of  the  method  is  to  bring  carbonic 
acid,  at  a  red  heat,  in  contact  with  some 
substance  wliich  has  a  strong  affinity  for 
oxygen.  This  condition  is  fulfilled  by 
igniting  chalk,  or  any  of  the  carbonates, 
with  half  its  weight  of  iron  filings,  or  of 
charcoal.  The  carbonate  is  reduced  to 
its  caustic  state,  and  the  carbonic  acid  is 
converted  into  carbonic  oxyde  by  yielding 
oxygen  to  the  iron  or  the  charcoal. 
When  the  first  is  used,  an  oxyde  of  iron 
is  the  product ;  when  charcoal  is  em- 
ployed, the  charcoal  itself  is  converted 
into  carbonic  oxyde. 

Carbonari  [colliers)  ;  the  name  of  a 
large  political  secret  society  in  Italy. 
According  to  the  Memoirs  of  the  Secret 
Societies  of  the  Soutli  of  Italy,  particu- 
larly the  Carbonari,  translated  from  the 
Original  Manuscript  (London,  1821),  it 
emerged  from  its  former  obscurity  in 
1818.  It  has  published  instructions,  cate- 
chisms of  the  different  degrees,  statutes, 
rituals,  and  so  on,  which  give,  however, 
only  a  partial  view  of  the  subject,  without 
entering  into  the  secret  motives  of  the 
leaders,  and  the  real  spirit  of  the  whole 
society.  They  have  a  tradition,  that  they 
were  founded  by  Francis  I  of  France,  on 
which  account  they  drink  to  liis  memory 
at  their  festivals.  It  is  evidently  going 
too  far  to  associate  them  with  the  dis- 
turbances among  the  German  peasantry 
in  the  beguining  of  the  16th  century,  or 
to  look  for  their  origm  in  the  oppressive 
forest  laws  of  the  Norman  kings  of  Eng- 
land. If,  however,  as  their  antiquity  is  not 
to  be  disputed,  they  could  be  proved  to 
be  a  branch  of  the  Waldenses,  their  re- 
ligious ciiaracter,  which  aims  at  evangeli- 
cal purity  and  a  rejection  of  traditions, 
would  be  lj(?st  accounted  for.  According 
to  Botta's  Histoire  iPRalie,  the  republicans 
fled,  under  the  reign  of  Joachim  (Murat), 


to  the  recesses  of  the  Abruzzi,  inspired 
with  an  equal  hatred  of  tlie  French  and 
of  Ferdinand.  They  formed  a  secret 
confederacy,  and  called  themselves  colliers. 
Their  chief,  Capobianco,  possessed  great 
talents  as  an  orator.  The  war  cry — 
"Revenge  for  the  land  cmshed  by  the 
wolf!" — revealed  tlie  objects  of  the  soci- 
ety. Ferdinand  and  Caroline  endeavored 
to  obtain  their  assistance  against  the 
French.  Prince  Moliterni  himself,  a  re- 
publican at  heart,  was  sent  to  them  for  this 
purpose.  Count  OrlofF,  in  his  work  on 
Naples,  ascribes  the  foundation  or  revival 
of  the  Carbonari  to  queen  Caroline  of 
Naples :  others  assert  that  Maghella,  the 
former  minister  of  police,  gave  this  soci- 
ety its  present  importance.  Maghella,  a 
native  Genoese,  was  made  minister  of 
pohce  in  the  time  of  the  Ligurian  repub- 
lic, and,  after  it  was  united  with  France, 
director  of  the  tobacco  monopoly.  When 
JMurat  ascended  the  throne  of  Naples,  he 
employed  him  in  the  depaitment  of  po- 
hce, and,  afl;er  the  lapse  of  some  time,  ap- 
pointed him  minister.  All  his  efforts 
were  directed  to  the  union  and  indepen- 
dence of  Italy ;  and,  for  this  purpose,  he 
made  use  of  the  society  of  the  Carbonaria, 
which  he  reformed  and  extended.  In 
1812,  he  urged  his  sovereign  to  make 
himself  independent  of  Napoleon,  and  to 
raise  the  standard  of  Uberty  and  inde- 
pendence in  Italy.  Murat  was  supported 
by  the  Carbonari  (who  desired  a  consti- 
tution) only  during  the  short  mtervals  in 
which  it  was  hoped  that  he  would  act 
according  to  these  suggestions.  In  the 
sequel,  he  informed  his  brother-in-law, 
Napoleon,  of  the  designs  of  Magiiella,  and 
delivered  him,  as  a  native  Genoese,  to 
France,  where  he  lived,  for  some  time, 
under  the  superintendence  of  the  police. 
In  1815,  he  returned  to  Italy,  and  exerted 
his  influence  chiefly  in  the  States  of  the 
Church,  then  occupied  by  Murat.  After 
the  expulsion  of  Murat  by  the  Austrian 
armies,  he  was  fii-st  canied  to  a  Hunga- 
rian fortress,  afterwards  delivered  to  the 
king  of  Sardinia,  imprisoned  for  a  year 
in  Fenestrelles,  and  then  set  at  lilierty. 
The  ritual  of  the  Carbonari  is  taken  fi-om 
the  colliery.  Clearing  the  wood  of  wolves 
(opposition  to  tyranny)  is  the  basis  of  their 
symbols.  By  this,  they  are  said  to  have 
meant,  at  first,  only  deliverance  from  for- 
eign dominion ;  but,  in  later  times,  demo- 
cratical  and  antimonarchical  principles 
have  sprung  up,  which  were  probably 
discussed  chiefly  among  the  higher  de- 
grees of  the  order.  They  call  one  another 
good  cousins-    Those  of  iie  second  degree 


614 


CARBONARI— CARD. 


are  called  Pythagoreans,  and  the  oath  of 
admission  is,  "  Hatred  to  all  tyrants !"  Of 
the  third  degree,  whose  existence  cannot 
be  doubted,  little  is  known.  There  are 
even  traces  of  a  fourth  degree.  A  gen- 
eral union  of  the  order  under  a  common 
head  seems  not  to  have  been  effected. 
The  separate  societies  in  the  small  towns 
entered  into  a  connexion  with  each  other ; 
but  this  union  extended  no  farther  than  the 
province.  The  place  of  assembly  is  call- 
ed the  hut  (baracca) :  the  exterior  parts  are 
called  the  wood ;  the  interior  of  the  hut  is 
called  the  colliery  {vendita).  The  confedera- 
tion of  all  the  huts  of  the  province  is  called 
the  republic,  generally  bearing  the  ancient 
name  of  the  province  ;  for  instance,  the 
republic  of  West  Lucania,  in  Prindpato 
Citra,  which  consisted  of  182  huts,  and 
had  its  seat  at  Salenio ;  the  East  Luca- 
nian  republic,  in  the  province  of  Basilica- 
ta,  chief  seat  at  Potenza ;  the  republics  of 
Hirpinia,  Daunia,  &c.  The  chief  huts 
{alta  vendita)  at  Naples  and  at  Salerno 
endeavored  to  effect  a  general  union  of 
the  order,  at  least  for  the  kingdom;  but 
the  attempt  appears  to  have  been  unsuc- 
cessful. To  what  degree,  however,  the 
feelings  of  the  nation  were  prepared  for 
the  object,  appears  from  the  fact,  that  the 
order,  soon  after  its  foundation,  contained 
from  24,000  to  30,000  members,  and  in- 
creased so  rapidly,  that  it  spread  through 
aU  Italy.  In  1820,  in  the  month  of  March 
alone,  about  650,000  new  members  are 
said  to  have  been  admitted.  Whole  cities 
joined  it;  the  little  town  Lauciano,  in 
Abruzzo  Citra,  in  March,  1814,  contained 
1200  armed  members  of  the  order.  The 
term's  of  admission  could  not,  of  course, 
have  been  difficult;  even  notorious  rob- 
bers became  Cai'bonari  ;  and  the  asser- 
tion, that  their  admission  effected  an  im- 
mediate reformation  of  their  life,  vrill  not 
meet  with  much  credit  The  clergy,  and 
the  military,  in  particular,  seem  to  have 
thronged  for  admission.  The  religious 
character  of  the  order  appears  from  its 
statutes :  "  Every  carbonaro  has  the  natu- 
ral and  inalienable  right  to  worship  the 
Almighty  according  to  his  own  opinions 
and  the  dictates  of  his  conscience :"  and 
this  spirit  shows  most  clearly  the  impor- 
tance of  the  order ;  for  it  is  far  more  dif- 
ficult to  be  suppressed  than  the  political 
spirit,  and  indicates  a  more  universal  and 
/  profound  excitement.  The  Carbonari 
seem  to  have  borrowed  many  forms  from 
the  freemasons,  but  did  not,  probably, 
originate  from  them.  Even  in  Italy,  free- 
masonry is  considered  distinct.  Besides 
the  Carbonari,  several  other  secret  socie- 


ties have  been  formed — ^the  European 
Patriots  ;  the  Resolute  (Decisi),  at  whose 
head  was  a  famous  robber,  Giro  Annichi- 
arico  (formerly  a  clergyman),  avIio,  in 
1817,  was  taken  prisoner  and  executed 
by  general  Church.  With  him  his  troop, 
consisting  of  a  few  members,  was  extin- 
guished. (On  the  tendency  and  the  con- 
stitution of  the  Carbonari,  during  the 
reign  of  Napoleon,  see  Hermes,  xix.) 
After  the  supj)ression  of  the  Neapolitan 
and  Piedmontese  revolution,  in  1621,  the 
Carbonari,  throughout  Italy,  were  declared 
guilty  of  high  treason,  and  punished  as 
such  by  the  laws.  Some  interestuig  facts 
concerning  them  are  contained  in  De 
Wit's  Fragments  from  my  Life  and 
Time  (Brunswick,  1827) ;  but  the  book 
is  such  a  mixture  of  presumption  and 
exaggeration,  that  it  is  of  little  value  to 
any  reader  who  is  not  sufficiently  ac- 
quainted with  the  political  affairs  of  that 
time  to  distinguish  the  false  from  the  true. 
The  Cai'bonari  have  added  one  more  to 
the  attempts  of  Italy  to  realize  a  wish  as 
old  as  its  misfortunes ;  that  is,  to  attain 
delivei-ance  from  a  foreign  yoke,  and  to 
become  united  under  one  government. 
There  has  not  existed  one  ItaUan  of  tal- 
ent, from  Dante,  who  called  his  country 
di  dolor'  ostdlo  (mansion  of  pain),  down 
to  the  latest  times,  poet  or  politician,  who 
has  not  lamented  the  divided  state  of  his 
countiy,  and  subscribed  the  sentiment  of 
Petrarca,  Italia  mia,  benche  sia  indamo, 
&c. 

Carbonic  Acid.    (See  Carbon.) 

Carbo.mc  Oxtde.    (See  Carbon.) 

Carbuncle.    (See  Garnet.) 

Carbuncle,  in  surgei-y ;  a  roundish, 
hard,  livid  and  painful  tumor,  quickly 
tending  to  mortification,  and  (when  it  is 
malignant)  connected  with  extreme  de- 
bility of  the  constitution.  When  this 
complaint  is  symptomatic  of  the  plague,  a 
pestilential  bubo  usually  attends  it.  (See 
Plague.)  The  carbuncle  is  seated  deeply, 
in  parts  provided  with  cellular  mem- 
brane, and  therefore  does  not  soon  dis- 
cover its  Avhole  dimensions,  nor  the  ill 
digested  matter  it  contains. 

Carcass  (in  French,  carcasse),  in  mili- 
tary language ;  an  iron  case  filltd  with 
combustible  materials,  which  is  discharged 
from  a  mortar,  like  a  bomb.  There  were 
formerly  two  kinds,  oblong  and  round 
ones,  but  they  are  now  out  of  use. — In 
architecture,  carcass  signifies  the  timber- 
work  of  a  house,  before  it  is  either  lathed 
or  plastered. 

Carcinoma.    (See  Cancer.) 

Card.     Playing-cards    are,   probably, 


CARD— CARDAN. 


S3& 


an  invention  of  the  East,  as  appears 
from  the  name  which  cards  originally 
bore  in  Italy  {naibi),  and  still  bear  in 
Spain  and  Portugal  {naipes),  which  word, 
in  the  Oriental  languages,  signifies  divina- 
tion or  prognostication.  If  it  could  be 
£  roved  that  the  Gipsies  first  made  cards 
nown  in  Asia  and  Africa,  this  supposi- 
tion would  be  placed  beyond  doubt.  It 
is  asserted,  that  the  Arabs  or  Saracens 
learned  the  use  of  cards  from  the  Gipsies, 
and  spread  the  use  of  them  in  Europe. 
The  coui-se  that  card-playing  took,  in  its 
diffiision  through  Europe,  shows  that  it 
must  liave  come  from  the  East,  for  it  was 
found  in  the  eastern  and  southern  coun- 
tries before  it  was  in  the  western.  The 
historical  traces  of  the  use  of  cards  are 
found  earliest  in  Italy,  then  in  Germa- 
ny, France  and  Spain.  The  first  cards 
were  painted,  and  the  ItaUan  cards  of 
1299  are  acknowledged  to  have  been  so. 
The  art  of  printing  cards  was  discovered 
by  the  Germans,  between  1.350  and  1360. 
The  Germans  have,  moreover,  made  ma- 
ny changes  in  cards,  both  in  the  figures 
and  the  names.  Tlie  lanzknechisspiel,  which 
is  regarded  as  the  first  German  game  with 
cards,  is  a  German  invention.  Of  this  game 
we  find  an  imitation  in  France,  in  1392, 
under  the  name  of  lansquenet,  which  con- 
tinued to  be  played  there  till  the  time  of 
Moliore  and  Regnard,  and,  perhaps,  still 
longer.  The  first  certain  trace  of  card- 
playing  in  France  occurs  in  the  year  1361, 
and  Charles  VI  is  said  to  have  amused 
himself  with  it  during  his  sickness,  at  the 
end  of  the  14th  centuiy.  The  modern 
French  figures  are  said  to  have  been  in- 
vented in  France  between  1430  and  1461. 
It  has  been  said  that  cards  were  known  in 
Spain  as  early  as  1332,  but  this  opinion  is 
supported  by  no  evidence.  The  eai-hest 
indication  of  card-playing  in  Spain  is  its 

Jrohibition  bj'  the  king  of  Castile,  John 
,  in  1.387,  when  it  must,  consequently, 
have  been  very  prevalent.  One  of  the 
best  works  on  the  difFei-ent  games  at  cards 
is  the  vveU-known  treatise  of  Hoyle.  (For 
the  different  games,  see  the  respective 
articles.) 

Cardamom,  small  {cardamomum  minus ; 
amomum  cardamomum^  Linnaeus) ;  a  per- 
ennial plant  growing  in  the  Esist  Indies. 
The  fruit  is  used  as  a  stimulant  and 
excitant.  Triangular  capsules,  from  four 
to  five  lines  in  length,  of  a  yellowish- 
white,  contain  the  seeds,  which  are  of  a 
browai  color,  a  pleasant,  aromatic  smell,  a 
warm,  pepper-like  taste,  weaker,  howev- 
er, than  tliat  of  the  various  peppers.  In 
France,  it  is  much  less  used  than  in  Eng- 


land and  the  U.  States. — ^The  great  and 
middle  cardamoms  are  furnished  by  other 
species  of  amomum,  as  yet  unobserved 
and  undescribed.  They  may  be  only 
varieties  of  the  preceding.  Their  projier- 
ties  are  not  so  energetic. 

Cardan,  or  Carda.\o,  Geronimo  (jffie- 
ronymus  Cardanus).  This  famous  philos- 
oplier,  physician  and  mathematician  was 
born  in  1501,  at  Pavia,  and  was  educated, 
from  his  fourth  yeai-,  very  carefully,  in 
the  house  of  his  father,  a  physician  and 
lawyer  in  Milan,  distinguished  for  his 
learning  and  integrity.  In  his  20th  year, 
he  went  to  Pavia  to  complete  his  studies ; 
and,  after  two  years,  he  began  to  ex- 
plain Euclid.  He  was,  subsequently, 
professor  of  mathematics  and  medicine 
in  JMilan.  He  then  returned  to  Pavia, 
again  visited  Milan,  taught,  for  some  time, 
at  Bologna,  and,  meeting  with  some  diffi- 
culties there,  went  to  Rome.  Here  he 
was  received  into  the  medical  college,  and 
was  allowed  a  pension  by  the  pope.  He 
declined  the  invitations  of  the  king  of 
Denmark,  on  account  of  the  chmate  and 
of  the  religion  of  that  country.  The  lat- 
ter reason  for  his  refusal  appears  strange 
from  a  man  who  was  accused  of  irreli- 
gion  ;  but  his  biographers  differ  with  re- 
gard to  his  rehgious  opinions.  Contra- 
dictory passages  are  cited  from  his  works, 
which  cannot  surjjrise  us  in  one  who  was 
lost  in  cabalistic  dreams  and  paradoxes, 
and  pretended  to  have  a  familiar  demon 
[damon  familiaris),  fi-om  whom  he  receiv- 
ed wai'nings,  &c.  All  this  excited  the 
theologians  against  him,  who  attacked  his 
orthodoxy,  and  even  accused  him  of  athe- 
ism, but  certahily  without  foimdation. 
The  truth  is,  that  Cardan  was  supersti- 
tious, but  his  chimeras  were  in  opposition 
to  tlie  reigning  superstitions  of  the  age. 
He  beheved  so  implicitly  in  astrology, 
that  he  drew  his  own  horoscope  several 
times,  and  ascribed  the  falsehood  of  his 
predictions,  not  to  the  uncertainty  of  the 
art,  but  to  his  own  ignorance.  His  two 
works,  De  Subtilitate  and  De  Rerum 
Varietale,  contain  the  whole  of  his  nat- 
ural philosophy  and  metaphysics,  and 
are  curious  as  an  instance  of  a  strange 
mixture  of  wisdom  and  folly.  Cardan 
wrote,  also,  on  medicine.  His  wTJtings 
on  this  subject,  amid  much  trash,  contain 
some  soimd  ideas.  His  fame  as  a  physi- 
cian was  so  great,  that  the  primate  of 
Scotland,  who  had  been  sick  for  10  years, 
and  had  consulted  the  physicians  of  the 
king  of  France  and  of  the  emperor  of 
Germany  without  success,  invited  him  to 
Scotland,  and  was  restored  to  health  by  his 


516 


CARDAN— CARDINAL  POINTS. 


prescriptions.  His  highest  claims  to  the 
gratitude  of  the  learned  rest  on  his  math- 
ematical discoveries.  Algebra,  which, 
from  the  time  of  its  origin,  had  been  cul- 
tivated almost  exclusively  in  Italy,  ex- 
cited, at  that  time,  much  rivalry  among 
the  mathematicians,  who  carefully  kept 
their  discoveries  secret,  in  order  to  tri- 
umph over  each  other  in  their  public  dis- 
j)utes.  Cardan,  it  is  said,  was  told  that 
Tartalea  had  discovered  the  solution  of 
equations  of  the  third  degree,  and  obtain- 
ed the  secret  from  him  by  stratagem  and 
under  promise  of  silence,  but  published 
the  method,  m  1545,  in  his  Ars  magna. 
A  violent  dispute  arose,  which  cannot 
now  be  decided  with  certainty.  The 
honor  of  giving  his  name  to  the  invention 
has  remained  to  him  who  first  made  it 
known,  and  it  is  still  called  the  formula 
of  Cardan.  It  is  univei-sally  beheved 
that  Cardan  discovered  some  new  cases, 
which  were  not  comprehended  in  the  rule 
of  Tartalea;  that  he  discovered  the  multi- 
plicity of  the  roots  of  the  higher  equa- 
tions, and,  finally,  the  existence  of  nega- 
tive roots,  the  use  of  which  he  did  not, 
however,  understand.  His  tranquillity 
was  disturbed,  not  only  by  the  attacks  of 
his  enemies,  but  also  by  his  own  extrava- 

fancies,  which  are  related  in  his  work 
)e  Vita  propria,  no  doubt  with  much 
exaggeration.  They  are  exposed  with  so 
much  finnkness,  that  those  who  have 
judged  him  with  indulgence  have  been 
obUged  to  suppose  him  subject  to  fits  of 
insanity.  He  died,  probably,  in  1576,  ac- 
cording to  some  accounts,  by  voluntary 
starvation,  that  he  might  not  survive  the 
year  in  which  he  had  predicted  that  his 
death  would  occur.  All  his  works,  to 
the  number  of  more  than  50,  are  contain- 
ed in  the  edition  of  Lyons,  1663,  in  10 
vols.,  fol. 

Cardinal  ;  a  clergyman  of  the  Catho- 
lic church,  who  has  a  right  to  a  vote  in 
the  choice  of  the  pope.  The  cardhials 
are  next  in  dignity  to  the  pope,  enjoy  the 
rank  of  princes,  and,  since  1631,  have 
borne  the  title  of  eminence.  The  orig'ui 
of  the  dignity  of  cardinals  is  uncertain. 
The  name  is  derived  from  cardinalis  (dis- 
tinguished.) The  same  name  was  given, 
under  the  emperor  Theodosius,  to  the 
highest  civil  officei-s  in  the  state.  Till  the 
11th  century,  the  title  of  cardinal  was 
common  to  all  clergymen  who  actually 
officiated  in  any  church.  From  this  time 
the  popes,  having  grown  powerfiil,  form- 
ed a  college,  a  secret  council  of  ecclesias- 
tics of  high  rank,  to  whom,  alone,  the 
title  of  carding  was  soon  reserved,  by 


way  of  eminence ;  and,  under  Alexander 
HI,  in  1160,  they  obtained  the  exclusive 
right  of  choosing  the  pope,  witli  much 
o])position,  however,  on  the  part  of  the 
other  Roman  clergy,  and  much  scandal. 
Innocent  IV  (1243-— 1254)  gave  them  a 
rank  above  the  bishops,  together  with  the 
red  hat,  and  Boniface  VIII  assigned  to 
them  tlie  princely  mantle.  Urban  VIII 
gave  them  the  title  eminence,  uistead  of  i7- 
lustrissimi,  which  they  had  enjoyed  till 
then.  With  the  pope,  they  form  the  sa- 
cred college,  and  are  divided  into  three 
ranks — 14  cardinal-deacons,  50  cardinal- 
priests,  and  6  cardinal-bishops,  who  take 
their  names  from  the  ancient  bishoprics 
Ostia  (to  which  is  added  that  of  St.  Ru- 
fin),  Porto,  Sabina,  Palestrina,  Frascati, 
and  Alba,  In  1526,  their  number  was 
fixed  at  70  by  Sixtus  V ;  but  it  is  by  no 
means  necessary  that  this  number  should 
be  always  full,  and,  in  modem  times,  it 
has  generally  not  been  so.  The  number 
of  bishops  only  is  always  complete.  The 
choice  of  the  cardinals  depends  solely  on 
the  pope.  He  causes  the  names  of  those 
appointed  to  be  read  in  the  consistory, 
with  the  formula  "  Fratres  habebitis"  (Ye 
shall  receive  as  brethren,  &c.).  The  red 
cardinal's  hat  is  sent  to  those  elected,  to 
inform  them  of  their  election.  Tlieir 
dress  consists  of  a  surplice,  with  a  short 
purple  mantle,  aud  a  small  cap,  over 
which  they  wear  a  hat,  with  silk  strings 
and  tassels  at  the  end.  The  color  is  either 
red  or  violet.  The  prerogatives  of  cardi- 
nals, in  different  coimtries,  are  different. 
(For  those  which  they  enjoy  in  France, 
see  the  article  Cardinal  in  the  Diction- 
naire  de  Theologie,  Toulouse,  1817.)  The 
king  of  France  gives  a  cardinal  the  title 
ofcoiisin.  A  cardinal,  sent  to  a  prince  in 
a  diplomatic  character  from  the  pope,  is 
called  legatus  a  latere  or  de  latere.  A 
province,  the  governor  of  which  is  a  car- 
<Unal,  takes  the  title  of  a  legation.  The 
income  of  the  cardinals  is,  at  present,  not 
large,  and,  compared  to  that  of  some  of 
tlie  rich  clergy  in  England,  is  small.  The 
importance  and  authority  of  tlie  cardinals 
has,  of  course,  sunk  very  much  in  mod- 
ern times,  Uke  those  of  the  other  dignita- 
ries of  the  Catholic  church,  the  po])e 
himself  included.  Formerly,  they  pre- 
ceded the  princes  of  the  blood,  sat  at  the 
right  of  kings,  on  or  near  the  throne,  and 
were  considered  equal  to  kings  in  rank. 
(For  the  manner  in  which  they  choose 
the  pope,  see  Conclave.) 

Cardinal  Points  ;  the  four  intei-sec- 
tions  of  the  horizon  with  the  meridian 
and  the  prime  verticsd  circle.    They  co- 


CARDINAL  POINTS— CARIATI. 


517 


incide  with  the  four  cardinal  regions  of 
tJie  heavens,  and  are,  of  com"se,  90°  dis- 
tant from  each  otlier,  Tlie  intermediate 
jjoints  ai'e  called  collateral  points. 

CARDr:vAL  Virtues,  or  principal  vir- 
tues, in  nionds ;  a  name  applied  to  those 
virtues  to  which  all  tlie  rest  are  suljordi- 
nate,  or  which  comprehend  all  the  othere. 
The  distrihution  of  the  virtues,  which  lies 
at  the  foundation  of  this  notion,  had  its 
origin  in  the  old  Grecian  philoso|)hy ;  and 
the  same  number  is  founil  here  as  in  the 
elements  of  nature.  Tliese  i)rincipal  vir- 
tues, as  enum<;rated  by  Plato,  are,  pru- 
dence, temperance,  fortitude  and  justice. 
Tiie  tin-ee  first  seem  to  relate  to  the  duties 
of  man  towards  himself,  and  to  corre- 
spond with  the  tri])le  division  of  the  soul 
into  the  intellectual,  the  irrational  (the 
seat  of  the  sensual  desires),  and  the  seat 
of  the  affections,  which  connects  the  two 
first.  Justice  either  relates  to  our  duties 
to  others  (God  and  men),  or  is  the  union 
of  the  three  first  virtues.  This  division 
appears  to  be  peculiar  to  the  old  Pythag- 
oreans. Aristotle  divided  them  still  fur- 
ther. The  Stoics,  too,  made  the  same 
division  in  their  system  of  morals,  and 
Cicero  introduced  it  into  his  Ofiices.  Plo- 
tinus  and  many  New-Platonists  divide  the 
virtues  into  four  classes — civil  or  political, 
philosophical  or  purifying,  religious,  and, 
lastly,  divine  or  pattern  virtues ;  a  divis- 
ion coinciding  with  the  rest  of  his  philo- 
sophical views.  The  influence  of  the  an- 
cient philosophei-s  has  made  tlie  preced- 
ing Cardinal  virtues  also  a  part  of  the 
Christian  code.  Some  add  to  them  the 
three  Christian  virtues,  so  called — faith, 
charity  and  liopc — and  call  the  former 
philosophical.  The  imagination  of  artists 
has  represented  the  cardinal  virtues  under 
sensible  images.  In  modern  times,  this 
division  is  regarded  as  useless  in  treating 
of  ethics;  and,  in  order  to  judge  of  it  cor- 
rectly, we  must  form  a  just  notion  of  the 
idea  which  the  ancients  attached  to  the 
words  npcTn  and  virtus  (virtue). 

Carding  ;  a  preparation  of  wool,  cot- 
ton, hair  or  flax,  by  passing  it  between 
the  iron  points,  or  teeth,  of  two  instni- 
ments,  called  cards,  to  comb,  disentangle 
and  arrange  the  haii-s  or  fibres  thereof  for 
spinning,  &c.  Before  the  wool  is  carded, 
it  is  smeared  with  oil,  whereof  one  fourth 
of  the  weight  of  the  wool  is  required  for 
wool  destuied  for  the  woof  of  stuflTs,  and 
one  eighth  for  that  of  the  warp. 

Careening  (in  French,  fairc  dbattre, 
carhier) ;  heaving  tlie  vessel  down  on  one 
side,  by  applying  a  strong  purchase  to  the 
masts,  so  that  the  vessel  may  be  cleansed 

VOL.  II.  44 


from  any  filth  which  adheres  to  it  by 
breaming. — A  half  careen  takes  [)lace  when 
it  is  not  possible  to  come  at  the  bottom  of 
the  ship  ;  so  that  only  half  of  it  can  be  ca- 
reened. 

Carew,  Thomas,  an  English  poet,  su])- 
posed  to  have  been  born  in  1589,  was  ed- 
ucated at  Corpus  Christi  college,  Oxford. 
Cultivating  polite  literature  in  the  midst 
of  a  life  of  afliuence  and  gayety,  he  was 
the  subject  of  much  eulogy  to  Ben  Jon- 
son,  Davenant,  and  other  writers  of  the 
jieriod.  He  seems  to  have  died  in  1639, 
having,  in  the  mean  time,  exhibited  the 
not  unusual  transformation  of  die  courtly 
and  libertine  fine  gentleman  into  the  re- 
)>entant  devotee.  Carew  is  coupled  Avith 
Waller,  as  one  of  the  improvers  of  Eng- 
lish versification.  It  does  not  appear  that 
any  edition  of  his  poems  was  published 
during  his  life-time;  but  Oldys,  in  his 
notes  on  Langbaine,  asserts  that  his  son- 
nets were  in  more  request  than  those  of 
any  poet  of  his  time.  The  first  collec- 
tion of  his  poems  was  printed  in  1640, 
l"2mo. ;  the  last,  in  1772.  His  elegant 
masque  of  Ccelum  Britannicum  was  print- 
ed, both  in  the  early  editiqns  and  sepa- 
rately, in  16.51,  and  tlie  whole  are  now 
included  in  Chalmers's  British  Poets.  Ca- 
rew was  much  studied  by  Pope ;  and  doc- 
tor Percy  also  assisted  to  restore  him  to 
a  portion  of  the  favor  with  which  he  has 
lately  been  regarded.  Specimens  both  of 
the  sublime  and  the  })athetic  may  be 
found  in  his  works  ;  the  former  in  his  ad- 
mirable masque,  and  the  latter  in  his  ejii- 
tapli  on  lady  Mary  Villiers. 

Cargillites  ;  a  name  of  the  sect  more 
generally  known  under  the  denomination 
of  Caintronians.     (q.  v.) 

Cariaco  ;  a  seaport  town  in  Colombia, 
in  the  province  of  Cumana ;  Ion.  63°  39^ 
W. ;  lat.  10°  2&  N. ;  population,  6500.  It 
is  situated  to  the  east  of  the  gulf  of  Cari- 
aco, near  the  mouth  of  a  river  of  the  same 
name,  on  a  large  plain,  covered  with  plant- 
ations. The  climate  is  very  hot,  the  air 
damp  and  unhealthy.  Its  trade  is  in  cot- 
ton and  sugar.  The  gulf  of  Cariaco  is  68 
miles  long,  and  35  broad,  from  80  to  100 
fathoms  deep,  surrounded  by  lofty  moun- 
tains, and  the  waters  quiet. 

Cariati,  prince,  a  Neapolitan  diploma- 
tist, of  the  ancient  family  Fuscaldo,  served 
under  Joseph  Bonaparte  and  Joachim 
Murat,  in  the  marine  anfl  in  the  army,  in 
the  latter  as  field-marshal.  In  3Iarch, 
1815,  together  with  the  duke  of  Campo- 
Chiaro,  he  negotiated,  at  tlie  congress  of 
Vienna,  tlie  acknowledgment  of  Joachim 
Murat  as  king  of  Naples.      Ferdinand 


518 


CARIATI— CARICATURE. 


allowed  the  prince  to  retain  the  rank  of  a 
field-marshal,  and,  in  1820,  the  govern- 
ment intrusted  him,  under  the  direction 
of  general  Nugent,  minister  of  war,  with 
the  command  of  the  troops  sent  against 
the  rehels  in  the  province  of  Avellino ; 
but  he  was  misuccessful.  He  was  now 
commissioned  to  declare  at  Paris,  and 
afterwards  at  Laybach,  the  king's  accej)t- 
ance  of  the  Spanish  constitution;  but  he 
was  refused  an  audience.  He  then  left 
his  native  countiy  for  England,  where  he 
has  since  lived. 

Cariatides.  (See  Caryatides,  also 
Architecture,  volume  1,  page  340,  near 
the  bottom.) 

Caribbean  Sea  ;  that  part  of  the  Atlan- 
tic ocean,  which  is  bounded  N.  by  the  isl- 
ands of  Jamaica,  St.  Domingo,  Porto  Ri- 
co, and  the  Virgin  islands,  E.  by  the  Ca- 
ribbean islands,  S.  by  Colombia,  and  W. 
by  Guatirnala. 

Cariebee  Islands  ;  the  West  India 
islands,  so  called,  which  lie  in  a  line  from 
Anguilla  N.  to  Tobago  S.,  and  form  the 
eastern  boundary  of  the  sea  called  Carib- 
bean sea.  The  name  has  been  loosely 
applied  to  the  whole  of  the  West  India 
islands,  but  is  more  particularly  understood 
of  that  archipelago  which  Ues  between 
the  58th  and  63d°  W.  Ion.,  and  the 
11th  and  I9th°  N.  lat.  The  principal  are 
St.  Christopher's,  Guadaloupe,  Antigua, 
Montserrat,  Mariegalante,  called  Leeioard 
islands  (q.  v.) ;  Dominica,  Martinico,  St.  Lu- 
cia, St.  Vincent's,  called  Windward  islands 
(q.  V.)  ;  Grenada,  Tobago,  Barbadoes,  &lc. 

Caribbee  or  St.  Lucia  Bark.  Under 
the  general  denomination  of  cinchona, 
several  barks  have  been  comprehended 
which  are  not  the  products  of  the  real 
cinchona  (q.  v.),  and  which,  in  fact,  nei- 
ther contain  cinchonia  nor  quinia,  and 
cannot,  consequently,  be  substituted  as  a 
febrifuge  for  the  true  species  of  cinchona. 
One  of  the  principal  substitutes  of  this 
kind  is  the  Caribbee  or  St.  Lucia  bark, 
which  is  procured  fi'om  the  exostema  Ca- 
ribcea  (Persoon),  a  tree  growing  in  tlie 
West  Indies.  This  bark  is  in  convex 
fragments,  covered  with  a  yellow  epider- 
mis, commonly  thin,  but  sometimes  hard 
and  spongy,  with  deep  fissures,  of  a  yel- 
low, red  or  brown  tint  internally,  of  a 
fibrous  texture,  offering  here  and  there 
small,  shining  and  crystalline  points,  of  a 
very  bitter  taste,  and  very  faint  smell. 

Caribbees  ;  the  original  inhabitants  of 
the  Caribbee  islands  (q.  v.),  who,  in  con- 
sequence of  domestic  broils,  emigrated 
from  North  America,  in  the  neighborhood 
of  Florida,  to  these  islands,  and  to  Guia- 


na, in  South  America,  where  they  live 
independent,  and  have  been  joined  by 
many  runaway  Negroes.  They  often 
engage  m  wars  against  the  European  col- 
onists. They  were  almost  entirely  ex- 
pelled from  the  islands  in  the  18th  cen- 
tury. On  St.  Vincent,  there  are  only  100, 
and  on  Dominica,  only  30  families  of  red 
Caribbees.  They  are  of  an  olive-brown 
color,  but  they  paint  themselves  with 
arnoito,  as  a  defence  against  insects. 
On  th\i  island  of  St.  Vincent,  there  are 
black  Caribbees,  sprung  from  the  uiter- 
coui"se  of  black  slaves  and  Caribbean  wo- 
men. Their  number  amounts  to  2000  fam- 
ilies. They  are  of  a  dark-brown  color, 
and,  notwithstanding  all  the  eflorts  of  the 
English,  they  maintain  the  independence 
of  their  quarter  of  the  island.  The  red 
Caribbees  are  distinguished  for  their  activ- 
ity and  courage.  They  inhabit  villages, 
governed  by  an  elective  chief,  whom  the 
Europeans  call  captain.  They  assemble 
for  battle  at  the  sound  of  a  conch.  Next 
to  the  Patagonians,  they  are  perhaps  the 
most  robust  nation  with  which  we  are 
acquainted.  They  devour  the  flesh  of 
their  enemies  with  great  voracity.  Their 
language,  one  of  the  most  sonorous,  and 
one  of  the  softest  in  the  world,  contains 
nearly  30  dialects. 

Caribs.  (See  the  preceding  article.) 
Caricature  (from  the  Italian  caricare, 
to  load,  to  overcharge  ;  clmrger,  with  the 
French).  A  caricature  is  therefore  an 
exaggerated  representation  of  the  qualities 
and  pecuharities  of  an  object ;  but  in  such 
a  way  that  the  likeness  is  presei-ved,  or 
even  made  more  striking.  The  effect  of 
such  a  representation  need  not  be  always 
ridiculous ;  it  may  also  be  terrible.  Ben 
David  says,  "  A  child  of  the  usual  size, 
with  the  head  and  arms  of  a  giant,  is  a 
horrid  caricature,  whilst  a  large  man,  with 
a  diminutive  nose,  with  a  little  mouth,  and 
a  small  voice,  is  a  ridiculous  one."  Con- 
sidered in  reference  to  the  fine  arts,  ex- 
ternal deformities,  which  do  not  spring 
from  the  fault  of  the  persons  afflicted,  and 
therefore  excite  compassion  rather  than 
disgust,  can  never  be  the  proper  subjects 
of  caricature ;  for,  besides  that  the  moral 
sense  is  offended,  the  arts  are  not  permit- 
ted to  idealize  deformities,  unless  for  the 
jiurpose  of  imbodying  and  representing 
character.  Such  corporeal  disfigurements, 
however,  as  arise  from  moral  defects,  and 
all  disagreeable  peculiarities  of  manner 
and  appearance  which  spring  from  the 
same  cause,  are  fair  subjects  of  caricature. 
These  caricatures  are  to  be  considered  as 
poetical  representations  of  moral  and  in- 


CARICATURE— CARILLONS. 


519 


tellectual  deformities,  of  the  vices  and  fol- 
lies of  individuals,  or  of  whole  classes, 
sects,  &c.;  as  dramatic  pictures,  which  ac- 
quire interest  from  the  moral  views  with 
which  they  are  composed  hy  the  painter, 
and  understood  by  the  spectator.  With 
this  object,  Leonardo  da  Vinci  has  drawn 
liis  caricatures.  He  represe:its  the  quar- 
relsome, the  peevish,  the  braggart,  the 
slotliful,  the  bloated  glutton,  the  (lissii)ated 
rake,  the  awkward  clown,  the  lauginng 
fool,  &-C.,  all  with  fidelity,  but  with  exag- 
geration. Caricatures  may  be  tragic  or 
comic.  To  the  former  belong  illustrations 
of  moral  depravity ;  to  the  latter,  those  of 
intellectual  deficiencies,  arising  irom  self- 
neglect.  They  were  in  use  even  among 
the  ancients,  who  had  among  their  masks 
a  number  of  caricatures.  Hogarth  (q.  v.) 
is  an  unrivalled  master  of  caricature.  Le- 
onardo da  Vinci,  Annibale  Caracci,  Ghez- 
zi,  Callot  and  Ramberg  (q.  v.)  were  also 
distinguished  in  this  branch  of  art.  The 
political  caricatures  of  the  English  are  of 
a  striking  and  peculiar  kind,  oflen  exhib- 
iting a  greater  sensibility  for  jiolitical  lib- 
erty than  for  dignity  and  beauty,  but 
abounding  in  wit  and  bold  humor.  Gil- 
ray  and  Bunbury  may  be  considered  as 
the  chief  masters  in  this  kind  of  caricature. 
The  French  caricatures  are  rather  exag- 
gerated representations  of  Ufe  than  satiri- 
cal ideals.  The  Italians  have  too  strong  a 
sense  for  the  beautiful  to  relish  caricatures, 
and  the  Germans  are  too  grave  to  excel  in 
these  sportive  productions.  Grose,  in 
London  (1788),  published  rules  for  the 
drawing  of  caricatures,  with  an  essay  on 
comic  painting ;  and  Malcolm,  a  Histori- 
cal Sketch  of  the  Art  of  Caricaturing,  with 
Graphic  Illustrations  (London,  1813,  4to). 
Carignano,  Charles  Amadeus  Albert, 
prince  of  Savoy,  was  bom  Dec.  28,  1798, 
and,  in  1817,  married  Maria  Theresa, 
daughter  of  the  grand-duke  Ferdinand  of 
Tuscany,  heir  apparent  to  the  crown  of 
Sardinia,  as  the  king,  Charles  Fehx  Jo- 
seph, had  no  male  heir.  Until  the  insur- 
rection of  a  part  of  the  Sarduiian  army,  in 
the  night  of  March  11  and  12,  1821,  the 
prince  had  taken  no  part  in  state  affairs ; 
and,  when  he  at  length  came  forward,  he 
showed  himself  extremely  irresolute,  and 
destitute  alike  of  sound  views  and  manly 
character.  The  leadei-s  of  the  insurrec- 
tion well  knew  how  to  jnake  the  prince, 
who  had  no  knowledge  of  the  political 
condition  of  the  state,  approve  the  steps 
of  the  insurgents,  which  he  did  by  a  pub- 
lic proclamation  of  March  12.  March  21, 
the  prince  travelled  to  Novara,  without 
jgiving  instructions  to  the  provisorial  junta ; 


and  from  Novara  he  proceeded,  March 
31,  to  the  Austrian  head-quarters,  and, 
subsequently,  to  France,  as  he  Mas  not 
allowed  to  return  to  Turin.  In  1823,  un- 
der the  duke  of  Angouleme,  he  made  a 
campaign  in  Spain,  distinguished  himself 
somewhat  before  Cadiz,  and,  since  1824, 
has  lived  again  in  Turin.  The  founder 
of  the  line  of  Savoy-Carignan  was  Thom- 
as Francis,  youngest  son  of  Charles 
Emanuel  I,  duke  of  Savoy,  who  married 
Maria  de  Bourbon,  countess  of  Soissons, 
in  1624.  This  line  possesses  consider- 
able private  estates,  both  in  France  and 
Piedmont.  The  former  remained  entire 
during  the  period  of  the  French  revo- 
lution, as  the  duke  Charles  Ferdinand 
received  the  rights  of  a  French  citizen. 
There  have  sprung,  likewise,  from  this 
house,  tlie  chevalier  de  Savoy,  a  son  of 
count  de  Villafranca ;  Maria  Louis  (who 
died  in  1785),  brother  of  the  grandfather 
of  the  heir  apparent,  and  Louisa  Annade 
Mahon,  wife  of  the  count.  But  this  mar- 
riage was  never  acknowledged  by  the 
chief  of  the  ruling  house,  as  entitling  the 
heii-s  of  it  to  be  regarded  in  the  line  of  suc- 
cession to  the  throne.  The  possibility  of 
the  succession  of  the  house  of  Carignano, 
even  before  the  declaration  of  the  congress 
of  Vienna,  could  not  be  contested ;  but, 
as  the  line  of  Savoy-Carignano,  for  200 
yeai-s,  had  been  confounded  with  the  prin- 
cipal- line,  disputes  might  arise,  whether 
the  new  acquisitions  of  the  latter,  consist- 
ing, among  other  jdaces,  of  the  duchy  of 
Montferrat,  the  western  part  of  Milan, 
the  island  Sardinia,  and  Genoa,  would 
not  admit  of  a  female  succession  to  the 
last  possessor  of  the  crown  in  the  chief 
line.  The  succession  was  more  involved, 
from  the  circumstance  that  many  [)artsof 
Savoy  and  Piedmont  had  been  undoubted 
German  fiefs ;  and  it  might  be  thought  that 
the  possessor  of  the  crown  of  the  cliief 
line  of  this  family  could  settle  how  they 
should  be  disposed  of,  after  the  dissolution 
of  the  German  empire.  The  experience 
drawn  from  historj',  how  contests  for  suc- 
cession to  the  thrones  of  Europe,  after 
the  direct  lines  liad  become  extinct,  have 
often  involved  this  continent  in  bloody 
wars,  induced  the  congress  of  Vienna  to 
put  an  end  to  all  uncertainty,  by  a  dis- 
tinct acknowledgment  of  the  right  of  suc- 
cession in  the  house  of  Carignano,  in  case 
of  a  failure  of  male  heirs  in  the  principal 
line.  The  marriage  of  the  prince  of  Ca- 
rignano has  already  been  blessed  by  the 
birth  of  two  princes.  ( See  Sardinian  Mon- 
archy.) 

Carillons.    (See  Chimes.) 


520 


CARINTHIA— CARLIN. 


Carinthia  ;  a  duchy  of  the  Austrian 
monarchy.    (See  Aistna.) 

Carissimi,  Giacomo ;  a  famous  Italian 
musical  composer  of  the  17tli  century. 
He  was  i)orn  at  Padua,  and  was  living  as 
late  as  1672.  He  wrote  many  oratorios, 
cantatas  and  motets,  and  his  contenijjora- 
ries  praised  him  for  his  characteristic  ex- 
pression of  feeling,  and  his  easy,  flowing 
Btyle.  He  deserves  the  most  honor  for 
the  im))rovemcnt  of  the  recitative,  having 
given  it  a  more  expressive  and  natural 
language.  He  wrote,  also,  it  is  said,  the 
first  church  cantatas. 

Carita  (Italian,  from  the  Latin  caritas); 
a  name,  in  the  line  arts,  aj)plied  to  the  rep- 
resentation of  Christian  love.  It  is  exhib- 
ited under  the  figure  of  a  tender  mother, 
in  the  midst  of  her  children,  manifesting 
her  kindness  and  affection  for  them.  In 
this  waj',  for  instance,  Andrea  del  Sarto 
has  rejjresented  it  in  a  picture  which 
was  formerly  in  the  Napoleon  museum. 
A  careful  and  tender  mother,  holding  two 
children,  of  whom  one  lies  U})on  her 
breast,  and  the  other  is  refreslnng  itself 
with  sweet  fruits,  while  a  third,  on  whom 
her  eyes  are  fixed,  slumbers  softly  near 
her,  are  the  ])rominent  parts  of  the  picture. 
This  representation  of  loveliness  and  ten- 
derness united  was  unknown  to  ancient 
art. 

Carleton,  sir  Guy,  lord  Dorchester, 
was  born  at  Strabane,  in  Ireland,  in  1724, 
and,  entering  the  army,  became  heutenant- 
colonel  in  the  guards  in  1748.  In  1758, 
he  accompanied  general  Amhei-st  to 
America,  where  he  distinguished  himself 
at  the  siege  of  Quebec.  He  was  promot- 
ed to  the  rank  of  colonel  in  the  army  in 
1762,  and,  at  the  siege  of  the  Havannah, 
-signalized  himself  by  his  braveiy.  In 
1772,  he  was  appointed  governor  of  Que- 
bec, and  created  major-general.  By  his 
gi'eat  exertions,  he  saved  the  whole  of 
Canada,  the  capital  of  which  was  besieged 
by  the  American  generals  Montgomeiy 
and  Arnold.  •  The  inhabitants  joined  the 
British  troops,  and,  after  an  obstinate  re- 
sistance, the  Americans  were  repulsed, 
-and  Montgomery  was  killed  at  the  head  of 
his  army.  In  consequence  of  this  exploit, 
he  was  knighted,  and,  the  next  year,  be- 
came a  lieutenant-general.  In  1781,  he 
was  appointed  to  succeed  sir  Henry  Clin- 
ton, as  commander-in-chief  in  America, 
where  he  remained  until  the  conclusion 
of  the  war.  In  1786,  he  was  again  creat- 
ed governor  of  Quebec,  Nova  Scotia  and 
New  Brunswick ;  and,  as  a  reward  for  his 
long  services,  was  raised  to  the  peerage, 
by  the  title  of  lord  Doixhester,  of  Dorches-, 


ter  in  the  county  of  Oxford.    He  died  in 
1808,  aged  85. 

Carli  (Giovanni  Rinaldo),  count,  called 
sometimes  Carli-Rubhi,  from  the  title  of 
his  wile,  was  born  in  1720,  at  Capo  d'ls- 
tria,  of  an  ancient  noble  family,  and  early 
manifested  an  inclination  for  the  study  of 
the  middle  ages,  with  which  he  connected 
the  study  of  belles-lettres  and  of  jioetiT. 
In  his  21st  year,  the  senate  of  Venice 
made  him  professor  of  astronomy  and 
naval  science.  On  account  of  a  ridicu- 
lous controverey  between  him  and  the 
abjj^  Tartarotti,  on  witches  and  witchcraft, 
he  was  accused  of  heresy.  Maffei  i)ut  an 
end  to  the  controvei-sy  by  his  La  Magia 
Annihilata.  The  care  wliich  liis  large 
estates  required  compelled  Carli  to  resign 
his  professorship  and  retire  to  Istria, 
where  he  spent  his  time  in  the  study  of 
antiquities,  on  which  he  has  written  some 
valuable  treatises.  He  was  afterwards 
ap])ointed,  by  the  emperor,  presidejit  of 
the  highest  commercial  court  at  Milan, 
and,  subsequently,  i)resident  of  the  col- 
lege of  finance  in  the  same  city.  He 
published  his  works,  1784 — 1794,  com- 
plete in  15  volumes,  under  the  title  Op- 
ere  del  Sig.  Commendaiore  D.  Gian.  Ri- 
naldo, Conte  Carli,  Presidente,  &c. ;  but, 
in  this  edition,  his  American  letters  are 
not  contained,  which  form  a  work  of  five 
volumes.     He  died  in  1795. 

Carlin;  the  most  celebrated  harle- 
quin of  the  French  stage.  Some  writere 
consider  the  Avord  harlequin  as  derived 
from  his  name.  He  was  bom  at  Turin  in 
1713.  His  true  name  was  Carlo  Anto- 
nio Bertinazzi,  and  Carlin  is  the  abbrevi- 
ation of  Carlino,  the  Italian  diminutive  of 
Carlo.  In  1741,  he  went  to  Paris,  took 
part  in  the  Italian  comedy  there,  and  per- 
formed, for  42  years,  in  the  character  of 
harlequin,  with  constant  applause.  Gol- 
doni  praises  him  not  only  as  one  of  the 
best  comic  actors,  but  also  for  his  excel- 
lent manners  and  elegant  appearance  in 
society.  He  enjoyed  the  greatest  favor 
with  the  parterre,  and  addressed  the  audi- 
ence with  a  famiUarity  not  allowed  to  any 
other  actor.  He  was  still  more  successful 
in  improvisation  than  in  the  performance 
of  written  parts,  and  has  performed  a 
whole  piece  of  five  acts  [Les  vingis-siz 
Infortunes  d^Jlrkquin)  in  this  manner. 
The  union  of  mirth  and  benevolence,  the 
grace  of  his  figure  and  manners,  and  the 
respectability  of  his  private  character, 
made  him  so  beloved,  that  it  was  said  of 
him, — 

Dans  ses  ffestes,  ses  tons,  c'est  la  nature  mime, 
Sous  la  masque  mi  I'admire,  a  decauvert  on  Caime. 


CARLIN— CARLOS. 


521 


Many  bon-mots  and  witty  sayings  by  him 
were  long  current  in  Paiis.  The  mel- 
anclioly  temper  of  his  latter  years  form- 
ed a  remarkable  contrast  with  his  mirth 
on  the  stage.  He  was  the  author  of  a 
piece  in  five  acts — Lts  nouvelles  Metamor- 
phoses (VArlequin  (1763). 

Carlisle  (anciendy,  £ntffuvalliurti,  and 
Lrigubalu7n)  ;  a  city  of  England,  and 
cajjital  of  Cumberland  ;  300  miles  N.  of 
London  ;  Ion.  2°  50'  W. ;  lat.  54°  54'  N. 
Popidation,  12,531.  It  is  a  bishop's  see. 
It  is  surrounded  with  a  wall,  and  defend- 
ed by  a  castle  and  citadel.  The  wall 
and  citadel  are  in  a  ruinous  state,  but  the 
castle  is  kept  in  repair.  It  contains  two 
churches,  with  several  other  places  of  re- 
ligious worship.  It  sends  two  membei-s 
to  j)arliament.  It  is  situatefl  at  the  con- 
flux of  the  rivers  Eden,  Petered  and  Can- 
da,  ^vhich  soon  after  fall  into  the  sea,  in 
Solway  Frith.  Tiie  principal  manufac- 
tures in  Carlisle  are  cotton-yarn,  cotton 
xmd  linen  chcclcs,  gi-ay  cottons,  osna- 
burgs,  coarse  linen,  drills,  pocketing, 
worsted  shag,  silk  and  cotton  fancy  pieces, 
Stamped  cottons,  hats,  chamois  and  tan- 
ned leather,  linseys,  nails,  coarse  knives, 
stockings,  dressed  flax,  soap,  candies,  nan- 
keens and  ropes. 

Carlisle  ;  a  post-town  and  capital  of 
Cumberland  county,  Pennsylvania ;  16 
mUes  W.  of  Harrisburg,  114  \V,  Philadel- 
phia ;  Ion.  77°  W  W. ;  lat.  40°  12'  N. 
Population  in  1820, 2908.  It  is  pleasantly 
situated,  regularly  laid  out,  built  chiefly 
of  stone  and  brick,  and  has  considerable 
trade.  It  contains  a  court-house,  a  jail,  a 
market-house,  and  seven  houses  of  public 
worship. — Dickinson  college  was  founded 
in  this  town,  in  178.3,  and  continued  a 
respectable  and  flourisliing  histitution  till 
about  1816,  when  its  operations  were  sus- 
pended. It  has  been  reorganized,  and 
its  operations  were  resumed  in  Janua- 
ry, 1822.  The  principal  officers  are  a 
president  and  three  professors.  There  is 
a  grammar-school  connected  with  the 
college. — In  tlie  United  States  and  in 
Canada,  there  are  several  other  places 
called  Carlisle. 

Carlos,  don ;  iufante  of  Spain  ;  son  of 
Philip  II  and  Maria  of  Portugal ;  bora  at 
Valladolid,  1545.  His  mother  died  four 
days  after  his  birth.  He  hunself  was 
sickly  ;  and  one  of  his  legs  was  shorter 
than  the  other.  The  extreme  indulgence 
with  which  he  was  educated  by  Joan, 
sister  of  the  king,  confirmed  his  violent, 
obstinate  and  vindictive  disposition.  In 
1560,  Philip  caused  him  to  be  acknowl- 
edged heir  of  the  throne  by  the  estates 
44* 


assembled  at  Toledo,  and,  in  1562,  he 
sent  him  to  the  university  of  Alcala  de 
Henarez,  in  hopes  that  the  study  of  the 
sciences  would  sofi:en  his  turbulent  char- 
acter. An  unlucky  fall  threw  him  mto  a 
burning  fever,  and  the  physicians  lost 
all  hopes  of  his  recovery.  The  king  im- 
mediately hastened  to  his  son,  and,  as  it 
was  recollected  that  the  prince  had  a  very 
great  veneration  for  St.  Didacius,  who 
was  not  yet  canonized,  Philip  command- 
ed the  corpse  of  the  saint  to  be  brought  in 
a  procession.  It  was  laid  upon  the  bed 
of  the  sick  prince,  and  his  hot  face  cover- 
ed with  the  cold  shroud.  He  fell  asleep  ; 
when  he  awoke,  the  fever  had  left  him : 
he  demanded  food,  and  recovered.  All 
believed  a  miracle  had  been  wrought,  and 
Philip  requested  the  canonization  of  Di- 
dacius. Contemporary  historians  differ 
in  tlie  description  of  the  prince.  Accord- 
ing to  some,  he  had  a  thirst  for  glory,  an 
elevated  courage,  pride,  and  a  love  of 
power.  According  to  others,  he  was  fond 
of  whatever  was  strange  and  uncommon ; 
an  accident  or  opposition  irritated  him  to 
frenzy  ;  address  and  submission  softened 
him.  He  is  also  represented  as  a  favorer 
of  the  insurgents  in  the  Netherlands,  and, 
in  particular,  as  an  enemy  of  the  inquisif 
tion  ;  yet  he  possessed  neither  knowledge 
nor  principles,  nor  even  sufficient  under-t 
standing  to  be  capable  of  liberal  views, 
AVith  him,  all  was  passionate  excitement, 
which  resistance  converted  into  fury. 
Llorente  has  corrected  the  accounts  of 
the  character  and  fate  of  this  prince,  from 
authentic  sources,  in  his  work  on  the 
Sjianish  Inquisition,  (q.  v.)  According  to 
him,  don  Carlos  was  an-ogant,  brutal,  igr 
norant  and  dl-educated.  Thus  mucla  is 
certain,  that,  at  the  congress  of  chateau 
Cambresis  (1559),  the  mai-riage  of  don 
Carlos  with  Ehzabeth,  daughter  of  Heur 
ry  JI  of  France,  was  ])roposed ;  but  Phihp, 
being  left  a  widower  by  the  death  of 
Mary  of  England,  took  the  place  of  his 
sou.  Don  Carlos  is  said  to  have  loved 
Elizabeth,  and  to  have  never  forgiven  his 
father  for  having  deprived  him  of  her, 
Llorente  proves,  however,  that  don  Carlos 
never  had  fallen  in  love  with  the  queen, 
and  that  she  was  never  too  intimate 
with  him.  In  1563,  Philip,  who  had  no 
other  heir  than  don  Carlos,  considering 
him  unfit  for  the  throne,  sent  for  his 
nephews,  the  archdukes  Rodolph  and 
Emestus,  to  secure  to  them  the  succes* 
sion  to  his  dominions.  Don  Carlos,  who 
lived  in  continual  misunderstanding  with 
his  fatlier,  resolved,  in  1565,  to  leave 
Spain,  and  was  on  tlte  point  of  embark' 


522 


CARLOS. 


iug,  when  Ruy  Gomez  de  Silva,  a  confi- 
dant both  of  PhiHp  and  Carlos,  dissuaded 
liim  from  liis  resolution.  In  15G7,  when 
the  rebellion  m  the  Loav  Countries  dis- 
quieted Philip,  don  Carlos  wrote  to  sev- 
eral grandees  of  tlie  kingdom,  that  he  had 
the  intention  of  going  to  Germany.  He 
disclosed  his  plan  to  his  uncle,  don  Juan 
of  Austria,  who  mildly  dissuaded  him 
from  it,  and  represent<;d  to  him,  that  most 
of  the  grandees  to  Avhom  lie  had  written 
would  not  omit  to  inform  tlie  king.  This 
was,  in  fact,  done  ;  and,  indeed,  don  Juan 
liimself  told  Philip  what  don  Carlos  liad 
confided  to  him.  It  is  believed  that  he 
was  touched  by  the  sufferings  of  the  y)eo- 
ple  of  the  Netherlands  ;  that  he  had  been 
invited  by  them  to  place  hhnself  at  their 
head,  and  that  this  plan,  from  its  bold 
and  extravagant  character,  had  gained  his 
approbation.  Philip  himself  seemed  to 
believe  that  his  son  intended  to  go  to  the 
Netherlands.  The  bai'on  Montigny  lost 
his  head  on  this  account.  The  infante 
had  often  shoN^Ti  a  vehement  desire  to  par- 
ticipate in  the  government.  But  Philip, 
jealous  of  his  own  authority,  treated  his 
son  coolly  and  with  reserve,  whilst  he 
gave  his  confidence  to  the  duke  of  Alva, 
to  Ruy  Gomez  de  Silva,  don  Juan  of 
Austria,  and  Spinola.  Don  Carlos  con- 
ceived an  invincible  aversion  to  them. 
He  could  not  bear  that  Alva  should  have 
received  the  government  of  Flanders, 
which  he  had  requested  for  himself.  The 
architect  of  the  Escurial,  Louis  de  Foix, 
gives  the  following  facts  relating  to  don 
Carlos,  which  have  been  presenx'd  to  us 
by  De  Thou.  The  prince  had  always 
under  his  pillow  two  naked  swords,  two 
loaded  pistols,  and,  at  the  side  of  his  bed, 
several  guns,  and  a  chest  full  of  other  fire- 
arms. He  was  often  heard  to  complain, 
that  his  father  had  deprived  him  of  his 
bride.  On  Christmas  evening,  he  con- 
fessed to  a  priest  that  he  had  resolved  to 
murder  a  nmn.  The  priest,  therefore, 
refused  him  absolution.  The  prior  of  die 
monastery  of  Atocha  artfully  drew  from 
him  expressions,  fi-om  which  it  could  be 
inferred  that  he  meditated  an  attempt 
u[>on  liis  own  father.  The  confession 
was  then  communicated  to  the  king,  who 
exclaimed,  "  I  am  the  man  whom  my 
son  intends  to  murder ;  but  I  shall  take 
measures  to  jjrevent  it."  Thus  Phihp,  a 
jealous  husband,  a  gloomy  and  suspi- 
cious king,  and  an  unfortunate  father,  im- 
pelled by  hatred  or  fear,  by  policy  or 
superstition,  resolved  on  the  destruction 
of  his  only  son,  in  whom  he  saw  only  a 
criminal,  unworthy  of  tlie  crown.     On 


the  night  of  Jan.  18,  1568,  while  don 
Carlos  was  buried  in  a  deep  sleep,  count 
Lernia  entered  his  chamber,  and  removed 
his  arms.  Then  apjjearcd  the  king,  jirc- 
ceded  l)y  Ruy  Gomez  of  Silva,  the  duke 
of  Fcria,  the  grand  prior  of  the  order  of 
St.  JoJm,  brother  of  the  duke  of  Alva,  and 
several  officers  of  the  guard,  and  state 
counselloi-s.  Don  Carlos  still  slept.  They 
awaked  him :  he  beheld  the  king,  his  la- 
ther, and  exclaimed,  "  I  am  a  dead  man." 
Then,  addressing  Pliilip,  he  said,  "  Does 
your  majesty  wish  to  kill  me  ?  I  am  not 
mad,  but  reduced  to  despair  by  my  suf- 
ferings." He  conjured,  with  tears,  those 
who  were  jiresent  to  put  him  to  death. 
"I  am  not  come,"  answered  the  king,  "to 
put  you  to  death,  but  to  punish  you  as  a 
father,  and  to  bring  you  back  to  your 
duty."  He  then  commanded  him  to  rise, 
dejirived  him  of  his  domestics,  ordered  a 
box  of  papers  under  his  bed  to  be  seized, 
and  committed  him  to  the  care  of  the 
duke  of  Feria  and  six  noblemen,  enjoin- 
ing them  not  to  permit  him  to  write,  nor 
to  speak  with  any  one.  These  guards 
clothed  don  Carlos  in  a  mourning  dress, 
took  from  his  chamber  the  tapestry,  the 
furniture,  and  even  his  bed,  leaving  him 
nothing  but  a  mattress.  Don  Carlos,  full 
of  rage  and  despair,  caused  a  large  fire  to 
be  kindled,  under  j)retext  of  the  extreme 
cold  of  the  winter,  and  threw  himself 
suddenly  into  the  flames,  for  the  puipose 
of  suffocating  himself.  It  was  with  diffi- 
cidty  that  he  was  rescued.  He  attempt- 
ed, by  turns,  to  finish  liis  life  by  thirst,  by 
hunger,  by  eating  to  excess ;  he  also  at- 
tempted to  choke  himself,  by  swallowing 
a  diamond.  After  Philip  had  endeavored 
to  justify  his  measures  to  the  po|ie,  and 
the  pruicipal  sovereigns  of  Europe,  and 
had  also  given  notice  to  the  superior 
clergy,  to  the  courts  of  justice,  and  to  the 
cities  of  his  empire,  of  what  had  passed, 
he  referred  the  case  of  the  prince,  not  to 
the  inquisition,  but  to  the  council  of  state, 
under  the  direction  of  cardinal  Espinosa, 
who  was  state  counsellor,  grand  inquisi- 
tor, and  president  of  the  junta  of  Castile. 
This  court  is  said,  after  a  minute  exami- 
nation, and  hearing  many  witnesses,  to 
have  condemned  him  to  death.  But  it  is 
a  mistake  to  siipi)ose  that  the  sentence 
was  executed  by  means  of  a  poisoned 
soup,  or  that  his  arteries  were  opened  in 
a  bath,  or  that  he  was  strangled.  Ferre- 
ras  and  other  Spanish  historians  report, 
that  he  died  of  a  malignant  fever,  afler 
having  taken  the  sacrament  with  much 
devotion,  and  having  asked  his  father's 
pardon.    According  to  Llorente,  the  king 


CARLOS— CARLSBAD. 


523 


eigned,  March  2,  the  judicial  order  for  the 
formal  arrest  of  the  prince,  for  whoin  the 
pope,  and  all  the  princes  to  whom  Philip 
iiad  written,  in  particular  the  emperor 
MaximiHan  II,  had  interposed  m  vain. 
The  execution  of  the  order  of  imprison- 
ment was  committed,  hy  Philip,  to  Ruy 
Gomez  de  Silva,  prince  of  Evoli.  The 
prince  displayed  all  the  violence  of  his 
l)assionate  disposition.  He  ohstinately  re- 
fused to  confess,  Uved  irregularly,  and  his 
fury  inflamed  his  blood  to  such  a  degree, 
that  even  ice-water,  which  he  used  daily, 
could  not  refresh  him.  He  ordered  a 
great  quantity  of  ice  to  he  laid  round  liis 
bed,  went  naked  and  barefoot  upon  the 
stone  floor,  and,  for  1 1  days  in  June,  took 
no  food  but  ice.  The  king  then  visited 
him,  ajid  addressed  to  him  some  words 
of  consolation ;  after  which,  the  prince 
eat  to  great  excess.  This  brought  on  a 
malignant  fever.  Meanwhile,  don  Diego 
Bribiesca  de  Mugnatones,  member  of  the 
council  of  Castile,  conducted  the  trial. 
The  prince  had  not  the  sUghtcst  ofiicial 
notice  of  it.  In  July,  Mugnatones  drew 
up  a  report  to  the  kuig,  from  tlie  testimo- 
ny of  the  witnesses,  and  from  the  j)apers 
of  the  prince,  which  had  l^een  seized, 
stating  that  don  Carlos  was  guilty  of  trea- 
son, in  having  plotted  against  the  life  of 
his  father,  and  in  having  attempted  to 
make  himself  master  of  the  government 
of  Flanders  by  a  civil  Avar;  but  tliat  it 
must  depend  on  the  king  whether  he 
would  have  the  infixnte  judged  according 
to  the  common  laws  of  tJie  kingdom. 
Philip  dechired  that,  as  king,  his  con- 
science did  not  permit  him  to  make  any 
exception  from  the  laws  in  favor  of  a 
prince  who  had  shown  hunself  so  un- 
worthy of  the  throne.  He  believed  tliat 
the  recovery  of  the  ])rince's  health  was 
not  to  be  expected ;  and  that,  therefore, 
he  ought  to  be  permitted  to  take  food 
without  any  restraint,  which  would  cause 
his  death ;  that  he  ought,  however,  to 
be  convinced,  that  his  death  was  inevita- 
ble, in  order  to  induce  him  to  confess,  and 
secure  his  eternal  welliue.  The  judicial 
records  make  no  mention  of  this  resolu- 
tion of  the  king  ;  no  judgment  was  writ- 
ten or  signed  ;  and  the  secretary  Pedro  del 
Hoyo  observes,  in  a  note,  "that  the  judi- 
cial process  had  i)roceeded  thus  far,  when 
the  prince  was  earned  off  by  sickness,  and 
that,  therefore,  no  judgment  was  render- 
ed." With  this  the  written  accounts  of 
other  persons,  who  were  employed  in  the 
palace  of  the  king,  agree.  In  consequence 
of  the  declaration  of  tiie  king,  the  cai-dinal 
Espinosa  and  the  prince  of  EvoU  thought 


it  advisable  to  leave  the  death  of  the 
prince  to  the  progress  of  the  disease.  To 
the  physician  of  the  king,  Olivarez,  who 
had  the  care  of  the  prince,  this  purpose 
of  the  prince  of  Evoli  was  communi- 
cated. On  the  20th  of  July,  he  adminis- 
tered a  medicine  to  the  patient,  after 
which  the  disease  appeared  to  become 
fatal,  and  advised  the  infante  to  prepare 
himself  for  his  a})proaching  death  by 
taking  the  sacrament.  This  don  Carlos 
did,  Jidy  21,  and  asked  pardon  of  the 
king,  his  father,  through  his  confessor. 
Philip  granted  it,  and  also  his  blessing. 
Upon  this,  don  Carlos  received  the  sacra- 
ment, and  made  his  will.  The  struggle 
lasted  during  the  22d  and  23d  of  July. 
The  prince  listened,  during  that  time, 
with  calmness,  to  the  jirayers  of  the  cler- 
gyman. On  the  night  of  the  23d,  the 
king  visited  him,  gave  him  his  blessing, 
without  being  recognised  by  the  prince, 
and  withdrew  weeping.  Soon  afterwards, 
at  4  o'clock  in  the  morning  of  the  24th  of 
July,  15G8,  don  Carlos  expired.  He  was 
buried,  as  became  his  rank,  yet  without 
any  funeral  sermon,  in  the  convent  of  the 
Dominican  nuns.  El  Real,  at  Madrid. — 
The  viituous  queen  EUzabeth  died,  Oct. 
23  of  the  same  year,  in  child-bed,  and  not 
by  poison,  as  the  enemies  of  Philip  as- 
serted. Philip  11,  in  1592,  ordered  the 
judicial  acts  to  be  locked  in  a  box,  and  to 
be  deposited  in  the  royal  archives  at  Si- 
niancas.  The  melancholy  fate  of  don 
Carlos  has  served  as  a  subject  for  sevenil 
tragedies — those  of  Schiller,  Alfieri,  Ot- 
way  and  Campistron. 

Carlovitza,  or  Carlowitz,  or  Kar- 
lowiTZ  ;  a  town  of  Austrian  Sclavonia, 
on  the  Danube ;  7  miles  S.  E.  Peterwar- 
dein  ;  population,  5800.  It  is  the  see  of 
a  Greek  archbishoj).  Here  is  a  Greek 
gj'mnasium,  which  had,  in  1817,  164  stu- 
dents. This  town  is  remarkable  for  a 
peace  concluded  here,  in  1699,  between 
the  emperor  of  Germany,  Poland,  Russia, 
Venice  and  the  Turks,  by  the  mediatiou 
of  England  and  Holland.  By  the  terms 
of  this  peace,  the  emperor  Leopold  I  re- 
ceived Siebenbiirgen  and  Sclavonia  ;  Po- 
land received  back  Kaminiec,  Podolia  and 
the  Ukraine  ;  Venice  retained  the  con- 
quered Morea  ;  Russia,  Azoph.  (See 
Austria  and  Ottoman  Empire.) 

Carlsbad,  in  the  kingdom  of  Bohe- 
mia, one  of  the  most  famous  watering- 
places  in  the  world,  is  situated  in  a  deep, 
narrow  valley  of  the  river  Tepel.  It  is 
said  that  Charles  IV  discovered  the  warm 
springs  here,  in  1358,  during  a  chase. 
Peter  Baier,  his  physician,  directed  him 


524 


CARLSBAD— CARLSTADT. 


to  use  them,  to  obtain  relief  for  a  disorder 
of  his  foot.  The  ajjpHcation  proved  most 
effectual ;  and,  in  consequence  of  this, 
the  emperor  is  related  to  have  built  a  cas- 
tle here  ;  and  houses  gradually  accumu- 
lated round  it.  Carlsbad  signifies,  in  Ger- 
man, CJw.rhs'  bath.  The  town  has  450 
houses,  with  2510  inhabitants.  Ample 
provision  has  been  made  for  the  amuse- 
ment of  the  visitors  of  this  place.  Fine 
buildings  have  been  erected,  and  beautiful 
promenades  laid  out.  A  great  number  of 
strangei-s  are  attracted  here  every  yeai*. 
(See  Mineral  Waters.)  Carlsbad  is  also 
known  on  account  of  the 

Congress  of  Carlsbad.  This  congress 
•was  only  for  Germany,  and  is  to  be  con- 
sidered as  one  of  the  many  consequences 
of  the  increase  of  a  liberal  spirit  in  the 
German  nation,  and  the  unwllingness  of 
the  monarchs  to  keep  their  promises  re- 
specting hberal  institutions.  The  final 
act  of  this  congress  was  closed  May  15, 
1820,  and  made  a  law  of  the  German 
confederation  on  July  2.  The  object  of 
the  congress,  according  to  its  own  re- 
solves, was,  to  decide  upon  measures  for 
the  safety  and  internal  order  of  Germany. 
Laws  were  passed  for  the  establishment 
of  a  stricter  ])olice  in  the  universities, 
which,  since  that  time,  have  been  brought 
into  closer  contact  with  the  governments, 
and  officers  have  been  ajipointed  to  watch 
over  the  conduct  of  the  students.  Peri- 
odical works,  and  such  as  contain  less 
than  20  sheets,  were  put,  for  five  years, 
under  a  severe  censorship ;  and  the  diet 
was  to  have'  the  right  to  suppress  any 
books  which  disturbed  the  peace  or  at- 
tacked the  dignity  of  any  member  of  the 
confederation,  or  tended  so  to  do.  For 
the  detection  and  prosecution  of  secret  po- 
litical societies  throughout  Gennany,  and 
the  checking  of  "  demagogic  tendencies,"  a 
central  police-commission  was  organized. 
The  congress,  nioreov^,  complained  of 
dangerous  theories  eveiy  day  becoming 
more  and  more  widely  spread,  &c. 

Carlscroxa,  or  Carlscroon  ;  a  sea- 
port of  Sweden,  capital  of  the  province 
of  Blekingen,  or  Cai-lscrona ;  Ion.  15°  33' 
E. ;  lat.  56°  17'  N. :  pofiulation  in  1810, 
10,639;  in  1815,  11,860.  The  greatest 
part  stands  upon  a  small,  rocky  island, 
which  rises  gently  in  a  bay  of  the  Baltic. 
The  suburbs  extend  over  another  small 
rock,  and  along  the  mole  close  to  the  ba- 
sin, where  the  fleet  is  moored.  It  is 
adonied  with  one  or  two  handsome 
cluirclies,  and  a  few  tolerable  houses  of 
brick ;  but  the  buildings  in  general  are 
of  wood.     The  suburbs  are  fortified,  to- 


wards the  land,  by  a  stone  wall.  The 
entrance  into  the  harbor,  which,  by  na- 
ture, is  extremely  difficult,  from  a  number 
of  shoals  and  rocky  islands,  is  still  further 
secured  from  the  attack  of  an  enemy's 
fleet  by  two  strong  forts,  built  on  two 
islands,  under  the  batteries  of  which  all 
vessels  must  pass.  The  harbor  is  large 
and  commodious,  with  depth  of  water 
sufficient  for  ships  of  the  first  rate.  The 
exports  are  timber,  tar,  potash,  tallow  and 
marble.  Carlscrona  is  the  principal  de^ 
pot  of  the  Swedish  navy. 

Carlsruhe  (German,  which  means 
the  rest  of  Charles),  the  capital  of  the 
grand-duchy  of  Baden,  was  laid  out  in 
1715,  and  is  one  of  the  most  regularly- 
built  towns  in  Europe.  The  castle  of  the 
grand-duke  stands  in  the  centre  of  the 
city,  from  which  nine  streets  run  at  regu- 
lar distances  from  each  other,  to  the  cir- 
cumference of  a  circle  enclosing  the  area 
of  the  city,  and  thus  forming  a  star. 
Other  streets  intersect  these  in  parallel 
circles.  The  roads  leading  to  the  city 
correspond  to  this  regular  disposition, 
which,  as  is  often  the  case  in  strictly  reg- 
ular cities,  ofl;en  leaves  upon  the  traveller 
the  impression  of  monotony,  rather  than 
that  of  agreeable  order.  The  city  con- 
tains 17,2.32  inhabitants  and  1170  houses. 
It  is  ornamented  with  several  beautiful 
public  b\iildings.  The  court  library  con- 
tains 70,000  volumes  ;  the  botanical  gar- 
den, 6000  species  of  plants.  There  are 
also  here  several  valuable  museums  and 
cabinets,  several  institutions  for  the  pro- 
motion of  literature  and  the  fine  arts,  one 
for  the  deaf  and  dumb,  and  some  manu- 
factories.    Lon.  20°  45'  E. ;  lat.  49°  N. 

Carlstadt  (so  called  from  his  native 
town,  Carlstadt,  in  Franconia ;  his  proper 
name  was  Andrew  Bodenslein)  is  cele- 
brated, in  the  history  of  the  reformation, 
for  his  fanaticism  as  well  as  his  misfor- 
tunes. He  was  professor  of  theology  at 
Wittenberg.  His  learning  enabled  him 
to  render  great  support  to  Luther  in  his 
fii-st  steps  for  the  introduction  of  a  refor- 
mation. In  1520,  he  was  included  in  the 
bull  which  condemned  Luther ;  and  his 
spirited  appeal  from  the  pope  to  a  gen- 
eral council,  of  which  he  gave  the  first 
example,  as  well  as  his  opinion,  oj^enly 
expressed,  in  favor  of  the  mamage  of  the 
priesthood,  which  soon  gained  ground, 
was  among  the  many  proofs  which  he 
gave  of  his  zeal  for  the  reformation. 
Whilst  Luther  was  at  AVartburg,  Carl- 
stadt's  zeal  urged  him  to  acts  of  violence. 
He  even  instigated  the  people  and  stu- 
dents to  the  destruction  of  the  altars  and 


CARLSTADT— CARMEL. 


525 


the  images  of  tlie  saints,  greatly  to  the 
displeasure  of  Luther,  who  lost  the  friend- 
Bliip  of  Carlsladt  by  his  opposition  to  his 
outrages.  In  1524,  be  declared  himself 
publicly  the  opponent  of  Lutlier,  who  had 
preached  at  Jena  against  the  disturbances 
which  he  had  excited,  so  that  the  elector 
Frederic  banished  him  from  the  country, 
in  September,  1524.  Carlstadt,  upon  this, 
commenced  the  controvei-sy  respectijig 
the  sacrament,  denying,  in  opposition  to 
Luther,  the  bodily  presence  of  Christ  in 
tJie  sacz-ament.  Tliis  controversy  was 
carried  on  with  the  bitterest  animosity ; 
and,  Zwinglius  liaving  declared  himself 
in  favor  of  Carlstadt's  doctrine,  a  dispute 
commenced  between  the  Swiss  and  Wit- 
tenberg theologians,  which  ended  in  the 
separation  of  the  Calvinists  and  Luther- 
ans. Carlstadt,  in  the  mean  time,  being 
suspected,  not  without  reason,  of  having 
taken  part  in  the  revolt  of  the  peasants  in 
Francouia,  was  obliged  to  wander  through 
Germany,  and,  being  ultimately  reduced 
to  extreme  distress,  sought  relief  of  Lu- 
ther, wiio  procured  him  an  asylum  at 
Kemljerg,  on  condition  that  he  should 
refrain  from  the  expression  of  his  opin- 
ions. Here  he  lived  nearly  three  ycai-s. 
His  restless  mind,  however,  soon  led  him 
to  break  his  promise,  by  the  publication 
of  some  writings,  in  1528 ;  and  he  even 
went  so  for  as  to  plot  against  Luther's 
pei-son.  To  esca])e  from  the  conse- 
quences of  his  conduct,  he  repaired  to 
Switzerland,  at  the  end  of  the  same  year, 
where  he  was  appointed  vicar  of  Altstadt, 
in  the  valley  of  the  Rhine ;  in  1530,  dea- 
con at  Ziirich,  and,  in  1531,  vicar  and 
professor  of  theology  at  Basle,  where  he 
died  in  1541  or  1543. 

Carmag.xole  ;  a  name  applied,  in  the 
early  times  of  tlie  French  republic,  to  a 
dance,  and  a  song  connected  with  it. 
The  appellation  originated,  probably,  from 
the  city  of  Carmagnola,  m  Piedmont.  The 
dance  was  first  used  at  the  time  of  the 
indignation  of  the  people  on  account  of  the 
feto  allowed  to  the  king  on  tlie  resolves 
of  the  national  assembly.  The  carmag- 
nole was  commonly  sung  and  danced  at 
])opular  festivals,  executions,  and  erup- 
tions of  popular  discontent.  Afterwards 
the  name  was  also  applied  to  the  national 
guai'ds,  who  wore  a  dress  of  a  peculiar 
cut,  and  to  the  entliusiastic  supporters 
of  the  revolution.  Several  membei-s  of 
the  national  convention, — Barrere,  for  in- 
stance,— by  way  of  jest,  gave  this  name  to 
their  communications  to  the  assembly. — 
Petits  carmagnoles  is  a  name  given,  by  the 
people  in  Paris,  to  boys  who  sweep  chim- 


neys and  black  boots,  chiefly  Savoyards ; 
probably  taken  from  the  name  of  the  city 
before  mentioned. 

Carmel  ;  a  mountain  in  Palestine,  con- 
stituting part  of  Lebanon,  on  the  southern 
frontier  of  Galilee,  in  the  pachalic  of 
Acca.  It  consists  of  several  rich,  woody 
heights,  separated  by  fertile  and  habitable 
valleys,  within  a  circuit  of  about  28  miles, 
and  terminates,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Kis- 
chen,  in  a  lovely  plain,  which  forms  the 
southern  coast  of  the  gulf  of  Ptolemais  or 
Acca,  on  the  Mediterranean.  Upon  dif- 
ferent parts  of  this  mountain  there  are 
ruins  of  churches  and  monasteries  from 
the  time  of  the  Christian  kingdom  of  Je- 
nisalem,  and  the  cave  which,  according 
to  tradition,  was  inhabited  by  the  prophet 
Ehas.  From  the  4th  century,  Christian 
hermits  have  chosen  mount  Carmel  for 
their  abode.  It  was  not,  liowever,  till 
about  the  middle  of  the  12th  century,  that 
pilgrims,  under  the  direction  of  Berthold 
of  Calabria,  established  an  association  for 
the  purjiose  of  leading  a  secluded  life 
upon  this  mountain,  which  received  its 
rules  from  Albert,  the  patriarch  of  Jeru- 
salem, in  1209,  and  the  papal  confirma- 
tion from  Honorius  III,  in  1224.  Their 
rules  coincide  nearly  with  those  of  the 
ancient  Basihans.  This  is  the  origin  of 
the  order  of  Our  Lady  of  mount  Carmel. 
The  Carmelites  enumerate  among  their 
members  all  the  prophets  and  holy  men 
mentioned  in  the  Scriptures,  from  Ehas  to 
Jesus;  also  Pj'thagoras,  the  Gallic  Dru- 
ids, the  holy  women  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment, and  the  hermits  of  Christian  an- 
tiquity. Christ  they  consider  as  their 
particular  protector,  and  his  apostles  as 
missionaries  from  mount  Carmel.  The 
Jesuit  Papebroch  has  shown  how utteily 
unfounded  their  pretensions  are,  and  no 
well-informed  man  beheves  tlieir  account 
of  their  origin.  Yet  they  were  allowed, 
as  late  as  in  the  18th  century,  by  Benedict 
III,  to  erect  the  statue  of  the  prophet 
Elias,  as  the  founder  of  their  order,  in  St. 
Peter's  church  in  Rome.  Being  driven 
by  the  Saracens  to  Europe,  they  adopted, 
in  1247,  a  milder  rule,  and  the  forms  of 
monastic  life.  They  also  became  divided 
into  four  independent  Iwdies: — 1.  the  ob- 
semantes,  who  wore  shoes;  2.  the  con- 
gregation of  Mantua  ;  3.  the  bare-footed 
friars,  and  bare-footed  or  Theresian  nunsj 
in  Spain ;  4.  the  bare-footed  friars  in 
Italy.  The  two  latter  classes  observe  the 
elder  and  stricter  rule.  The  knightly  or- 
der of  Our  Lady  of  mount  Carmel,  estab- 
lished by  Henry  IV  in  France,  is  con- 
nected with  the  Carmelites  only  by  tlie. 


CARMEL— CARNEADES. 


name.  As  their  mode  of  life  precludes 
all  useful  exertion,  governments,  in  mod- 
ern times,  have  taken  measures  to  prevent 
tl^e  extension  of  their  order,  and  the  ad- 
mission of  novices  has  been  forbidden, 
except  in  Spain,  Portugal  and  America. 
In  Paris,  a  nunnery  of  this  order  was 
established  in  1817,  under  the  royal  pro- 
tection. 

Carmer  (John  Henry  Casimir)  count 
of;  high  chancellor  and  minister  of  jus- 
tice in  Prussia.  He  rendered  tlie  great- 
est service  to  Prussian  jurisprudence  by 
the  assistance  which  he  afforded  in  the 
preparation  of  the  Prussian  code,  and  still 
more  by  the  improvements  which  he  in- 
troduced into  the  civil  process  of  that 
country.  (See  Prussian  Code.)  He  was 
born  in  1721,  entered  the  Prussian  service 
early,  and  was  soon  noticed  by  Frederic 
the  Great.  After  50  years'  service,  he  re- 
tired from  official  life,  and  died,  in  1801, 
near  Glogau,  in  Silesia. 

Carmine,  the  most  splendid  of  all  the 
red  colors,  is  made  from  the  cochineal  in- 
sect, or  coccus  cacti.  It  is  deposited  from 
a  decoction  of  powdered  cochineal  in 
water,  to  which  alum,  carbonate  of  soda, 
or  oxyde  of  tin,  is  added.  As  the  beauty 
of  this  valuable  color  is  affected,  not  only 
by  the  mode  of  applying  it,  but  also  by 
the  quantity  of  the  ingredients  mixed 
with  it,  we  find  various  recipes  for  the 
preparation  of  it.  The  manufactories 
which  prepare  the  best  carmine  carefully 
conceal  the  method.  The  best  natural 
cochineal  is  found  in  IMexico. 

Carmojjtelle,  a  French  poet,  known 
by  his  Proverbes  dramatiques  (10  vol?.), 
born  in  1717,  at  Paris,  died  there  1800. 
These  little  pieces  are  without  much  con- 
nexion in  themselves,  being,  in  fact,  only 
a  series  of  dramatic  scenes,  but  are  well 
adapted  for  private  theatres.  The  fertili- 
ty of  Carmontelle  was  as  extraordinary  as 
his  ease  in  writing.  He  is  said  to  have 
left,  besides  his  printed  works  and  his 
pieces  for  the  theatre,  more  than  a  hun- 
dred volunjes  of  manuscripts. 

Carnatic  ;  a  country  in  Hindostan,  ly- 
ing along  the  coast  of  Coromandel,  from 
cape  Comorin,  in  lat.  8°,  to  16°  N. ;  500 
miles  in  length,  and  from  40  to  100  in 
breadth.  The  Carnatic  or  Camada,  an- 
ciently called  JS/'arasinha,  in  early  periods, 
was  subject  to  the  king  of  Bisnagar.  Since 
the  year  1787,  the  whole  countrj-  has  been 
under  the  authority  or  absolute  control 
of  the  English  East  India  company.  The 
goil  is  generally  sandy,  and  the  climate  is 
one  of  the  hottest  in  India.  The  country 
of  OngoJe,  Mudura  and  Tinevelly  is  in- 


cluded in  the  Carnatic.  The  principal 
towns  are  Arcot,  Madras,  Ongole,  Pondi- 
cherry,  Cuddalore,  Tanjore,  Tritchinopo- 
ly,  Madura  and  Tinevelly.  The  princi- 
pal rivers  are  the  Pennar,  the  Paliar  and 
the  Cauvery. 

Carnation  (from  the  Latin  caro,  car- 
nis,  flesh)  signifies,  in  the  fine  arts,  the 
coloring  of  the  flesh  of  the  human  body. 
The  use  of  carnation  requires  very  at- 
tentive study,  and  great  skill  in  the  art- 
ist. It  varies  with  tlie  sex  of  the  individ- 
ual, with  the  classes  and  countries  to 
which  the  subjects  belong,  with  the  pas- 
sions, the  state  of  the  health,  &c.  The 
cheeks  are,  in  a  healthy  subject,  of  a  live- 
ly red ;  the  breast,  neck,  and  upper  part 
of  the  arms  of  a  sofl;  white  ;  the  belly  yel- 
lowish. At  the  extremities,  the  color  be- 
comes colder,  and,  at  the  joints,  assumes 
a  violet  tint,  on  account  of  the  transpar- 
ent appearance  of  the  blood.  All  these 
shades  require  to  be  softly  blended.  Two 
faults  in  carnation  are  chiefly  to  be  avoid- 
ed— hardness,  the  fault  of  the  masters  of 
the  15th  centurj',  and  too  great  weakness. 
Guido  Reni  not  unfrequently  painted  his 
flesh  so  that  it  appeared  almost  bloodless. 
The  French  school  has  gone  furthest  in 
this  respect.  The  flesh  of  the  followers 
of  this  school  often  looks  like  porcelain 
or  wax.  Titian  is  still  unrivalled  in  car- 
nation. 

Carneades,  an  eminent  Greek  philoso- 
pher, founder  of  the  third  or  new  acade- 
my, was  a  native  of  Cyrene,  in  Africa,  and 
is  supposed  to  have  been  bom  in  the  third 
year  of  the  141st  Olympiad.  He  studied 
first  under  Diogenes  the  Stoic,  but  subse- 
quently attended  the  lectures  of  Egesinus, 
who  explained  the  doctrines  of  Arcesi- 
laus ;  and,  succeeding  his  master  in  the 
chair  of  the  academy,  he  restored  its  rep- 
utation by  softening  the  prevailing  jiyr- 
rhonism,  and  admitting  practical  proba- 
bilities. The  doctrine  of  Carneades  spe- 
cifically was,  that,  "as  the  senses,  the 
understanding  and  the  imagination  fre- 
quently deceive  us,  they  cannot  be  the 
infallible  judges  of  truth,  but  that  from 
the  impression  made  by  the  senses  we 
infer  appearances  of  truth,  which,  with 
respect  to  the  conduct  of  life,  are  a  suffi- 
cient guide."  He  was  a  strenuous  op- 
poser  of  Chrj^sippus,  and  attacked,  with 
great  vigor,  the  system  of  theology  of  the 
Stoics.  He  was  an  advocate  offree-toill 
against  the  fate  of  the  same  sect,  and 
urged  just  the  same  difficulties  in  recon- 
ciling divine  prescience  with  the  freedom 
of  human  actions,  as  have  divided  some 
contending  sects  of  Christianity.    One  of 


CARNEADES— CARNIVAL. 


527 


the  most  distinguished  events  of  his  hfe 
was  his  being  joined  in  an  embassy  to 
Rome  with  Diogenes  the  Stoic  and  Cri- 
tolaus  the  Peripatetic,  in  order  to  gain  tlie 
mitigation  of  a  fine  levied  by  the  Roman 
senate  on  tlie  Athenians.  This  extraor- 
dinary emliassy  was  successful,  and  Car- 
neades  so  captivated  the  people  by  his 
eloquence,  that  Cato  the  censor,  fearful 
of  its  effect  on  the  Roman  youth,  per- 
suaded the  senate  to  send  the  philoso- 
])liei-s  hack  to  their  schools  without  delay. 
C  died  in  the  ninetietli  year  of  his  age, 
continually  complainmg  of  the  shortness 
of  life,  and  lamenting  that  the  same  na- 
ture which  composed  the  human  frame 
could  dissolve  it. 

Carnelia>-.    (See  Quartz.) 

Car.mola  ;  a  duchy  in  the  Austrian 
dominions.  (See  Austria,  vol.  i.,  page 
493.) 

Car>ival.  The  same  views  which 
led  men  to  propitiate  the  higher  invisible 
powers  by  gifts,  sacrifices  and  purifica- 
tions, also  introduced  fasts,  abstinence 
from  pleasure,  and  penances.  By  fast  is 
meant  an  abstinence  from  the  usual 
means  of  nourishment,  in  order  to  morti- 
fy the  appetites,  and  thereby  to  propitiate 
the  Deity.  In  every  nation  of  impor- 
tance, customs  of  this  kind  are  found. 
Their  historical  origin  is  m  tlie  religious 
customs  of  the  East,  where  the  priests 
Vircre  originally  the  physicians  of  the  peo- 
ple, and  prescribed  these  fasts  as  a  part 
of  the  regimen  necessaiy  in  this  warm 
region,  as  well  as  from  religious  views. 
Fasts  are  observed  to  this  day  in  the  East. 
The  religions  of  the  Persians  and  the  Hin- 
doos, those  of  Mohammed  and  Moses,  and 
of  the  worshippers  of  the  Lama,  insist 
much  on  fasts.  Few  traces  of  them  are 
found  in  the  religion  of  the  ancient  people 
of  the  North.  The  earliest  Christians 
fasted  on  the  vigils,  (q.  v.)  The  fasts  on 
the  jejunia  quatuor  tempestatum,  which 
continued  for  three  days  every  quarter  of 
the  year^  were  penances,  as  was  that  of 
tlie  period  of  40  days  (before  Easter,  or 
rather  before  Good  Friday,  Qiiadrigesi- 
mm),  which  was  called,  by  way  of  excel- 
lence, the  fast,  and  which  commemorated 
the  40  days'  fast  of  Jesus  in  the  wilder- 
ness. With  regard  to  the  origin  of  fasts, 
opinions  differ.  The  most  common  is, 
that  Telesphorus,  bishop  of  Rome,  in  the 
middle  of  the  2d  century,  first  instituted 
the  40  days'  fast  as  a  nile  of  the  church. 
By  pope  Gregory  the  Great,  about  600, 
Ash-Wednesday  was  made  the  beginning 
of  the  fast,  and  tlie  day  before  was  called 
fast-eve,  because  in  the  night  of  this  day,  at 


12  o'clock,  the  fast  began.  This  fast  waa 
l)receded  by  a  feast  of  three  days,  very  ob- 
noxious to  the  strict  zealots.  "  Christians," 
it  is  said, "  on  these  days,  deliver  themselves 
up  to  voluntary  madness,  put  on  masks, 
exchange  sexes,  clothe  themselves  like 
spectres,  give  themselves  up  to  Racchus 
and  Venus,  and  consider  all  pleasure  al- 
lowable." This  is  the  origin  of  the  pres- 
ent carnival,  ov  Faschings,  as  it  is  called  in 
the  southof  Germany,  and  which  contin- 
ues, in  that  country,  from  Twelfth-day  to 
Ash-Wednesday.  The  name  carnival  is 
derived  from  the  Latin  words  came  and 
vale  (according  to  Ducange,  from  the  Latin 
denomination  of  the  feast  in  the  middle 
ages,  came  levamen),  because  at  that  time 
people  took  leave  of  flesh.  Previously  to 
the  comuiencement  of  their  long  absti- 
nence, men  devoted  themselves  to  enjoy- 
ment, particularly  during  the  three  last 
days  of  the  carnival.  The  carnival  is 
nothing  but  the  Saturnalia  of  the  Chris- 
tian Romans,  who  could  not  forget  their 
pagan  festivals.  At  least  it  greatly  resem- 
bles the  Sfttumalia,  which  were  celebrat- 
ed, annually,  in  December,  with  all  kinds 
of  mirth,  pleasure  and  freedom,  in  honor 
of  Saturn,  and  the  golden  age  when  he 
governed  tlie  world,  and  to  presence  the 
remembrance  of  the  hberty  and  equality 
of  man  in  the  youth  of  the  world.  In 
Rome,  the  carnival  brought  to  view,  in  a 
li\ely  manner,  the  old  Saturnalia  in  a 
new  form.  During  the  last  days  of  tlie 
carnival,  and  particularly  during  the  day 
wliich  preceded  the  long  fast,  mumme- 
ries, plays,  tricks,  and  freedom  of  every 
kind,  abounded.  From  Italy,  the  mod- 
em Saturnalia  passed  to  the  other  Chris- 
tian countries  of  Europe.  In  the  amuse- 
ments of  this  period  the  dramatic  poetry 
of  Germany  had  its  origin,  after  the  cities 
liad  attained  a  flourishing  condition.  Its 
fii-st  traces  appeared  in  the  13th  centurj'. 
The  mummeries  of  the  carnival  produced 
the  idea  of  adopting  some  character,  and 
earning  it  through.  To  please  the  mul- 
titude, and  make  the  laugh  more  certain, 
the  manners  of  common  life  were  carica- 
tured. These  exhibitions  afterwards  be- 
came more  cultivated  and  developed. 
"  On  fast-eve,"  says  Flogel,  in  his  History 
of  Comic  Literature,  vol.  4,  p.  292,  "  per- 
sons in  disguise  sometimes  went  from 
one  house  to  another,  to  make  sport  with 
their  friends  and  acquaintances.  A  mer- 
ry society  of  this  kind  formed  a  plan  to 
represent  some  scene  in  their  disguises, 
and  hold  a  regular  conversation  at  one  of 
these  mummeries.  The  unknowna  play- 
ers received   praises,  entertainments    or 


528 


CARNIVAL-CARNOT. 


presents.  Encouraged  by  this  success, 
the  company  gi-ew  stronger,  their  fables 
and  speeches  became  longer  by  degrees, 
until  they  attained  to  regular  i-epresenta- 
tions  of  human  hfe."  It  was  in  Nurem- 
berg, renowned  for  its  wares  and  its  wit, 
that  the  first  fast-eve's  play  was  pro- 
duced, coarse  and  frolicsome,  to  suit  tlie 
taste  of  the  citizens.  These  pieces 
have  a  near  relationship  to  the  masques 
of  the  English  and  the  farces  of  the 
French,  as  have  tlie  spiritual  fast-eve's 
plays,  religious  burlesques,  to  the  Myste- 
ries and  Moralities.  According  to  the 
ancient  custom,  these  plays  were  opened 
and  closed  by  a  crier  or  herald.  The 
cainival  is  celebrated,  in  modern  times, 
with  the  greatest  show  and  spirit  at  Ven- 
ice and  Rome.  In  the  former  place,  it 
begins  after  Christmas.  The  divereions 
of  it  are  shows,  masquerades,  the  amuse- 
ments of  the  place  of  St.  Mark,  and  some- 
times, in  case  of  the  visits  of  great  i)rinces, 
a  regatta,  or  boat-race.  After  this,  there 
was  a  second  carnival  in  Venice,  the 
Venetian  mass,  called  also  the  festival  of 
the  Ascension,  and  the  Bucentaur  festival, 
because  it  commonly  began  on  Ascen- 
sion-day, and  because  the  celebi-ation  of 
the  marriage  of  the  doge  with  tlie  Adri- 
atic sea  was  connected  with  it.  It  con- 
tinued 14  days.  No  character-masks 
were  worn  there,  however,  except  Vene- 
tian dominos.  The  carnival  at  Rome 
(see  Gothe's  excellent  description,  Das 
Romische  Carneval,  atid  that  of  lady  IMor- 
gan)  continues  but  eight  days,  and  is  oc- 
cupied mostly  in  masquerades  and  races. 
Since  the  return  of  peace,  the  carnival 
has  been  celebrated  again  in  Cologne,  on 
tlie  Rhine,  under  the  direction  of  the 
committee  of  fools,  to  the  great  satisfac- 
tion of  all  who  were  present.  In  Spain, 
the  carnival  is  called  carnestolendas. 

Carnot,  Lazare  Nicholas  Marguerite  ; 
born  at  Nolay,  in  Burgundy,  17d3  ;  the 
son  of  an  advocate.  From  his  youth,  he 
exhibited  an  uncommon  talent  for  the 
mathematical  and  military  sciences,  en- 
tered the  corj)s  of  engineers,  and  rose  in 
office  by  the  favor  of  the  prince  of  Conde. 
He  published,  afterwards.  Mathematical 
Essays,  which  caused  him  to  be  elected 
a  member  of  several  learned  societies. 
His  eulogy  on  Vauban  received  the  prize 
of  the  academy  at  Dijon.  At  the  begin- 
ning of  the  revolution,  he  was  captain  in 
tlie  corps  of  engineers.  In  1791,  he  was 
appointed  deputy  to  the  constituent  as- 
sembly, but  at  first  took  part  only  in  mil- 
itary affairs.  At  his  proposal,  the  officers 
of  the  nobility  were  removed  from  the 


amiy,  and  others  substituted  fi-otn  the 
citizens.  As  a  member  of  the  conven- 
tion, he  voted  for  the  death  of  Louis.  In 
the  following  March,  he  was  sent  to  the 
army  of  the  north,  where  he  dej)rived  the  ' 
cowardly  general  Gratien  of  his  command 
on  the  field,  put  liimself  at  the  head  of 
the  ai-my,  and  repulsed  the  enemy.  On 
Jiis  return  to  the  convention,  he  was  made 
a  member  of  the  committee  of  ])ublic 
safetj'.  (q.  v.)  The  influence  of  Carnot 
in  the  militaiy  operations  now  began  to 
be  more  deeply  felt.  In  possession  of  all 
the  plans  deposited  in  the  archives  of 
Louis  XIV,  he  organized  and  directed 
the  French  armies;  and  his  direction  un- 
doubtedly contributed  very  much  to  their 
success.  After  the  fall  of  Robespierre, 
lie  was  often  accused,  but  always  ac(juit- 
ted,  because  his  duty  had  been  to  take 
care  of  the  defence  of  the  country,  and 
lie  could  not  be  made  answerable  for  the 
cruel  decrees  of  Robespierre,  in  which 
Carnot's  name,  as  he  was  a  member  of 
thecommittee,  of  coui-se,wasto  be  found. 
At  the  establishment  of  the  directory,  in 
1795,  Carnot  was  chosen  a  member,  and, 
for  some  time,  maintained  an  important 
influence.  Barras  at  length  succeeded 
him  in  the  department  of  war,  and  was, 
ever  after,  his  enemy.  His  plan  for  the 
overthrow  of  Barras  was  unsuccessful, 
and,  with  some  others,  he  was  sentenced 
to  transportation  on  the  18th  Fructidor 
(Sept.  4),  1797.  He  fled  to  Germany,  and 
published  a  defence,  which  was  eagerly 
read  in  Paris,  and,  by  the  exposure  of  the 
conduct  of  his  fonner  colleagues,  hasten- 
ed their  overthrow  on  the  30th  Prairial 
(June  18),  1799.  After  the  18th  Brumaire, 
Carnot  was  recalled  and  appointed  in- 
specteur  aux  revues,  and,  two  months  later, 
in  April,  1800,  minister  of  war.  He  soon 
after  retired  into  the  bosom  of  his  family, 
but  was  called  to  the  tribunate,  March  9, 
1802.  The  same  inflexible  integrity  and 
republican  principle,  which  had  hitlierto 
distinguished  hmi,  did  not  now  desert 
him.  He  often  oj)posed  the  views  of  the 
government,  voted  alone  against  the  con- 
sulship for  life,  and  resisted  strenuously 
the  proposal  for  the  imperial  dignity.  He 
remained,  however,  a  member  of  the  tri- 
bunate till  it  was  aboUshed,  passed  the 
next  seven  years  of  his  hfe  in  retirement, 
and  published  several  valuable  military 
works.  In  1814,  Napoleon  gave  him  the 
chief  command  at  Antwerp.  He  con- 
nected a  vigorous  defence  with  a  careful 
regard  for  the  interest  of  the  city,  which, 
by  the  command  of  Louis  XVIII,  he  af- 
terwards surrendered  to  tlie  English  gen- 


CARNOT— CAROLINA. 


529 


eral  Graham.  He  still  retained  his  titles 
aiid  his  honors,  but,  as  a  firm  republican, 
he  could  never  expect  the  favor  of  the 
court ;  particularly  as,  in  his  memorial  to 
the  king,  he  openly  and  severely  censured 
the  measures  of  government,  in  conse- 
quence of  which  he  was  passed  over  in 
the  new  organization  of  the  academy  of 
sciences.  When  Napoleon  was  once 
more  at  the  helm  of  state,  in  1815,  he 
made  Carnot  count  and  peer  of  the  em- 
pire, and  pressed  upon  him  the  ministry 
of  the  interior.  Cai-not  discharged  the 
difficult  duties  of  this  office  with  his  usual 
integrity.  After  the  emperor's  second 
fall,  he  was  made  a  member  of  tlie  pro- 
visory government  of  France,  and  was 
afterwards  the  only  one  of  the  members 
of  it  comprehended  in  the  ordinance  of 
July  24.  He  retired  to  Cerney,  where  lie 
employed  his  pen  on  political  subjects; 
then  to  Warsaw,  in  1815,  with  his  family  ; 
and,  finally,  to  Magdeburg,  where  he  died 
Aug.  3,  1823.  (See  the  Corresp.  de  JVap. 
Buonap.  av.  le  Cle.  Carnot  pend.  Us  lUO 
Jours  (Paris,  1819),  and  CamoVs  Leben 
(Carnot's  Life),  by  Korte.)  The  broth- 
ei-s  Baudouin,  in  Paris,  who  have  in 
their  ])os3ession  all  Carnot's  manuscrijjts, 
published,  in  1824,  Mem.  histor.  et  mili- 
taires  sur  Carnot,  rediges  d^apres  ses  Man- 
ttscrits,  sa  Corresp.  inedite,  et  ses  Ecrits, 
etc.,  ^ar  Tissot.  Among  Carnot's  WTit- 
ings,  the  most  valuable  are  his  Essai  sur 
les  Machines  ;  Rejlexions  sur  la  Mcta- 
phjsique  du  Calcid  infinitesimal;  Sur  la 
Geotnetrie  du  Position ;  De  la  D/fense  des 
Places  fortes ;  Expose  de  la  Coiuluite  po- 
lUique  de  Carnot,  depuis  le  1  Juill.,  1814. 
In  Magdeburg,  Carnot  published  Memoire 
sur  la  Fortification  primitive,  and  a  vol- 
ume of  poems.  He  was  rigid  in  his  love 
of  virtue,  a  scholar,  a  general,  and  an  in- 
flexible republican.  He  was  universally 
esteemed,  both  in  France  and  in  foreign 
lands,  and  was  honored  by  all  paities. 
Caraot's  life  is  one  of  those  which  ought 
to  be  familiar  to  every  young  republican, 
like  that  of  Barneveldt.  (q.  v.) 

Caro,  Annibale,  one  of  the  most  cele- 
brated Italian  authors  of  the  16th  century, 
born  1507,  at  Citta-Nuova,  in  the  March 
of  Ancona,  afl;er  the  death  of  his  patron, 
Gaddi,  1543,  was  appointed  secretary  to 
Pietro  Ludovico  Famese,  duke  of  Parma 
and  Piacenza,  who  intrusted  him  with 
several  missions  to  Charles  V.  Afl:er  the 
assassination  of  the  duke,  his  own  hfe 
was  in  considerable  danger.  He  took 
refuge  in  Parma,  and  was  treated  in  a 
friendly  manner  by  the  new  duke,  Octa- 
vio  Famese,  whose  two  brothers,  the  car- 

VOL.  II.  45 


dinals  Ranuccio  and  Alexander,  took  him 
successively  into  their  service.  With  the 
latter  he  remained  from  1548  to  his  death 
in  156(3,  and  received  from  liini  several 
ecclesiastical  preferments.  Caro  devoted 
himself  chiefly  to  the  study  of  numis- 
matics and  the  Tuscan  language,  and  his 
pure  and  elegant  style,  in  verse  and  prose, 
soon  became  generally  admired.  His 
translation  of  the  iEneid,  in  blank  vei-se, 
is  excellent.  After  his  death,  appeared  a 
translation  by  him  of  Longus,  and  of 
Aristotle's  Rhetoric  ;  also  Rime  and  Let- 
tere,  the  former  of  which  are  admii'ed  for 
the  elegance  of  the  verse,  and  the  latter 
as  models  of  beautiful  Italian  prose.  He 
beloiigs  to  the  most  elegant  writers  of 
Italian  literature. 

Carolina.  This  name  is  generally 
given  to  a  famous  law  of  the  German 
empire,  of  the  year  1532,  under  Charles 
V,  which  he  called  himself  an  ordinance 
of  criminal  procedure  (Peinliche  GericMs- 
ordnung).  From  him,  it  was,  at  a  later 
period,  called  Constitutio  crimiiialis  Caro- 
lina, or,  shortly,  Carolina.  The  arbitrary 
administration  of  justice,  the  disorder  and 
cruelty  which  had  become  customaiy  in 
the  courts  of  Germany,  where  many  a 
process  was  begun  and  ended  with  the 
torture,  and  persons  were  sentenced  even 
to  death  without  regular  process,  gave 
occasion  to  this  law.  From  the  begin- 
ning of  (he  peace  of  the  Zaji^,  the  necessity 
of  such  a  law  was  felt  throughout  the 
country ;  but  it  was  difficult,  in  this,  as  in 
all  other  cases,  to  make  the  different  mem- 
bers of  the  empire  agi-ee  on  one  general 
measure.  The  baron  John  von  Schwarz- 
enberg,  a  man  of  talent  and  a  patron  of 
science  (of  the  family  of  the  present 
princes  of  Schwarzenberg),  was  chiefly 
uistrumental  in  introducing  this  ordi- 
nance. He  was  born  in  1463,  became 
minister  of  state  of  the  prmce-bishop  of 
Bamberg,  and  succeeded  in  procuring  an 
ordinance  of  criminal  procedure  for  Bam- 
berg to  be  drawn  up  and  publislied  in 
1507.  The  same  was  also  adopted,  in 
1510,  by  the  margrave  of  Brandenburg 
and  Franconia;  and,  at  last,  a  law  of 
criminal  procedure  for  the  empire  at 
large  was  passed  by  the  diet  at  Regens- 
burg,  in  1532,  which,  for  that  time,  was  a 
very  great  step,  and  had  a  salutary  influ- 
ence. Several  German  princes,  as  the 
elector  of  Saxony,  the  elector  of  Bran- 
denburg, and  of  the  palatinate,  protested 
against  it,  in  order  to  protect  the  laws  of 
their  states  and  their  own  privileges 
against  the  legislative  power  of  the  em- 
peror ;    but  at  last    the    Carolina    was 


530 


CAROLINA— NORTH  CAROLINA. 


established  in  almost  every  part  of  the 
empire.  (See  IMalblaiik's  Geschichte  der 
peinlichen  Gerichtsordnung  Kaiser  Karls 
V,  1783.) 

Carolina  Maria  ;  wife  of  Ferdinand 
J,  king  of  the  Two  Sicilies,  daughter  of 
tJie  emperor  Francis  I  and  of  Maria  The- 
resa, born  13th  Augiist,  1752;  an  ambitious 
and  intelligent  woman,  but,  unfortunately, 
without  firmness  of  character.  Accord- 
ing to  the  terms  of  her  mai-riage  contract, 
the  young  queen,  after  thebirth  of  a  male 
heir,  was  to  have  a  seat  in  the  council  of 
state  ;  but  her  impatience  to  participate  in 
the  government  would  not  allow  her  to 
wait  for  this  event,  previous  to  which  she 
procured  the  removal  of  the  old  minister, 
Tanucci,  who  possessed  the  confidence 
of  the  kmg  and  of  the  nation,  and  raised 
a  Frenchman  named  Acton  (q.  v.)  to  the 
post  of  prime  minister,  who  ruined  the 
finances  of  the  state  by  liis  profusion,  and 
excited  the  hatred  of  all  ranks  by  the  in- 
troduction of  a  political  inquisition.  The 
queen,  too,  drew  upon  hei-self  tiie  dislike 
of  the  oppressed  nation  by  cooperating  in 
the  measures  of  the  minister ;  and  banish- 
ments and  executions  were  found  insuffi- 
cient to  repress  the  general  excitement. 
Tiie  declaration  of  war  by  Naples  against 
France  (1798)  was  intended  to  give  an- 
other turn  to  the  popular  feeling ;  but  the 
sudden  invasion  of  the  French  drove  the 
reigning  family  to  Sicily.  The  revolution 
of  cardinal  Ruftb  in  Calabria,  and  the  re- 
publican party  in  the  capital,  restored  the 
former  rulers  in  1799.  The  famous  lady 
Hamilton  (q.  v.)  now  exerted  the  greatest 
influence  on  the  unhappy  queen,  on  her 
husband,  on  the  English  ambassador  and 
admiral  Nelson,  and  sacrificed  more  vic- 
tims than  Acton  and  Vanini  had  formerly 
done.  (See  Speziale.)  After  the  battle 
of  Marengo,  12,000  Russians  could  not 
prevent  the  conquest  of  Naples  by  the 
French,  and  the  formation  of  a  kingdom 
out  of  the  Neapolitan  dominions  for  Jo- 
seph (Bonaparte),  who  was  afterwards 
succeeded  in  the  same  by  Joachim  (Murat). 
The  queen  was  not  satisfied  with  the  ef- 
forts which  the  English  made  for  the  res- 
toration of  the  old  dynasty,  and  thereup- 
on quarrelled  with  lord  Bentinck,  the 
British  general  in  Sicily,  who  wished  to 
exclude  her, from  all  influence  in  the  gov- 
ernment. She  died  in  1814,  without  hav- 
ing seen  tlie  restoration  of  her  family  to 
the  throne  of  Naples. 

Carolina,  North ;  one  of  the  United 
States ;  bounded  N.  by  Virginia,  E.  by 
the  Atlantic,  S.  by  South  Carolina,  and 
W.  by  Tennessee  ;  lou.  75°  45'  to  84° 


W. ;  lat.  .33°  50'  to  36°  30'  N. ;  430  miles 
long  and  180  broad.  Scjuare  miles,  50,000. 
Population  in  1790,  393,751  :  in  1800, 
478,103 :  in  1810, 555,500 ;  179,090  blacks. 
Poi)ulatiou  in  1820,  638,829  ;  wliites, 
419,200;  Avhite  males,  209,(>44;  white  fe- 
males, 209,556 ;  slaves,  205,017 ;  free  col- 
ored, 14,912  :  persons  engaged  in  agri- 
culture, 174,196;  in  manufactures,  11,844; 
in  commerce,  2,551.  MiUtia  in  1817, 
50,387.— This  state  is  divided  into  63 
counties.  There  are  no  large  towns  in 
tliis  state.  Raleigli  is  the  seat  of  govern- 
ment. The  other  most  considerable 
towns  are  Newbeni,  Fayctteville,  Wil- 
mington, Edenton,  Washington,  Hillsbor- 
ough, Halifax,  Tarborough,  SaHsbury  and 
Salem. — The  legislative  power  is  vested 
in  a  senate  and  house  of  commons,  both 
chosen  annually.  One  senator  and  two 
members  of  the  house  of  commons  are 
sent  from  each  county,  and  one  of  tlie 
latter  from  each  of  the  towns  of  Newbem, 
Wilmuigton,  Edenton,  Fayetteville,  Hali- 
fax, Salisbury  and  Hillsborough.  The 
governor  is  chosen  by  joint  ballot  of  both 
houses,  and  is  eligible  three  yeai-s  in  six. 
— The  principal  denominations  of  Chris- 
tians in  North  Carolina  are  Methodists, 
Baptists,  Presbyterians,  Quakers,  Mora- 
vians and  Episcopahans. — There  is  a  re- 
spectable institution,  entitled  the  univer- 
sity of  jYorth  Carolina,  at  Chapel  Hill. 
Academies  are  established  at  various 
places,  and  an  increasing  attention  has, 
of  late,  been  paid  to  education. — The 
j)rincipaJ  rivere  are  the  Roanoke,  Chow- 
an, Neuse,  Pandico  or  Tar,  cape  Fear, 
Yadkin  aiid  Catawba.  Of  these,  the 
cape  Fear  affords  the  best  navigation, 
and  is  ascended  by  vessels  of  300  tons 
to  Wilmington,  and  by  steam-boats  to 
Fayetteville.  The  two  most  considerable 
sounds  on  the  coast  are  those  of  Pamlico 
and  Albemarle. — Dismal  swamp  lies  part- 
ly in  North  Carolina  and  partly  in  Virginia- 
Little  Dismal  or  Alligator  swamp  is  be- 
tween Pamlico  and  Albemarle  sounds. — 
There  are  three  noted  capes  on  the  coast, 
viz.,  cape  Hatteras,  cape  Lookout  and  cape 
Fear,  which  are  all  dangerous  to  seamen. 
— North  Carolina,  in  its  whole  width,  for 
about  60  miles  from  the  sea,  is  generally 
a  dead  level,  varied  only  by  occasional 
openings  in  the  immense  forest  with 
which  it  is  covered.  After  travei-sing  this 
tedious  plain,  we  are  at  length  relieved 
by  the  appearance  of  hills  and  mountains, 
from  the  summits  of  which  we  behold  a 
beautiful  country,  which  stretches  west 
fer  beyond  the  range  of  vision,  and  is 
adorned  with  forests  of  lofty  trees. — In 


NORTH  CAROLINA. 


531 


the  level  parts,  tlie  soil,  generally,  is  but 
indifferent  On  the  banks  of  some  of  the 
rivers,  however,  and  particularly  the  Ro- 
anoke, it  is  remarkably  fertile ;  and  in 
other  parts  of  this  champaign  country, 

iflades  of  rich  swamp,  and  ridges  of  oak- 
and,  of  a  black  and  fruitful  soil,  form  an 
exception  to  its  general  sterility.  The 
sea  coasts,  tlie  sounds,  inlets,  and  lower 
parts  of  the  rivers,  have,  invariably,  a  soft, 
muddy  bottom.  That  part  of  tiie  state 
which  hes  west  of  the  mountains  is,  for 
the  most  part,  remarkably  fertile,  and 
abounds  with  oak-trees  of  various  kuids, 
wahmt,  elm,  linn  and  cherry-trees ;  the 
last  of  which  not  unfrequently  attains  the 
size  of  .3  feet  in  diameter.  The  soil  and 
productions,  in  the  hilly  coimtiy,  are 
nearly  the  same  as  in  the  Northern  States. 
Wheat,  lye,  barley,  oats  and  flax  are  tlie 
cro])s  most  generally  cultivated,  and  seem 
to  suit  well  the  nature  of  the  soil. 
Througliout  the  whole  state,  Indian  corn 
and  pulse  of  all  kinds  are  abundant. 
Cotton  is  raised  in  considerable  quanti- 
ties. North  Carolina  abounds  in  iron  ore ; 
and  it  is  the  only  one  of  the  U.  States  in 
which  gold  has  been  found  in  any  con- 
siderable quantities.  The  gold  mines, 
which  have  lately  excited  a  good  deal  of 
interest,  though  they  have  not  yet  proved 
very  productive,  are  found  on  the  Yad- 
kin and  its  branches,  and  extend  over  a 
district  comprising  about  1000  square 
miles.  In  almost  any  part  of  this  territo- 
ry, gold  may  be  found  in  greater  or  less 
abundance,  mixed  with  the  soil.  It  exists 
in  minute  grains  or  particles,  and  is  also 
sometimes  found  in  lumps  of  one  or  two 
pounds  weight.  Of  the  plains  in  the  low 
country,  the  large  natural  growth  is,  almost 
universally,  pitch  pine,  a  tall  and  beautiful 
tree,  which  grows  here  to  a  size  far  supe- 
rior to  the  pitch  pine  of  the  Northern 
States.  This  valuable  tree  affords  pitch, 
tar,  turjjentine,  and  various  kinds  of  lum- 
ber, which,  together,  constitute  about  one 
half  of  the  exports  of  North  Carolina.  It 
is  of  two  land?,  the  common  and  the 
long-leaved.  The  latter  differs  from  oth- 
er pines,  not  in  shape,  but  in  the  length 
of  its  leaves,  which  are  nearly  half  a  yard 
long,  and  hang  in  large  clusters.  The 
trees  in  the  low  countries,  both  of  North 
and  South  Carolina,  are  loaded  with 
quantities  of  a  long,  sjwngy  moss,  which, 
hanging  in  clusters  from  the  limbs,  gives 
the  forests  a  singular  appearance.  The 
misletoe  frequently  engrafts  itself  upon 
the  trees  in  the  back  country.  In  this 
part,  plums,  grapes,  blackberries  and 
strawberries    grow   spontaneously ;    also 


several  valuable  medicinal  plants,  as  gin- 
seng, Virginia  snakeroot,  Seneca  snake- 
root,  and  some  others.  The  rich  bottoms 
are  overgrown  with  canes,  the  leaves  of 
which  continue  green  through  the  winter, 
and  afibrd  good  pasture  for  cattle. — North 
Carolina  is  far  removed  from  that  perfec- 
tion of  culture,  which  is  necessary  to  give 
it  the  full  advantage  of  the  natural  ricli- 
ness  of  its  soil  and  the  value  of  its  i)ro- 
ductions.  One  great  cause  of  its  back- 
wardness, in  agricultural  improvement,  is 
the  want  of  inland  navigation,  and  of  good 
harboi-s.  It  has  several  large  rivers,  but 
their  mouths  are  blocked  up  with  bars  of 
hard  sand.  The  best  of  the  indifferent 
harboi-s  in  this  state  are  those  of  Wilming- 
ton, Newbem  and  Edenton.  The  most 
of  the  produce  of  the  upper  country,  con- 
sisting of  tobacco,  wheat,  maize,  &c.,  has 
hitherto  been  carried  to  Charleston,  S.  C, 
and  to  Lynchburg,  and  Petersburg,  Va. 
Since  1815,  the  state  has  been  zealously 
engaged  in  an  extensive  system  of  inter- 
nal improvements.  These  improvements 
relate  to  the  navigation  of  the  sound,  in- 
lets, and  the  rivei-s  Roanoke,  Tar,  Neuse, 
cape  Fear,  Yadkin,  Catawba,  &c.  ;  the 
construction  of  canals  and  roads,  and  the 
draining  of  marshes  and  swamps. — Like 
all  the  Southern  States,  North  Carohna 
has  a  considerable  diversity  of  climate, 
occasioned  by  the  physical  pecuharities 
of  its  different  parts.  In  the  level  part  of 
the  country,  intermittent  fevers  are  fre- 
quent during  the  summer  and  autumn. 
During  these  sickly  seasons,  the  counte- 
nances of  the  inhabitimts  have  a  pale-yel- 
lowish hue,  occasioned  by  the  prevalence 
of  bilious  affections.  Many  fall  vic- 
tims, during  the  winter,  to  pleurisies  and 
peripneiunonies.  In  the  western  and 
hilly  parts,  the  air  is  as  pure  and  salubri- 
ous as  in  any  part  of  America,  and  the 
inhabitants  live  to  a  great  age.  The  heat 
of  the  summer's  day  is  succeeded  in  the 
evening  by  a  grateful  and  refreshing 
coolness.  Autumn  is  temperate  and  se- 
rene, and,  in  some  years,  the  winters  are 
so  mild,  that  autumn  may  be  said  to  con- 
tinue till  spring.  The  wheat  harvest 
commences  in  the  beginning  of  June, 
and  that  of  Indian  corn  early  in  Septem- 
ber.— In  1827,  merchandise  to  the  value 
of  $276,791  was  imported  into  North  Car- 
ohna, and  $449,237  worth  exported.  (For 
similar  accounts  of  preceding  years,  see 
Watterson  and  Zandt's  Tabular  Statistical 
Views,  Washington,  Jan.  1829). 

Historical  Sketch  ofJVorth  Carolina.  In 
158G,  the  first  attempt  was  made  by  the 
English  to  colonize  Nortli  America,  under 


532 


NORTH  CAROLINA— SOUTH  CAROLINA. 


a  patent  to  sir  Francis  Drake.  A  small 
colony  was  left  on  the  Roanoke  in  1587, 
but  was  never  again  to  be  found  ;  all  at- 
tempts to  ascertain  their  fate  were  fruit- 
less. Some  emigrants  from  Virginia 
penetrated  into  the  countrj-  about  1650, 
and  made  the  first  actual  settlement  of 
whites.  On  the  early  Spanisli  maps, 
what  is  now  called  Carolina  had  been 
marked  as  part  of  Florida.  The  French 
had  given  it  the  name  of  Carolina  in 
honor  of  king  Charles  IX,  when  they 
made  the  disastrous  attempt  to  colonize 
llie  North  Amcricfin  coast,  noticed  under 
the  head  of  Florida.  The  name  Carolina 
prevailed.  In  1661,  a  second  English 
colony  from  Massachusetts  arrived,  and 
established  themselves  at  cape  Fear  riv- 
er. In  1667,  after  many  vexatious  strug- 
gles, the  infant  colony  obtained  a  repre- 
sentative government.  Two  years  later, 
the  fanciful  constitution,  so  famous  under 
the  name  of  Lockers  scheme  of  government, 
was  introduced.  This  wild  project  was 
soon  abandoned ;  and,  like  other  English 
colonies,  Carolina  advanced  but  slowly, 
and  experienced  the  horroi-s  of  Indian 
warfare  as  late  as  1712.  Previous  to 
1717,  Caroluia  had  been  a  proprietaiy 
government,  but,  in  that  year,  became  a 
royal  one  by  jiurchase,  and  continued 
such  until  the  revolution  in  1775.  In 
1720,  the  two  Carolinas  were  separated 
into  North  and  South  Carolina.  The 
inaccessible  coast  of  North  Carolina  gave 
it  very  great  advantages  in  the  revolu- 
tionary war.  Those  destructive  inroads, 
from  which  other  states  along  the  Atlan- 
tic suffered  so  much,  were  here  imprac- 
ticable. Though,  hoAvever,  less  exposed, 
the  people  of  this  state  evinced  their  full 
share  of  sympathy  with  the  residue  of  the 
American  people.  A  convention  was 
assembled  at  Halifax,  where,  on  Dec.  18, 
1776,  the  existing  constitution  was  adopt- 
ed. Since  that  auspicious  event,  it  may 
be  doubted  whether  any  other  community 
ever  passed  52  years  with  less  disturb- 
ance. [Darby's  View  of  the  U.  States.  See 
Carey  and  Lea^s  American  Atlas.) 

Carolina,  South  ;  one  of  the  U.  States ; 
bounded  N.  by  North  Carolina,  E.  by  the 
Atlantic,  S.  W.  and  W.  by  Georgia ;  Ion. 
78°  24'  to  83°  W  W. ;  lat.  32°  to  35°  8'  N. ; 
200  miles  long,  125  broad  ;  containing 
30,000  square  miles.  Population  in  1790, 
240,000 :  in  1800,  345,591 :  in  1810,  415, 
115 ;  200,919  blacks :  in  1820,  502,741 ; 
whites,  237,440 ;  white  males,  120,934 ; 
white  females,  116,506 ;  slaves,  258,475 ; 
free  colored,  6,826.  Militia  in  1821, 23,729. 
— S.  Carolina  is  divided  into  30  districts. 


Columbia  is  the  seat  of  government,  birt 
Charleston  is  the  largest  town. — The  leg- 
islature consists  of  a  senate  and  house  of 
representatives.  The  senate  consists  of 
43  membei-s,  chosen  every  4  years  by 
districts.  The  representatives  are  chosen 
every  2  years.  The  governor  and  lieu- 
tenant-governor are  chosen  biennially,  by 
a  joint  ballot  of  both  houses. — The  prin- 
cipal denominations  of  Christians  in  South 
Carolina  are  Presbyterians,  Episcopali- 
ans, Baptists  and  Methodists. — Education 
is  liberally  patronised  by  the  state  gov- 
ernment. The  two  literary  institutions 
are  the  college  of  South  Carolina  at  Co- 
lumbia, and  Charleston  college,  in  the 
city  of  Charleston. — The  distinguishing 
virtues  of  the  Carolinians  are  hospitality 
to  strangers,  and  charity  to  the  indigent 
and  distressed.  Tlie  jilanters  in  the  low 
country,  who,  in  general,  have  large  in- 
comes, live  in  a  luxurious  and  splendid 
style,  devothig  much  of  their  time  to  the 
pureuit  of  pleasure,  and  possessing  nmch 
of  that  pride  and  dignity  of  spirit,  which 
characterize  an  independent  country  gen- 
tleman. The  virtues  of  the  farmei-s  of 
the  upper  country  are  less  brilliant,  but 
more  substantial.  They  have  fewer 
vices,  are  of  more  frugal  and  industrious 
habits,  and  exhibit  greater  fortitude  in  the 
reverses  of  fortune.  In  the  low  or  allu- 
vial country,  labor  in  the  field  is  per- 
formed almost  wholly  by  slaves,  who,  in 
this  part  of  the  state,  exceed  the  free  in- 
habitants in  the  ratio  of  more  than  three 
to  one.  This  division,  comprising  less 
than  one  third  of  the  territory  of  South 
Carolina,  contains  more  than  half  of  the 
slaves,  and  only  about  one  fifth  of  the 
whites. — The  principal  rivers  are  the 
Waccamaw,  Pedee,  Black  river,  Santee, 
Cooper,  Ashley,  Stono,  Edisto,  Asheppo, 
Cambahee,  Coosaw,  Broad  and  Savan- 
nah.— South  Carolina  is  divided  by  na- 
ture into  two  parts,  which,  from  their 
physical  situation,  have  been  called  Up- 
per and  Lower  Carolina.  The  latter  is 
supposed  to  have  once  been  under  the 
ocean.  Towards  the  coast,  the  country  is 
a  level  plain,  extending  more  than  100 
miles  westward  from  the  sea.  Here  the  eye 
finds  no  relief  from  the  dull  uniformity  of 
boundless  forests,  swamps,  and  level  fields. 
This  fatiguing  plain  is  succeeded  by  a  curi- 
ous range  of  little  sand  hills,  resembling  the 
waves  of  an  agitated  sea.  This  singular 
country  occupies  an  extent  of  about  60 
miles.  It  is  extremely  barren,  enlivened 
here  and  there  by  spots  of  verdure,  or  by 
some  straggling  ])ines ;  and  its  few  inhab- 
itants earn  a  scanty  subsistence  by  tho 


SOUTH  CAROLINA. 


5.33 


cultivation  of  com  and  sweet  potatoes. 
After  passing  these  sand  Ijills,  we  come 
next  to  a  remarkable  tract  of  ground,  call- 
ed the  Ridge,  whicli,  on  its  approach  from 
the  sea,  is  iotty  and  bold,  but  on  the  north- 
west is  level  from  its  summit.  This  is  a 
fine  belt  of  land,  extending  from  the  Sa- 
vannah to  Broad  river,  feitile,  well  cul- 
tivated, and  watered  by  considerable 
streams.  The  counti-y  beyond  this  ridge 
resembles,  in  its  scenery,  the  most  inter- 
esting of  the  Northern  iStates.  Tiic  trav- 
eller is  gratified  by  the  pleasant  alterna- 
tion of  hill  and  dale.  The  lively  verdure 
of  the  hills  is  contnusted  with  the  deeper 
tints  of  the  extensive  forests,  which  deco- 
rate their  sides  ;  and,  in  the  valleys,  broad 
rivers  roll  their  streams  through  the  va- 
ried beauties  of  luxuriant  and  cultivated 
fields.  From  these  dehghtful  regions, 
tlie  ground  still  contmues  to  rise,  till  we 
reach  the  western  limit  of  the  state. 
Here  7  or  8  niountains  run  in  regular 
direction,  the  most  distuiguished  of  which 
is  Table  mountahi.  Other  mountains  are 
Oolenoy,  Oconee,  Paris's,  Glassey,  Hog- 
back and  King's.  These  are  all  in  the 
districts  of  Pendleton,  Gi'eenville,  Spar- 
tanburg and  York. — The  soil  of  South 
Carolina  is  divided  into  six  classes : — 
1.  tide  swamp  ;  2.  inland  swamp ;  3.  high 
river  swamp,  or  low  grounds,  distin- 
guished by  the  name  of  second  low 
grounds  ;  4.  salt  niaish ;  5.  oak  and  hick- 
ory high  land  ;  6.  pine  barren.  The  first 
two  classes  are  peculiarly  adapted  to  the 
culture  of  rice  and  hemp;  the  third  is 
most  favorable  to  the  growth  of  hemp, 
corn  and  indigo.  The  salt  mai-sh  has 
been  nnich  neglected.  The  oak  and 
hickory  land  is  remarkably  fertile,  and 
well  ada])ted  to  the  culture  of  corn,  as 
well  as  indigo  and  cotton.  The  pine  bar- 
ren, though  tlie  least  productive,  is  so 
much  more  salubrious  than  the  other 
soils  in  the  low  country,  that  a  proportion 
of  })iue  barren  is  an  appendage  indispen- 
sable to  every  swamp  jjlantation. — The 
staple  commodities  of  this  state  are  cotton 
and  rice,  of  which  great  quantities  are 
annually  exported.  These  articles  have 
so  engrossed  the  attention  of  the  planters, 
that  the  culture  of  wheat,  barley,  oats, 
and  other  crops  equally  usefid,  but  less 
profitable,  has  been  almost  wholly  neg- 
lected. So  little  wheat  is  raised  tlnouglir 
out  the  state,  that  considerable  quantities 
are  annually  imported.  Cotton  was  not 
raised  in  any  considerable  quantities  till 
as  late  as  1795.  Before  that  period,  indi, 
go  was,  next  to  rice,  the  most  important 
prticle  of  produce;  but  it  is  now  ue^lecti 
45^^ 


ed.  Tobacco  thrives  well.  The  fruits 
which  flourish  best  are  pears,  pomegran- 
ates and  water-melons  :  the  latter,  in  par- 
ticular, grow  to  an  enormous  size,  and 
are  sujierior,  perhaps,  to  any  in  the  world. 
Other  flints  are  figs,  apricots,  nectarines, 
apples,  peaches,  olives,  almonds  and  or- 
anges.— The  period  of  vegetation  com- 
prehends, in  favorable  years,  from  7  to  8 
months,  commenchig  in  Januaiy  or  Feb- 
ruary, and  tenninating  hi  October  or  No- 
vember. The  frosts,  generally,  in  the 
months  of  November,  December,  .Tanuar}' 
and  Februarj-,  are  too  severe  for  the  deli- 
cate productions  of  more  southern  lati- 
tudes. The  low  country  is  seldom  cov- 
ered with  snow,  but  the  mountauis  near 
the  western  boundary  often  are.  Frost 
sometimes  binds  up  the  earth,  but  seldom 
penetrates  deeper  than  2  inches,  or  lasts 
longer  than  3  or  4  days.  At  some  sea- 
sons, and  paiticularly  in  February,  the 
Nveather  is  very  variable.  The  tempera- 
ture has  been  known  to  vary  46  degrees 
in  one  day.  In  Charleston,  for  7  years, 
the  thermometer  was  not  knowni  to  rise 
above  93°  or  to  fall  below  17°  above  0. 
The  number  of  extremely  hot  days  in 
Charleston  is  seldom  more  than  30  in  a 
year ;  and  there  are  about  as  many  sidtiy 
nights,  in  which  the  heat  and  closeness 
of  the  air  are  such  as  to  prevent  the  en- 
joyment of  sound  sleep. — The  low  coun- 
try is  infested  with  all  the  diseases  which 
s|n-ing  from  a  warm,  moist  and  unehistic 
atmosphere.  Of  these  the  most  frequent 
are  fevers,  from  which  the  inhabitants  suf- 
fer more  than  fi'om  any,  or  perhaps  from 
all  other  diseases  togetlier.  The  districts 
of  the  upper  country  enjoy  as  salubrious 
a  chmate  as  any  part  of  the  U.  States. 
— In  1827,  merchandise  to  the  value  of 
81,434,106  was  imported  into  South  Car- 
olina, and  S8,.322,561  worth  exported, 
(For  similar  accounts  of  preceding  years, 
see  Watterson  and  Zandt's  Tabular  Sta- 
tistical Views,  Washington,  Jan.  1829.) 

Historical  Sketch  of  South  Carolina. 
The  first  settlement  of  South  Carolina  by 
the  whites  appears  to  have  been  made  at 
Port  Royal,  about  1670  ;  but,  until  1680, 
no  permanent  establishment  was  fonned, 
when  the  few  settlers  then  in  the  country 
fixed  on  Oyster  point,  between  Ashlej"^ 
and  Cooper  rivers,  and  laid  the  founda- 
tion of  the  city  of  Charleston.  A  grant 
had,  liowever,  been  made,  in  1662,  previ- 
ous to  the  founding  of  Charleston,  by 
Charles  II,  to  lord  Clarendon  and  seven 
others,  of  all  that  zone  of  North  America 
from  N.  lat.  31°  to  36°  ;  and,  two  years 
ftflervvards,  the  boundaries  were  extended 


534 


SOUTH  CAROLINA— CAROLINE. 


to  N.  lat,  36"  30'.  The  proprietary  gov- 
ernment of  Carolina  was,  if  possible,  more 
complex  than  any  otlier  similar  govern- 
ment in  the  English  colonies.  This 
confusion  was  augmented  by  Locke's 
scheme,  and  by  religious  contention,  and 
was  terminated,  in  1719,  by  a  separation 
of  the  two  Carolinas,  and  the  establish- 
ment of  a  royal  government.  Ojie  of  the 
events  of  most  importance  in  the  iiistory 
of  South  Carohna  was  the  cultivation  of 
rice,  introduced  by  governor  Smith,  in 
1695 :  that  of  cotton  followed ;  and  the  col- 
ony flourished  until  its  progress  was  check- 
ed by  war  with  the  Indians,  and,  subse- 
quently, by  the  revolution.  South  Caroli- 
na suffered  severely  in  the  latter  contest, 
and  was  the  theatre  of  some  of  the  most 
remarkable  events  which  it  produced. 
The  names  of  Marion,  Sumter  and  Lee 
conferred  honor  on  the  state.  The  exist- 
ing government  or  constitution  of  South 
Carohna  was  adopted  June  3,  1790, 
amended  Dec.  17,  1808,  and  again  Dec. 
19,  1816.    (See  Carey  and  Lea's  Mas.) 

Caroline  Amelia  Elizabeth  ;  wife 
of  George  IV,  king  of  Great  Britain  and 
Hanover,  second  daughter  of  duke  Charles 
Wilham  Ferdinand  of  Brunswick  (who 
was  mortally  wounded  in  the  battle  at 
Auei*stadt),  and  of  the  princess  Augusta  of 
England,  sister  of  George  III.  She  was 
born  May  17,  1768.  The  young  princess 
spent  her  youth  in  her  father's  court,  un- 
der much  constraint,  till  1795,  when  she 
was  married  to  the  prince  of  Wales,  now 
king  of  Great  Britain.  The  next  year,  she 
rejoiced  the  royal  family  and  the  British 
nation  by  the  birth  of  a  daughter,  Charlotte 
Augusta.  (Charlotte  died  Nov.  6,  1816, 
wife  of  prince  Leopold  of  Saxe-Cobui-g.) 
She  had  scarcely  recovered  from  her  con- 
finement, when  her  husband  abandoned 
her,  declaring  that  no  one  could  force  his 
inclinations.  This  was  the  beginning  of 
the  disgraceful  dispute  between  the  two 
parties,  which  lasted  till  the  death  of  Car- 
oline, and  exposed  her  honor  to  i-epeated 
accusations  from  her  husband;  while 
George  III,  and  all  the  British  nation, 
favored  the  deserted  bride.  (See  George 
IV.)  The  princess  of  Wales  lived  retired 
from  the  court,  at  a  country-seat  at  Black- 
heath,  where  she  devoted  hei-self  to  the 
arts  and  sciences,  to  benevolence  and  the 
gratification  of  her  taste,  till  1808.  Mean- 
while, many  reports  were  circulated,  ac- 
cusing her  of  illicit  connexions  with  caj)- 
tain  Manly,  sir  Sidney  Smith  and  others, 
and  of  being  the  mother  of  a  boy ;  on  ac- 
count of  which  the  king  instituted  an  in- 
quiry into  her  conduct,  by  a  ministerial 


committee.   They  examined  a  great  num- 
ber of  witnesses,  and  acquitted  tJie  prin- 
cess of  the  charge,  declaring,  at  the  same 
time,  that  she  was  guilty  of  some  inijiru- 
dences,  which  had  given  rise  to  unfoumied 
suspicions.     The  king  confirmed  this  dec- 
laration of  her  innocence,  and  paid  her  a 
visit  of  ceremony.    She  afterwards  receiv- 
ed equal  marks  of  esteem  fi^om  the  princes, 
her  brothers-in-law.     The  duke  of  Ciun- 
berland  attended  the  princess  to  court  and 
to  tlie  opera.      The  reports  above-men- 
tioned were  caused  by  the  adherents  of 
the  prince  of  Wales  and  the  court  of  the 
reigning  queen,  who  was  very  unfavora- 
bly disposed  towards  her  daughter-in-law. 
On  this  occasion,  as  on  many  others,  the 
nation  manifested  the  most  enthusiastic 
attachment  to  the  princess.     In  1813,  the 
public  contest  was  renewed  between  the 
two  parties  ;  the  princess  of  Wales  com- 
plaining, as  a  mother,  of  the  difliculties 
opposed  to  her  seeing  her  daughter.   The 
prince  of  Wales,  then  regent,  disregarded 
these   complaints.      Upon   this,   in  July, 
1814,  the  princess  obtained  permission  to 
go  to  Brunswick,  and,  after\vards,  to  make 
the  tour  of  Italy  and  Greece.     She  now 
began   her   celebrated   journey  through 
Germany,  Italy,  Greece,  the  Archipelago 
and  Syria,  to  Jerusalem,  in  which  the  Ital- 
ian Bergami  was  her  confidant  and  at- 
tendant.    Many  infamous  reports  were 
afterwards  circulated,  relating  to  the  con- 
nexion between  the  princess  and  Bergami. 
On  her  journey,  she  received  grateful 
acknowledgments  for  her  liberality,  her 
kindness,  and  her  generous  efforts  for  the 
relief  of  the  distressed.     She  afterwards 
lived  in  Italy  a  great  part  of  the  time, 
at  a  countn-seat  on  lake  Como.    When 
the  prince  of  Wales  ascended  the  British 
throne,  Jan.  29,  1820,  lord  Hutchinson 
offered  her  an  income  of  £50,000  sterUng, 
the  name  of  queen  of  England,  and  every 
title  appertaining  to  that  dignity,  on  the 
condition  that  she  would  never  return  to 
England.     She  refused  the  proposal,  and 
asserted  her  claims,  more  firmly  than  ever, 
to  thei-ights  of  a  British  queen,  complain- 
ed of  the  ill  treatment  shown  to  her,  and 
ex[)Osed    the    conspiracies    against    her, 
which  had  been  contrived  by  a  secret 
agent,  the  baron  de  Ompteda,  of  Milan. 
Attempts  at   a   reconciliation   led  to  no 
favorable  result.     She  at  length  adopted 
the  bold  resolution  to  return  to  England, 
where  she  was  neither  expected  nor  wish- 
ed for  by  the  ministry,  and,  amid  the  loud- 
est expressions  of  the  public  joy,  arrived 
fi-om  Calais,  June  5,  and,  the  next  day, 
entered  London  in  triumph.    The  minis- 


CAROLINE— CARP. 


535 


ter,  lord  Liverpool,  now  accused  the  queen 
before  the  parliament,  for  the  purpose  of 
exposing  her  to  universal  contemjU  as  an 
adulteress.  Whatever  the  investigations 
of  the  parliament  may  have  brought  to 
light,  the  public  voice  was  louder  than 
ever  in  favor  of  the  queen ;  and,  after  a 
protracted  investigation,  the  bill  of  pains 
and  penalties  was  passed  to  a  third  read- 
ing only  by  a  majority  of  123  to  95 ;  and 
tlie  ministers  deemed  it  prudent  to  delay 
proceeding  with  the  bill  for  six  months, 
■which  was  equivalent  to  withdrawing  it. 
Thus  ended  this  revolting  process,  which 
was,  tliroughout,  a  flagrant  outrage  on 
public  decency.  In  this  trial,  Mr.  Broug- 
ham acted  as  the  queen's  attorney-gene- 
ral, Mr.  Denman  as  her  solicitor,  and 
Drs.  Lushiiigton,  Williams  and  Wilde  as 
her  counsel.  Though  banished  from 
tlie  court  of  the  king,  her  husband,  the 
queen  still  livetl  at  Brandenburg  house, 
in  a  manner  suitable  to  her  rank,  under 
tlie  protection  of  the  nation.  In  July, 
1821,  at  the  coronation  of  George  IV,  she 
first  requested  to  be  crowned,  then  to  be 
present  at  the  ceremony.  But,  by  an  or- 
der of  the  privy  council,  both  requests 
were  denied,  and,  notwithstanding  the 
assistance  of  the  opposition,  she  suffered 
the  personal  humiliation  of  being  repeat- 
edly refused  admission  into  Westminster 
abbey.  She  tiien  published  in  the  public 
papers  her  jirotest  against  the  order  of 
tlie  privy  council.  Soon  after  her  hus- 
band's departiue  to  Ireland,  July  30,  in 
consequence  of  the  violent  agitation  of 
her  mind,  she  was  suddenly  taken  sick 
in  Drury  lane  theatre.  An  inflammation 
of  the  bowels  [ejUeritis)  succeeded,  and 
she  foretold  her  own  death  before  the 
physicians  apprehended  such  an  event. 
She  died  Aug.  7,  1821.  The  corpse,  ac- 
cording to  her  last  will,  was  removed  to 
Brunswick,  where  it  rests  among  the  re- 
mains of  her  ancestors.  Her  tonib-stoac 
has  a  very  short  inscription,  in  which  she 
is  called  the  unhappy  queen  of  England, 
The  removal  and  the  entombing  of  her 
mortal  remains  gave  rise  to  many  dis- 
turbances, fii'st  in  London,  and  aftcruards 
in  Brunswick.  These  were  founded 
more  in  opposition  to  the  arbitrary  meas- 
ures of  the  ministry  than  in  respect  for 
the  memorj-  of  the  queen.  Two  causes 
operated  much  in  favor  of  the  queen — 
the  unpopularity  of  the  ministry  and  the 
general  feeling  tiiat  the  king  was  perhaps 
the  last  man  in  the  wJiole  kingdom, 
who  had  a  right  to  complain  of  the  in- 
continencies  of  his  wife,  which  manj', 
even  of  her  file nds,  undoubtedly  believed. 


Caroline  Laws.    (See  Carolina.) 
Caroline  Matilda,  born  1751,  daugh- 
ter of  Frederic  Lewis,  prince  of  Wales, 
married,  1766,  king  Christian  VII  of  Den- 
mark, and  became  mother  of  tiie  present 
king  of  Denmark,  Frederic  VII,  who  was 
born  1768.     Though  young  and  beautiful, 
and  universally  esteemed  by  the  nation, 
yet  she  was  treated  with  hatred  and  neg- 
lect by  the  grandinotlier  of  her  husband, 
queen  Sophia  Magdalena,  as  well  as  by 
his  step-mother,  Juliana  Maria,  who,  for 
some  time,  influenced  even  her  husband 
against  her.     Struensee  (q.  v.),  by  profes- 
sion a  physician,  the  favorite  of  the  king, 
became   her  friend,  and   both,  in  union 
with  Brandt,  endeavored  to  gain  the  king 
fi"om  the  influence  of  tlie  party  opposed 
to  the  queen.     The  reins  of  government 
came  into  the  hands  of  Struensee,  but  the 
party  of  the  king's  step-mother  and  her 
son,  prince  Frederic,  jirocured  (1772)  the 
imprisonment  of  the  queen,  the  counts 
Struensee  and  Brandt,  and  all  dieir  friends. 
Struensee  and  Brandt  were  tried,  and  ex- 
ecuted for  high  treason.     Even  the  queen 
was  at  first  in  danger  of  being  condemned 
to   death.     April  6,  she   was  separated 
from  her  husband,  and  confined  in  Aal- 
borg,  but  liberated  by  the  interference  of 
her  brother,  king  George  III.    She  died 
May  10, 1775,  at  Celle,  in  Hanover,  scarce- 
ly 24  years  old,  of  a  lung  fever,  the  conse- 
quence of  her  grief.     The  interesting  let- 
ter, in  which  slie  took  leave  of  her  broth- 
er, the  king  of  England,  is  to  be  found  in 
the  small  work  Die  lezten   Stunden   dtr 
Konigin  von  Dunemark.     She  was  of  a 
mild  temper,  and  beloved  by  all  around 
her. 

Carp  {qjprinus,  L.);  a  genus  of  sofl;- 
finned  abdominal  fish,  which  Cuvier 
makes  the  fourth  family  of  the  order. 
This  is  a  very  natural  genus,  containing 
very  numerous  si)ecies.  It  is  easily  dis- 
tinguishable bj-  the  small  mouth,  tootliless 
jaws,  and  gills  of  three  flat  rays.  The 
tongue  and  palate  are  smooth,  but  the 
gullet  is  admirably  constructed  for  irtasti- 
cation,  having  large  teeth  attached  to  the 
inferior  pharyngeal  bones,  which  press  tiie 
food  between  themselves  and  a  gelatinous 
knob,  connected  with  a  bony  plate  that 
is  united  with  the  first  vertebra,  common- 
ly called  the  carp's  tongue.  They  have 
but  one  doi-sal  fin,  and  the  body  is  covered 
with  scales,  generally  of  large  size.  They 
frequent  fresh  and  quiet  waters,  feeding 
on  herbs,  grains,  and  even  mud,  being, 
perhaps,  the  least  carnivorous  of  the  fimiy 
race.  Some  of  the  species  have  a  beard 
of  small,  fleshy  threads  at  the  angles  of 


536 


CARP— CARPETS. 


the  upper  jaw. — The  most  noted  of  the 
species  are  the  common  carji  (C.  carpio, 
L.),  which,  in  many  parts  of  the  world, 
are  bred  in  ponds,  for  the  use  of  the  table, 
and  the  goldfish  (C.  auratus),  beheved  to 
be  originally  from  China,  very  commonly 
bred  in  ponds  and  vases  as  an  ornament, 
on  account  of  its  beautiful  coloi-s.  In  his 
memoir  on  American  Icthyology,  doctor 
Mitchill  enumerates  four  species  of  carp, 
under  the  names  of  C.  teres,  fresh-water 
sucker ;  C.  oblongus,  chub  of  New  York ; 
C.  chn/soleucas,  New  York  sliiner;  and 
C.  atronasus,  brook  minnow. — The  com- 
mon carp  of  Europe  is  esteemed  very 
highly  for  stocking  ponds,  being  of  quick 
growth,  spawning  thrice  a  year.  As  the 
females  do  not  commence  breeding  until 
eight  or  nine  years  old,  it  is  necessary  to 
keep  up  a  supply  of  carp  of  that  age  by 
avoiding  to  destroy  the  females.  The 
proportion  of  males  to  be  preserved  is  four 
for  every  twelve  females.  Under  com- 
mon circumstances,  the  carp  grows  two 
or  three  inches  in  length  in  a  year;  but, 
where  the  ponds  are  exceedingly  well 
supplied  with  food,  they  have  been  known 
to  grow  from  five  to  eighteen  inches  in 
the  same  time.  They  thrive  best  in  ponds 
having  clayey  or  marly  sides,  and  well 
provided  with  aquatic  vegetables.  In  or- 
der to  furnish  them  with  fresh  vegetable 
food,  it  is  usual  to  rake  the  sides  of  the 
pond,  left  dry  by  evaporation,  with  an 
iron  rake,  and  then  to  sow  grass-seed,  so 
that,  when  the  pond  is  again  filled  up  by 
the  rains,  there  may  be  a  growth  of  tender 
herbage  for  the  fish.  Grains  of  various 
sorts,  and  garbage,  are  frequently  thrown 
into  tlie  pond,  with  a  view  to  aid  in  fatten- 
ing carp.  A  pond  of  one  acre  in  extent  is 
said  to  be  sufficient  to  feed  300  carp  of 
two  or  tliree  years,  or  400  of  one  year  old. 
Carp,  in  their  native  condition,  frequent 
the  deepest  places  of  ponds  or  rivers, 
where  there  is  the  least  current.  It  is  a 
fish  which  requires  much  patience  and 
address  in  the  angler.  They  seldom  bite 
in  cool  weatlier,  but,  during  hot  seasons, 
bite  very  fi-eely.  The  bait  commonly  used 
in  angling  for  carp  is  worms,  and  some- 
times grasshoppers.  Various  sweet  pastes 
are  also  used,  formed  of  honey  or  sugar, 
mingled  with  flour  and  small  quantities 
of  veal,  pounded  together  in  a  mortar,  till 
sufficiently  tough  to  adhere  to  a  hook 
without  being  easily  washed  off.  A  Uttle 
white  wool,  mixed  witli  the  other  ingre- 
dients, is  of  great  assistance  in  giving  the 
mass  the  requisite  tenacity.  To  increase 
the  pleasure  and  profit  of  carp  fishing,  it 
ie  well,  for  a  few  days  previous,  to  have 


some  brewer's  grains  or  other  food  throven 
into  the  water,  by  which  the  fish  will  be 
induced  to  collect  at  any  particular  place 
in  greater  numbers. 

Carpathian  Mountains  ;  one  of  the 
most  extensive  ranges  of  mountains  in 
Euroj)e,  which  covers  an  area  of  about 
39,432  squai'e  miles ;  running  from  the 
Black  sea,  between  Walachia  and  jMolda- 
via,  tlirough  Tran.sylvania,  Galicia  and 
Hungary,  to  Silesia,  there  uniting  itself 
witli  the  Riesengebirge,  at  the  pass  of 
Jabliu)ka  (where  are  the  sources  of  the 
Oder  and  Vistula),  and  sending  out  spurs, 
which  reach  as  far  as  the  Danube,  and  the 
spurs  of  the  Alps.  The  highest  points 
(covered  with  perpetual  snow),  called 
Tatra,  rise  in  peaks,  of  which  the  most 
elevated,  the  Lomnitz  peak  {Lomnitzer 
Spitze),  is  over  8162  feet  high.  The  prin- 
cipal cliain  contains  much  salt.  On  the 
branches,  the  vine  is  cultivated,  and  vari- 
ous metals,  precious  and  base,  are  found* 
in  them.  The  Carpathian  mountains 
have  lately  been  attentively  investigated 
by  geologists,  and  interesting  facts  have 
been  ascertained  respecting  them.  They 
affisrd  refuge  to  a  great  number  of  Gip- 
sies. 

Carpentaria;  a  lai^e  bay  on  the  N. 
coast  of  New  Holland  ;  Ion.  1.30°  50'  E. ; 
lat.  10°  20'  S.  That  part  of  the  country 
which  borders  on  the  bay  is  also  called 
Carpeiitaria. 

Carpets  are  thick  textures,  composed 
wholly  or  partly  of  wool,  and  wrought  by 
several  dissimilar  methods.  The  siiuplest 
mode  is  that  used  in  weaving  Venetian 
carpets,  the  texture  of  which  is  plain, 
composed  of  a  striped  woollen  warp  on  a 
thick  woof  of  linen  thread. — Kiddermin- 
ster carpeting  is  comjjosed  of  two  wool- 
len webs,  wliich  intersect  each  other  in 
such  a  manner  as  to  produce  definite 
figures. — Brussels  carpeting  has  a  basis 
composed  of  a  warp  and  woof  of  strong 
linen  thread.  But  to  every  two  threads 
of  linen  in  the  waq),  there  is  added  a 
parcel  of  about  ten  threads  of  woollen  of 
different  colors.  The  linen  thread  never 
appears  on  the  upper  surfaccj  but  parts 
of  the  woollen  threads  are,  from  time  to 
time,  dra^vn  up  in  loops,  so  as  to  consti- 
tute ornamental  figures,  the  proper  color 
being  each  time  selected  from  the  parcel 
to  which  it  belongs.  A  sufficient  number 
of  these  loops  is  raised  to  produce  a  uni- 
form surface.  To  render  them  equal, 
each  row  passes  over  a  wire,  which  is 
subsequently  withdrawn.  In  some  cases, 
the  loops  are  cut  through  with  the  end  of 
the  wire,  which  is  sharpened  for  the  pur- 


CARPETS— CARRACCI. 


537 


pose,  so  as  to  cut  off  the  thread  as  it 
passes  out.  In  fonning  the  figure,  the 
weaver  is  guided  by  a  pattern,  which  is 
dra^vn  in  squares  upon  a  paper. — Turkey 
carpets  appear  to  be  fabricated  upon  the 
sanie  general  principles  as  the  Brussels, 
except  that  the  texture  is  all  woollen,  and 
the  loops  larger,  and  always  cut. — There 
are  several  carpet-manufactories  in  New 
England,  which  make  handsome  goods. 
Tlie  English  and  Americans  are  the  only 
nations  among  whom  carpets  are  articles 
of  general  use. 

Carpi,  Ugo  da,  a  painter  and  engraver, 
flourisbed  in  tlie  beginning  of  the  16th 
century.  He  is  generally  considered  as 
the  inventor  of  that  species  of  engraving 
denominated  chiaro-oscuro,  which  was  af- 
terwards carried  to  such  perfection  by 
Balthasar  Peruzzi. 

Carpi,  Girolamo  da,  a  painter  of  the 
16th  century,  a  native  of  Ferrara,  painted 
many  pictupes  for  the  churches  tiiere  and 
at  Bologna.  He  was  a  great  admirer  of 
Correggio  and  Parmegiano,  whose  works 
he  copied  with  great  success.  He  died 
in  1556. 

Carracci  ;  the  name  of  a  celebrated 
family  of  [lainters. — Ludovico  Cairacci, 
sou  of  a  butcher,  born  1555,  at  Bologna, 
appeared,  at  fii-st,  to  be  more  fit  for  grind- 
ing colors  than  for  transferring  them  to 
canvas.  But  his  slowness  did  not,  in  fact, 
arise  from  deficiency  of  talent,  but  from 
zeal  for  excellence.  He  detested  all  that 
was  called  ideal,  and  studied  only  nature, 
which  he  imitated  with  great  care.  At 
Florence,  he  studied  under  Andrea  del 
Sarto,  and  enjoyed  the  instruction  of  Pas- 
fiignano.  He  went  to  Parma  for  the  pur- 
pose of  studying  Correggio,  who  was  then 
imitated  by  almost  all  the  Florentine 
paintei"s.  At  Bologna,  he  endeavored  to 
obtain  popularity  for  his  new  principles 
among  the  young  artists,  and  united  him- 
self with  his  cousins,  Agostino  and  Aiuii- 
bale  Carracci,  whom  he  sent,  in  1580,  to 
Parma  and  Venice.  On  tlieir  return  to 
Bologna,  the  three  artists  began  to  acquire 
reputation,  but  met  with  the  most  violent 
opposition.  Annibale,  the  most  resolute 
of  them,  was  of  opinion,  that  they  should 
refute  tlie  slanders  in  circulation  by  the 
excellence  of  their  productions.  Ludo- 
vico resolved  to  establish  an  academy  for 
painters  at  Bologna,  which  he  called  the 
accademia  degli  incamminati  (from  incam- 
minarc,  to  put  in  the  way).  His  first  prin- 
ciple was,  that  the  study  of  nature  must 
be  united  with  the  imitation  of  the  best 
masters.  He  soon  gave  an  exam])le  of 
this  principle  in  the  Prophecy  of  John  the 


Baptist,  in  the  monastery  of  the  Carthu- 
sians, imitating,  in  single  figures,  the  style 
of  Raphael,  Titian  and  Tintoretto.  The 
finest  works  of  Ludovico  are  at  Bologna ; 
for  instance,  those  which  adorn  the  hall 
in  the  monastery  of  St.  3Iichael,  m  Bos- 
co,  and  the  Annunciation,  in  the  cathedral 
at  Bologna.  He  excelled  in  architectural 
views  and  in  drawing,  and,  in  general, 
was  verj'  thorough  in  all  the  branches  of 
his  art.  After  having  enjoyed  his  fanie 
for  a  long  time,  at  least  as  long  as  his 
cousins  were  alive,  Ludovico  died,  m 
1619,  almost  in  poverty,  17  years  after 
the  death  of  Agostino,  and  10  after  that 
of  Annibale.  The  chief  reproach  to 
which  he  is  liable  is,  that  he  did  not 
unite  the  study  of  the  antiques  with 
that  of  nature.  His  coloring  has  also 
been  blamed. — Paolo  Carracci,  a  brother 
of  Ludovico,  is  of  no  importance. — Agos- 
tino Carracci,  mentioned  above,  was  bom 
in  1558,  at  Bologna.  He  soon  became 
one  of  the  most  accomphshed  disciples 
of  Ludovico,  and  excelled  particularly  in 
invention.  He  engraved  more  pieces 
than  he  painted,  in  order  to  please  his 
brother  Annibale,  who  became  envious 
of  his  fame,  after  a  ])icture  of  Agostino 
had  obtained  a  prize  in  preference  to  one 
of  his  own,  and  another  excellent  picture 
— the  Communion  of  St.  Jerom — had  gain- 
ed his  brother  univei^sal  admiration.  Sub- 
sequently, Agostino  accompanied  Anni- 
bale to  Rome,  and  assisted  him  in  painting 
the  Farnesian  gallery.  As  many  persons 
said  that  the  engraver  worked  better  than 
the  painter,  Annibale  removed  his  brother, 
under  pretext  that  his  style,  though  ele- 
gant, was  not  grand  enough.  Agostino 
went  then  to  the  court  of  the  duke  of 
Parma,  and  painted  there  a  picture  rep- 
resenting the  heavenly,  the  earthly  and 
the  venal  love.  There  was  only  one 
figure  wanting,  when,  exhausted  by  labor 
and  mortification,  he  died,  in  1601.  He 
wrote  a  treatise  on  perspective  and  ai'chi- 
tecture.  As  an  engraver,  he  deserves 
gi-eat  praise,  and  often  corrected  the  im- 
perfect outlines  of  his  originals.  Among 
his  engravings  are  many  obscene  ones, 
which  have  become  rare. — Annibale  Car- 
racci, his  brother,  bom  1560,  at  Bologna, 
worked,  at  first,  with  his  father,  wlio  was 
a  tailor.  By  the  advice  of  his  cousin 
Ludovico,  he  learnt  drawing,  and  made 
the  most  astonishing  progress,  coj)ying 
first  the  pieces  of  Correggio,  Titian  and 
Paul  Veronese,  and  painting,  like  them, 
small  pictures  before  he  undertook  largo 
ones.  In  the  academy  founded  by  the 
Carracci,  he  taught  the  rules  of  arrange- 


538 


CARRACCI— CARRERAS. 


ment  and  distribution  of  figures.  He  is 
one  of  the  greatest  imitators  of  Correpgio. 
His  St.  Roque  distributing  Alms,  now  in 
Dresden,  was  the  first  painting  which 
gave  him  reputation.  His  Genius  of 
Gloiy  is  likewise  celebrated.  In  the 
Faniesian  gallery,  which  he  painted, 
there  breathes  an  antique  elegance,  and 
all  the  grace  of  Raphael.  You  find  there 
imitations  of  Tibaldi  (who  ])ainted  at  Bo- 
logna, about  1550,  with  Nicolo  del  Abate), 
of  Michael  Angelo  (the  style,  indeed, 
somewhat  sofl;ened),  and  the  excellences 
of  the  Venetian  and  Lombard  schools. 
Out  of  Bologna,  he  is  acknowledged  as 
the  greatest  of  the  Carracci.  In  that  city, 
however,  Ludovico  is  more  admired. 
Agostino,  perhaps,  had  more  invention, 
and  Ludovico  more  talent  for  teaching ; 
but  Annibale  had  a  loftier  s{)irit,  and  his 
style  is  more  eloquent  and  noble.  He 
died  of  grief  (1609),  at  the  ingratitude  of 
cardinal  Farnese,  who  paid  him  for  20 
years'  labor  with  500  gold  scudi.  He  was 
buried  at  the  side  of  Raphael,  in  the  Pan- 
theon of  Rome. — Francesco  Carracci, 
another  brother,  is  unimportant. — Antonio 
Carracci,  a  natural  son  of  Agostino,  bom, 
1583,  at  Venice,  has  more  merit.  Among 
the  many  well-known  disciples  of  the 
Ceuracci,  Domenichino  deserves  to  be 
particularly  named. 

Carreras  ;  three  brothers,  distinguish- 
ed in  the  revolution  of  Chile.  Jos6  Mi- 
guel Carrera,  Juan  Jos6  Cairera,  and 
Luis  Can-era,  were  the  sons  of  a  rich 
landholder  in  Santiago,  don  Ignacio  Car- 
rera. One  of  them  served  in  Europe 
until  1811,  and  attained  the  rank  of  lieu- 
tenant-colonel and  commandant  of  a  regi- 
ment of  hussai's.  The  three  brothers 
took  an  active  part  in  the  revolution  from 
its  commencement,  and,  in  November, 
1811,  obtained  the  eflfective  control  of  the 
revolutionary  government ;  don  Jose  Mi- 
guel, the  eldest,  being  a  member  of  the 
junta,  and  colonel  in  the  army,  and  the 
two  younger  brothers  being  also  colonels 
in  diflferent  corps,  and  the  military  being 
strongly  in  their  favor.  They  continued 
in  the  possession  of  power  until  1813, 
when  they  were  taken  prisoners  by  the 
Spaniards,  and  confined  at  Taloa.  During 
their  confinement,  O'Higgins  placed  him- 
self at  the  head  of  affairs.  But  they  soon 
regained  their  liberty,  and,  by  means  of 
tljeir  poj>ularity  with  the  army,  were  ena- 
bled to  displace  O'Higgins,  and  resume 
their  former  influence,  aithoiigh  not  with- 
out a  conflict  with  their  antagonist.  They 
became  reconciled  to  him,  however,  and 
acted  in  concert  with  him  at  the  battle  of 


Rancagua,  in  October,  1814,  in  which  the 
patriots  were  defeated,  and  in  conse- 
(lucnce  of  which  the  Can-eras  and  their 
associates  fled  across  the  Andes.  Don 
Jok^c  3Iiguel  lefi;  South  America  for  the 
U.  States,  seeking  supplies  of  men  and 
money.  3Teanwhile,  don  Juan  Jose  and 
don  Luis  remained  in  Buenos  Ayres, 
where  they  were  detained,  on  their  pa- 
role, by  Pueyrredon,  and  not  allowed  to 
join  the  army  sent  for  the  liberation  of 
Chile,  commanded  by  their  pei-sonal  en- 
emy, O'Higgins,  and  his  bosom  friend, 
general  San  Martin.  Don  Jos6  Miguel 
found  them  in  this  condition  upon  his 
return  in  1817,  and  was  himself  arrested 
at  Buenos  Ayres,  but  made  his  escape. 
His  brothers  fled  from  Buenos  Ayres,  but 
were  apprehended,  Aug.  17,  1817,  near 
Mendoza,  and  thrown  into  prison.  Uj)on 
learning  this,  general  San  Martin  de- 
spatched his  secretary,  Monteagiulo,  to 
bring  them  to  trial,  and,  if  ^)ossJblc,  in- 
vent some  plausible  cause  for  their  exe- 
cution, so  as  to  prevent  their  return  to 
Chile.  Accordingly,  a  false  accusation  of 
having  murdered  some  obscure  person  in 
1814  was  brought  against  don  Juan  Jose ; 
but,  as  this  did  not  inculj)ate  don  Luis,  a 
plot  was  contrived  with  the  soldiers,  and 
the  brothers  were  induced  to  attempt  their 
escape  ;  afl;er  which  the  proceedings  were 
resumed,  and  they  were  condemned,  on 
the  8th  of  March,  1818,  to  be  shot  on  the 
same  day.  They  heard  their  sentence  at 
three  o'clock  in  the  afternoon,  and  were 
slaughtered  at  six.  They  walked  arm  in 
arm  to  the  place  of  execution,  gave  the 
word  to  the  soldiers  to  fire,  and  embraced 
each  other  in  death.  So  causeless  were 
these  legal  nuirders,  that  public  opinion 
charges  them  upon  San  Miirtin,  who, 
finding  the  friends  of  the  Carrei-as  nu- 
merous in  Chile,  employed  his  creature 
Monteagudo  to  procure  their  death.  With 
brutal  ciTJelty,  San  Martin  sent  their  aged 
father  an  account  of  the  expenses  of  their 
execution,  with  an  order  for  its  immediate 
payment.  He  paid  the  bloody  charge, 
and,  two  days  afterwards,  expired  of  a 
broken  heart.  Don  Jose  Miguel  resolved 
to  avenge  their  death.  He  raised  a  small 
body  of  troops,  natives  and  foreigners, 
and  marched  across  the  pampas,  having 
found  means  to  correspond  witli  his 
fi-iends  in  Santiago.  His  progress  was 
viewed  with  great  uneasiness  by  O'Hig- 
gins, then  suj)reme  director  of  Cliile  ;  for 
the  people  cherished  the  fondest  recol- 
lections of  the  Carreras,  whose  wisdom  in 
government,  and  personal  condescension, 
aflfability  and  miuiificencc,  had  won  all 


CARRERAS— CARRIER  PIGEON. 


539 


hearts.  A  conspiracy  in  favor  of  Can-era, 
luifortunately,  was  detected  by  O'Hijrgins, 
and  suppressed.  Don  Jos6  Miguel  ar- 
rived near  Mendoza  in  January,  1822, 
and  was  tliere  unexpectedly  met  by  a 
superior  force,  and  surrounded  and  taken 
prisoner,  after  a  brave  resistance.  Being 
conducted  to  Mendoza,  he  was  hurried 
through  a  brief  form  of  trial,  and  exe- 
cuted on  the  very  spot  where  his  brothers 
suffered.  Thus,  by  a  singularly  adverse 
tbrtune,  perished  a  family  of  brothers, 
who  left  not  their  equals  in  patriotism, 
talents  and  purity  of  character  in  Chile. 
Their  fiiend  and  adviser,  Rodriguez,  also 
perished,  a  victim  of  tlie  same  enemies. 
— In  testimony  of  their  respect  for  the 
memory  of  the  Carreras,  the  govennnent 
of  Chile  have  recently  ordered  the  re- 
moval of  their  remauis  from  Mendoza  to 
their  native  country.  (Stevenson's  Souih 
America,  vol.  iii ;  Morth  American  Review, 
vol.  xxiv,  p.  313 ;  Miller's  Mem.,  i,  p.  383.) 

Carrier,  common.  (See  Common  Car- 
rier.) 

Carrier,  John  Baptist,  born  in  1756, 
at  Voiai,  near  Aurillae,  in  Upper  Au- 
vergne,  an  obscure  attorney  at  the  begin- 
ningof  the  revolution,  was  chosen,  in  1792, 
member  of  the  national  convention,  aided 
in  the  establishment  of  the  revolutionary 
tribunal,  March  10,  1793,  and  exhibited 
the  wildest  rage  for  persecution.  He 
voted  for  the  death  of  Louis  XVI,  de- 
manded the  arrest  (5f  the  duke  of  Orleans, 
April  6,  1793,  and  contributed  greatly  to 
the  revolution  of  May  31.  Oct.  8,  1793, 
he  was  sent  to  Nantes  with  a  commission 
to  suppress  the  civil  war  by  the  exercise 
of  gi-eater  severity  than  had  yet  been 
used.  The  prisons  were  already  full, 
while  the  defeat  of  the  Vendeans  near 
Savenay  increased  the  number  of  prison- 
ers. Multitudes,  informally  and  precipi- 
tately condemned,  were  executed  daily ; 
but  Carrier  found  this  process  too  slow. 
He  resolved,  therefore,  to  destroy  the 
prisoners  in  a  mass,  and  without  a  trial. 
He  caused  94  priests  to  be  conveyed  to  a 
boat  with  a  perforated  bottom,  under  pre- 
tence of  transporting  them,  but,  in  reality, 
with  a  \iew  of  liaving  them  drowned  by 
night.  Every  day  this  artifice  was  repeat- 
ed. In  the  evening,  the  destined  victims, 
of  every  age  and  of  both  sexes,  were 
brought  to  the  boats.  Tavo  were  tied 
together,  and  plunged  into  the  water,  at 
the  point  of  the  bayonet  and  the  edge  of 
the  saljre.  The  executioners  sometimes 
amused  themselves  by  tying  together  a 
young  man  and  woman ;  and  tliey  called 
these  noyades  (republican  marriages).    Be- 


sides this,  more  than  500  prisoners  were 
daily  shot  in  the  quanies  at  Gigan.  For 
more  than  a  month,  these  deeds  of  mad- 
ness were  perpetrated.  It  has  been  esti- 
mated that  15,000  individuals  jierished  in 
this  way.  The  banks  of  the  Loire  were 
strewed  with  the  dead,  and  the  water  was 
so  polluted,  that  it  was  pi-ohibited  to  drink 
it.  Some  months  before  the  fall  of  Ro- 
bespierre, Carrier  was  recalled.  The  9th 
Thermidor  (July  27),  1794,  he  was  appre- 
hended, and  brought  before  the  revolu- 
tionary tribunal,  which  condemned  him 
to  death,  Dec.  16,  1794. 

Carrier  Pigeon  {pavedette,  columba 
tabellaria).  This  bird  is  a  native  of  the 
East ;  and  the  practice  of  sending  letters 
by  pigeons  belongs,  therefore,  principally 
to  Eastern  countries.  The  pigeons  cho- 
sen for  this  service  are  called,  in  Arabic, 
hamahn.  They  have  a  ring  of  particolored 
feathers  round  the  neck,  red  feet,  covered 
with  down,  and  build  their  nests  in  the 
neighborhood  of  human  habitations.  In 
the  province  of  Irak  (that  is,  Chaktea, 
Babylonia  and  Assyria),  white  pigeons 
are  trained  with  the  least  difficulty.  The 
first  pigeon  used  as  a  messenger  some 
consider  to  be  that  which  Noah  sent  from 
the  ark,  and  which  returned  with  the  leaf 
of  the  olive.  An  actual  post-system,  in' 
which  pigeons  were  the  messcngei-s,  was 
established  by  the  sultan  Noureddin 
Mahmood,  w^lio  died  in  1174.  It  was 
improved  and  extended  by  the  caliph 
Ahmed  Alraser-Lidiv-Allah,  of  Bagdad, 
who  died  in  1225.  The  price  of  a  well- 
trained  pair  of  such  pigeons  was,  at  that 
time,  1000  dinars,  that  is,  Arabic  ducats. 
This  flying  post  lasted  till  1258,  when 
Bagdad  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Mongols, 
and  was  destroyed  by  them.  At  present, 
only  a  few  wealthy  individuals  in  the 
East  keep  these  jiigeons.  It  requires 
much  time  and  patience  to  train  them. 
As  soon  as  the  young  (a  cock  and  a  hen 
are  preferred)  are  fledged,  they  are  made 
as  tame  as  possible,  and  accustomed  to 
each  other's  society.  They  are  then  sent, 
in  an  uncovered  cage,  to  the  place  whither 
they  are  usually  to  carrj'  messages.  If 
one  of  them  is  carried  away,  after  having 
been  well  treated  for  some  time,  it  will 
certainly  i*eturn  to  its  mate.  A  small  let- 
ter is  \mtten  on  the  finest  silk-paper, 
sometimes  on  a  particular  kind  called 
bird-paper.  This  is  placed  Iciigtiiwjse 
under  one  w'ing,  and  fastened  with  a  pin 
(the  point  being  turned  from  the  body)  to 
a  feather.  It  needs  not  to  be  mentioned, 
that  no  part  of  the  letter  must  hang  loose, 
lest  the  wind  should  be  collected  in  it, 


540 


CARRIER  PIGEON— CARRON. 


the  wing  become  tired,  and  the  pigeon  be 
compelled  to  alight,  A  pigeon  of  this 
kind  can  go  a  distance  of  upwards  of  1000 
parasangs  (more  than  2700  English  miles) 
in  a  day.  There  were  similar  posts  in 
Egypt,  in  1450,  for  which  columbsiries 
were  prepared  in  towei-s,  erected  at  cer- 
tain distances  for  the  public  security. — 
Tliis  custom  is,  however,  not  confined  to 
the  nations  of  the  East.  Decius  Brutus, 
according  to  the  elder  Pliny's  account, 
sent  despatches  from  Modena  by  pigeons; 
and  in  modern  times,  they  were  made 
use  of,  during  the  Dutch  war,  by  the  in- 
habitants of  Haerlem,  when  besieged  in 
1573,  and  in  Leyden,  in  1574.  It  is  also 
well  known,  that  some  merchants  in  Paris 
and  Amsterdam  employ  carrier-pigeons, 
in  order  that  the  course  of  exchange  and 
the  prices  of  stocks,  in  Paris,  may  be 
known  as  soon  as  possible  in  Amsterdam. 

Carro,  Giovanni  di;  a  physician  of 
Milan,  who  settled  in  Vienna.  He  is  cel- 
ebrated for  his  efforts  in  spreading  inocu- 
lation, as  a  protection  from  the  small -pox, 
in  Germany,  Poland,  Hungarj^  and  Rus- 
sia- He  found  means  to  overcouje  even 
the  prejudices  of  the  Turks,  l)y  sending 
to  lord  Elgin,  at  Constantinople,  in  1800, 
a  quantity  of  virus,  together  with  a  work 
of  his,  translated  into  Turkish,  on  inocu- 
lation. All  the  attempts  of  the  English 
to  introduce  inoculation  into  India  had 
been  hitherto  unsuccessful,  because  the 
virus  had  always  been  spoiled  on  the  way. 
Carro  procured  the  matter  from  Lombardy 
cows,  for  doctor  Harford,  at  Bagdad.  It 
retained  all  its  strength,  and  was  the 
means  of  imparting  the  benefits  of  kine- 
pock  inoculation  to  India,  which  the  In- 
dians consider  as  derived  fi-om  a  sacred 
cow,  and  to  which  they  have  given  the 
name  ofamurtum  (immortality).  Can-o's 
Observations  et  Experiences  sur  la  Vacci- 
naiion,  avec  una  Planclie  colorce  (V^ieuna, 
1801  and  1802),  and  his  translation  (Vi- 
enna, 1802)  of  an  English  work,  by  J.  J. 
Loy,  on  tlie  origin  of  the  kine-j)ock  virus, 
are  very  valuable  works.  In  the  Biblio- 
thtque  Britannique  are  some  lettere  deserv- 
ing of  notice,  written  by  him,  particularly 
one,  dated  Aug.  27, 1803,  on  the  antipesti- 
lential  nature  of  the  kine-pock  matter. 

Carroll,  John,  first  Catholic  bishop 
of  the  U.  States,  was  born  in  Maryland,  in 
the  year  1734.  His  parents  were  Catiio- 
lics  of  distinguished  respectability,  and 
sent  him,  at  the  age  of  13,  to  the  college 
of  St  Omer's,  in  Flanders,  where  he  re- 
mained for  six  yeare,  wlien  he  was  trans- 
ferred to  the  colleges  of  Liege  and  Bruges. 
Ju  1769,  he  was  ordained  a  priest,  and 


soon  after  became  a  Jesuit  In  1770,  he 
accompanied  the  present  lord  Stouiton, 
the  son  of  an  English  Catholic  nobleman, 
on  a  tour  through  Europe,  in  the  capacity 
of  private  tutor;  and,  on  his  return  to 
Bruges,  in  1773,  accepted  a  professorship 
in  the  college.  Shortly  afterwards,  he 
was  on  the  pouit  of  going  back  to  his  na- 
tive country;  but  his  voyage  was  prevent- 
ed by  the  intelligence  of  the  entire  suj)- 
pression  of  the  Jesuits  by  the  pope  ;  and 
he  retired  to  England,  where  he  resided 
imtil  1775,  when  he  returned  to  America. 
His  stay  in  Europe  was  prolonged  in  or- 
der that  he  might  assist  his  brethren  in 
procuring  a  mitigation  of  the  severe  sen- 
tence that  had  been  passed  upon  them. 
He  acted  as  secretarj'^-general  to  the  dis- 
persed fathers  in  their  remonstrances  with 
the  courts,  by  Avhich  they  had  been  per- 
secuted. Upon  his  arrival  in  Maryland, 
he  entered  upon  the  duties  of  a  parish 
priest  In  1776,  at  the  solicitation  of  con- 
gress, he  accompanied  doctor  Fnuiklin, 
Charles  Carroll  of  Carrollton,  and  Samuel 
Chase,  on  a  mission  to  Canada,  designed 
to  induce  tlie  people  of  that  province  to 
preserve  a  neutral  attitude  in  the  war  be- 
tween England  and  the  colonies,  but  was 
unsuccessfiil.  The  Roman  Catholic  cler- 
gy of  the  U.  States  having  requested  from 
the  pope  the  establishment  of  a  spiritual 
hierarchy  here,  in  pi-eference  to  being 
under  the  superintendence  of  one  in  Eng- 
land, Mr.  CaiToU  was  appointed  vicar- 
general  in  178ti,  when  he  fixed  his  abode 
in  Baltimore.  In  1789,  he  was  named 
first  Catholic  bishop  of  the  U.  States,  and 
went  to  England,  in  the  suimner  of  1790, 
where  he  was  consecrated.  In  the  same 
year,  he  returned  to  Baltimore,  and,  as 
the  seat  of  his  episcopal  see  was  estab- 
lished in  that  city,  assumed  the  title  of 
bishop  of  Baltimore.  He  was  universally 
esteemed  and  beloved  for  the  exemplary 
manner  in  which  he  discharged  his  duties, 
the  mildness  and  courtesy  of  hismannei-s, 
and  the  sanctity  of  his  life.  He  lived  in 
friendly  communion  with  persons  of  other 
sects,  his  character  being  entirely  devoid 
of  intolerance.  A  few  years  before  his 
demise,  he  was  elevated  to  the  archiepis- 
copal  dignity.  He  died  Dec.  3,  1815,  in 
the  81st  year  of  his  age. 

Carron  ;  a  village  of  Scotland,  on  the 
banks  of  a  stream  of  the  same  name,  in 
Stirlingsliire,  and  about  three  miles  from 
the  shore  of  the  Forth.  Its  extensive 
iron-foundery  is  one  of  the  most  noted 
in  Great  Britain.  This  was  established 
in  1760,  and  now  employs  nearly  2000 
men.    There  are  about  20  furnaces,  and 


CARRON— CARSTARES. 


541 


many  kinds  of  iron  articles  are  made  in 
great  quantities,  as  heavy  pieces  of  ord- 
nance, cylinders  for  steam-enii^ines,  pumps, 
boilers,  wheels,  with  all  kinds  of  ponder- 
ous apparatus  used  in  the  arts.  That 
species  of  ordnance  called  a  carronade, 
used  in  the  navy,  derived  its  name  from 
being  first  made  here.  Immense  num- 
bers of  shot  and  shells,  of  all  sizes,  are 
annually  sent  from  Carron.  Carron  is 
ahout  2  miles  north-east  of  Falkirk,  and 
2G  in  the  same  direction  from  Edinburgh. 
The  banks  of  the  river  CaiTon  were  the 
boundary  of  the  Roman  empire  in  Britain ; 
for  the  wall  of  Antoninus  stood  within  a 
short  distance,  and  ran  parallel  to  them 
for  seveml  miles.  Two  mounds,  one  of 
them  50  feet  in  height,  called  the  hills  of 
Dunipail,  rise  about  the  middle  of  its 
course.  Tradition  affirms  that  they  were 
monuments  of  a  peace  between  the  Ro- 
mans and  Caledonians,  and  that  they  take 
their  name  from  rfun,  ahill,  and  pax,  ])eace. 
It  is  more  probal)le  that  they  are  barrows. 

Carroxades  (from  the  river  Carron, 
in  Scotland,  where  they  were  first  made) ; 
a  sort  of  artillery,  resembling  howitzei-s. 
They  are  of  very  large  caliber,  and  cany 
balls,  shells  or  cartouches.  They  are 
mucli  lighter  than  common  cannon,  and 
have  a  chamber  for  the  powder,  like  mor- 
tars. They  are  mostly  used  on  board  of 
ships,  in  close  engagements,  from  the  poop 
and  forecastle.  Sometimes  they  are  em- 
ployed in  fortifications.  They  have  been 
cast  from  12  to  6S  pounders.  They  were 
first  used  in  the  North  American  revolu- 
tionary war. 

Carrot  {daucus  carota,  Linnaeus)  is  a 
biennial  plant,  a  native  of  Britain.  The 
leaves  are  pinnatifid,  and  much  cut.  The 
plant  rises  to  the  height  of  two  feet,  and 
produces  white  flowers,  succeeded  by 
rough,  hispid  seeds.  The  root  of  the  plant, 
in  its  wild  state,  is  small,  dry,  sticky,  of  a 
white  color,  and  strong-flavored  ;  but  the 
root  of  the  cultivated  variety  is  large,  suc- 
culent, and  of  a  red-yellow  or  pale  straw- 
color,  and  shows  remarkably  the  improve- 
ment which  may  be  effected  by  cultivation. 
Though  long  known  as  a  garden  plant, 
it  is  comparatively  of  recent  introduction 
in  agriculture.  It  appears  to  have  been 
cultivated  from  an  early  period  in  GJer- 
many  and  Flanders,  and  introduced  from 
the  latter  country  to  Kent  and  Suffolk 
eaily  in  the  16th  century.  The  various 
uses  of  the  carrot  in  cookery  are  well 
known.  But,  although  it  contains  much 
nutriment,  it  is  difficult  of  digestion,  par- 
ticularly if  eaten  raw  or  imperfectly  boil- 
ed.   Carrots  are  an  excellent  fodder  for 

VOL.  II.  46 


cattle  and  horses,  either  alone  or  mixed 
with  hay  ;  and,  if  given  to  cows  in  winter 
or  the  early  part  of  spring,  they  are  said 
to  cause  a  great  increase  of  milk,  which 
will  have  a  much  less  offensive  taste  and 
smell  than  when  they  are  fed  on  turnips. 
Hogs  thrive  well  upon  caiTOts  boiled  with 
their  wash.  In  some  parts  of  England, 
this  vegetable  has  been  cultivated  as  a 
winter  food  for  deer ;  and  the  tops  have 
even  been  made  into  hay.  Carrots  con- 
tain a  large  proportion  of  saccharine  mat- 
ter, and  various  but  unsuccessful  experi- 
ments have  been  made  to  extract  sugar 
from  them.  They  have  been  more  ad- 
vantageously emploj'cd  in  distillation. 
Ten  ])ounds  weight  of  caiTOts  will  yield 
about  half  a  pint  of  very  strong  ardent 
spu-it;  and  the  carrots  produced  by  an 
acre  of  ground,  amounting  to  20  tons, 
have  been  known  to  yield  240  gallons  of 
spirit.  A  sirup  made  of  these  roots,  and 
clarified  with  the  whites  of  eggs,  has  been 
ibund  useful  for  several  purposes.  An  in- 
fusion of  the  seeds,  and  the  expressed 
juice  of  the  roots,  are  said  to  afford  relief 
in  fits  of  the  gravel.  A  marmalade  of 
carrots  has  been  used  with  success  in  sea- 
scuiTy,  and  a  poultice  prepared  from 
them  is  sometimes  employed  in  cancer- 
ous ulcers.  Crickets  are  so  fond  of  these 
roots,  that  they  may  easily  be  destroyed 
by  making  a  paste  of  flour,  powdered  ar- 
senic and  scraped  carrots,  and  placing 
this  near  their  habitation.  Parkinson  in- 
forms us  that,  in  his  day,  ladies  wore  car- 
rot leaves  in  the  place  of  feathers.  In 
winter,  an  elegant  ornament  is  sometimes 
formed  by  cutting  off"  a  section  from  the 
head  or  thick  end  of  a  can-ot,  containing 
the  bud,  and  placing  it  in  a  shallow  ves- 
sel with  water.  Young  and  delicate 
leaves  unfold  themselves,  fonning  a  radi- 
ated tuft  of  a  very  handsome  appearance, 
heightened  by  contrast  with  the  season 
of  the  year. 

Carrying  Trade.  (See  Commerce.) 
Carstares,  William,  a  Scotch  divine 
of  political  emmence,  was  born  in  1649, 
at  Cathcart,  near  Glasgow,  where  his  fa- 
ther was  minister.  He  pursued  his  stud- 
ies at  the  university  of  Edinburgh,  whence 
he  was  removed  to  that  of  Utrecht,  was 
introduced  to  the  prince  of  Orange,  and 
intrusted  wnth  all  his  views  in  regard  to 
Britain.  He,  how^ever,  returned  to  Scot- 
land, Avith  the  view  of  entering  the  minis- 
tiy,  but,  after  receiving  a  license  to  preach, 
resolved  to  return  to  Holland.  As  he  was 
to  pass  through  London,  he  was  employed 
by  Argyle  and  his  party  to  treat  with  the 
English  exclusionists,  and  became  privy 


543 


CARSTARES— CARTE. 


to  the  rye-house  plot.  On  the  discovery 
of  that  conspirdcy,  he  was  apprehended. 
After  a  rigorous  confinement  in  irons,  he 
was  subjected  to  the  torture,  and  enihired 
tliis  trial  with  great  firnuiess ;  but,  being 
arterwards  deluded  with  the  hopes  of  a 
full  pardon,  and  assured  that  his  answei-s 
should  never  be  made  evidence  against 
any  one,  he  submitted  to  make  a  judicial 
declaration.  The  privy  council  violated 
their  engagement,  by  [)roducing  his  evi- 
dence in  court  against  his  friend,  Mr. 
Bail  lie,  of  Jerviswood.  Being  released, 
he  returned  to  Holland,  and  was  received 
by  the  prince  of  Orange  as  a  sufferer  in 
his  cause.  The  prince  made  hun  one  of 
his  own  chaplains,  and  procured  his  elec- 
tion to  the  office  of  minister  of  the  Eng- 
lish congregation  at  Leyden.  He  accom- 
panied the  prince  in  his  expedition,  and 
always  remained  about  his  pei-son,  both 
at  home  and  abroad.  During  this  reign, 
he  was  the  chief  agent  between  the 
church  of  Scotland  and  the  court,  and  was 
very  instrumental  in  the  estabhshment  of 
the  presbytery,  to  which  William  was 
averse.  On  the  death  of  Wilham,  he  was 
no  longer  employed  on  public  business ; 
but  Anne  continued  him  her  chaplain- 
royal,  and  made  him  principal  of  the  uni- 
versity of  Edinburgh.  When  the  union 
of  the  two  kingdoms  was  agitated,  he 
took  a  decided  part  in  its  favor.  He  did 
not  long  survive  this  event,  dying  in  1715, 
at  the  age  of  66.  The  memory  of  Car- 
stares  is,  for  the  most  part,  revered  by  his 
countrymen  as  that  of  an  enlightened 
patriot ;  and  few  men  of  active  power  and 
influence  have  steered  between  parties 
more  beneficially  and  ably. 

Carstens,  Asmus  Jacob,  a  distinguish- 
ed painter,  born  at  St.  Jurgen,  near  Sles- 
wic,  in  1754,  died  at  Rome  in  1798.  He 
studied  at  Copenhagen,  where  he  pro- 
duced his  fii-st  picture — the  Death  of  JEs- 
chylus.  In  1783,  he  set  out  for  Rome ;  but, 
afier  having  seen  some  works  of  Julio  Ro- 
naani  and  Leonardo  da  Vmci,  was  obliged 
to  return  to  Germany,  from  want  of 
means,  and  ignorance  of  the  Italian  lan- 
guage. In  Lubec,  he  lived  almost  five 
years  by  painting  likenesses.  A  piece, 
containing  more  than  200  figures — the  Fall 
oftheAngds — procured  him  the  place  of  a 
professor  in  the  academy  at  Berlin.  In 
1792,  he  went  to  Rome.  His  picture  of 
Megapont  was  compared  to  the  produc- 
tions of  Raphael  and  JMichael  Angelo. 
His  subjects  were  almost  all  taken  from 
Homer,  Pindar,  Sophocles,  ^Eschylus, 
Shakspeare  and  Ossian.  In  Carstens' 
works,  we  find  tliat  effort  to  attain  cor- 


rectness of  form  and  outline,  gracefulness 
of  attitude,  and  loftiness  and  vigor  of  ex- 
pression, by  which  the  works  of  the  an- 
cients are  distinguished ;  but  they  fi-e- 
quently  exhibit  a  certain  harshness,  arising 
frojn  too  close  imitation.  He  was  often 
defective  in  anatomy  and  perspective,  and, 
having  begun  late  to  paint  in  oil,  was  un- 
acquainted with  the  secrets  of  coloring. 
(See  Femow.) 

Carte,  Thomas,  an  English  historian, 
was  born  at  Dunmoor,  Warwickshire,  in 
1686.  He  was  admitted  at  University 
college,  Oxford,  in  1698,  and  was  after- 
wards incoi-porated  at  Cambridge,  where 
he  took  his  degree  of  M.  A.  in  1706.  His 
first  publication  was  entitled  the  Irish 
Massacre  set  in  a  true  lAght,  &c.  Incur- 
ring suspicions  during  the  reljcUion  of 
1715,  a  warrant  was  issued  for  his  appre- 
hension, which  he  eluded  by  concealment 
in  the  house  of  a  clergyman  at  Coleshil. 
He  subsequently  acted  as  secretary  to 
bishop  Atterbury ;  and,  as  it  was  sujiposed 
that  he  was  concerned  in  the  conspiracy 
imputed  to  that  intriguing  prelate,  he  was 
charged  with  high  treason,  and  a  reward 
of  £1000  was  oftered  for  his  apprehension. 
He  was  again  successful  in  making  his 
escape,  and,  reaching  France,  he  resided 
there  several  years  under  the  name  of 
Philips.  Having  obtained  various  intro- 
ductions to  persons  of  influence  and  learn- 
ing, he  obtained  free  access  to  the  princi- 
pal libraries,  and  employed  himself  in  col- 
lecting materials  for  an  English  edition  of 
the  Histoiy  of  Thuanus.  At  length,  queen 
Caroline,  the  liberal  patroness  of  literary 
merit  of  every  party,  procured  leave  for 
his  return  to  England.  His  important 
work,  the  Life  of  James  Duke  of  Ormond, 
Avas  published  in  3  vols,  folio,  1735 — 6. 
This  work  gained  him  great  reputation, 
especially  with  the  tory  party,  and  led 
him  to  meditate  a  general  history  of  Eng- 
land, as  a  counterbalance  to  the  tendency 
of  that  of  Rapin  de  Thoyras,  which  tlie 
tones  charged  with  error  and  partiality. 
In  1744,  he  was  an-ested,  under  a  suspen- 
sion of  the  habeas  corpus  act,  and  exam- 
ined, on  a  suspicion  of  being  employed  by 
the  Pretender.  Nothing,  however,  ap- 
pearing against  him,  he  was  discharged. 
The  first  volume  of  his  history,  in  folio, 
concluded  with  the  death  of  king  John, 
and  might  have  been  very  well  received, 
had  not  the  author  materially  injured  the 
credit  of  his  work,  and  his  own  reputation 
as  a  man  of  sense,  by  the  unnecessary  in- 
sertion of  a  note,  containing  the  ridiculous 
story  of  the  cflre  of  one  Christopher  Lovel, 
who  went  from  Somersetshire  to  Paris  to 


CARTE— CARTHAGE. 


543 


be  touched  for  the  king's  evil  by  the  Pre- 
tender. Still  he  proceeded  with  his  work, 
and  published  two  more  volumes,  in  1750 
and  1752 ;  the  fourth,  which  brought  down 
the  history  to  1654,  not  appearing  until 
after  his  death.  The  character  of  this 
work  is  deservedly  very  high  for  useful 
and  elaborate  research,  for  which  quali- 
ties it  has  risen  greatly  in  esteem,  since  tlie 
obligations  of  Hume  to  it  have  been  ren- 
dered apparent.  In  point  of  style,  it  is 
mean;  and  the  prejudices  of  tlie  author, 
who  was  utterly  destitute  of  the  philo- 
sophical impartiality  requisite  for  a  histo- 
rian, are  eveiy  where  consjjicuous :  but 
its  dihgence  and  exactness,  with  regard 
to  facts,  and  the  intimate  knowledge  of 
original  authors  displayed  by  the  writer, 
will  always  render  it  valuable.  Mr.  Carte 
died  in  April,  1754.  He  is  the  author  of 
several  works  besides  those  already  men- 
tioned. He  was  a  man  of  indefatigable 
industry,  cheerilil  and  entertaining  in  con- 
versiition,  but  very  slovenly  and  ungamly 
in  liis  appearance. 

Cartel  ;  an  agreement  for  the  delivery 
of  prisoners  or  desertere :  also,  a  written 
challenge  to  a  duel. — Cartel-Ship ;  a  ship 
commissioned,  in  time  of  war,  to  exchange 
prisonere ;  also  to  carry  any  proposal  be- 
tween hostile  powers.  She  must  carry 
no  cargo,  ammunition,  or  implements  of 
war,  except  a  single  gun  for  signals. 

Carter,  EUzabeth,  an  English  lady  of 
great  learning,  was  the  daughter  of  doctor 
Nicholas  Carter,  a  clergyman  in  Kent, 
and  was  born  in  1717.  She  was  educated 
by  her  lather,  and  soon  became  mistress 
of  Latin,  Greek,  French  and  German  ;  to 
which  she  afterwards  added  Italian,  Span- 
ish, Portuguese,  Hebrew,  and  even  Arabic. 
Several  of  her  poetical  attempts  appeared 
in  the  Gentleman's  Magazine,  before  she 
attained  her  17th  year,  and  these  procured 
her  much  celebrity.  In  1739,  she  trans- 
lated the  critique  of  Crousaz  on  Pope's 
Essay  on  Man ;  and,  in  the  same  year, 
gave  a  translation  of  Algarotti's  explana- 
tion of  Newton's  ])hilosophy,  for  ladies. 
In  1749,  she  commenced  her  translation 
of  Epictetus.  In  1791,  Miss  Carter  had 
on  interview  with  queen  Charlotte,  by  the 
queen's  own  desire,  and,  during  the  re- 
mainder of  her  life,  occasionally  received 
visits  from  different  members  of  the  royal 
family,  who  paid  her  particular  attention. 
She  died  in  1806,  in  the  89tli  year  of  her 
age,  and  lies  inteired  in  the  burying- 
ground  of  Grosvenor  chapel.  The  year 
following  her  death,  her  Memoirs  were 
published,  and  a  new  edition  of  her  po- 
ems ;  and,  subsequently,  her  correspond- 


ence with  Miss  Talbot  (in  9  vols.,  4to.), 
and  lettei-s  to  Mrs.  Montague  and  Mre. 
Vesey  (4  vols.  8vo.),  all  which  are  much 
esteemed. 

Cartes,  Des.  (See  Descartes.) 
Carthage  ;  the  most  famous  city  of  Af- 
rica in  antiquity,  capital  of  a  rich  and  pow- 
erful commercial  repul)lic.  Dido  (q.  v.), 
fleeing  from  Tyre,  came  to  this  countiy, 
Avhere  the  inhabitants,  according  to  tradi- 
tion, agreed  to  give  her  as  much  land  as 
could  be  compassed  by  an  ox-hide.  Dido 
cut  the  hide  into  small  thongs,  with  which 
she  enclosed  a  large  piece  of  land.  Here 
.she  built  the  castle  of  Carthage,  and  gave 
the  newly-founded  state  excellent  institu- 
tions. The  first  period  of  the  historj'  of 
Carthage  extends  to  the  beginning  of  the 
war  with  Syracuse,  from  B.  C.  878  to  480. 
Carthage  extended  its  conquests  in  Africa 
and  Sardinia,  carried  on  a  commercial 
war  with  tlje  people  of  Marseilles  and  the 
Etruscans,  and  concluded  a  commercial 
treaty  with  Rome,  B.  C.  509,  the  origujal 
document  of  which,  on  stone,  is  still  ex- 
tant. The  Carthaginians  then  directed 
their  chief  attention  to  the  conquest  of 
Sicily,  with  which  commences  their  sec- 
ond and  most  splendid  pei-iod,  extending 
to  the  beginning  of  their  war  with  the 
Romans,  B.  C.  265.  When  Xei-xes  un- 
dertook his  campaign  into  Greece,  the 
Carthaginians  made  a  league  with  him 
against  Gelon,  king  of  Syracuse,  but  were 
defeated  at  Himera,  B.  C.  480,  and  obliged 
to  sue  for  peace,  and  abstain  from  the 
practice  of  oftering  human  sacrifices. 
(See  Gelon.)  In  the  war  with  Hiero,  the 
next  king,  the  Carthaginians  conquei'ed 
the  cities  Sehnus,  Himera  and  Agrigen- 
tum.  Dionysius  the  elder  obtained  a 
temporary  peace.  But,  after  Timoleon 
had  delivered  Syracuse  and  Sicily  from 
the  yoke  of  tyranny,  the  Carthaginians 
were  peculiarly  unfortunate.  Contagious 
diseases  and  frequent  mutinies  reduced 
the  strength  of  the  city.  When  Sicily 
suffered  under  the  tyranny  of  Agathocles, 
Carthage  engaged  in  a  war  with  him,  and 
was  soon  attacked  and  severely  pressed  by 
the  usurper.  After  the  death  of  Agatho- 
cles, Carthage  once  more  took  part  in 
the  commerce  of  Sicily,  when  difticul- 
ties  broke  out  there  with  their  auxiliaries, 
the  Mamertines.  The  Romans  took  ad- 
vantage of  these  troubles  to  expel  the 
Carthaginians  from  Sicily,  although  they 
had  previously  received  assistance  from 
them  (in  275)  in  a  war  against  Pyrrhus 
of  Epirus,  in  Sicily  and  Lower  Italy. 
Here  begins  the  third  period  of  Cartha- 
ginian history,  embracing  the  thrice  re- 


544 


CARTHAGE. 


peated  struggle  for  dominion  between 
Rome  and  Carlliage,  in  the  interval  be- 
tween 2G4  and  14G  B.  C.  The  first  Punic 
war  (see  Punic)  continued  23  yeai-s. 
The  fleets  and  armies  of  Carthage  were 
vanquished.  By  the  peace  (B.  C.  241), 
the  Carthaginians  lost  all  their  possessions 
in  Sicily.  •  Upon  this,  the  mercenary 
forces,  whose  wages  could  not  be  paid 
by  tlie  exhausted  treasury  of  the  city, 
took  up  arms.  Ilamilcar  Barcas  con- 
quered them,  and  restored  the  Cartha- 
ginian power  hi  Africa.  Notwithstanding 
the  peace  with  Carthage,  the  Romans 
took  possession  of  Sardinia  in  228,  where 
the  mercenary  trooi)s  of  Carthage  had 
revolted.  Hamilcar,  who  was  at  the  liead 
of  the  democratic  party,  now  undertook 
the  conquest  of  Spain,  whose  rich  mines 
tempted  the  Carthaginians.  For  the  suc- 
cess of  this  enterprise,  within  17  yeai-s, 
Carthage  was  indebted  to  the  family  of 
Barcas,  which  could  boast  of  the  glorious 
names  of  Hamilcar,  Asdrubal  and  Hatmi- 
bal.  To  secure  the  possession  of  tliis 
acquisition,  Asdrubal  founded  New  Car- 
thage (now  Carthagena),  the  most  power- 
ful of  all  the  Carthaginian  colonies.  The 
second  Punic  war  (218 — ^201  B.  C),  not- 
withstanding the  abihties  of  the  general, 
ended  with  the  subjugation  of  Cardiage. 
Hannibal,  neglected  by  his  countrymen, 
and  weakened  by  a  victory  that  cost  him 
much  blood,  was  obliged  to  leave  Italy, 
in  order  to  hasten  to  the  assistance  of 
Carthage,  which  was  threatened  by  the 
Romans.  The  battle  at  Zama,  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Cardiage,  resulted  in  fa- 
vor of  the  Romans.  Scijjio  granted  the 
city  peace  under  the  severest  conditions. 
Carthage  ceded  Spain,  delivered  U])  all 
her  ships  of  war  except  10,  paid  10,000 
talents  (about  $10,000,000),  and  promised 
to  engage  in  no  war  without  the  consent 
of  tlie  Romans.  Besides  this,  Masinissa, 
the  ally  of  Rome,  and  implacable  enemy 
of  Carthage,  was  placed  on  the  Numidian 
tlirone.  This  king,  under  the  protection 
of  Rome,  deprived  the  Carthaginians  of 
the  best  part  of  their  possessions,  and  de- 
stroyed their  trade  in  the  interior  of  Afri- 
ca. The  third  war  with  the  Romans  was 
a  desperate  contest.  The  disanned  Car- 
thaginians were  obliged  to  demolish  their 
own  walls.  Then,  taking  up  arms  anew, 
they  fought  for  death  or  life.  After  three 
years,  the  younger  Scipio  ended  this  war 
by  the  destruction  of  the  city,  B.  C,  14G. 
Augustus  peopled  it  anew,  and  it  regained 
some  degree  of  renown.  From  A.  D. 
429  to  534,  it  was  the  residence  of  the 
Vandal  kings.    But  the  Arabians  destroy- 


ed it  a  second  time,  and  few  traces  now 
remain  of  it,  excejH  an  aqueduct. 

Tiie  government  of  Caitliage,  according 
to  the  common  opinion,  in  its  origin,  was 
njonarchical ;  afterwards,  it  is  not  known 
bow  nor  when,  it  became  republican. 
The  Phoenician  states,  likewise,  had  kings, 
and  their  government,  too,  wjis  republican. 
As  no  distinct  period  is  mentioned  when 
the  government  received  its  form,  the 
constitution  seems  to  have  been  gradually 
formed,  mostly  by  and  through  domestic 
troubles.  The  government  was  cotn- 
posed  of  the  sitffctes,  the  senate,  the  tribu- 
nal of  the  hundred,  and  the  freemen. 
The  sitffdes  were  at  the  head  of  aft'airs, 
and  were  connnonly  called  kings,  by  the 
Greek  autliors,  and  consuls  by  tlie  Ro- 
mans. They  were  permanent  olTicei-s, 
and  not,  like  the  Roman  consuls,  chosen 
for  short  periods.  The  Carthaginian  sen- 
ate seems  to  have  been  a  permanent  and 
numerous  body,  in  which  there  was  a 
smaller  committee,  composed,  probably, 
of  the  elder  membei-s.  As  regards  the 
power  of  the  seixite,  and  its  relation  to 
the  i)eople,  we  know  that  the  former  had 
the  right  of  deliberating  beforehand  on 
all  affairs  that  were  to  be  referred  to  tlie 
people.  If  the  suffetes  agreed  with  the 
senate,  the  business  might  be  referred  to 
the  people,  or  not,  as  these  magistrates 
saw  tit ;  but  if  they  disagreed,  it  was  al- 
ways referred  to  the  people ;  and  every 
citizen  had  the  right  of  expressing  his 
opinions  freely.  War  and  peace,  likewise, 
depended  on  the  decision  of  the  senate. 
The  tribunal  of  the  hundred  was  chosen 
ffom  the  most  respectable  families,  and 
was  the  highest  political  tribunal.  It 
seems,  also,  to  have  been  in  possession  of 
suj)renie  civil  jurisdiction.  A  liighly  re- 
markable peculiarity  of  the  Carthaginian 
government  was,  the  separation  of  the 
civil  and  military  power  at  so  early  a  pe- 
riod. The  suffetes  were  never  their  gen- 
eials.  The  latter  were  chosen  by  the 
peojile,  and,  in  time  of  war,  had  unlimited 
])ower  in  regard  to  military  operations. 
Affairs  of  state,  on  the  contrary,  alli- 
ances, and  the  like,  were  administered  by 
a  committee  of  the  senate,  which  wag 
associated  with  the  generals.  In  this  re- 
spect, the  Carthaginian  constitution  was 
superior  to  the  Roman,  in  which  the 
union  of  the  two  powers  cost  the  state  its 
freedom.  The  religion  of  Carthage  was 
a  branch  of  the  worship  of  the  stare  and 
of  fire,  which  prevailed  in  the  East. 
Concerning  Moloch  (Baal  or  the  Sun), 
the  supreme  god  of  the  Pha?nicians,  the 
human  sacrifices,  and  other  peculiarities 


CARTHAGE— CARTHUSIANS. 


545 


of  the  Phoenician  worship,  the  bishop  of 
Zealand,  doctor  Frederic  Miiiiter,  has 
published  the  result  of  his  interesting  in- 
quiries, in  his  Religion  of  the  Carthagin- 
ians (Copenhagen,  1821,  2d  edition,  4to.). 

Carthagena  ;  an  ancient  town  on  the 
coast  of  the  kingdom  of  Murcia,  with 
considerable  trade,  one  of  the  three  gi-eat 
naval  harbors  of  Spain,  and  the  best  port 
of  the  3Iediterranean.  The  basin  i« 
very  deep,  even  quite  close  to  tlie  town. 
The  hills  that  surround  it,  wiih  steep 
ascents,  and  an  island  at  tJie  mouth  of 
the  harbor,  protect  the  vessels  from  all 
■svinde.  The  town,  with  the  citadel,  is 
situated  on  a  peninsula  in  the  harbor.  It 
contains  29,000  inhabitants,  fine  wharves, 
a  naval  arsenal,  a  naval  school,  a  njathe- 
maticul,  nautical  and  pilot  academy,  an 
obsenatory,  a  botanical  garden,  a  sail- 
cloth manufactory,  has  some  fisheries, 
and  some  trade  iii  barilla,  silk,  &c.  In 
the  neighborhood  of  the  town,  the  Car- 
thaginians possessed  mines  of  silver  of 
such  richness,  that  Hannibal  was  enabled 
to  carry  on  the  war  against  the  Romans 
out  of  their  pro/^luce.  There  are  hot 
springs  and  salt  mines  in  the  neighbor- 
hood. The  town  was  built  by  the  Car- 
thaginian general  Asdrubal. 

Carthagena  ;  a  ])rovince  of  Colombia, 
forming,  with  the  provinces  Santa  Mar- 
tha and  Rio  Hacha,  tiie  department  i\Iag- 
dalena  {see  Colombia),  bordering  on  the 
Caribbean  sea  and  the  gulf  of  Darien. 
The  country  is  composed  of  moimtains 
and  valleys,  covered  with  large  and  small 
forests.  The  variety  of  plants  and  trees, 
as  well  as  fruits,  is  wonderful.  The  earth 
is  covered  Avith  peiiietual  verdure.  Wheat 
and  other  kinds  of  European  gi-ain  do  not 
flourish  well,  but  Indian  corn  and  rice  are 
raised  in  sufficient  quantity  for  tiie  con- 
sumption of  the  inlvabitants.  The  cli- 
mate is  very  hot.  From  May  to  Dece)n- 
ber,  there  is  a  great  deal  of  rain.  The 
variety  and  beauty  of  the  birds  is  remark- 
able. Poultry,  pigeons,  partridges  and 
geese,  are  good  and  pientifid.  The  fruits 
of  the  country  are  pine-apples,  papayas, 
plantains,  &c.  The  principal  town  is 
Carthagena. 

Carthagena  ;  a  city  and  sea])0rt  of 
Colombia,  capital  of  the  ])roviiice  of  the 
same  name  ;  lat.  10°  25'  N. ;  Ion.  77°  SO' 
W.  The  popidation  is  rated  at  24,000, 
It  contains  a  handsome  cathedral,  several 
churches,  convents  and  monasteries,  Tlie 
city  is  situated  on  a  sandy  island,  which 
forms  a  narrow  yjassage  on  the  S.  W, 
The  bay  is  one  of  the  best  in  the  country. 
It  extends  seven  miles  from  N-  to  S.,  aod 
4l>* 


has  a  safe  anchorage,  though  the  many 
shallows  at  the  entrance  make  a  careful 
steerage  necessaiy.  There  are  among 
the  inhabitants  of  Carthagena  very  many 
of  Indian  descent.  The  city,  like  the 
whole  province,  is  subjected  to  the  incon- 
venience of  periodical  rains. 

Carthusians  ;  a  religious  order,  instil 
tuted  by  St.  Bruno  (q.  v.),  who,  in  1086, 
built  several  hermitages  in  a  desert  sur- 
rounded by  hills  and  rocks,  four  leagues 
from  Grenoble,  and,  with  six  companions, 
united  the  ascetic  with  the  monastic  life, 
like  the  Camaldulians.  The  inhabitants 
of  this  desert  built  a  church,  and,  by  ui- 
dustry  and  skill,  converted  into  gardens 
a  place  which  seemed  to  have  been  des-? 
tined  for  the  haunt  of  wild  beasts  onl}\ 
At  the  same  time,  they  practised  the 
greatest  abstinence,  wore  coarse  gar-^ 
ments,  and  eat  only  vegetables  and  the 
coareest  bread.  From  their  original  seat 
{La  Chartreuse),  they  were  called  Carthu- 
sians, and  their  monasteries,  at  first  only 
a  few  in  number,  Avere  called  Chartretises. 
Their  fifth  general,  Guigues  (died  1137), 
prescribed,  besides  the  usual  monastic 
vows,  eternal  silence  and  solitude.  Me.- 
chanical  labors  and  copying  of  books,  to-t 
getlier  with  religious  worship,  constituted 
their  occupation.  They  observed  a  strict 
temperance,  and  submitted  to  bleeding 
five  times  a  year.  In  1170,  they  were 
confirmed  by  the  pope.  In  the  following 
centuries,  they  received  additional  stat^ 
ute«,  which  forbade  altogether  the  eating 
of  flesh,  and  allowed  them  to  speak  only 
during  certain  hours  on  Thursdays  and 
the  days  on  which  the  chapter  met. 
With  increashig  wealth,  however,  many 
embellishments  were  added  to  their  soli- 
tary life,  as  the  great  Chartreuse,  near 
Grenoble,  and  their  elegant  palace  at  Na? 
pies,  prove.  The  monks  were,  in  general, 
well  informed,  hospitable,  and  remarkable 
for  their  neatness.  Excessive  penance 
was  interdicted,  but  their  laws  were  cXt 
ceedingly  severe  against  disobedience, 
Their  habit  was  entirely  white  within, 
covered  with  a  black  mantle.  The  lay 
brothers  were  distinguished  by  the  bear4 
and  a  shorter  scapulary.  The  CarthuT 
sian  nuns  originated  in  1616.  They  were 
dressed  in  white,  like  the  monks,  with  a 
black  veil.  They  obtained  permission  to 
dine  in  common,  and  to  interrupt  their 
silence  more  frequently.  The  general  of 
tiie  whole  order  was  always  the  vicar  of 
tlie  Chartreuse  at  Grenoble,  In  the  njid, 
die  of  the  18th  century,  the  Carthusian 
monks  occupied  172  monasteries,  of  which 
75  Avere  in  Ffance,  the  others  mostly  in 


546 


CARTHUSIANS— CARTOON. 


Gennany  and  Italy.  The  Carthusians  in 
Sicily  and  Spain  only  have  escaped  tlie 
general  abolition  of  the  order. 

Cartilage  is  a  semi-pellucid  substance, 
of  a  milk-white  or  pearly  color,  entering 
into  tlic  composition  of  several  j)arts  of 
the  body.  It  holds  a  middle  rank,  in 
point  of  tirmness,  between  bones,  or  hard 
parts,  and  the  softer  constituents  of  the 
human  frame.  It  appears,  on  a  superfi- 
cial examination,  to  be  homogeneous  in 
its  texture ;  for,  when  cut,  the  sm-face  is 
uniform,  and  contains  no  visible  cells, 
cavities,  nor  pores,  but  resembles  the  sec- 
tion of  a  piece  of  glue.  It  possesses  a 
veiy  liigh  degree  of  elasticity,  which 
property  distinguishes  it  from  all  other 
])arts  of  the  body.  Hence  it  enters  into 
the  com])osition  of  parts  whose  functions 
require  the  combination  of  firmness  with 
pliancy  and  flexibilitj-,  the  preservation 
of  a  certain  external  form,  witii  the  power 
of  yielding  to  external  force  or  pressure. 
Anatomists  divide  cartilages  into  two 
kinds,  the  temporary  and  the  permanent. 
The  former  are  confined  to  the  earlier 
stages  of  existence ;  the  latter  common- 
ly retain  their  cartilaginous  structure 
throughout  life.  The  temporaiy  caHi- 
lages  are  those  in  which  the  bones  are 
formed.  All  the  bones  except  the  teeth 
are  formed  in  a  nidus  of  cartilage.  The 
permanent  cartilages  are  of  various  kinds. 
They  compose  the  external  ear  and  ex- 
ternal aperture  of  the  nostrils  and  eyelids. 
The  larynx  is  formed  entirely  of  this  sub- 
stance, and  the  trachea  or  windpipe,  with 
its  branches,  is  furnished  with  cartilagin- 
ous hoops,  by  which  these  tubes  are  kept 
permanently  open  for  the  ready  passage 
of  air  to  and  from  the  lungs.  The  bodies 
of  the  vertebi-se  are  jomed  by  large  masses 
of  a  peculiar  substance,  paitakiug  of  the 
properties  and  appearance  of  cartilage 
and  ligament,  which  allow  of  the  motions 
of  these  parts  on  each  other,  without 
weakening  the  support  that  is  afforded  to 
the  upper  parts  of  the  body  in  general, 
and  to  the  head  in  particular,  by  the  ver- 
tebral colunui.  These  cartilages  impart 
great  elasticity  to  the  spine,  by  which  the 
effects  of  concussion  from  jumping,  from 
falls,  &c.,  are  weakened  and  destroyed 
before  they  can  be  propagated  to  the 
head.  When  the  body  has  been  long  in 
an  erect  position,  the  compression  of  these 
cartilages,  by  the  superior  parts,  dimin- 
ishes the  height  of  the  person.  They  re- 
cover their  former  length  when  freed 
from  this  pressure.  Hence  a  person  is 
taller  when  he  rises  in  the  morning,  than 
after  sustaining  the  fatigues  of  the  day, 


and  the  difference  has  sometimes  amount- 
ed to  an  inch.  Cartilages  are  sometimes 
interposed  between  the  articular  surfaces 
of  bones,  where  they  fill  up  irregularities 
that  might  otherwise  impede  the  motions 
of  the  i»art,  and  increase  the  security  of 
the  joint  by  adapting  the  articular  sur- 
faces to  each  other.  These  surfaces  are, 
in  every  instance,  covered  by  a  thin  crust 
of  cartilage,  having  its  surface  most  ex- 
quisitely polished,  by  which  all  friction  in 
the  motions  of  the  joint  is  avoided. 

Cartoon  has  many  significations.  In 
painting,  it  denotes  a  sketch  on  thick  pa- 
per, pasteboard,  or  other  material,  which 
is  used  as  a  model  for  a  large  ])icture,  es- 
pecially in  fresco,  oil,  tapestry,  and,  for- 
merly, in  glass  and  mosaic.  In  fresco 
])ainting,  cartoons  are  particularly  useful ; 
because,  in  this,  a  quick  process  is  neces- 
sary, and  a  fault  cannot  easily  be  conected. 
In  applying  cartoons,  the  artist  commonly 
traces  them  through,  covering  the  back 
of  the  design  with  black  lead  or  red  chalk ; 
then,  laying  the  picture  on  the  wall,  or 
other  matter,  he  passes  lightly  over  each 
stroke  of  the  design  with  a  i)oint,  which 
leaves  an  impression  of  the  color  on  the 
plate  or  wall ;  or  the  outlines  of  the  figures 
are  pricked  with  a  needle,  and  then,  the 
cartoon  being  placed  against  the  wall,  a 
bag  of  coal-dust  is  drawn  over  the  holes, 
in  order  to  transfer  the  outlines  to  the 
wall.  In  fresco  ])ainting,  the  figvires  were 
formerly  cut  out,  and  fixed  firmly  on  the 
moist  plaster.  The  painter  then  traced 
their  contour  with  a  pencil  of  wood  or 
u-on ;  so  that  the  outlines  of  the  figures 
appeared  on  the  fresh  plaster,  with  a 
slight  but  distinct  impression,  when  the 
cartoon  was  taken  away.  In  the  manu- 
facture of  a  certain  kind  of  tapestry,  the 
figures  are  still  cut  out,  and  laid  behind 
or  under  the  woof,  by  which  tlie  artist 
directs  his  operations.  In  this  case,  the 
cartoons  must  be  colored.  Of  this  kind 
are  the  cartoons  which  Raphael  executed 
for  pope  Leo  X,  from  which  the  famous 
ta])estries  of  Raphael  (see  Tapestry  and 
Raphael)  in  the  Netherlands  were  woven. 
There  were  twelve  of  them,  representing 
histories  taken  fi'om  the  New  Testament. 
Seven  of  them  are  still  extimt,  and  may 
be  seen  at  Hami)ton  court,  near  London. 
The  best  copy  of  them  has  been  taken  by 
Nicholas  Dorigny,  and  the  collection  is  call- 
ed Pinacotheca  Hamptoniana.  (See  Rich- 
ardson's historical  and  critical  description 
of  them).  Rubens  bought  tliese  cartoons 
for  Charles  I,  and  king  William  built  a 
gallery  for  them  at  Hampton  court.  The 
cartoon  of  the  school  of  Athens,  carried 


CARTOON— CARTWRIGHT. 


547 


to  Paris  by  the  French,  and  a  fragment  of 
the  battle  of  Maxentius  and  Constantine, 
are  preserved  in  tlie  Ainbrosian  gallery  at 
Milan.  There  are  likewise  cartoons  by 
Giulio  Romano  in  the  Sala  Borgia,  by  Do- 
menichino  and  other  Italian  masters,  who 
caused  their  pictures  to  be  executed,  in  a 
great  degree,  by  their  scholars,  after  tliese 
cartoons.  The  value  set  upon  cartoons 
by  the  old  Itahan  mastei-s  rnay  be  seen  by 
Giov.  IJ.  Annenini's  PreceUi  Mia  Pittura 
(Venice,  1G87,  4to.).  In  later  times,  large 
paintings,  particularly  in  fresco,  were  not 
executed  so  frequently.  The  artists  also 
labored  with  less  care,  and  formed  their 
great  works  more  from  small  sketches. 
In  modern  times,  some  German  artists 
have  prepared  accurate  cartoons.  Among 
them  is  CorneUus,  whose  cartoons,  for  his 
fresco-])aintings  in  Munich,  have  acquir- 
ed much  celebrity.  He  prepared,  too,  a 
cartoon  for  the  fresco  picture  represent- 
ing Joseph  interprtting  the  Dream.  Over- 
beck,  also,  has  made  cartoons,  from  which 
he  has  painted  the  Seven  Years  of  Famine, 
and  the  Selling  of  Joseph.  The  ^'ei;e?i 
Years  of  Plenty  he  executed,  with  the  as- 
sistance of  William  Schadow  and  Philip 
Veil.  The  representations  of  Joseph's 
history,  just  mentioned,  the  late  Prussian 
consul-general  Bertholdy  has  caused  to 
be  executed  in  fresco,  at  his  residence  in 
Rome,  by  the  above-named  artists.  For 
the  villa  Massimi,  near  Rome,  Over- 
beck  has  i)ropared  cartoons  representing 
scenes  from  Tasso's  Jerusalem  Delivered  ; 
Julius  Schnorr,  illustrations  of  Ariosto, 
and  Veit,  scenes  taken  from  Dante. 

Cartocch,  in  architecture,  sculpture, 
&c.,  denotes  an  ornament  representing  a 
scroll  of  paper,  being  usually  in  the  form 
of  a  table,  or  flat  memljcr,  with  wavings, 
whereon  is  some  inscription  or  device. — 
In  heraldiy ;  a  name  given  to  a  sort  of 
oval  shields,  much  used  by  the  popes  and 
secular  princes  in  Italy,  and  others,  both 
clergy  and  laity,  for  painting  or  engraving 
tlieir  arms  on. — In  the  military  art;  a 
wooden  case,  about  three  inches  thick  at 
bottom,  and  girt  round  with  marline, 
holding  2,  3,  or  400  musket  balls,  with  8 
or  10  iron  balls,  weighing  one  pound 
each,  to  be  fii'cd  from  a  mortar,  gun  or 
howitzer,  for  the  defence  of  a  ])ass,  re- 
trenchment, &c.  It  is  also  used  for  a 
cartridge-box,  now  employed  mostly  by 
the  cavaliT.  The  charge  of  a  cannon  is 
also  sometimes  called  by  this  name. — 
Cartouche  is  likewise  the  name  given  by 
the  French  literati  to  that  oval  ring,  or 
border,  which  includes,  in  the  Egyptian 
hieroglyphics,  the  names  of  persons  of 


high  distinction,  as  M.  ChampoUion  lias 
proved.  This  border  was  thought,  at 
first,  by  Zo(jga,  to  include  every  proper 
name. 

Cartouche,  Louis  Dominique.  The 
pilfering  propensities  of  this  man,  who 
was  born  at  Paris,  near  the  end  of  the 
17th  centuiy,  early  showed  themselves. 
Being  expelled  from  school,  and  after- 
w-ards  from  his  father's  house,  for  theft, 
he  joined  a  band  of  rogues  in  Nonnandy, 
and  then  put  himself  at  the  head  of  a  nu- 
merous company  of  banditti  in  Paris,  over 
which  he  exercised  the  power  of  life  and 
death.  He  was  fii-st  apprehended  in  a 
tavern,  in  1721,  and  brought  to  the  Chcite- 
let.  On  the  rack,  he  named  none  of  his 
accompUces.  But  when  he  amved  at 
the  place  of  execution,  where  he  was  to 
be  broken  alive  on  the  wheel,  and  found 
that  his  companions  had  not  assembled 
to  his  rescue,  he  retracted,  and  named  his 
accomplices,  to  gain  a  respite.  His  exe- 
cution soon  followed.  Various  autliors 
have  described  his  adventurous,  and,  in 
some  respects,  interesting  life. 

Cartridge  ;  a  case  of  paper,  parch- 
ment, or  flannel,  fitted  to  the  bore  of  fire- 
arms, and  filled  with  gun-powder,  to  ex- 
pedite the  discharge  of  the  piece.  Car- 
tridges are  of  two  sorts,  viz.  6a//-cartridges, 
used  in  firing  balls,  and  6/anA-cartridges, 
used  in  firing  without  ball.  Riflemen 
avoid  the  use  of  cartridges,  because  the 
cartridge  injures  the  shot  of  a  rifle.  In 
most  armies,  a  soldier  carries  60  car- 
tridges into  battle. 

Cartwright,  Edmund,  was  born  in 
174.'5,  in  Nottinghamshire  (brother  of  ma- 
jor John  Cartwright, the  well-known  advo- 
cate of  j)arliamentary  reform),  and  stutUed 
at  Oxford.  His  poems  were  very  po[>ular, 
especially  a  ballad  entitled  Armyne  and 
Elvira,  1771.  He  was  one  of  the  princi- 
pal contributoi-s  to  the  Monthly  Review. 
He  is  also  distinguished  for  his  mechani- 
cal inventions.  In  178G,  he  took  out  a 
patent  for  a  weaving  machine  ;  for  which 
he  obtained  from  j)arliament  a  grant  of 
£10,000,  and  was  often  rew'arded  with 
prizes  for  his  inventions.  For  the  last  30 
years  of  his  life,  he  was  employed  in  jjlans 
for  propelling  carriages  •  and  boats  by 
steam.     He  died  in  1824. 

Cartwright,  John,  an  English  gen- 
tleman, celebrated  for  Iiis  exertions  in  the 
cause  of  political  reform,  was  born  in 
1740,  at  Marnham,  Nottinghamshire,  of 
an  ancient  family.  His  early  education 
was  rather  deficient ;  but  he  made  some 
])rogress  in  mechanics  and  practical  math- 
ematics.    He  entered  the  navy,  and  be- 


548 


CARTWRIGHT— CARVER. 


came  a  first  lieutenant  in  1766.  In  1774, 
Lis  attention  was  turned  to  politics.  In 
liis  Lettere  on  American  Independence, 
written  in  this  year,  he  advocated  a  union 
between  the  colonies  and  the  mother 
state,  under  separate  legislatures,  and  ar- 
gued this  great  question  on  the  founda- 
tion of  natural,  inherent  right ;  maintain- 
ing "  that  the  liberty  of  man  is  not  derived 
from  charters,  but  from  God,  and  that  it 
is  original  in  every  one."  In  1775,  he 
W!is  ajjpointed  major  of  the  Nottingham- 
shire militia,  and,  after  several  ineft'ectual 
attempts,  on  the  part  of  government,  to 
remove  him  from  tliat  post,  his  dismission 
was  finally  accomplished,  in  1792,  in  con- 
sequence of  an  act  of  parliament.  In  the 
American  war,  lord  Howe  was  desirous 
of  having  him  with  him  in  America ;  but 
major  Cartwright,  although  always  eager 
for  promotion  in  the  na\'y,  refused  the 
proposal,  alleging  that  he  could  not  fight 
in  a  cause  which  he  disapproved. — From 
this  time,  he  devoted  himself  to  the  two 
great  objects  of  amiual  ])arliaments  and 
universal  suffrage.  In  1779,  he  succeed- 
ed in  the  establishment  of  a  Society  for 
Constitutional  Information,  and  was  the 
author  of  a  Declaration  of  Rights,  distrib- 
uted by  the  society,  which,  sir  William 
Jones  said,  "  ought  to  be  written  in  letters 
of  gold." — The  French  revolution  was 
warmlj'^  welcomed  by  Cartwright,  as  by 
other  friends  of  liberty.  The  alliance  of 
the  SQvereigns,  which  soon  followed,  he 
considered  equally  irreconcilable  with 
policy  and  with  national  justice.  The  sub- 
sequent prosecutions  against  the  friends 
of  reform,  the  fate  of  Muir  and  of  Holt, 
occasioned  no  small  dismay  among  the 
people.  In  the  trials  of  Tooke,  Hardy, 
Thelwall  and  others,  Cartwright  took  a 
great  interest,  was  present  as  a  witness, 
and  displayed  much  openness,  fearless- 
jiess  and  firmness.  By  his  writings,  pub- 
lic addresses,  &.C.,  he  continued  to  jiro- 
mote  the  work  of  reform  and  constitu- 
tional hberty ;  and,  as  late  as  1819,  he 
was  ti-ied  for  cons])iracy  and  sedition,  for 
advising  the  inhabitants  of  Birmingham 
to  send  wliat  he  called  their  ^^legislatorial 
attorney"  to  the  house ;  but  he  escaped 
with  a  fine  of  £100. — Major  Cartwright 
was  not  a  political  reformer  only.  The 
plan  of  making  the  slave-trade  piracy,  is 
said  to  have  been  first  developed  in  his 
Letters  on  the  Slave-Trade.  The  in- 
formation wliich  he  furnished  to  Daines 
Barrington  res|)ecting  the  possibility  of 
approachiiig  the  nortb  pole  ;  his  plan  for 
a  perpetual  sujjply  of  English  oak  for  the 
navy,  which    has   since    been  partially 


adopted,  and  several  other  useful  projects 
and  inventions,  are  sufficient  evidences 
of  his  enterprise,  activitj'  and  diversified 
knowledge.  He  died  in  1824,  in  the  84th 
year  of  his  age.  He  has  been  described 
as  alike  just  in  all  the  relations  of  life,  as 
a  citizen,  a  politician,  a  husband  and  a 
friend  ;  disinterested,  firm  and  fearless ; 
and  Fox,  upon  presenting  one  of  his  peti- 
tions to  the  house,  remarked,  "  He  is  one, 
whose  enlightened  mind  and  profound 
cojistitutional  knowledge  place  him  in 
the  highest  rank  of  public  characters,  and 
whose  purity  of  principle,  and  consistency 
of  conduct  through  Ufe,  command  the 
most  respectful  attention  to  his  opinions.'* 
The  most  prominent  traits  of  his  charac- 
ter are  enterprise,  firmness  and  pei-se- 
verance.  He  was  a  fruitful  writer,  quick, 
ingenious,  powerful  in  argument,  and 
sometimes  eloquent.  His  language  is 
plain,  pure  and  strong. 

Carver,  Jonathan,  was  bom  in  Con- 
necticut, in  1732.  He  embraced  a  mili- 
taiy  career,  and,  in  the  French  war, 
commanded  with  reputation  a  com])any 
of  provincials,  in  the  expedition  across 
the  lakes,  against  Canada.  When  peace 
was  concluded,  in  1763,  captain  Cai-ver 
undertook  to  explore  the  vast  territory 
which  Great  Britain  had  gained.  His 
object  W.1S,  to  acquire  a  knowledge  of  the 
manners,  customs,  languages,  soil,  and 
natural  productions  of  the  nations  and 
region  beyond  the  Mississippi,  and  to 
ascertain  the  breadth  of  the  continent  by 
penetrating  to  the  Pacific  over  its  widest 
part,  between  N.  lat.  43°  and  46°.  He 
accordingly  set  out  from  Boston  in  1766, 
and,  having  reached  Michillimackinac,  the 
remotest  English  post,  applied  to  Mr. 
Rogers,  the  governor,  for  an  assortment 
of  goods,  as  presents  for  the  Indians 
dwelling  in  the  parts  through  which  his 
course  was  to  be  directed.  Receiving  a 
portion  of  the  supply  which  he  desired, 
and  a  promise  that  the  residue  should  be 
sent  to  him  at  the  falls  of  St.  Anthony, 
he  continued  his  jom-ney.  But,  not  ob- 
taining the  goods  at  the  appointed  place, 
in  consequence  of  their  having  been  dis- 
posed of  elsewhere  by  those  to  whom  the 
governor  had  intrusted  them,  he  found  it 
necessary  to  return  to  la  Prairie  du  Cliien. 
He  then,  in  the  beginning  of  the  year  1767, 
directed  his  steps  northward,  with  a  view 
of  finding  a  communication  from  the 
heads  of  the  Mississippi  into  lake  Supe- 
rior, in  order  to  meet,  at  the  grand  j)ort- 
age  on  the  north-west  side  of  that  lake, 
the  traders  that  usually  come,  about  this 
season,  from  Michillimackinac,  from  whom 


CARVER— CARY. 


549 


he  intended  to  purchase  goods,  and  then 
to  pursue  his  journey,  lie  reached  lake 
Superior  in  good  time  ;  but,  unfortunately, 
the  traders  whom  he  met  there  could  not 
furnish  him  with  any  goods,  as  they  had 
barely  enough  for  their  own  purposes, 
and,  in  consequence,  he  was  obliged  to 
return  to  the  place  whence  he  fii-st  de- 
parted, which  he  did  in  October,  1768, 
after  remaining  some  months  on  the  north 
and  east  borders  of  lake  Superior,  and 
exploring  the  bays  and  rivers  that  empty 
themselves  into  tbat  body  of  water.  He 
soon  after  repaired  to  England,  with  the 
view  of  publishing  his  journal  and  charts, 
and  of  obtaining  a  reimbui-sement  for  the 
expenses  which  he  had  incuired.  Having 
undergone  a  long  examination  before  the 
lords  commissionei-s  of  trade  and  planta- 
tions, he  received  permission  to  publish 
his  papei"s ;  but,  when  they  were  nearly 
ready  for  the  press,  an  order  was  issued 
from  the  council-board,  requiring  him  to 
deliver  immediately  into  the  plantalion- 
ofiice  all  his  charts  and  journals.  He 
was,  consequently,  obliged  to  re-purchase 
them,  at  a  great  expense,  from  the  book- 
seller to  whom  he  had  disposed  of  them — 
a  loss  for  which  he  received  no  indemni- 
fication, but  was  forced  to  be  satisfied 
with  that  obtained  for  his  other  expenses. 
He  had  fortunately  kept  copies  of  his  pa- 
pers, and  he  published  them  ten  years 
afterwards,  in  Boston,  while  in  the  situa- 
tion of  clerk  of  a  lottery.  Having  sold 
bis  name  to  a  historical  compilation, 
which  was  published  in  1779,  in  folio, 
entitled  The  JVtw  Universal  Traveller, 
contaming  an  account  of  all  the  empires, 
kingdoms  and  states  m  the  known  world, 
he  was  abandoned  by  those  wliose  duty 
it  was  to  support  him,  and  died  in  want 
of  the  coifimon  necessaries  of  life,  in 
1780,  aged  48  years. — Besides  his  travels 
above  noticed,  captain  Carver  published 
a  tract  on  the  culture  of  tobacco. 

Cary,  Lucius  (viscount  Falkland),  one 
of  those  rare  characters  who  serve  as  pro- 
verbial instances  of  social  excellence,  was 
born  about  the  year  IGIO.  Being  carried 
young  into  Ireland,  he  received  part  of 
his  education  at  Trinity  college,  Dublin, 
and  part  at  St.  John's  college,  Cambridge. 
His  youth  did  not  pass  without  irregulai-- 
ities,  but  they  were  suddenly  closed  by 
his  marriage  with  a  yoimg  lady  of  small 
fortune,  whom  he  passionately  loved. 
After  passing  some  time  abroad,  he  re- 
turned home,  and  devoted  hiniself  to  a 
life  of  retirement,  and  the  cultivation  of 
polite  literature.  In  1G33,  he  was  ap- 
pointed one  of  the  gentlemen  of  the  bed- 


chamber to  Charles  I,  but  still  chiefly 
resided  at  his  seat  at  Burford,  near  Ox- 
ford, which  he  made  a  kind  of  academy 
of  learned  men,  being  continually  sur- 
rounded by  the  most  eminent  men  of  the 
neighboring  universities.  Here  it  was 
that  Chillingworth  composed  his  famous 
work  against  poper}' ;  and  questions  of 
morals,  theology  and  literature  were  dis- 
cussed, in  a  congenial  circle,  with  the 
utmost  freedom.  Lord  Falkland  himself 
was  dee|)ly  read  in  works  of  controversy ; 
but  in  him  they  produced  only  strictness 
of  principle,  and  an  aspiration  after  per- 
fection, without  debasing  the  man  in  the 
exaltation  of  the  scholar.  In  lG-39,  he 
joined  the  expedition  against  Scotland; 
and,  in  1640,  his  peerage  being  Scotch, 
he  was  chosen  member  of  tlie  house  of 
commons  for  Newport,  in  the  Isle  of 
Wight.  In  the  first  instance,  hke  many 
of  the  most  honorable  characters  of  the 
day,  he  warmly  supported  parliament. 
He  spoke  with  severity  against  Finch  and 
Strafford,  and  was  so  disgusted  with  the 
proceedings  of  Laud,  that  he  concurred 
in  the  first  bill  for  depriving  the  bishops 
of  a  vote  in  the  house  of  lords.  A  strong 
attachment,  however,  to  established  forms, 
and  some  doubts  of  the  ultimate  objects 
of  the  parliamentary  leaders,  caused  him 
to  retract ;  and  he  afterwards  strongly  op- 
posed the  same  measure.  He  still,  how- 
ever, kept  at  a  distance  from  the  court ; 
but  his  high  character  rendered  it  so  great 
an  object  to  gain  him  over  to  the  king's 
service,  that  at  length  he  was  induced  to 
accept  a  seat  in  the  council,  and  the  office 
of  secretary  of  state.  While  in  office,  ho 
refused  to  employ  spies  or  open  suspected 
letters.  He  very  decidedly  embraced  the 
party  of  the  king,  when  hostilities  com- 
menced, and  attended  him  at  the  battle 
of  Edge-hill,  and  the  siege  of  Gloucester. 
A  view,  however,  of  the  evils  impending 
over  the  country,  and,  very  probabh-,  a 
conviction  of  sinister  objects  on  both 
sides,  broke  his  spirits.  He  would  fre- 
quently sit  abstracted  among  liis  Iriends, 
and,  sighing  deeply,  exclaim,  "  Peace, 
peace !"  and  exhibit  every  sign  of  grief 
and  anxiety.  His  closing  scene  almost 
proves  a  determination  to  die  in  battle,  as 
he  volunteered  his  services  at  the  battle 
of  Newbury,  without  a  command,  and, 
putting  himself  in  the  front  rank  of  lord 
Byron's  regiment,  was  struck  from  his 
horse  by  a  musket-shot,  and  was  found, 
the  next  day,  dead  iqion  the  field. — Such 
was  the  fate  of  lord  Falkland,  at  the  age 
of  34 ;  and,  while  the  universal  praises 
which  he  has  received  are,  doubUess,  very 


550 


CARY— CASANOVA. 


much  owing  to  the  elaborate  character 
drawn  of  him  by  his  friend  Clarendon, 
there  can  be  no  doubt  of  the  strict  integ- 
rity of  his  character  and  intentions.  As 
a  man  of  active  talent,  he  claims  little  ad- 
miration, and  was  evidently  framed  for 
that  life  of  studious  retirement  and  men- 
tal culture  in  which  he  so  much  delight- 
ed. One  of  his  sayings  marks  his  taste 
and  character — "  I  pity  unlearned  gentle- 
men on  a  rainy  day."  Lord  Falkland 
left  behind  him  several  published  speeches 
and  ])amphlets  on  political  and  theologi- 
cal subjects,  as  also  a  ihw  poems. 

Caktatides  :  a  kind  of  pillare,  which 
represent  the  upper  part  of  female  bodies. 
The  name  is  of  Greek  origin.  The  god- 
dess Diana,  who  had  a  temple  in  Karyatis, 
a  Peloponnesian  city,  was,  for  this  reason, 
called  Karyatis.  In  honor  of  her,  virgins 
danced  in  a  festive  procession,  on  the 
feast  of  Karyatis,  which  suggested  to 
architects  the  idea  of  adopting  the  image 
of  virgins  in  a  kind  of  column  which 
ornamented  the  Pantheon.  Thus  Lessing 
explains  the  name  and  form  of  the  Caryat- 
ides. Another  explanation  of  the  origin 
of  Caryatides  is  the  following :  The  in- 
habitants of  Carya,  a  city  of  Pelopon- 
nesus, allied  themselves  with  the  barba- 
rians in  the  Pei-sian  war.  The  Greeks, 
on  the  successful  termination  of  that 
etruggle,  exterminated  the  males  of  Carya, 
and  reduced  all  the  women  to  slaveiy. 
The  captives,  as  a  further  mark  of  infamy, 
were  forbidden  to  lay  aside  the  robes  in 
which  they  had  decorated  the  conquerors' 
triumph  ;  and  the  architects  of  the  time, 
to  perpetuate  the  memory  of  the  transac- 
tion, made  statues  representing  these 
women  in  the  servile  office  of  supporting 
entablatures.     (See  Architecture,  i.  340.) 

Casa,  Giovanni  della,  an  Italian  poet 
and  orator,  of  an  ancient  and  noble  family 
of  Miigello,  near  Florence,  was  born  1503, 
studied  at  Bologna,  Padua,  Rome,  and 
entered,  as  an  ecclesiastic,  into  the  service 
of  the  two  cardinals  Alessandro  Farnese, 
the  fii-st  of  whom,  in  1534,  ascended  the 
papal  chair,  under  the  name  of  Paul  III. 
He  rose  through  various  offices  in  the 
church,  till  Paul  IV  made  him  his  private 
secretaiT.  He  died  probably  in  1556.  His 
most  celebrated  work  is  Galateo,  owero 
de'  Costumi,  to  which  one,  Degli  iiffizj, 
Communi  tra  gli  Amid  Superiori  e  Infe- 
riori,  forms  a  supplement.  This  last  is 
a  translation  of  his  Latin  treatise,  De  Offi- 
ciis  inter  Potentiores  et  Tenuiores  Amicos. 
The  best  and  most  complete  edition  of 
his  works  appeared  at  Venice,  1752,  in  3 
vols.,  4to. 


Casanova,  Francis,  a  pauiter  famous  for 
liis  battle-pieces,  born  at  London,  1730, 
went,  while  a  boy,  to  Venice,  where  he 
applied  himself  to  the  art  of  painting.  He 
afterwards  obtained  admission  into  the 
academy  in  Dresden,  and  painted  several 
j)ieces  for  the  prince  Conde.  The  spirit 
and  liveliness  of  his  coloring  and  execu- 
tion cannot  be  surpassed.  At  the  request 
of  Catharine  of  Russia,  he  painted,  in  Vien- 
na, a  piece  representing  the  victoi-y  of  this 
princess  over  the  Turks,  which  she  after- 
wards put  up  in  her  palace.  He  was  con- 
stantly occupied  with  his  art,  and  died  at 
Briihl,  near  Vienna,  1805. — His  brother 
John,  likewise  a  painter,  was  bom  1729, 
at  London  ;  died,  1795,  at  Dresden,  where 
he  was  professor  and  superintendent  in 
the  academy  of  painting,  and  had  instruct- 
ed many  able  pupils  in  his  art.  His  work 
on  the  Ancient  Monuments  of  Art,  pub- 
hshed  in  Italian,  and  also  in  German  (Leip- 
sic,  1771 ),  is  still  in  esteem. 

Casanova,  John  James  de  Seingalt ; 
eldest  brother  of  the  preceding ;  born  at 
Venice,  1725 ;  known  by  his  Memoirs  as 
an  original  and  gay-tempered  man,  who 
acted  an  interesting  part  in  all  situations, 
amongst  all  classes  of  society,  and  in  all 
the  large  cities  of  Europe.  His  various 
adventures  are  related  by  himself  in  a 
most  entertaining  manner.  They  were 
first  published,  in  part,  at  Leipsic,  1826, 
in  a  German  translation.  The  French 
original  has  since  appeared.  His  father, 
Cajetan  John  James,  a  descendant  of  tlie 
Spanish  family  of  Palafox,  falling  in  love 
with  a  dancer,  turned  actor,  but  afterwards 
united  himself  with  the  daughter  of  a 
shoemaker,  Fanosi,  who  followed  the  pro- 
fession of  her  husband.  James  Casanova, 
their  eldest  son,  received  the  nidiments  of 
his  education  in  Padua,  and  made  rapid 
progress  in  the  Latin  language,  as  well  as 
in  the  other  branches  of  learning.  His 
ardent  temperament,  early  developed, 
soon,  however,  involved  him  in  many  ad- 
ventures, that  served  to  sharpen  his  ob- 
senation,  and  enlarge  his  knowledge  of 
human  nature.  He  studied  law,  and,  in 
his  16th  year,  wrote  two  dissertations; 
one,  De  Testamentis,  the  other  on  the 
question,  Utrnm  Hthrcei  possint  constru- 
ere  nx)vas  Synagoga,t.  His  talent  for 
shining  in  society  introduced  him,  at  Ven- 
ice, into  the  select  circles,  in  which  a  re- 
fined but  fiivolous  tone  of  mannei-s  pre- 
vailed. The  patriarch  of  Venice  gave 
him  the  inferior  ordination,  and  his  firet 
sermon  was  received  with  general  ap- 
plause. But  he  failed  in  his  second ;  and 
from  this  period  commences  his  restles3 


CASANOVA— LAS  CASAS. 


551 


career,  in  which  he  became  entangled  in 
a  series  of  love  adventures,  that  can  be 
understood  only  from  his  memoirs.  He 
is  arrested  in  V'enice,  comes  into  personal 
contact  with  pope  Benedict  XIV  at 
Rome,  goes  to  Constantinople,  is  in  the 
niilitaiy  service  at  Corfu,  and,  in  short, 
visits  all  the  principal  cities  of  Europe, 
being  continually  connected  with  the 
highest  personages,  is  followed  and  ca- 
ressed, till  at  last  he  accompanies  the  count 
of  Waldstein  to  Dux,  in  Bohemia,  where 
lie  becomes  his  librarian.  lie  died  at 
Vienna,  in  1803.  The  escape  of  Casanova 
from  the  lead  prisons  of  Venice  was 
managed  with  admirable  address  and  in- 
genuity. He  has  left  several  works  in 
Italian  and  French,  which  give  proof  of 
the  great  powers  of  tliis  Proteus,  though 
lie  was  more  at  home  in  the  bustling 
world  than  in  the  pursuits  of  learning. 
Of  these  may  be  mentioned  Confutazione 
della  Storia  del  Goherno  Veneto  (TAmdot 
de  la  Houssaie,  divisa  in  tre  Parti  (Am- 
sterdam, 1769) ;  Istona  delle  Turbidenze 
della  Polonia  dalla  Morte  di  Elisahet  Pe- 
troicna  fino  alia  pace  fra  la  Russia  e  la 
Porta  Ottomamt^  in  cui  si  trovano  tuiti  gli 
Avenimenti  Cagioni  della  Rivoluzione  di 
quel  Regno  (Griitz,  1774,  3  vols.) ;  Histoire 
de  ma  Fuiie  dts  Prisons  de  la  Repuhlique  de 
Venise,  qu?  on  appelle  les  Plombs  (Prague, 
1788).  His  memoii-s  are  a  mirror  of  the 
manners  of  his  time. 

Casas,  Bartholomew  de  las,  a  Spanish 
prelate,  was  born  at  Seville  in  1474,  and, 
in  his  19th  year,  accompanied  his  father, 
who  sailed  with  Columbus,  to  tlie  West 
Indies.  Five  years  afterwards,  he  return- 
ed to  Spain,  and,  pursuing  his  studies,  en- 
tered the  ecclesiastical  order.  He  again 
accompanied  Columbus  in  his  second 
voyage  to  Hispaniola,  and,  on  the  con- 
quest of  Cuba,  settled  there,  and  distin- 
guished himself  by  his  humane  conduct 
towards  the  oppressed  natives,  of  whom 
he  became,  in  a  manner,  the  patron.  He 
set  at  liberty  the  Indians  who  had  fallen 
to  his  share  in  the  division  ;  and  so  much 
was  he  interested  for  them,  that,  in  1516, 
he  went  to  Spain  to  lay  a  statement  of 
their  case  before  king  Ferduiand,  whose 
death,  at  that  time,  prevented  any  meas- 
ures for  their  redress.  The  regent,  cardinal 
Ximenes,  however,  appointed  a  commis- 
sion to  examine  circumstances  upon  the 
spot,  ai]d  to  detennine  accordingly.  Las 
Casas  was  to  accompany  them,  with  the 
title  of  protector  of  the  Indians.  The 
commissioners  found  that  it  was  impos- 
sible to  liberate  the  Indians,  and  therefore 
endeavored  to  secure  them  humane  treat- 


ment ;  but  Las  Casas,  still  dissatisfied, 
remonstrated  so  warmly,  that  he  was 
obliged  to  take  refuge  in  a  convent,  from 
tlie  rage  of  the  planters.  He  again  return- 
ed to  Europe,  and,  on  the  accession  of 
Charles  V,  in  consequence  of  his  repre- 
sentations, the  council  appointed  a  chief 
judge,  to  reexamine  the  points  of  contro- 
versy between  the  partisans  of  Indian 
liberty  and  the  colonists.  Las  Casas,  by 
a  singular  inconsistency,  in  his  zeal  for 
the  Indians,  became  the  author  of  the 
slave-trade,  by  proposing  to  purchase  Ne- 
groes from  the  Portuguese  in  Africa,  to 
supply  the  plantei-s  with  laborers,  of  the 
want  of  whom  they  complained ;  and 
this  was  unfortunately  put  into  execution. 
He  next  apphed  for  a  gi'ant  of  an  unoc- 
cupied tract,  in  order  to  try  his  own  plan 
with  a  new  colony.  This  he  at  length 
obtained,  and,  with  200  persons,  whom 
he  persuaded  to  accompany  him,  landed 
at  Porto  Rico  in  1521,  but  found  that  an 
expedition  was  advancing  to  ravage  this 
very  tract,  and  convey  its  inhabitants  to 
Hispaniola  as  slaves. '  He  endeavored  in 
vain  to  prevent  the  threatened  danger,  and, 
with  the  few  who  still  adhered  to  him, 
returned  to  Hispaniola  to  soUcit  succor. 
During  his  absence,  the  natives  attacked 
the  colonists  with  such  success,  that,  in  a 
short  lime,  not  a  Spaniard  remained  in  that 
part  of  South  America.  Las  Casas,  in 
despair  at  the  failure  of  his  project,  retir- 
ed to  the  Dominican  convent  at  St. 
Domingo,  and  assumed  the  habit  of  the 
order.  Notwithstanding  his  retirement, 
his  zeal  in  the  cause  of  the  Indians  did 
not  abate ;  and,  being  sent  on  a  mission  to 
Spain,  by  a  chapter  of  his  order  at  Chiapa, 
in  1542,  he  pleaded  their  cause  with  his 
pristine  warmth,  and  comjjosed  his  fa- 
mous treatise  Brevissima  Relacion  de  la  De- 
struccion  des  Indes,  in  which  lie  exposed 
the  cruelties  practised  by  the  Spaniards. 
His  unremitting  perseverance  at  length 
obtained  a  new  set  of  laws  and  regulations, 
by  which  the  natives  were  greatly  reliev- 
ed. In  1544,  he  returned  to  America  as 
bishop  of  Chiaj)a,  and  continued  there 
until  1551,  when  he  resigned  his  bishop- 
ric, and  again  returned  to  Spain.  He 
died  at  Madrid  in  1556,  in  the  92d  year 
of  his  age.  Besides  the  treatise  above- 
named,  he  was  also  the  author  of  a  trea- 
tise, in  Latin,  on  the  question — "Whether 
sovereigns  may  in  conscience,  by  virtue 
of  any  right,  ahenate  their  subjects  from 
their  crown,  and  transfer  them  to  the  do- 
minion of  any  other  lord  ?"  which  difficult 
question  he  treats  with  great  freedom, 
spirit  and  delicacy.    He  also  composed 


S53 


LAS  CASAS— CASE-HARDENING. 


several  works  whicli  have  never  been 
published,  among  which  is  a  General 
History  of  the  Indies,  whicli  was  a  great 
assistance  to  Antonio  de  Ilerrei-a  in  his 
history.  All  his  works  evince  ])rofound 
learning,  and  solid  judgment  antl  piety  ; 
and,  notwithstfuiding  his  great  inconsist- 
ency in  regard  to  the  Negroes,  he  must 
be  regarded  as  a  very  benevolent  man, 
and  a  lover  of  mankind. 

Casaubon,  Isaac  de  (commonly  called 
Casaubonus),  born  Feb.  18,  15.59,  at  Ge- 
neva, of  a  family  from  Dauphiny,  was 
educated  by  his  father,  a  clergj'man.  In 
his  9th  year,  he  spoke  Latin  fluently.  In 
his  19th  year,  he  entered  the  university  at 
Geneva,  where  he  studied  jurisprudence, 
theology,  and  the  Oriental  languages,  and, 
in  1582,  succeeded  Portus  as  professor  of 
the  Greek  language.  He  here  manied 
the  daughter  of  Henry  Stephens,  and 
published,  every  year,  editions  of  Greek 
and  Latin  authors,  with  critical  notes  and 
translations.  In  1596,  he  accepted  a  pro- 
fessorship of  Greek  and  belles-lettres  at 
Montpellier,  but  held  it  only  two  years. 
Henry  IV  invited  him  to  Paris.  His  re- 
ligious principles  (the  same  as  those  for 
which  his  father  had  left  his  country),  the 
jealousy  of  the  other  professors,  and  per- 
haps his  rather  unyielding  character,  were 
the  occasion  of  many  unpleasant  occur- 
rences, for  which,  however,  he  was  in- 
demnified by  the  office  of  royal  librarian. 
After  the  death  of  Henry  IV,  he  followed 
sir  Heniy  Wotton,  envoy  extraordinary 
from  James  I,  to  England,  where  he  was 
received  with  distinction,  had  two  bene- 
fices and  a  pension  confen^ed  on  him,  and 
died  at  London,  July  1,  1G14.  He  was 
buried  in  Westminster  abbey.  Casaubon 
was  a  liberal  theologian,  a  man  of  exten- 
sive learning,  a  good  translator,  and  an 
excellent  critic.  As  a  critic,  he  has  com- 
mented on  Diogenes  Laertius,  Aristotle, 
Theophrastus,  Suetonius,  Persius,  Polyb- 
ius,  Theocritus,  Strabo,  Dionysius  of  Ilal- 
icarnassus,  Athenrous,  Pliny  the  Younger, 
&c.  Nearly  all  the  ancient  classics  are 
indebted  to  his  valuable  researches.  His 
profound  dissertation  on  the  satirical 
poetry  of  the  Greeks  and  the  satire  of  the 
Romans  [De  Satyrica  GrwcoTum  Poesi  et 
Romanorum  Satyra)  deserves  particular 
praise.  His  theological  writings  are  of 
less  value. 

Casaubon,  Meric,  son  of  the  preceding, 
born  at  Geneva,  1599,  likewise  distin- 
guished himself  by  his  learning.  He  fol- 
lowed his  father  to  England,  and  was 
made  doctor  of  divinity  at  Oxford.  He 
filled  successively  several  offices  in  the 


church,  Avhen  the  revolution,  which 
brought  Charles  I  to  the  scaffold,  deprived 
him  of  his  income.  Still  he  rejcclcd  the 
proposal  of  Cromwell  to  write  the  history 
of  his  time,  as  also  the  invitation  of  queen 
Christina  to  live  in  Sweden.  On  the 
return  of  the  Stuarts,  he  was  rewarded 
for  his  loyalty  by  restoration  to  his  office 
hi  the  church,  which  he  held  till  his  death, 
1671.  His  learning  was  various  and  ex- 
tensive, but  not  so  profound  as  his  fa- 
ther's. He  published,  besides  his  tlieolo- 
gical  works,  observations  on  several  clas- 
sic authors ;  e.  g.,  Terence,  Epictetus, 
Florus,  Polybius,  &c. 

Casco  Bay  ;  a  bay  in  JMaine,  between 
cape  Elizabeth  on  W.  S.  W.  and  cape 
Small  Point  on  E.  N.  E.  Within  these 
capes,  which  are  about  20  miles  apart, 
there  are  about  300  small  islands ;  most 
of  which  are  cultivated,  and  are  umch 
more  productive  than  the  main  land  on 
the  coast  of  Maine.  Portland  harbor  is 
on  the  W.  side  of  the  bay. 

Case,  Action  upon  the.  Actio  super 
causam  is  a  general  action,  given  for  the 
redress  of  a  wrong  done  any  man  without 
force,  and  not  especially  provided  for  by 
law,  in  order  to  have  satisfaction  for  dam- 
age. This  is  called  an  action  on  the  case, 
because  the  whole  cause  or  case  is  set 
down  in  the  writ ;  and  there  is  no  other 
action  given  in  the  case,'  except  where 
the  plaintiff  has  his  choice  to  bring  this 
or  another  action.  This  action  lies  in  a 
variety  of  instances;  as  for  words  spoken 
or  written,  which  affect  a  person's  life, 
reputation,  office  or  trade,  or  tend  to  his 
loss  of  preferment  in  marriage  or  service, 
or  to  his  disinheritance,  or  which  occa- 
sion him  any  particular  damage.  Action 
on  the  case  likewise  lies  upon  an  as- 
sumpsit, (q.  V.)  It  lies,  also,  in  all  in- 
stances wherein  no  general  action  could 
be  fi'amed ;  e.  g.,  against  carriers ;  against 
a  common  innkeeper,  for  goods  stolen  in 
his  house ;  for  deceit  in  contracts,  bar- 
gains and  sales ;  for  neglect  or  malfea- 
sance ;  for  injuries  done  in  commons ;  for 
malicious  prosecution  and  false  arrests ; 
against  sheriffs,  for  default  in  executirf^ 
writs,  permitting  escapes,  &c. ;  for  con- 
spiracy, nuisances,  &c.  &c. 

Case,  in  grammar.    (See  Language.) 

Case-hardening  is  a  process  by  which 
iron  is  superficially  converted  into  steel, 
in  such  aiticles  as  require  the  toughness 
of  the  former,  conjointly  with  the  hard- 
ness of  the  latter  substance.  Tlie  articles 
intended  for  case-hardening  are  first  man- 
ufactured in  iron,  and  are  then  placed  in 
an  iron  box,  with  vegetable  or  animal 


CASE-HARDENING— CASHMERE  GOAT. 


553 


coals  in  powder,  to  undergo  cementation. 
Inunersion  of  the  heated  pieces  into  wa- 
ter Iiardens  the  surface,  which  is  afler- 
■wards  polished.  Coarse  files  and  gun- 
barrels  are  among  the  articles  most  com- 
monly case-hardened. 

Casemates  (from  the  Spanish  casa,  a 
house,  and  matare,  to  kill),  in  fortification  ; 
vaults  which  are  proof  against  bombs, 
under  the  main  wall,  particularly  in  bas- 
tions, for  the  purpose  of  defending  the 
moat  of  a  fortification,  also  for  making 
countermines.  They  serve,  at  the  same 
lime,  as  a  place  for  keeping  the  heavy 
ordnance,  and,  in  case  of  necessity,  a^ 
hal)itations  for  tlie  garrison. 

Case-shot,  in  aitillery,  is  formed  by 
))Utting  a  quantity  of  small  iron  balls  into 
II  cylindrical  tin  box,  called  a  canister,  that 
jiist  fits  the  bore  of  the  gun.  In  case  of 
necessity,  tlie  canister  is  filled  with  brok- 
en pieces  of  iron,  nails,  stones,  &c.  The 
case  is  closed  at  both  ends  by  wood. 
Shot  of  this  sort  are  thrown  from  cannons 
and  howitzers.  In  sieges,  sometimes,  in- 
stead of  cases,  bags  are  used.  This  kind 
of  shot  is  very  injurious  to  the  enemy, 
because  the  balls  contained  in  the  canis- 
ter spread,  diverging  in  proportion  to  the 
distance.  The  amount  of  divergence  is,  to 
tlie  distance  which  tlie  shot  readies,  gene- 
rally in  the  proportion  of  1  to  10 ;  thus,  at 
the  distance  of  600  paces,  they  make  a 
circle  of  60  paces  diameter.  Tiie  cauis- 
toi-s  used  in  the  Prussian  army  contain 
balls  of  1,  li,  3,  4,  6,  8  and  12  ounces 
and  of  1  pound.  The  distance  which  the 
shot  will  reach  varies  according  to  the 
weight  and  number  of  the  balls.  A  sL\- 
poimdcr  shoots  canister  balls  of  1  ounce 
from  200  to  500  paces;  twelve  and 
iwenty-four-pounders  shoot  balls  of  1 
pound  800  to  1000  paces.  The  number 
of  the  balls  varies  according  to  their 
weight. 

Cases,  Emanuel,  count  of.    (See  Las 
Cases.) 

Cashmere  (17,291  sq.  miles,  2,000,000 
inhabitants)  in  Hiiidostan,  now  a  })rovince 
of  the  Afghan  state  of  Cabul,  in  Asia,  is  a 
very  celebrated  valley,  surrounded  by  the 
gigantic  mountains  of  Asia,  the  Himalaj^a 
and  Hindoo  Koii,  and  traversed  by  the 
river  Behat  or  Chelum  (formerly  Hijdfis- 
pes).  From  three  sides,  seven  passes  only 
lead  to  this  region  ;  to  the  east,  the  Hima- 
laya presents  an  insurmountable  bamer  of 
snow.  The  splendor  and  sublimity  of  the 
diadem  of  snow-capped  mountains,  the 
beauty  and  richness  of  the  hills,  which 
form  the  ascent  to  the  higher  peaks,  it  is 
impossible  to  describe.  The  elevated  situ- 
voL,  II.  47 


ation  of  the  valley,  and  the  mountains  of 
snow  which  surround  it,  render  the  cU- 
mate  rather  cold ;  but  it  is,  on  the  whole, 
moderate  and  mild.  This  region,  so  rich  in 
romantic  scenery,  is  watered  by  immerous 
streams,  and  is  blessed  with  an  abundance 
of  tlie  finest  productions.  The  Asiatics, 
therefore,  call  it  the  paradise  of  India,  the 
Jlower-garden,  and  the  garden  of  eternal 
spring..  The  hills  ai'e  covered  with  for- 
ests and  Alpine  pastures ;  at  the  foot  of 
these  are  fields  of  com  ;  along  the  sides 
of  the  rivers,  rice  is  planted ;  rich  orchards 
extend  over  the  foremost  range  of  hills  ; 
mulberry  trees  are  "cultivated  in  abun- 
dance, for  the  sujijjort  of  silk-wonns,  and 
are  entwined  widi  vines,  from  whose 
grapes  wine,  very  similar  to  Madeira,  is 
prepared.  The  fruits  of  warm  climates 
do  not  ripen  here.  The  valley  is  famous 
for  its  flowers,  witii  which  all  the  gardens 
and  meadows  abound.  Violets,  roses, 
narcissuses,  and  innumerable  European 
flowei's,  besides  many  that  are  not  known 
m  Europe,  grow  wild.  The  inhabitants 
are  Hindoos,  of  the  religion  of  Brama, 
although  they  are  under  the  dominion  of 
the  Afghans,  who  ])rofess  the  Mohamme- 
dan religion.  Their  language  is  a  dialect 
of  the  Sanscrit.  They  manufacture  their 
celebrated  shawls  in  great  perfection. 
The  wool  which  they  use  for  this  purpose 
comes  fi-om  Thibet  and  Tartaiy,  in  which 
countries,  only,  the  goat,  from  which  it  is 
taken,  is  said  to  thrivei  About  80,000 
shawls  are  made  yearly,  in  16,000  looms, 
each  of  Avhich  employs  3  workmen.  The 
capital,  Cashmere  (likewise  Serinagur), 
the  largiist  town  in  the  whole  empire  of 
Afghanistan,  is  situated  on  the  Behat, 
and  contains  200,000  inhabitants. 

Cashmere  Goat,  a  nobler  species  of  the 
common  goats,  is  descended  from  the 
goat  of  Thibet,  which  pastures  on  the 
Himalaya.  The  climate  in  Thibet  is  sub- 
ject to  sudden  changes.  There  is  little 
rain,  but  much  snow,  as  the  cold  in  winter 
is  below  the  fi-eezing  point.  Thibet  is 
situated  at  the  northern  descent  of  the 
Himalaya  mountains,  and  Cashmere  at 
the  southern ;  hence  the  latter  is  a  little 
warmer  than  Thibet.  In  Thibet,  this 
goat  is  a  domestic  animal.  It  is  not 
allowed  a  very  luxuriant  ])asture.  The 
favorite  food  of  these  animals  is  buds, 
aromatic  plants,  rue  and  heath.  The 
people  of  Thibet  give  their  goats,  at  least 
once  a  week,  some  milt,  which  has  always 
l)roved  a  useful  accompanunent  to  the 
customaiyfood  of  these  animals.  If  they 
are  transferred  from  their  cold,  mountain- 
ous abode  into  a  warmer  country,  tlie 


S64 


CASHMERE  GOAT—CASIMIR. 


natural  consequence  follows,  that  the 
wool  becomes  inferior  in  quantity  and 
fineness.  It  grows,  also,  very  slowly  in 
the  warm  part  of  the  year,  and  more 
vigorously  as  the  cold  season  approaches. 
The  head  of  the  Asiatic  goat  is  large,  the 
horns  situated  backwards,  and  somewhat 
curved,  the  legs  slender.  The  colder 
the  region  where  the  animal  pastures,  the 
heavier  is  its  fleece.  Proper  food  and 
careful  tending  increase  the  fineness  of 
the  wool.  Yearlings,  as  in  the  case  with 
the  Merino  sheep,  afford  the  finest  avooI. 
A  full-grown  goat  yields  not  more  than  8 
ounces.  The  goats  whicli  pasture  in  the 
highest  vales  of  Thibet  have  a  bright 
ochre  color.  In  lower  grounds,  the  color 
becomes  of  a  yellowish -white,  and,  still 
farther  downwards,  entirely  white.  The 
highest  mountains  of  the  Himalaya,  in- 
habitable by  man,  contain  also  a  kind  of 
goats  with  black  wool,  which,  in  India, 
and  in  the  mountainous  country  of  the 
goats,  obtains  the  highest  price,  as  a  mate- 
rial for  shawls.  The  goats  of  Thibet  and 
Cashmere  have  the  fine  curled  wool  close 
to  the  skin,  just  as  the  under-hair  of  our 
common  goat  lies  below  the  coarse,  up- 
per-hair. The  wool  is  shorn  in  tlie  spring, 
shortly  before  the  warm  season — the  time 
when  the  animal,  in  its  natural  state, 
seeks  thorns  and  hedges  in  order  to  free 
itself  from  the  burden  of  its  warm  cover- 
ing. All  the  hard  and  long  hairs  are 
picked  out  most  carefully.  The  wool, 
thus  purified,  is  washed,  first  in  a  warm 
solution  of  potash,  and  afterwards  in  cold 
water,  in  which  process  felting  must  be 
carefully  avoided.  It  is  then  bleached 
upon  the  grass,  and  carded  for  spinning. 
The  shawl-wool  is  three  times  dyed — 
before  carding,  afl;er  spinning,  and  in  the 
shawl.  The  Asiatics  avoid  si)inning  the 
wool  hard,  in  order  that  the  shawl  may  be 
soft.  They  use  a  spindle,  which  consists 
of  a  ball  of  clay,  with  an  iron  wire  at- 
tached. The  finger  and  the  thumb  of  the 
spinner  are  kept  smootli  by  steatite  pow- 
der. A  large  shawl,  of  the  finest  quality, 
requires  5  pounds  of  the  wool ;  one  of 
inferior  quality,  from  3  to  4  pounds. 
Main,  in  London,  has  invented  a  machine, 
which  spins  this  wool,  in  a  very  simple 
way,  finer  than  can  be  done  by  the  best 
spindles  of  Thibet,  and,  at  the  same  time, 
of  a  firmer  thread.  The  flesh  of  the  Cash- 
mere goat  tastes  as  well  as  that  of  the 
common  one ;  and  its  milk  is  as  rich, 
if  it  is  well  tended.  Since  1820,  this 
species  has  been  introduced  into  France, 
and  succeeds  very  well.  The  enterpris- 
ing baron  Temaux  (q.  v.)  ordered  1289 


of  these  goats  to  be  brought  to  France 
(1820),  under  the  care  of  the  celebrated 
professor  of  Oriental  languages  in  Paris, 
Amadee  Joubert.  Joubeit  found  these 
goats  already  spread  from  Cashmere  to 
the  Ural,  over  Bucharia,  in  Independent 
Tartary,  purchased  them  in  the  deserts 
there,  and  transported  them  over  the  Volga 
along  the  coast  to  Theodosia,  in  the  Crimea, 
where  they  were  put  on  board  vessels 
to  be  carried  to  France.  On  the  voyage, 
which  lasted  a  long  time,  a  great  number 
died:  there  remained,  however,  more 
tlian  400  healthy  animals,  which  were 
sent  from  Toulon  and  Marseilles,  partly 
to  the  Pyrenees  of  Roussillon,  partly  to 
the  lime-hills  of  Provence,  and  to  the 
pastures  of  Alsatia  and  Rambouillet. 

Cashna,  or  Cassina,  or  Kassina  ;  a 
city  in  Africa,  capital  of  a  ki)igdom, 
between  Bomou  and  Timbuctoo ;  220 
miles  W.  N.  W.  Bomou,  690  E.  S.  E.  Tim- 
buctoo ;  Ion.  11°  34'  E. ;  lat.  16°  30'  N. 
A  large  proportion  of  the  country  of  Cash- 
na  consists  of  land  of  great  fertility,  inter- 
spersed with  arid  wastes.  Cashna  is 
level,  and  said  to  contain  1000  towns  and 
villages.  The  monarch  is  called  sultan  of 
all  Soudan,  i.  e.  Negroland.  The  princi- 
pal articles  of  traffic  are  senna,  gold  dust, 
slaves,  cotton  cloths,  goat  skins,  ox  and 
buffalo  hides,  and  civet.  Cashna  has  no 
salt  lakes  or  mines,  but  is  supplied  with 
salt  from  Bomou. 

Cashoo  ;  the  common  name  of  the 
anacardium  occidentale  of  Lin.  ;  a  native 
of  Bahar.  The  fruit  of  the  tree  is  called 
cashoo-nut.  The  expressed  juice  makes 
a  pleasant  wine ;  and  an  aromatic  and 
medicinal  drug  is  prepared  by  a  decoc- 
tion and  maceration  of  several  parts  of  the 
tree,  afl;erwards  consolidated  by  evapora- 
tion. The  Indians  chew  it.  The  Euro- 
])eans  employ  it  as  a  digestive,  and  a 
soother  of  coughs. 

Casimir  III,  the  Great,  king  of  Poland, 
son  of  Uladislaus  Loketek,  distinguished 
himself  by  his  valor,  under  the  reign  of 
his  father,  who  had  commissioned  him  to 
take  revenge  on  the  knights  of  the  Teu- 
tonic order  ;  and,  that  he  might  learn  the 
art  of  governing,  made  him  regent  of 
Great  Poland.  In  1333,  he  ascended  the 
throne,  and  had  many  contests  with  the 
Teutonic  knights,  made  himself  master 
of  Little  Russia,  which  had  formerly  be- 
longed to  Poland,  conquered  Silesia,  re- 
pelled the  Tartars,  who  had  advanced  to 
Poland,  and  the  Bohemians,  who  at- 
tempted to  gain  possession  of  Silesia,  as  a 
fief  of  Bohemia.  He  died  in  1370,  with- 
out children,  having  named  a  son  of  the 


CASIMIR— CASSANDER. 


555 


king  of  Hungary  his  successor,  in  1339. 
He  caused  a  new  code  of  laws  to  be  com- 
piled, and  protected  the  peasants  with 
much  energy,  on  which  account  he  was 
called  the  peasants^  kiiig.  He  had  a  great 
number  of  mistresses,  among  whom  was 
a  Jewess,  named  Esther,  who  procured 
for  her  nation  those  liberties  which  they 
enjoy  in  Poland  to  the  present  day.  With 
Casunir,  the  line  of  the  Piasti,  which  had 
ruled  in  Poland  for  523  years,  became 
extinct.  From  that  time,  the  Poles  chose 
foreigners  for  their  kings,  and  thus  laid 
the  foundation  of  the  troubles  which  dis- 
tracted the  kingdom  till  its  final  niin. 

Casino,  in  Germany,  is  used  to  signify 
a  clubhouse.  They  are  now  to  be  found 
in  almost  every  place  of  middling  popu- 
lation. 

Casiri,  Michael,  a  learned  Orientalist 
and  Syro-Maronite  clergyman,  was  born 
at  Tripoli,  in  Syria,  1710,  came  to  Rome, 
where  he  studied  in  the  college  of  St. 
Peter  and  St.  Marcellino,  and,  in  1734, 
entered  the  clerical  profession.  The  fol- 
lowing year,  he  accompanied  the  learned 
Assemanni  to  Syria,  where  he  was  going, 
at  the  command  of  the  pope,  to  attend 
the  synod  of  the  Maronites,  and,  in  1738, 
gave,  at  Rome,  an  exact  account  of  the 
i*eligious  tenets  of  the  Maronites.  He  af- 
terwards taught,  in  his  monastery,  the 
Arabic,  Syrian  and  Chaldee  languages, 
theology  and  philosophy ;  and,  in  the 
year  1748,  was  invited  to  Madrid,  where 
he  was  appointed  to  an  office  in  the  royal 
library.  In  1749,  he  devoted  his  atten- 
tion, by  the  king's  orders,  to  the  hbrary 
of  the  Escurial,  of  which  he  subsequently 
became  the  superintendent.  Here  lie 
collected  the  materials  for  his  celebrated 
work,  Bibliotheca  Arahico-Hispana  (Ma- 
drid, 1760 — 70,  2  vols.,  folio),  which  enu- 
merates, in  1851  articles,  the  manusci-ipts 
of  the  Escurial  library,  perhaps  the  rich- 
est in  Europe  in  Arabic  manuscripts. 
This  work,  though  not  entirely  free  from 
errors,  contains  very  important  informa- 
tion and  valuable  extracts,  and  is  indisr 
pensable  to  every  Orientalist.  Casiri  died 
at  Madrid  in  1791. 

Caspian  Sea  ;  a  large  lake,  or  inland 
sea,  in  Asia ;  bounded  N.  by  Russia,  E, 
by  Tartary  and  Persia,  S,  by  Persia,  and 
W.  by  Persia,  Circassia  and  Russia ;  646 
miles  in  length  from  N,  to  S.,  and  from 
100  to  265  in  breadth ;  supposed  to  be 
tlie  largest  lake  in  the  eastern  part  of  the 
globe.  The  water  is  less  salt  than  that  of 
the  ocean,  of  a  bitter  taste,  and  of  an 
ochre  color,  without  ebb  or  flow.  In 
some  plapes  it  is  exceedingly  deep,  yet  it 


abounds  in  shallows,  so  as  to  prevent  the 
navigation  of  ships  which  draw  more  than 
9  or  10  feet  of  water.  Among  the  rivers 
which  flow  into  it  are  the  Volga,  Ural  and 
Kur.  It  has  no  outlet.  The  fisheries 
here,  which  are  very  valuable,  occupy 
and  train  many  seamen.  The  coasts  are 
divided  among  the  Russians,  Persians 
and  Tartars.  The  Caspian  sea  was,  by 
the  ancients,  called  the  Hyixanian  sea; 
the  Tartars  call  it  Akdingis,  i  e.  the  White 
sea ;  the  Georgians  call  it  the  Kurtshen- 
sian  sea ;  and  by  tlie  Persians  it  is  styled 
Gursen.  The  level  of  the  Caspian  sea  is 
375  feet  lower  than  that  of  the  ocean. 
The  Truchmenes,  on  the  shores  of  the 
Caspian  sea,  fissert,  that  the  lake  Kuli- 
Daria,  which  is  connected  with  the  gulf 
of  Karabogaskoi,  a  part  of  the  Caspian 
sea,  contains  a  whirlj)ool,  which  takes  in 
the  water  of  the  latter.  In  fact,  the  cur- 
rent from  the  Caspian  sea  into  the  gulf 
of  Karabogaskoi  is  very  great.  The  most 
recent  information  respecting  the  shores 
of  the  Caspian  sea  is  that  given  by  Mu- 
rawiew  in  his  Journey  to  Khiwa,  in  the 
year  1819,  in  Russian. 

Cassandkr,  George,  bom  in  1515,  in 
the  island  of  Cadsand,  or  Cassand,  neat 
Bruges,  in  the  Netherlands,  from  which 
he  received  his  name,  is  celebrated  for 
his  endeavors  to  settle  the  disputes  be- 
tween religious  parties.  At  Bruges, 
Glient  and  Cologne,  he  studied,  and 
taught  philology,  the  canon  law  and 
Catholic  theolog}%  and  accepted  no  pub^ 
lie  office,  on  account  of  his  ill  health.  In 
1561,  he  published  a  work  designed  to 
allay  religious  disputes,  in  which  his  cen- 
sure of  Calvin  for  his  violence  and  intol- 
erance drew  upon  him  the  attacks  both 
of  Calvin  and  Beza,  In  1564,  he  was 
employed  by  tlie  duke  of  Cleves  to  con- 
vert the  Anabaptists.  The  emperor  Fer- 
duiand  I  invited  him  to  Vienna,  to  com^ 
pose  articles  of  union  between  the  Catho- 
lics and  Protestants.  These  he  i)«blished, 
under  Maximilian  II,  the  successor  of 
Ferdinand — De  Jlrticulis  Religionis  inter 
Catholicos  et  Protestantes  Controversis  ad 
Impp.  Ferd.  /,  et  Max.  II,  Considtatio,  ed. 
Hug.  Grot.  (1642.)  Though  a  sincere 
Catholic,  he  founded  his  opinions  on  the 
doctrines  of  the  old  Christian  fathers,  and 
showed  his  concurrence  with  the  Prot-. 
estants,  in  regard  to  fundamental  doc- 
trines, by  proposing  communion  under 
both  forms,  the  marriage  of  priests,  the 
abolition  of  image- worship,  the  reform  of 
many  abuses,  and  a  modification  of  the 
Catholic  system.  But  he  asserted  the 
supremacy  of  the  pope,  supported  the 


556 


CASSANDER— COURT  OF  CASSATION. 


doctrine  of  transubstantiation,  and  the 
importance  of  the  sacrament,  ex  opere 
opercUo.  His  proposals  were  not  rehshed 
by  the  zealots  of  either  party.  He  died 
at  Cologne,  in  1566,  with  the  reputation 
of  a  learned  and  liberal  theologian. 

Cassa>dra,  also  Alexandra  ;  daugh- 
ter of  Priam  and  Hecuba,  and  twin-sister 
of  Helenus.  Both  children,  according  to 
tradition,  were  playing  in  the  vestibule  of 
the  tempJe  of  the  ThymbiTean  Apollo,  not 
iar  li-om  Ilium ;  and,  having  staid  there  too 
late  to  be  cai-ried  home,  a  couch  of  laurel 
twigs  was  prepared  for  them,  for  the 
night,  in  the  temple.  When  the  nurses 
went  to  them  the  next  morning,  they 
found  two  serpents  at  the  side  of  the 
children,  which,  instead  of  injuring  them, 
hannlessly  licked  their  ears.  T])i3  mira- 
cle produced  a  still  greater  one ;  the 
hearing  of  the  children  was  rendered  so 
acute,  that  they  could  distinguish  the 
voices  of  the  gods.  Cassandra  subse- 
quently spent  much  of  her  time  in  the 
temple  of  Apollo,  who,  becoming  en- 
amored of  her  charms,  disclosed  to  her 
all  the  secrets  of  die  prophetic  art,  and, 
in  return,  demanded  her  love.  But  Cas- 
sandra, when  her  curiosity  was  satisfied, 
refused  the  dishonorable  reward.  Apol- 
lo, incensed  at  this,  put  a  curse  on  her 
prophesies,  that  they  should  never  find 
belief.  She  frequently  and  continually 
foretold  the  destruction  of  Troy,  and 
warned  her  countiymen  in  vain  against 
the  deceitful  hoi-se.  When  Troy  was 
conquered,  and  Cassandra,  with  the  other 
maidens,  fled  to  the  temple  of  Minerva, 
Ajax  tore  her  ti"om  the  altar,  deflowered 
the  virgin  in  the  sacred  place,  and  dragged 
her  away  to  the  other  female  slaves, 
with  her  hands  tied.  On  the  division  of 
the  booty,  she  fell  to  Agamemnon,  who 
carried  her,  as  his  slave  and  mistress,  to 
Mycene.  Clytemnestra  murdered  them 
both.  Agamenmon  had  twins  by  her — 
Teledamus  and  Pelops.  The  ancients 
regarded  this  rape  of  Cassandra  as  a  most 
infamous  atrocity.  It  has  often  afforded 
a  subject  to  poets  and  sculptors.  The 
Locrians,  the  countrymen  of  Ajax,  were 
atflicted,  on  this  account,  for  many  years, 
with  storms,  and  their  country  was  deso- 
lated widi  the  plague. 

Cassas,  Louis  B'rancis,  bom  in  1756, 
inspector  and  professor  in  the  Gobelin 
manufactory,  celebrated  as  a  draughts- 
man, is  a  pupil  of  Lagrenee,  junior,  and 
Le  Vien.  He  travelled  as  companion  of 
the  comitofChoiseul-Gouffier,  about  1770, 
over  Asia  Minor,  Palestine,  Syria,  a  part 
of  Egypt,  Istria,  Dahnatia,  and  Troas. 


He  compared  the  present  topography  of 
those  places  with  the  accounts  of  the  an- 
cients, took  exact  measurements  of  the 
finest  remains  of  architecture,  made  draw- 
ings of  the  most  remarkable  places  with 
equal  taste  and  accuracy,  and  published 
his  laboi-s,  engraved  by  the  best  masters, 
in  splendid  editions.  His  Voyage  Pitto- 
resque  de  la  Syne,  de  ia  Phinicie,  de  la 
Palestine,  el  de  la  Basse  Egypte  (17t)9  et 
seq.  80  livraisons,  folio,  text  by  De  la  Porte 
du  Thcil),  is  fully  described  by  Landon 
(ii.,  1.33 — 6).  The  original  drawings  are 
preserved  in  the  king's  library  at  Paris. 
In  his  Voyage  Pittor.  de  Vlstiie  et  de  la 
Dalmatie,  he  has  inserted  a  joim>al  and  a 
short  historj-  of  this  province,  digested  by 
Josej)h  la  Vallee  (Paris,  1802,  grand  fol., 
with  engi'avings). 

Cassation;  a  term  used  in  the  courts 
on  the  continent  of  Europe.  It  is  derived 
from  the  middle  ages,  and  signifies  the 
annulling  of  any  act  or  decision,  if  the 
fonns  prescribed  by  law  have  been  neg- 
lected, or  if  any  thing  is  contained  in  it 
contrarv'  to  law. 

Cassation^  Court  of  (Cour  de  Cassa- 
tion) ;  one  of  the  most  important  institu- 
tions of  modern  France,  which  gives  to 
the  whole  jurisdiction  of  that  country 
coherency  and  uniformity,  without  endan- 
gering the  necessarj'  independence  of  the 
courts.  It  was  established  by  the  first 
national  assembly,  and  has  been  pre- 
served, in  every  essential  respect,  under 
all  the  changes  of  the  revolution  and  res- 
toration. It  has  been  maintained  even  in 
those  districts  which,  by  their  union  with 
France,  became  subjectetl  to  French  laws, 
but,  by  the  peace  of  Paris,  have  become 
part  of  the  Prussian  monarchy.  In  France, 
as  early  as  the  reign  of  Louis  IX  (1226 — 
1272),  petitions  were  presented  to  the 
king  by  appellants  from  the  decisions  of 
the  courts.  In  later  times,  appeals  to  the 
parliaments,  as  the  highest  comts  of  the 
kingdom,  came  into  use,  and  their  decis- 
ions were  not  liable  to  be  set  aside  by  the 
ordinary  forms  of  law.  Yet  the  parties 
were  allowed  to  dispute  even  these  de- 
cisions, if  tliey  were  founded  upon  errors 
of  fact,  or  violated  undisputed  principles 
of  law ;  and,  by  an  ordinance  of  1302,  it 
was  provided,  that  the  parties  should  be 
allowed  royal  letters  for  the  defence  of 
tlieir  rights  against  the  decisions  of  the 
supreme  courts  [lettres  de  grace  de  dire 
contre  les  arrets),  which  should  be  issued 
from  tlie  chancery  (by  the  chancellor  of 
France).  The  case  was  then  sent  back 
to  the  parli«uuent  for  further  investigation, 
but  was  examined  and  decided  in  the 


COURT  OF  CASSATION. 


557 


presence  of  the  king  himself  or  of  a  spe- 
cial commissioner.  An  abuse,  however, 
crept  in,  of  transferring  these  cases  to  the 
royal  council,  where  they  were  decided 
by  officers  called  maitres  des  requites. 
These  letters  received  the  name  of  kttres 
de  proposition  d'erreur,  and,  during  the 
civil  commotions  at  the  end  of  the  14th 
century,  began  to  be  more  frequently 
presented  to  the  council,  which,  as  soon 
as  one  party  complained  of  the  partiality 
of  the  parliaments,  transferred  the  case  to 
its  own  bar,  and  obstructed  the  course  of 
justice  by  lettres  d'etat  (suspensions  of  the 
process,  on  the  pretext  of  the  absence  of 
one  of  the  parties  in  the  service  of  the 
king).  Under  the  chancellor  Poyet  {1538 
— 1542),  this  abuse  reached  its  highest 
pitch;  but  the  chancellors  Olivier  (1545 
— 1551)  and  Hopital  (1560— 15G8),  the  two 
great  reformere  of  French  jurisprudence, 
limited  the  use  of  these  lettres,  till,  by  the 
ordinance  of  Blois  (1576),  all  the  provis- 
ions against  the  decisions  of  the  jjarlia- 
nients  were  reduced  to  these  three : — the 
proposition  d'erreur,  for  an  error  of  fact ; 
requite  civile,  to  restore  the  parties  to 
tlieir  former  condition,  on  account  of  the 
fraud  of  one  of  the  parties,  or  the  mistakes 
of  the  attorney ;  and  cassation  (petition 
for  abrogation),  for  violation  of  forms  or 
settled  principles  of  law.  By  the  famous 
order  of  procedure  of  1667,  the  first  of 
these  provisions  was  abolished,  but  the 
province  of  the  requite  civile  and  cassation 
was  enlarged,  and  more  })recisely  de- 
fined. Tlie  former  was  always  brought 
before  the  court  itself,  and  decided  there, 
the  latter  before  the  council.  For  this 
puzpose,  in  the  conseil  prive,  or  cons, 
des  par-ties,  a  particular  committee  wjis 
formed,  consisting  of  the  chancellor,  the 
four  secretaries  of  state  (ministers  of  the 
departments),  the  council  of  state,  and  all 
the  maitres  des  requites  (in  1789,  78  in 
number).  The  decisions  of  this  committee 
were  too  much  influenced  by  the  will  of 
the  king  and  the  ministei"S,  and  by  vari- 
ous other  circumstances,  so  that  they  did 
not  enjoy  great  res})ect,  though  they  ofl:en 
exposed  acts  of  great  injustice  on  the  part 
of  the  parliament,  and  other  high  courts. 
It  was  therefore  abolished  in  the  first  na- 
tional assembly,  and  its  jjlace  supplied  by 
an  independent  court^the  tribunal  of  cas- 
sation (law  of  Nov.  27,  1790),  which  was 
retained  in  all  the  constitutions,  and  re- 
ceived, under  the  imperial  government, 
(1804),  the  name  court  of  cassation,  which 
it  still  retains.  It  consisted,  according  to 
the  organization  of  1800,  of  48  members, 
chosen  from  the  senate,  on  the  uomina- 
47* 


tion  of  the  consuls,  who  elected  their  owii 
president  from  among  themselves.  The 
a{)pointment  of  president  was  afterwards 
vested  in  tlie  emperor.  In  the  Charte 
ConstitutionneUe  of  1814,  the  right  of  ap- 
pointing the  counselloi-s  was  vested  in  the 
king;  but  they  are  not  removable.  The 
minister  of  justice  or  keeper  of  the  seals 
{garde  des  sceaux)  has  the  right  of  presid- 
ing when  tlie  tribunal  exercises  its  right 
of  censorship  over  the  cours  roy.ales  :  it 
has,  besides,  a  first  president  and  three 
presidents  of  sections.  This  court  never 
decides  on  the  main  question  at  issue, 
but  on  the  competency  of  the  other  courts, 
and  on  the  petitions  to  have  their  decisions 
reviewed  or  annidled,  and  assigns  the 
question  to  another  court,  if  a  decision  is 
to  be  set  aside  for  an  evident  violation  of 
the  forms  or  the  principles  of  tlie  law. 
For  this  purpose,  it  is  divided  into  three 
sections : — tlie  section  des  requites,  >vhich 
decides  on  the  admissibility  of  the  peti- 
tions in  civil  cases ;  the  section  de  cassa- 
tion civile;  and  the  section  de  cassation 
criviinelle.  After  a  decision  has  been  re- 
versed, if  a  second  court  decides  the  same 
case  in  the  same  way,  and  an  ajipeal  is 
entered  again,  the  coiut  of  cassation  must 
eitlier  request  an  authentic  explanation  of 
the  law  fi-om  the  government,  or,  at  least, 
all  the  ;three  sections  nuist  unite,  to  pro- 
nounce a  second  reversal,  or  cassation ; 
and  if  a  third  decision  is  the  same  as  the 
pi'eceding,  a  repeated  petition  for  a  re- 
vei^sal  makes  the  authentic  explanation 
indispensably  necessary.  The  sentences 
of  the  court  of  cassation  are  not  only  re- 
corded in  the  jomnals  of  the  courts,  the 
decisions  of  which  are  reversed,  but  pub- 
lished likewise  in  an  official  bulletin,  by 
wliieh  consistency  and  uniformity  are 
preserved.  The  tribunal  of  cassation  has 
enjoyed,  from  its  connnencement,  the  re- 
spect and  confidence  of  France,  and 
numbers  among  its  members  several  of 
the  most  distinguished  lawyers,  as  the 
president  Ilenrion  de  Pansey,  the  counsel- 
loi-s  Chabot,  Merlin  and  Carnot. — For  the 
Prussian  province  on  the  Rhine  (the  dis- 
tricts of  Cleves,Diisseldorf,  Coblentz,  Aix- 
la-Chapelle,  Treves  and  Cologne),  by  the 
ordinance  of  June  21,  1819,  a  court  of 
revision  and  cassation  was  establislied  at 
Beriin  (consisting  of  a  president  and  16 
judges,  among  whom  is  professor  Sa- 
vigny),  which  has  under  it  the  court  of 
appeal  at  Diisseldorf  (consisting  of  a  pres- 
ident, together  with  32  other  officere),  and 
six  district  courts  (the  former  resembling 
the  French  royal  courts,  the  latter  the 
French    tribunals    of    original   jurisdic- 


558 


COURT  OF  CASSATION— CASSINI. 


tion).    (See  Appeal,  Writs  of  Error;  and 
Courts.) 

Cassava,  or  Cassada.  The  cassava  or 
cassada  (jatropha  vmnihot)  is  a  Soutli 
American  shrub,  about  three  feet  in 
height,  with  broad,  shhiing,  and  some- 
what hand-sliaped  leaves,  and  beautiful 
white  and  rose-colored  flowers.  It  is  a 
very  remarkable  circumstance,  that  the 
roots  of  tlie  cassava,  if  eaten  raw,  are  a 
fatal  poison,  botli  to  man  and  beast,  and 
that,  when  prepared  by  heat,  they  yield  a 
safe  and  valuable  food :  on  which,  in- 
deed, many,  both  of  the  Indian  and  Eu- 
ropean inhabitants  of  South  America, 
almost  wholly  subsist.  The  roots  are  the 
only  edible  parts  of  the  plant.  These  are 
white,  soft  and  farinaceous,  from  one  to 
two  feet  in  length,  and  five  or  six  inches 
in  circumference.  They  are  dug  out  of 
the  earth,  washed,  stripped  of  their  rind, 
and  ground  to  a  pulp.  The  juice,  or 
poisonous  part,  is  carefully  pressed  out, 
and  thrown  away  ;  since  cattle  and  other 
animals,  which  have  accidentally  drank 
of  it,  have  almost  instantly  died.  The 
flour  that  remains  after  pressure  is  form- 
ed into  thin,  round  cakes,  and  baked. 
To  a  European,  accustomed  to  eat 
bread,  these,  though  sweetish  and  not 
unpalatable,  have  an  insij)id  taste.  If 
placed  in  close  vessels,  and  preserved 
from  the  attacks  of  insects,  cassava  bread 
may  be  kept  for  several  nionths  without 
injury.  With  the  natives  of  South  Amer- 
ica, it  is  not  unusual  to  throw  a  great 
number  of  cakes  of  cassava  together  to 
heat  ;  after  which  they  soak  them  in  wa- 
ter, which  causes  a  rapid  fermentation  to 
take  place  ;  and,  from  the  liquor  thus  ob- 
tained, they  make  a  veiy  sharp  and  disa- 
greeable, but  intoxicating  beverage,  which 
wiH  not  keep  longer  than  24  houi-s  with- 
out spoiling.  From  the  pure  flour  of 
cassava  is  formed  the  substance  called 
tapioca,  which  is  frequently  used  for  jelly, 
puddings,  and  other  culinary  purj)oses. 
This  is  separated  from  the  fibrous  part  of 
the  roots  by  taking  a  small  quantity  of  the 
pulp,  after  the  juice  is  extracted,  and 
working  it  in  the  hand  till  a  thick,  white 
cream  appears  on  the  surface.  This,  be- 
ing scraped  oft'  and  washed  in  water, 
gradually  subsides  to  the  bottom.  After 
the  water  is  poured  oft*,  the  remaining 
nioisture  is  dissipated  by  a  slow  fire,  the 
substance  being  constantly  stiired,  until, 
at  length,  it  forms  into  grains  about  the 
size  of  sago.  These  become  hard  by 
keeping,  and  are  the  purest  and  most 
wholesome  part  of  the  cassava. — The 
roots  of  another  species  of  this  slirub, 


called  sweet  cassava,  are  usually  eaten 
with  butter,  after  being  roasted  in  hot 
ashes.  They  have  much  the  flavor  of 
chestnuts,  and  are  an  agreeable  and  nu- 
tritive food. 

Cass  EL,  the  residence  of  the  elector 
of  Hesse  Cassel,  lies  on  the  Fulda ;  lat. 
51°  liy  20"  N. ;  Ion.  9°  35'  18"  E. ;  and 
has  1586  houses  and  23^^00  inhabitants, 
among  whom  are  500  Jews.  One  part 
of  the  city  is  quite  regular.  The  river 
Fulda  is  navigable  at  this  j)lace.  The 
situation  renders  the  climate  pure  and 
healthy.  It  has  19  squares,  9  churches, 
and  many  public  buildings,  containing 
highly  valuable  libraries,  collections  of 
works  of  art,  &c.  The  gallery  of  paint- 
ings contains  some  famous  masterpieces. 
An  obsenatory  is  likewise  situated  here. 
The  city  was  much  embellished  under 
the  government  of  Jerome,  king  of  West- 
])halia,  wliose  capital  it  was  till  the  disso- 
lution of  this  kingdom,  in  October,  1813. 
The  old  elector  again  took  possession  of 
it,  Nov.  21, 1813.  About  a  league  distant 
is  the  summer  palace,  called  Wilhtlms- 
hljhe.  Cassel  has  considerable  manufac- 
tories, 

Cassel  (Hesse-Cassel).    (See  Hesse.) 

Cassia.  Wild  cim)amon,  or  cassia,  is 
the  bark  of  a  tree  of  the  bay  tribe  [launis 
cassia),  which  grows  in  the  East  Indies 
and  China,  and  is  distinguished  by  having 
spear-shaped  leaves,  each  with  three 
nerves.  This  bark  was  well  known  to 
tlie  ancients,  and  highly  esteemed  by 
them.  But  since  the  use  of  cinnamon 
has  l>een  generally  adopted,  the  cassia 
bark  has  fallen  into  disrepute,  on  account 
of  its  inferiority.  It  is  thicker  and  more 
coarse  than  cinnamon,  of  weaker  quality, 
and  abounds  more  with  a  viscid,  muci- 
laginous matter.  For  many  pur])oses, 
cassia,  as  being  much  less  expensive,  is 
substituted  for  ciimamon,  but  more  par- 
ticularly for  the  prepai-ation  of  what  is 
called  oil  of  cinnamon ;  and  nearly  the 
whole  of  what  is  at  present  sold  under 
the  name  either  of  simple  or  spirituous 
cinnamon  waters,  is  prepared  from  cassia. 
The  buds  as  well  as  the  bark  of  this  tree 
are  used  in  cooking,  &c.  Cassia  is  im- 
ported mostly  from  China. 

Cassina.    (See  Cashna.) 

Cassini  ;  a  name  famous  in  the  history 
of  astronomy  and  geography  for  three 
generations. — 1.  Giovanni  Domenico,  born 
July  8,  1625,  at  Perinaldo,  near  Nice, 
studied  at  Genoa  with  the  Jesuits. 
Chance  turnetl  his  attention  to  astrono- 
my, in  which  he  made  such  rapid  prog- 
ress, that,  in  1650,  the  senate  of  Bologna 


CASSINI— CASSI0D0RU9. 


559 


bestowed  on  him  the  first  professorship 
of  astronomy  at  the  university.  A  nie- 
ricliau  had  been  drawn  by  Ignatio  Dante 
(1575),  in  the  church  of  St.  Petronia,  in 
that  city.  In  1653,  Cassini  conceived  tlie 
idea  of  extending  and  con-ecting  it.  In 
two  years  lie  completed  this  difficult  task, 
the  first  fruits  of  which  were  more  cor- 
rect tables  of  the  sun,  a  more  precise 
determination  of  its  parallax,  and  an  ex- 
cellent table  of  refractions.  By  an  obser- 
vation at  Citta  della  Piave,  he  discovered 
the  shadows  cast  by  the  satellites  of  Ju- 
piter on  the  disk  of  that  planet,  when 
tliey  are  between  it  and  the  sun.  By 
means  of  these,  he  coirected  his  tlieory 
of  the  motion  of  the  satellites,  and  deter- 
mined the  period  of  Jupiter's  revolution. 
At  the  same  time,  he  made  a  number  of  ob- 
servations on  insects,  which  were  publish- 
ed by  Akirovandi.  In  1(368,  he  published 
his  Ephemerides  of  the  Satellites  of  Jupi- 
ter. In  1673,  Colbert  prevailed  on  liim 
to  settle  in  France.  He  discovered  four 
new  satellites  of  Saturn,  and  the  zodiacal 
light,  proved  that  the  axis  of  the  moon  is 
not  perpendicular  to  the  plane  of  the 
ecliptic,  and  showed  the  causes  of  her 
libration.  The  laws  of  this  motion,  which 
he  determined  with  much  accuracy,  are 
one  of  his  finest  discoveries.  He  also 
wrote  obsenations  on  the  Indian  calen- 
dar. TJie  meridian  commenced  by  Pi- 
card  and  Lahire  was  continued  by  Cas- 
sini, in  1700,  to  the  extreme  limits  of 
Roussillon,  and,  when  measured  100  years 
latei*,  showed  a  difference  of  only  21 
toises.  He  died  Sept.  14,  1712,  having 
lost  his  sight  some  yeai-s  before.  Lalande 
gives  a  catalogue  of  his  writings  in  the 
Bibl.  Astronom.  His  first  work  was  Oh- 
serv.  Cometce,  Anni  1652 — 53  (Modena, 
1653,  tbi.).  His  0pp.  Astronom.  (Rome, 
1666)  contain  a  complete  collection  of  his 
earlier  works.  His  nephew,  Cassini  de 
Tluiry,  has  published  his  biograpliy,  writ- 
ten by  Cassini  himself,  under  the  title 
Memoires  pour  servir  a  VHist.  des  Sci- 
ences (4to.) — 2.  James,  son  of  the  preced- 
ing, Ijorn  at  Paris,  Feb.  18,  1677,  was 
athnitted  into  the  academy  of  sciences  in 
1694.  After  several  essays  on  subjects 
in  natural  philosophy,  &c.  he  completed 
his  great  work  on  the  inclinations  of  the 
orbits  of  Saturn's  satellites  and  ring.  His 
labors  to  determine  the  figui-c  of  the  earth 
(q.  V.)  are  Avell  known.  The  first  measure- 
ment of  1669  made  the  degrees  of  the 
meridian  shorter  towards  the  north  than 
towards  the  soutli ;  whence  it  was  con- 
cluded that  the  eartii  was  an  oblong  sphe- 
roid.     Cassini  continued  the  measure- 


ment, and  maintained  this  opinion  in  his 
work  De  la  Grandeur  et  de  la  Figure  de  la 
Terre  (Paris,  1720).  In  order  to  settle  the 
question,  the  academy  was  commissioned, 
in  1733,  to  measure  the  whole  length  of 
France  from  Brest  to  Strasburg.  Cassini 
directed  this  undertaking,  but  was  led  into 
some  errors  by  the  defective  instruments 
of  former  observers.  He  died  in  1756, 
at  Thury.  Besides  the  above-mention- 
ed works,  he  wrote  Elemens  (TAslro- 
nomie  ( Paris,  1740,  4to.),  and  Tables  Astr. 
His  eloge  in  the  Mem.  de  VAcad.  contains 
a  biographical  notice  of  him. — 3.  Cassini 
de  Thury,  C«esar  Frant^ois,  son  of  the 
preceding,  bom  June  14,  1714,  member 
of  the  academy  fi-om  his  22d  year.  He 
undertook  a  geometrical  sur^'ey  of  the 
whole  of  France,  embracing  the  deter- 
mmation  of  the  distance  of  everj'  place 
from  the  meridian  of  Paris,  and  fi-om  the 
jjerpendicular  of  that  meridian.  When 
the  support  of  the  govennnent  was  Avith- 
drawn,  in  1756,  Cassini  formed  a  society 
for  advancing  the  requisite  sums,  which 
Avere  to  be  repaid  by  the  sale  of  the  maps 
constructed  from  the  survey.  The  work 
was  almost  entirely  finished,  when  he 
ched  (1784),  leaving  many  writings  relat- 
ing to  his  great  topographical  under- 
taking.— 4.  Jacques  Dominique,  count, 
son  of  the  preceding,  born  at  Paris,  1740, 
is  director  of  the  observator}*,  and  mem- 
ber of  the  academy,  and  is  a  statesman  of 
ability,  as  well  as  a  mathematician.  In 
1789,  he  presented  to  the  national  assem- 
bly the  Carte  Topographique  de  France, 
in  180  sheets,  now  increased  to  182,  by 
the  addition  of  the  Carte  des  Assemblages 
des  Triangles.  The  Atlas  JVationale  is  a 
reduction  of  it  on  a  scale  of  one  third, 
prepared  by  Dumey,  and  other  engineers. 
Cassini  was  arrested  by  order  of  tlie  rev- 
olutionary tribunal.  He  escaped  with  life, 
but  lost  the  copperplates  of  the  Caiie  de 
France,  which  had  cost  half  a  million 
francs.  There  is  a  second  reduction  of 
the  large  map,  being  only  a  fourth  of  the 
size  of  tlie  original,  in  24  plates. 

Cassino  ;  a  game  at  cards,  in  which 
four  are  dealt  to  each  player,  four  being 
also  placed  on  the  board.  The  object  is 
to  take  as  many  cards  as  possible,  by 
making  combinations.  Thus  a  ten  in  the 
player's  hand  will  take  a  ten  from  the 
l)oard,  or  any  number  of  cards  which  can 
be  made  to  combine  into  tens.  The 
greatest  number  of  cards  reckons  three 
points,  and  of  spades,  one ;  the  ten  of 
diamonds,  two  ;  the  two  of  spades,  one  ; 
and  each  of  the  aces,  one. 

Cassiodorus,    Marcus    Aurelius,     a 


860 


CASSIODORUS-CASSOWARY. 


learned  Roman,  lived  at  the  tinne  of  tl)e 
doniuiion  of  the  Ostrogoths,  and  contrib- 
uted to  the  promotion  and  preservation 
of  learning.  He  was  bom  at  Squillace 
{Scylaceum\  480  A.  D.,  or,  as  some  say, 
470,  filled  several  public  offices  in  Rome, 
and  became  secretary  of  the  Ostrogoth 
king  Theodoric,  but,  in  537,  voluntarily 
retired  to  a  monastery  in  Calabria,  where 
he  died,  577.  He  made  the  monks  of  bis 
convent  copy  the  manuscripts  of  the  an- 
cient authors,  and  his  book  De  Septem 
Disciplinis  liberalibtis,  in  which  he  treat- 
ed of  the  tritium  and  qtutdrivmrn,  and  in- 
serted extracts  from  the  ancient  classic 
literature,  was  of  much  value  in  the  mid- 
dle ages.  For  Theodoric  he  also  Avrote 
his  compilation  of  letters,  Variorum  Epis- 
tolarum  lAbri  XII.  He  likewise  composed 
Historia  Gothorum  (a  History  of  the 
Goths),  of  which  we  have  an  epitome  by 
Jomandes,  and  several  theological  works 
of  little  importance.  His  works  have 
been  collected  by  J.  Caret  (Venice,  1679, 
fol. ;  new  edit.  1721). 

Cassiopeia  ;  daughter  of  Arabus^  and 
wife  of  Cepheus,  to  whom  she  bore  An- 
dromeda. She  dared  to  compare  her 
beauty  to  that  of  the  Nereides,  who,  en- 
raged thereat,  besought  Neptune  for  ven- 
geance. The  god,  in  compliance  with 
the  request  of  the  water-nymphs,  laid 
waste  the  dominions  of  Cepheus  by 
means  of  a  deluge  and  a  dreadful  sea- 
inoiister.  Thus  it  appears  that  in  ancient 
times,  as  well  as  in  modern,  nations  have 
had  to  suffer  for  the  faults  of  their  mas- 
ters, Cassiopeia  was  the  mother  of  Atym- 
nius  by  an  intrigue  vn\h  Jupiter. — In 
astronomy,  Cassiopeia  is  a  conspicuous 
constellation  in  the  northern  hemisphere, 
situated  next  to  Cepheus.  In  1572,  a 
new  and  brilliant  star  appeared  in  it, 
which,  however,  after  a  short  time,  gradu- 
ally diminished,  and  at  last  disappeared 
entirely.  It  was  thought,  at  that  time,  by 
many  persons,  that  this  was  the  star 
which  appeared  to  the  wise  men  in  the 
East.  The  constellation  Cassiopeia  con- 
tains 52  stars  of  the  first  six  magnitudes. 

Cassiquiari  ;  a  river  of  Colombia,  be- 
ing a  large  branch  of  the  Rio  Negro,  and 
remarkable  as  forming  a  communication 
between  the  two  great  rivers,  the  Amazon 
and  Orinoco.  The  Cassiquiari  flows 
from  the  Orinoco,  and  joins  the  Rio  Ne- 
gro, which  last  is  a  large  tributary  of  the 
Amazon.  The  reality  of  this  communi- 
cation, which  had  been  previously  assert- 
ed by  the  Jesuit  missionaries,  was  con- 
firmed by  the  celebrated  traveller  Hum- 
boldt, 


Cassiterides,  in  ancient  geography;; 
a  name  given  by  Strabo  to  10  islands,  N.. 
W.  of  Spain,  in  the  open  ocean,  abound- 
ing in  tin  and  lead.  Strabo  says  the 
Phoenicians  only  visited  them.  There 
are  no  islands  where  he  describes  them 
to  have  been.  They  are,  |>erhaps,  the 
modem  ScUly  islands.  It  is  probable  that 
the  ancient  merchants  kept  their  true 
situation  secret  from  interested  views,^ 
which,  in  those  times,  could  easily  be 
done. 

Cassius,  Longinus  Caius,  the  friend  of 
Brutus,  was  the  questor  of  Crassus,  and 
preserved  the  few  troops  of  that  general 
Avho  escaped  from  the  bloody  battle  with 
the  Parthians.  With  these  be  defended 
Syria  against  the  Parthians  till  the  arrival 
of  Bibulus.  In  the  famous  civil  war  that 
broke  out  between  Pompey  and  Csesar, 
he  espoused  the  cause  of  the  fonner,  and, 
as  commander  of  his  naval  forces,  ren- 
dered him  important  services.  When 
Csesar,  after  the  victory  at  Pharsaha,  was 
in  pursuit  of  Pompey,  he  advanced  with 
a  few  vessels,  while  crossing  the  Helles- 
pont, against  a  fleet  of  70  sail  command- 
ed by  Cassius,  and  called  upon  him  to 
surrender.  The  latter,  astonished  by  bis 
daring  courage,  surrendered  at  his  sum- 
mons. But,  wlien  it  became  evident  that 
Caesar  was  aiming  at  sole  sovereignty, 
Cassius,  who  was  a  zealous  republican, 
resolved  to  destroy  the  usurper,  and  exe- 
cuted his  plan,  with  the  aid  of  several 
fellow-conspirators,  B.  C.  44.  He  then, 
together  with  Brutus,  raised  an  army  to 
maintain  his  country's  freedom.  They 
were  met  by  Octavius  and  Antony,  who 
professed  thepiselves  the  avengers  of  Cae- 
sar, at  Philippi.  The  wing  which  Cas- 
sius commanded  being  defeated,  he  ima- 
gined that  all  was  lost,  and  killed  himself) 
B.  C.  42.  Brutus  called  him  the  last  of 
the  Romans.     (See  Bnttus  and  Casar.) 

Cassowary  [casuarius,  Briss.) ;  a  genus 
of  birds,  arranged  by  Cuvier  in  his  family 
brevipennes,  the  first  of  tiie  order  grallai, 
waders,  to  which  they  are  related  solely 
by  their  long,  naked,  stilt-like  legs,  and 
long  neck.  In  the  form  of  t'he  bill  and 
their  mode  of  living,  they  more  closely 
resemble  the  galUnaceous  birds.  The 
shortness  of  their  wings  totally  unfits 
them  for  flying,  and  it  would  seem  im- 
possible for  nature  to  have  furnished  mus- 
cular power  sufficient  to  move  wines 
large  enough  to  sustain  their  great  weight 
in  the  air.  Unlike  other  birds,  their  pec- 
toral or  wing  muscles  are  comparatively 
slight  and  weak,  while  those  of  their  pos- 
terior limbs  ai'e  very  robust  and  powerful. 


CASSOWARY-CAST  ENGRAVINGS. 


561 


The  wings  of  the  ostrich  are  of  some  as- 
sistance to  it  in  running,  but  those  of  the 
cassowary  are  too  short  even  to  be  of 
service  in  this  way.  Indeed,  its  whole 
plumage  is  so  poorly  supplied  with  feath- 
ers as  to  resemble,  at  a  little  distance,  a 
coat  of  coarse  or  hanging  hair.  The  cas- 
sowaries have  three  toes,  all  provided 
with  nails.  Two  species  of  the  ge- 
nus are  well  known,  the  common  casso- 
wary (casuarius,  B. ;  struthio  casuarius, 
L.),  inhabiting  various  islands  of  the  In- 
dian archipelago  ;  and  the  emeu  {CNovce 
HoUandia),  or  JVcw  Holland  c(t.ssowary. 
The  lirst  species,  called  galeated  or  hel- 
vieted  cassowary,  has  a  laterally  compress- 
ed beak,  with  a  head  surmounted  by  an 
osseous  prominence,  covered  with  a  sort 
of  horny  hehnet  ;  the  skin  of  the  head 
and  superior  part  of  the  neck  is  naked, 
of  a  deep-blue  and  fiery-red  tint,  with 
pendent  ciu-uncles,  similar  to  those  of  the 
turkey-cock.  Thei-e  are  some  naked, 
rigid  quills  on  the  wings,  which  are  used 
as  weapons  of  defence.  The  iimer  toe- 
nail is  the  largest  of  all.  The  ostrich  is 
the  only  bird  which  surpasses  the  casso- 
war\'  in  size  and  strength.  From  the 
form  of  its  head,  and  bright  eyes,  the  cas- 
sowary is  of  a  fierce  and  threatening 
aspect.  This,  however,  is  not  a  true  m- 
dication  of  its  character,  which  is  rather 
thnorous  and  shy.  It  is  about  5^  feet 
long,  from  the  tip  of  the  bill  to  the  ex- 
tremity of  the  longest  claw.  The  head 
and  neck  together  measure  18  inches,  and 
tlie  largest  toe,  including  the  claw,  is  5 
inches  long.  The  claw  of  the  inner  toe 
is  3i  mches  long.  All  the  feathers  of  the 
cassowary  are  of  the  same  kind,  being 
entirely  designed  for  covering,  and  exter- 
nally are  all  of  one  color.  They  general- 
ly grow  double,  having  two  long  shafts 
growing  out  of  a  short  one  attached  to  the 
skhi.  The  double  feathers  are  ail  of  un- 
equal length,  some  on  the  rump  being  12 
or  14  inches  long,  while  others  are  only  3. 
The  stem  or  shaft  is  flat,  shining,  black, 
and  knotted  below,  having  a  beard  arising 
from  each  knot.  The  beards  at  the  ends 
of  the  large  feathers  are  perfectly  black, 
and  towards  the  root  of  a  tawny  gray. 
The  feathers  on  the  head  and  neck  are  so 
short  and  scattered,  tliat  the  skin  appears 
naked,  except  towards  the  hind  part  of 
the  head,  where  they  are  somewhat 
longer.  The  wings,  whhout  the  feathers, 
are  not  more  than  3  inches  long.  The 
rigid  quills  or  prickles  already  mentioned 
are  5 ;  the  longest  is  1 1  inches  in  length 
and  a  quarter  of  an  inch  thick  at  the  base. 
The  hehnet  is  black  in  front  and  yellow 


behind.  The  eye  is  of  a  bright  yellow, 
and  more  than  an  inch  m  diameter. — The 
anatomy  of  the  cassowary  differs  very 
materially  from  that  of  the  ostrich,  which 
it  resembles  so  much  in  general  appear- 
ance and  habits.  The  intestines  are  short, 
and  the  ccecum  small ;  there  is  no  stomach 
intermediate  to  the  crop  and  gizzard,  and 
the  cloaca  is  not  larger,  in  proportion,  than 
that  of  other  birds.  It  feeds  on  fioiits, 
eggs  of  birds,  &c.,  but  never  on  grain. 
It  swallows  its  food  with  great  voracity, 
and,  Uke  the  ostrich,  bolts  down  bits  of 
iron,  broken  brick,  glass,  &c.,  without  in- 
jury. In  fact,  such  substances  perfonn 
the  service,  in  the  digestion  of  these  great 
birds,  that  gravel  does  in  that  of  ordinary 
fowls. — As  might  be  inferred  from  its 
structure,  the  cassowary  is  a  swift  runner, 
and  its  mode  of  progression,  being  unaid- 
ed by  wings,  is  as  pecuhar  as  it  is  effi- 
cienL  In  running,  the  cassowary  ap- 
pears to  strike  out  powerfully  with  one 
leg,  so  as  to  project  its  body  violently  for- 
ward with  a  bounding  motion,  far  sur- 
passing the  speed  of  a  horse.  It  also 
kicks  violently  when,  in  a  state  of  captivi- 
ty, it  is  provoked  to  anger,  and  can  inflict 
a  very  severe  blow.  The  eggs  of  the  ga- 
leated cassowary  are  of  a  grayish-ash 
color,  verging  to  green,  and  are  neither  as 
round  nor  as  large  as  those  of  the  ostrich. 
The  shell  is  not  very  thick,  and  is  marked 
by  numerous  Uttle  deep-green  tubercles. 
The  largest  of  their  eggs  measure  about 
15  inches  in  length  and  12  roimd. — The 
emeu,  or  J^ew  Holland  cassowary,  differs 
from  that  of  the  old  world  by  being  much 
larger,  and  standing  higher  on  its  legs, 
beuig  7  feet  2  inches  in  length.  The 
head  is  destitute  of  the  helmet,  and  feath- 
ered throughout,  except  around  the  ear. 
The  phunage  is  thicker,  and  the  webs  of 
the  feathers  more  perfect.  It  has  neither 
caruncles  to  the  neck  nor  prickles  on  the 
wings.  The  nails  of  the  toes  are  nearly 
equal.  The  legs  are  stout,  similar  to 
those  of  the  galeated  species,  but  jagged 
or  dcntated  along  the  whole  of  their  back 
part.  The  emeu  is  swifter  in  nmning 
than  the  fleetest  gray-hound.  It  has  not 
yet  been  found  any  where  but  in  New 
Holland.  The  flesh  has  a  considerable 
resemblance  to  beef.  The  young  of  the 
New  Holland  cassowary  are  striped  with 
white  and  brown. 

Cast.    (See  Casting.) 

Cast  Engravi^jgs.  An  important  dis- 
covery has  lately  been  made,  wliich  con- 
sists in  taking  moulds  from  every  kind  of 
engraving,  whether  Une,  mezzotinto,  or 
aquatinta,  and  in  pouring  on  this  mould  an 


CAST  ENGRAVINGS— CASTE. 


alloy  in  a  state  of  fusion,  capable  of  taking, 
as  it  is  stated,  the  finest  impression.  No 
sooner  is  one  cast  worn  out,  than  another 
may  immediately  be  procured  from  the 
original  plate,  so  that  every  impression 
may  be  a  proof. 

Castagno,  Andrea  del,  an  emuient 
painter,  was  bom  at  the  village  of  Cas- 
tagno, in  Tuscany,  in  1409.  Being  de- 
prived, when  young,  of  his  parents,  who 
were  extremely  poor,  he  was  employed 
by  his  uncle  to  attend  tlie  cattle  in  the 
fields,  and,  in  that  situation,  by  his  sur- 
prising and  untutored  essays  in  the  art, 
attracted  the  notice  of  Bemardetto  de 
Medici,  who  placed  him  under  the  tuition 
of  one  of  the  best  masters  Florence  then 
afforded.  At  first,  he  painted  only  in  dis- 
temper and  fresco,  and  was  in  high  repu- 
tation when  Domenico  Venetiano  visited 
Florence,  who  had  learned,  from  An- 
tonello  da  Messina,  the  new  method  of 
painting  in  oil  and  varnish,  till  then  un- 
known in  Tuscany.  The  splendor  of 
this  new  mode  of  coloring  was  very 
much  admired,  and,  by  a  pretended 
firiendship  for  Domenico,  Castagno  ob- 
tained his  secret  from  him ;  but,  not  sat- 
isfied with  this,  he  desired  to  be  the  sole 
possessor,  and  determined  to  murder  his 
friend  and  benefactor.  This  he  effected 
without  any  suspicion,  and  continued  to 
practise  his  ill-acquired  art  with  great 
success.  The  real  author  of  this  atro- 
cious act  was  never  discovered  until  An- 
drea made  a  full  confession  of  his  guilt, 
shortly  before  his  death,  which  happened 
in  1480.  The  best  of  his  remaining  works 
are  at  Florence,  in  the  church  of  St.  Lu- 
cia de  Magnuoli,  and  in  the  monastery 
degli  Angeli.  The  latter  contains  a  cruci- 
fixion, by  him,  painted  on  a  wall. 

Castanets  ;  small  wooden  rattles, 
made  in  the  shape  of  two  bowls  or  cups, 
fitted  together,  and  tied  by  a  string,  and 
then  fastened  to  the  thumbs.  The  fin- 
gers being  rapidly  struck  upon  them,  a 
tremulous  sound  is  produced,  which 
marks  exactly  the  measure  of  the  dance. 
Something  similar  to  this  was  the  crota- 
lon  of  the  ancients,  who  also  made  use  of 
small  cymbals  in  their  dances  and  festivals 
in  honor  of  Bacchus.  It  is  probable, 
however,  that  they  had  their  origin  in  the 
East,  and  were  brought  by  the  Moors  in- 
to Spain.  Here,  too,  they  received  their 
name  castanudas,  fi-om  being  commonly 
made  of  the  wood  of  the  chestnut  [casta- 
710 ),  or  from  their  color.  They  are  still  in 
use  in  Spain,  and  here  and  there  in  the 
south  of  France.  The  charm  of  variety 
has  also  procured  for  them  a  place  in  bal« 


lets  and  operas,  as,  for  example,  in  John 
of  Paris. 

Castanos,  don  Francisco  de,  a  Span- 
ish general,  born  1743,  compelled  the 
French  general  Dupont  de  I'Etang  to  lay 
down  liis  arms,  July  20,  1808,  in  the 
Sierra  Morena,  and  concluded  with  him 
the  important  capitulation  of  Baylen. 
He  is  descended  from  a  distinguished 
family  in  Biscay,  and  was  a  pupil  of  the 
celebrated  general  count  O'Reilly,  whom 
he  accompanied  to  Germany,  where  he 
studied  tactics  in  the  school  of  the  great 
Frederic.  In  1794,  he  served  as  colonel 
in  the  army  of  Navarre,  under  Caro.  In 
1798,  he  was  made  lieutenant-general, 
and  soon  after  was  banished,  with  many 
other  officers,  for  enmity  to  the  prince 
of  peace.  On  tlie  invasion  of  the  French, 
he  received,  in  1808,  the  command  of  a 
division  of  the  army,  on  the  frontiers  of 
Andalusia,  towards  which  Dupont  was 
preparing  to  advance  his  forces.  With 
9000  regular  troops,  and  about  30,000 
militia,  he  defeated  general  Dupont.  (See 
Baylen.)  He  lost,  however,  a  battle  at 
Tudela  (November,  1808).  In  1811,  the 
regency  appointed  him  commander-in- 
chief  of  the  fourth  Spanish  army,  and 
governor  of  several  provinces.  He  was 
now  the  companion  in  arms  of  the  duke 
of  Wellington,  and  displayed  great  mili- 
tary talent  in  the  battle  of  Vittoria,  which 
was,  in  part,  won  by  his  bravery  and  the 
valor  of  his  troops.  The  regency  depriv- 
ed him  of  his  command,  and  appointed 
him  counsellor  of  state.  He  wrote  to  the 
minister  of  war,  "  I  have  the  satisfaction 
of  dehvering  up  to  field-marshal  Freyre, 
on  the  frontiers  of  France,  the  command 
which  I  received  before  Lisbon,  in  1811." 
On  the  return  of  Ferdinand,  he  was  made 
captain-general  of  Catalonia,  and  liad  sev- 
eral orders  conferred  on  him.  In  1815, 
he  commanded  the  army  that  was  to  in- 
vade France.  In  1816,  he  resigned  his 
commission.  In  1824,  lie  succeeded  in 
defending  himself  from  the  charge  of 
constitutional  sentiments,  was  again  ap- 
pointed captain-general,  and,  in  1825^ 
made  counsellor  of  state. 

Caste  ;  certain  classes  whose  burdens- 
and  privileges  are  hereditary.  The  word 
is  derived  from  the  Portuguese  casta,  and 
was  originally  appUed,  by  the  conquerors 
of  the  East  Indies,  to  the  Indian  families, 
whose  occupations,  customs,  privileges 
and  duties  are  hereditary.  This  term  has 
been  sometimes  applied  to  the  hereditary 
classes  in  Europe ;  and  we  speak  of  the 
spirit  or  the  prerogatives  and  usurpations 
of  a  caste,  to  express  particularly  that  un- 


CASTE— CASTI. 


563 


natural  constitution  of  society,  wliich 
makes  distinction  dependent  on  the  acci- 
dents of  birth  or  fortune.  The  division 
into  castes,  among  the  people  of  the  old 
world,  comes  to  us  from  a  period  to 
which  the  light  of  history  does  not  ex- 
tend ;  hence  its  origin  cannot  be  clearly 
traced:  but  it  is  highly  probable  that, 
wherever  it  exists,  it  was  originally 
grounded  on  a  difference  of  descent,  and 
in  the  modes  of  hving,  and  that  the  sepa- 
rate castes  were  originally  separate  races 
of  people.  This  institution  is  found 
among  many  nations.  According  to  the 
accounts  collected  by  Clavigero,  some 
traces  of  it  are  apparent  among  the 
Peruvians  and  Mexicans ;  but  it  prevails 
principally  in  the  East,  where  it  has  ex- 
isted from  the  earUest  times,  and  has  be- 
come blended  with  the  political  condition 
of  tlie  people,  because  it  favors  despo- 
tism, which  is  the  prevailing  form  of  gov- 
ernment. Thus,  in  Persia,  even  before 
Zoroaster,  there  was  a  division  into  four 
classes  or  castes ;  priests  (magi),  soldiers, 
husbandmen,  tradesmen.  But  the  divis- 
ion into  castes  was  nowhere  so  perfectly 
formed,  and  so  entirely  interwoven  in  the 
whole  fabric  of  civil  society,  as  in  Egypt 
and  India.  In  Egypt  (q.  v.),  this  division 
was  perfected,  as  a  political  institution,  in 
the  flourishing  period  of  the  Pharaohs ; 
and  the  lines  of  separation  which  had 
been  drawn,  in  earlier  times,  by  a  diflfer- 
ence  of  descent,  and  different  modes  of 
hving,  were  then  rendered  still  more  dis- 
tinct. The  number  of  castes  in  that 
country  was  originally  seven.  The  class 
of  priests,  who  formed,  in  some  respects, 
a  highly-privileged  order  of  nobility,  and 
maintained  possession  of  the  offices  of 
state,  was  the  highest.  Next  followed 
the  soldiers,  who  were  divided  into  two 
classes,  and  whose  occupation  was  hered- 
itary. Of  the  remaining  castes,  the  hus- 
bandmen, the  watermen  (who  navigated 
the  Nile),  the  interjireters  (who  arose  sub- 
sequently to  the  rest,  and  sprung  from  the 
Greeks  who  were  invited  into  the  coun- 
try), and  the  two  castes  of  herdsmen, 
formed  a  gradation  of  ranks,  the  order  of 
which  is  not  known,  any  further  than 
that  the  herdsmen  were  the  lowest. 
Among  these  the  swineherd  was  consid- 
ered impure,  and  despised,  and  was  ex- 
cluded from  the  temples.  In  India,  there 
were  originally  four  castes.  (See  Hin- 
doos.) Probably  the  deep  researches  into 
Egyptian  antiquities  recently  made,  or  in 
a  state  of  progress,  particularly  those  of 
ChampolUon,  will  throw  much  hght  upon 
this  interesting  subject. 


Castelcicala  (don  Fabricio  Ruffo), 
prince  of,  descended  from  a  very  tmcient 
NeapoUtan  family,  obtained  great  influ- 
ence under  the  minister  Acton  (1796), 
in  the  infamous  political  mquisition  or 
junta.  When  Acton  resigned  liis  minis- 
try, prince  Castelcicala  became  minister, 
and  Vanini  committed  suicide.  After  the 
battle  of  Aboukir,  Castelcicala  persuaded 
his  court  to  declare  war  against  France. 
In  1799,  he  fled  with  his  monarch  to  Si- 
cily. Two  years  after,  he  was  Sicilian 
ambassador  in  London,  and  still  later  at 
the  French  court.  In  1816,  he  signed  the 
important  treaty  admitting  all  British  pro- 
ductions and  manufactures  into  Sicily  on 
paying  10  per  cent.  duty.  After  the  rev- 
olution (1820),  he  was  appointed  ambas- 
sador to  Madrid,  but  remained  in  Paris. 

Castello,  Gabriel  Lancelot,  an  emi- 
nent antiquary,  was  born  at  Palermo,  in 
1727,  of  a  noble  family,  and  was  placed 
under  a  private  tutor,  with  a  view  to 
study  botany,  chemistry,  &c.;  but,  acci- 
dentally meeting  with  some  old  coins, 
which  had  been  dug  up  by  a  ploughman, 
he  was  seized  with  a  great  desire  to  de- 
cipher them,  and  from  that  time  devot- 
ed himself  to  antiquarian  pursuits.  He 
formed  a  splendid  collection  of  the  re- 
mains of  antiquity  found  in  Sicily,  and  his 
museum  was  always  open  to  foreigners  as 
well  as  to  natives.  On  his  death-bed,  he 
bequeathed  a  large  quantity  of  books, 
&.C.  to  the  public  library  of  Palermo.  He 
died  in  1794,  being  at  that  time  an  honor- 
ary member  of  the  royal  society,  and  of 
the  academy  at  Paris.  He  published  sev- 
eral works. — There  was  another  Castello 
(Ignatius  Patemo),  who  published  an  ac- 
count of  the  earthquake  in  Sicily  in 
1783. 

Casti,  Giambattista,  a  poet,  born  in 
1721,  at  Prato,  in  the  vicinity  of  Florence, 
studied  at  Montefiascone,  became  pro- 
fessor there,  was  appointed  a  canon,  and 
made  a  journey  to  France.  Receiving 
an  invitation  from  the  prince  of  Rosen- 
berg, who  became  acquahited  with  hinri 
in  Florence,  he  went  to  Vienna,  and  was 
presented  to  Joseph  II,  who  knew  how 
to  appreciate  the  genius  of  the  poet,  and 
delighted  in  his  conversation.  Casti  took 
advantage  of  every  opportunity  of  visiting 
other  courts,  and  joined  several  embassies, 
without  office  or  title.  Catharine  II  re- 
ceived him  in  tlie  most  flattering  manner. 
He  visited  also  the  court  of  Berlin,  and 
several  other  German  courts.  After  liis 
return  to  Vienna,  prince  Rosenberg,  the 
director  of  the  imperial  theatre,  caused 
him  to  be  appointed  pocta  Cesareo  on  the 


964 


CASTI— CASTILE. 


death  of  Metastasio.  After  the  death  of 
Joseph  II,  Casti  requested  his  dismission, 
and  retired  to  Florence,  where  he  wrote 
many  of  his  works.  In  1783,  he  went  to 
Paris.  Notwithstanding  his  advanced 
age,  the  vigor  and  activity  of  his  mind 
were  still  unimpaired.  His  vivacity,  liis 
naivete,  seasoned  by  a  deUcate  irony,  and 
his  knowledge  of  the  world,  made  his 
conversation  very  attractive.  At  the  same 
time,  he  was  remarkable  for  tlie  firmness 
of  Iiis  character  and  the  regidarity  of  his 
habits.  He  died  suddenly,  Feb.  6,  1803, 
at  the  age  of  82.  His  JVoveUe  galanti 
were  republished  at  Paris,  1804,  under 
tlie  title  JVovelle  di  Giamb.  Casti,  in  3  vol- 
umes. They  are  48  in  number.  Almost 
all  are  of  a  licentious  character,  but  writ- 
ten in  a  lively,  original  and  graceful  style. 
The  same  may  be  said  of  his  didac- 
tic-satirical poem,  Gli  Animali  parlanli, 
Poema  epico,  diviso  in  26  CatUi,  ai  Giamb. 
Casti  (Milan,  1802,  5  vols.),  which  he 
wrote  between  1792  and  1799,  and  which 
did  not  receive  the  attention  it  deserves 
until  the  present  day,  probably  because 
people  formerly  feared  to  speak  openly 
on  tlie  bitter  truths  which  it  contains. 
There  are  two  translations  of  it  in  French 
and  one  in  Grerman.  It  has  been  also 
translated  into  English  by  Rose.  Casti's 
Rime  Anacreontiche  are  pleasing,  and  his 
comic  opei'as  La  Grotta  di  Trofonio,  and 
Jl  Re  Teodoro  in  Venezia,  &c.,  are  full 
of  wit  and  originality. 

Castigliose,  Baldassare;  one  of  the 
most  elegant  of  the  elder  Italian  writers ; 
horn  1478,  at  Casatico,  in  the  territory  of 
Mantua;  studied  at  Milan,  and  entered 
into  the  service  of  the  duke  Ludovico 
Sforza,  and,  afterwards,  of  the  duke  of 
Urbino,  of  whose  elegant  and  splendid 
court  he  soon  became  an  ornament. 
In  1505,  he  was  sent  as  ambassador  to 
Henry  VIII  of  England,  and,  in  1507,  in 
the  same  capacity,  to  Louis  XII,  at  Milan. 
In  151.3,  Castiglione  appeared  as  ambas- 
sador at  the  court  of  Leo  X,  where  he 
became  intimate  with  the  most  distin- 
guished literati  and  artists.  In  1521,  he 
obtained  for  the  new  duke  of  Urbino, 
Federigo,  the  command  of  the  papal 
troops,  and,  in  1524,  was  em})loycd  by 
pope  Clement  VII,  to  conduct  his  nego- 
tiations with  Charles  V.  When  Rome 
was  plundered  by  the  constable  of  Bour- 
bon, in  1527,  he  was  accused  of  negligence, 
and  his  health  was  undennined  by  cha- 
grin. He  refused  to  acce|)t  the  rich  bish- 
opric of  Avila,  which  was  offered  to  him 
by  the  emperor,  until  the  pope  should  be 
reconciled  with  Charles.    He  died  Feb. 


8,  1529,  at  Toledo.  Among  his  works 
the  lAbro  del  CoHigiano  is  the  most  cele- 
brated. It  teaches  the  art  of  succeeding  at 
court.  His  few  Italian  and  Latin  poems 
are  elegant.  His  letters  (Padua,  1769)  are 
valuable  contributions  to  political  and  lit- 
eraiy  history. 

Castile,  New;  a  province  of  Spain, 
bounded  N.  by  Old  Castile,  E.  by  Arragon 
and  Valencia,  S.  by  Murcia,  Jaen  and 
Cordova,  and  W.  by  Estremadura ;  220 
miles  long,  and  160  broad.  It  contains 
the  followingsubdivisions  or  provinces: — 


Provinces.     Sq.  m. 

Madrid, 1,^30 

Guadalaxara,  1,970 
Cuenca, . .  .  11,410 

Toledo, 8,863 

La  Maucha, .  7,620 


Pop.      Capitals. 
228,o00  Madrid. 
121,100  Guadalaxara. 
294,300  Cuenca. 
370,600  Toledo. 
205,600  Ciudad  Real. 


31,193  1,220,100 


The  surface  is  diversified,  consisting  part- 
ly of  extensive  plains,  and  partly  of  ranges 
of  mountains,  of  which  the  most  remark- 
able is  the  Sien-a  de  Cuenca.  The  prin- 
cipal rivers  are  the  Tagus,  Guadiana  and 
Xucar.  The  chniate  is  temperate,  tlie  soil 
naturally  fertile,  but  the  cultivation  back- 
ward, and  the  country  thinly  inhabited. 
The  jiroductions  are  wheat,  barley,  hemp, 
flax,  wine,  oil,  saffron,  honey,  sheep,  cat- 
tle, «S:c.  It  contains  one  archbishopric 
(Toledo),  one  bishopric  (CueuQa)  and  for- 
merly had  three  imiversities,  Alcala,  To- 
ledo and  Siguenca-  (For  further  infor- 
mation, see  Spain.) 

Castile,  Old ;  a  province  of  Spain,  bound- 
ed N.  by  Asturia  and  Biscay,  E.  by  Na- 
varre and  Arragon,  S.  by  New  Castile,  and 
W.  by  Loon ;  220  miles  long,  and,  where 
widest,  120  broad.  It  contains  the  follow- 
hig  provinces  or  subdivisions : — 

Provinces.  Sq.  m.  Pop.         Capitals. 

Avila, 2600  .  . .  118,100  . .  .  Avila. 

Segovia, . .  3502  . . .  164,000  . .  .  Searovia. 

Soria, 4118  .. .  199,000  .  . .  Sona. 

Burgos,. . .  7752  . . .  470,600  . . .  Burgos. 

18,372        951,700 

The  surface  is  diversified  with  mountains, 
plains  and  valleys.  The  soil  is  generally 
fertile,  but,  in  some  parts,  stony  and  un- 
fruitful. The  productions  are  rj'e,  barley, 
wheat,  madder,  in  some  paits,  wine  ;  but 
its  chief  wealth  consists  in  its  hundreds 
of  tliousands  of  sheep  and  cattle.  Its  but- 
ter is  excellent,  and  its  wool,  particularly 
that  of  Segovia,  is  much  celebrated  for  its 
fineness.  The  country  is  remarkably  bare 
of  trees,  as  is  also  much  of  New  Castile. 
The  rivers  ai-e  the  Ebro,  Duero,  Xalon, 


CASTILE— CASTING. 


563 


Carrion  and  Tormes.  (For  further  infor- 
mation, see  Spain.) 

Castillo,  Jose  Maria  del,  in  1809,  was 
an  advocate  of  the  province  of  Tunja; 
and,  in  the  junta  of  notables,  convened  at 
Bogota  by  the  viceroy  D.  Antonio  Ainar, 
in  September  of  that  year,  in  consequence 
of  the  revolutiontu-y  movement  at  Quito, 
and  on  other  occasions  previous  to  the 
deposition  of  Aniar,  he  distinguislied  him- 
self by  his  zeal  in  the  cause  of  America. 
lie  was  also  a  member  of  tlie  constituent 
college,  as  it  was  called,  which  assembled 
at  Bogota  in  1811,  and  organized  the 
state  of  Cundinamarca.  During  the  dis- 
sensions among  the  patriots  of  New  Gre- 
nada, in  the  fii-st  years  of  the  revolution, 
Castillo  acted  in  ojjposition  to  Nai'iiio, 
the  political  chief  of  Cundinamarca,  and 
was  active  and  influential  in  support  of 
the  deputies  assembled  at  Ibague,  being 
repeatedly  appointed  on  missions  to  treat 
with  Nariuo.  In  the  congress  at  Neyba, 
in  October,  1812,  he  was  one  of  the  two 
delegates  from  Tunja,  of  which  province, 
in  the  following  year,  we  fuid  him  the 
acting  governor.  In  1813,  likewise,  he 
and  D.  Jose  Fernandez  Madrid  were  de- 
spatched by  tlie  congi-ess  to  Bogota,  with 
full  powers  to  make  a  final  aiTangement 
witii  Nariiio,  and  remained  in  the  city 
for  some  time  as  representatives  of  the 
congress.  After  the  change  in  the  form 
of  government  in  1814,  when  the  author- 
ity of  the  executive  was  hicreased,  the 
three  pei-sons  elected  to  exercise  the  exec- 
utive power  being  absent,  Castillo  was  one 
of  the  deputies  appointed  to  tlie  tempora- 
ry discharge  of  their  duties.  When  the 
Spaniards,  under  Morillo,  took  possession 
of  Bogota  in  1816,  Castillo's  hfe  was 
spared ;  but  he  was  imprisoned  at  Omoa, 
in  the  government  of  Guatemala.  After 
the  union  of  New  Grenada  and  Venezu- 
ela, and  the  adoption  of  the  constitution 
of  Colombia,  Castillo  was  made  secretary 
of  the  department  of  the  treasuiy,  in 
which  office  he  continued  until  the  year 
1828.  He  was  a  member  of  the  conven- 
tion of  Ocafia  for  the  province  of  Cartha- 
gena,  and  was  elected  president  of  that 
body.  He  was  one  of  the  twenty  deputies 
who  withdrew  from  the  assembly,  and 
testified  their, confidence  in  Bolivar  in  a 
printed  exposition  of  their  motives.  When 
the  liberator  assumed  all  the  powers  of 
the  state,  after  the  dissolution  of  the  con- 
vention, Castillo  was  appointed,  by  decrees 
dated  the  27th  and  28th  of  August,  1828, 
president  of  the  council  of  ministers,  and 
also  of  the  council  of  state,  by  which  the 
new  government  was  to  be  administered, 

VOL.  11.  48 


with  a  rank  next  to  that  of  Bolivar  him- 
self 

Castixe  ;  a  seaport  tovm,  and  capital 
of  Hancock  county,  Maine,  on  the  east 
side  of  Penol)scot  bay ;  34  miles  S.  Ban- 
gor, 122  E.  N.  E.  Portland ;  lat.  44°  24' 
N^;  Ion.  68°  i&  W.;  population  in  1820, 
975.  It  is  situated  on  a  jiromontory,  on 
the  east  side  of  Penobscot  bay,  a  little 
below  the  entrance  of  Penobscot  river 
into  the  bay.  It  has  an  excellent  and 
very  spacious  harbor,  capable  of  recei\ing 
ships  of  the  largest  size,  and  accessible  at 
all  seasons  of  the  year.  Its  situation  is 
such  that  it  might  easily  be  made  a  place 
of  great  strength.  It  is  a  pleasant  town, 
and  has  considerable  trade. 

Casti>'g.  Iron,  as  well  as  brass,  and 
other  metals  which  melt  at  temperatures 
above  ignition,  is  cast  in  moulds  made  of 
sand.  The  kind  of  sand  most  employed 
is  loam,  which  possesses  a  sufficient  por- 
tion of  argillaceous  matter  to  render  it 
moderately  cohesive  when  damp.  The 
mould  is  formed  by  burj'ing  m  the  sand 
a  wooden  pattern,  having  exactly  the 
shape  of  the  article  to  be  cast.  The  sand 
is  most  commonly  enclosed  in  flasks, 
which  are  square  wooden  fnunes,  re- 
sembling boxes,  open  at  top  and  bottom. 
If  the  pattern  be  of  such  form  that  it  can 
be  lifted  out  of  the  sand  without  derang- 
ing the  form  of  the  mould,  it  is  oiily  ne- 
cessaiy  to  make  an  impression  of  the  pat- 
tern in  one  flask ;  and  articles  of  this  kind 
are  sometimes  cast  in  the  open  sand  upon 
the  floor  of  the  foundery.  But,  when 
the  shape  is  such  that  the  pattern  could 
not  be  extracted  without  breaking  the 
mould,  two  flasks  are  necessarj',  having 
half  the  mould  formed  in  each.  The  first 
flask  is  filled  with  sand,  by  ramming  it 
close,  and  is  smoothed  off"  at  the  top. 
The  pattern  is  separated  into  halves,  one 
lialf  being  imbedded  in  this  flask.  A 
quantity  of  white  sand,  or  burned  sand,  is 
sprinkled  over  the  surface,  to  prevent  the 
two  flasks  from  cohering.  The  second 
flask  is  then  placed  upon  the  top  of  the 
first,  having  pins  to  guide  it ;  the  other 
lialf  of  the  pattern  is  put  in  its  place,  and 
the  flask  is  filled  with  sand,  which,  of 
course,  receives  the  impression  of  the  re- 
maining half  of  the  pattern  on  its  under 
side.  After  one  or  more  holes  are  made 
in  the  top,  to  permit  the  metal  to  be 
poured  in,  and  the  steam  and  air  to  es- 
cape, the  flasks  are  separated,  and  the  pat- 
tern withdrawii.  AVhen  the  flasks  are 
again  united,  a  perfect  cavity,  or  mould,  is 
formed,  into  which  the  melted  metal  is 
poured.    The  arrangement  of  the  mould 


666 


CASTING. 


is,  of  course,  varied  for  different  articles. 
When  the  form  of  the  article  is  complex 
and  difficult,  as  in  some  hollow  vessels, 
crooked  pipes,  &c.,  the  pattern  is  made  in 
three  or  more  pieces,  which  are  put  to- 
gether to  form  the  mould,  and  afterwards 
taken  apart  to  extract  them.  In  some 
other  irregular  articles,  as  andirons,  one 
part  is  cast  first,  and  afterwards  inserted 
in  the  flask  which  is  to  form  the  other 
part.  The  metal  for  small  articles  is  usu- 
ally dipped  up  with  iron  ladles,  coated 
with  clay,  and  poured  into  the  moulds. 
In  large  articles,  such  as  cannon,  the 
mould  is  formed  in  a  pit  dug  in  the  earth 
near  the  furnace,  and  the  melted  metal  is 
conveyed  to  it  in  a  continued  stream, 
through  a  channel  communicating  with 
the  bottom  of  the  furnace.  Cannon-balls 
are  sometimes  cast  in  moulds  made  of 
iron,  and,  to  prevent  the  melted  metal 
from  adhering,  the  inside  of  the  mould 
is  covered  with  powder  of  black  lead. 
Rollers  for  flattening  iron  are  also  cast 
in  iron  cases.  This  method  is  called  chill 
casting,  and  has  for  its  object  the  harden- 
ing of  the  surface  of  the  metal,  by  the 
sudden  reduction  of  temperature,  which' 
takes  place  in  consequence  of  the  superior 
conducting  power  of  the  iron  mould. 
These  rollere  are  afterwards  turned  smooth 
in  a  powerful  lathe,  which  has  a  slow  mo- 
tion, that  the  cutting  tool  may  not  become 
heated  by  the  friction. — Casting  in  Plaster. 
Copies  are  most  frequently  taken,  both 
from  new  models,  and  from  old  statues, 
by  casting  them  in  plaster.  For  this  pur- 
pose, a  mould  in  plaster  is  first  made  from 
the  surface  of  the  statue  or  figure  itself; 
and  this  mould  is  afterwards  used  to  re- 
produce the  figure  by  casting.  Plaster  is 
prepared  for  use  by  pulverizing  common 
gypsum,  and  exposing  it  to  the  heat  of  a 
fire  until  its  moisture  is  wholly  expelled.* 
While  in  this  diy  state,  if  it  be  mixed 
with  water,  to  tlie  consistence  of  cream 
or  paste,  it  has  the  property  of  hardening 
in  a  few  minutes,  and  takes  a  very  sharp 
impression.  The  hardness  afl;erwards  in- 
creases by  keeping,  till  it  approaches  the 
character  of  stone.  Moulds  are  formed 
in  the  following  manner: — The  statue,  or 
figure  to  be  copied,  is  first  oiled,  to  pre- 
vent it  from  cohering  with  the  gypsum. 
A  quantity  of  liquid  plaster  sufficient  for 
the  mould  is  then  poured  on,  immediately 
after  being  mixed,  and  suffered  to  harden. 
If  the  subject  be  a  bass-relief,  or  any  figure 

*  The  heat  requisite  for  this  purpose  must  be 
greater  than  that  of  boiling  water.  Care  must  be 
taken  not  to  raise  the  lieat  too  high,  as,  in  that  case, 
the  sulphate  of  lime  would  be  decomposed. 


which  can  be  withdrawn  without  injury", 
the  mould  may  be  considered  as  finished, 
requiring  only  to  be  surrounded  with  an 
edging,  liut,  if  it  be  a  statue,  it  cannot  be 
withdrawn  without  breaking  the  mould  ; 
and,  on  this  account,  it  becomes  necessary 
to  divide  the  mould  into  such  a  number 
of  pieces  as  will  sepai-ate  perfectly  from 
the  original.  These  are  taken  off  from 
the  statue,  and,  when  afterwards  replaced, 
or  put  together  without  the  statue,  they 
constitute  a  perfect  mould.  This  mould, 
its  parts  having  been  oiled,  to  prevent  ad- 
hesion, is  made  to  receive  a  quantity  of 
plaster,  by  j)ouring  it  in  at  a  small  orifice. 
The  mould  is  then  turned  in  every  direc- 
tion, in  order  that  the  plaster  may  fill 
every  part  of  the  surface ;  and,  when  a 
sufficient  quantity  is  poured  in  to  produce 
the  strength  required  in  the  cast,  the  re- 
mainder is  often  left  hollow,  for  the  sake 
of  lightness,  and  economy  of  the  material. 
When  the  cast  is  dry,  it  is  extricated  by 
separating  the  pieces  of  the  mould,  and 
finished  by  removing  the  seams  and  blem- 
ishes with  the  proper  tools.*  If  the  form 
or  position  require  it,  the  limbs  are  cast 
separately,  and  aflerwards  cemented  on. 
Moulds  and  busts  are  obtained  in  a  similar 
manner  from  living  faces,  by  covering 
them  with  new  plaster,  and  removing  it 
in  pieces,  as  soon  as  it  becomes  hard.  It 
is  necessary  that  the  skin  of  the  face 
should  be  oiled;  and,  duiingthe  operation, 
the  eyes  are  closed,  and  the  person 
breathes  through  tubes  inserted  in  the 
nostrils.  Elastic  moulds  have  been  form- 
ed by  pouring  upon  the  figure  to  be  cop- 
ied a  strong  solution  of  glue.  This  hard- 
ens upon  cooling,  and  takes  a  fine  impres- 
sion. It  is  then  cut  into  suitable  pieces, 
and  removed.  The  advantage  of  the 
elastic  mould  is,  that  it  separates  more 
easily  from  irregular  surfaces,  or  those 
with  uneven  projections  and  under  cut- 
tings, from  which  a  common  mould 
could    not    be    removed    without    vio- 

*  Plaster  casts  are  varnished  b}-  a  mixture  of 
soap  and  wiiite  wax  in  boiling  water.  A  quarter 
of  an  ounce  of  soap  is  dissolved  in  a  pint  of  water, 
and  an  equal  quantity  of  wax  atlerwards  incorpo- 
rated. The  cast  is  dipped  in  this  liquid,  and,  afler 
drying  a  week,  is  polished  bj,'  rubbing  with  soft 
linen.  The  surface  produced  in  this  manner  ap- 
proaches to  the  polisn  of  marble.  When  piaster 
casts  are  to  be  exposed  to  the  weather,  their  dura- 
bility is  gi'eativ  increased  by  saturating  tliem  with 
linseed  on,  with  which  wax  or  rosin  may  be  com- 
bined. When  intended  to  resemble  bronze,  a  soap 
is  used,  made  of  linseed  oil  and  soda,  colored  by  the 
sulphates  of  copper  and  iron.  Walls  and  ceilings 
are  rendered  water-proof  in  the  same  way.  (See 
an  abstract  of  a  memoir  of  D'Arcet  and  Thenard, 
in  Brande's  Journal,  vol.  xxii.,  184,  and  Franklin 
Journal,  ii.,  276.) 


CASTING— CASTOR-OIL. 


567 


lence.*  For  small  and  delicate  impres- 
sions in  relief,  melted  sulphur  is  some- 
times used;  also  a  strong  solution  of  isin- 
glass ill  proof  spirit. — Bronze  Casting. 
Statues  intended  to  occupy  situations  m 
which  they  may  be  exposed  to  violence 
are  commonly  made  of  bronze.  This 
material  resists  both  mechanical  injuries 
and  decay  from  the  influence  of  the  at- 
mosphere. The  moulds  in  which  bronze- 
statues  are  cast  are  made  on  the  pattern, 
out  of  plaster  and  brick-dust,  the  latter 
material  being  added  to  resist  tlie  heat  of 
the  melted  metal.  The  piu-ts  of  this 
mould  are  covered  on  their  inside  with 
a  coating  of  clay,  as  thick  as  tlie  bronze 
is  intended  to  be.  The  mould  is  then 
closed,  and  ftlled,  on  its  inside,  with  a 
nucleus  or  core  of  plaster  and  brick-dust, 
mixed  with  water.  W'lieii  tliis  is  done, 
the  mould  is  oj)ened,  and  the  clay  care- 
fully removed.  The  mould,  with  its  core, 
is  then  thoroughly  dried,  and  the  core 
secured  in  its  central  position  by  short 
bars  of  bronze,  which  pass  into  it  through 
the  external  part  of  the  mould.  The 
whole  is  then  bound  with  iron  hoops,  and, 
when  placed  in  a  proper  situation  for 
casting,  the  melted  bronze  is  poured  in 
through  an  aperture  left  for  the  pui-])ose : 
of  coui-se,  the  bronze  fills  the  same  cavity 
which  Avas  previously  occupied  by  the 
clay,  and  forms  a  metallic  covering  to  the 
core.  This  is  afterwmds  made  smooth 
by  mechanical  means.  {Bigelow''s  Techr 
nology.) 

Castlereaoh.    (See  Londonderry.) 

Castor.     (See  Beaver.) 

Castor  axd  Pollux  ;  the  sons  of  Tyur 
darus,  king  of  LacedaJinon,  and  Leda,  or, 
according  to  some,  of  Jupiter  and  Leda. 
The  fable  runs,  that  Leda  brought  forth 
two  eggs,  one  of  which  contained  Pollux 
and  Ilelen,  the  other  Castor  and  Cly- 
temnestra.  Pollux  and  Helen,  being  the 
offsjjiing  of  Jupiter,  were  imnjortal ;  but 
Castor  and  Clytemnestra  were  begotten 
l)y  Tyndarus,  and  mortal.  The  two  brothr 
ers  were  inseparable  companions,  equally 
brave  and  spirited,  and  attached  to  each 
other  Avith  the  fondest  affection.  Castor 
was  jmrticularly  skilled  in  the  art  of  break- 
ing horses,  and  Pollux  in  boxing  and 
wrestling.  They  were  among  the  heroes 
of  the  Argouautic  expedition,  in  which 
they  acquired  divine  honors;  for,  a  ter- 
rible tempest  having  arisen  on  the  voyage, 
and  all,  with  loud  voices,  calling  on  the 
gods  to  save  them,  there  suddenly  appear- 
ed over  the  heads  of  Castor  and  Pollux 

*  See  a  paper  by  Mr.  Fox,  republished  in  ihe 
Fraaklin  Jouiual,  vol,  iii. 


two  star-like  meteors,  and  the  tempest 
subsided.  From  this  time,  they  were  the 
patron  deities  of  mariners,  and  received 
the  name  of  Dioscuri;  and,  from  them, 
the  name  of  Castor  and  Pollux  was  given 
to  the  fires  that  are  often  seen  on  vessels' 
masts  in  storms,  and  which  are  electrical 
phenomena.  After  their  return,  they  re- 
leased their  sister  Helen  from  the  con- 
finement in  which  Theseus  had  for  some 
time  held  her.  They  were  also  among 
the  heroes  of  the  Calydonian  hunt.  They 
wooed  the  daughtei-s  of  Leucippus,  Phoe- 
be and  Ilaria,  and  were  each  obliged  to 
contend  for  their  mistresses  with  their  ri- 
vals, Idas  and  Lynceus,  the  sons  of  Apha^ 
reus.  Castor  killed  Lynceus,  and  was 
slain  by  Idas.  Pollux  revenged  his  broth- 
er's death  by  kiUing  Idas ;  but,  full  of  grief 
for  the  loss  of  Castor,  he  besought  Jupiter 
either  to  take  away  his  life,  or  grant  that 
his  brother  might  share  his  immortality. 
Jupiter  listened  to  his  request,  and  Pol- 
lux and  his  brother  alternately  descended 
to  Orcus,  and  returned  to  life.  It  is 
doubtful  whether  the  ancients  undei-stood 
them  as  being  together  or  separate  in 
their  alternate  passage  between  the  upper 
and  the  lower  worlds.  The  former  opin- 
ion seems  to  be  the  oldest ;  the  latter,  to 
have  gained  gi'ound  subsequently.  Tem- 
ples and  altars  were  consecrated  to  them. 
In  great  perils,  especially  in  battles,  the 
ancients  believed  that  they  frequently  ap- 
peared to  mortals  as  two  youths  on  white 
steeds,  in  shining  garments,  with  meteors 
over  their  heads ;  and  then  they  were 
chiefly  called  Dioscuri.  They  were  also 
represented  side  by  side,  either  riding  or 
standing,  each  holding  a  liorse  by  the  rein, 
with  spears  in  their  hands  and  stars  on 
their  heads. — In  the  heavens,  the  Dios- 
curi apj)ear  as  one  of  the  12  constellations 
of  the  zodiac  (the  Twins). 

Castor-Oil.  The  castor-oil  plant  [rici- 
nus  palma  Christi)  is  a  native  both  of  the 
East  and  West  Indies,  and  has  a  stem 
from  5  to  15  or  IG  feet  in  height,  and 
large,  bluish-green  leaves,  divided  into  7 
lobes,  serrated  and  pointed,  the  foot-stalks 
long,  and  inserted  into  the  disk.  The 
flowei-s  are  produced  in  a  terminating 
spike,  and  the  seed-vessels  are  covered 
with  spines,  and  contain  three  flattish, 
oblong  seeds. — It  is  to  the  seeds  of  tliis 
plant  that  we  are  indebted  for  the  drug 
called  castor-oil.  It  is  now  often  prepar- 
ed by  pressing  the  seeds  in  the  same  way 
as  is  practised  with  oil  of  almonds.  The 
oil  thus  obtained  is  called  cold  expressed. 
But  the  mode  chiefly  adopted  in  the. 
West  Indies  is  first  to  strip  the  seeds  of 


568 


CASTOR-OIL— CASTRATES. 


their  husks  or  pods,  and  then  to  bruise 
them  in  mortars.  Afterwards  they  aie 
tied  in  linen  bags,  and  boiled  in  water 
until  the  oil  which  they  contain  rises  to 
the  surface.  This  is  carefully  skimmed 
off,  strained,  to  free  it  from  any  accident- 
iil  impiuities,  and  bottled  for  use.  The 
oil  which  is  obtained  by  boiling  is  con- 
sidered more  mild  than  that  procured  by 
pressure,  but  it  sooner  becomes  rancid. 
The  mildest  and  finest  Jamaica  castor-oil 
is  very  hmpid,  nearly  coloi-less,  and  has 
scarcely  more  smell  or  taste  than  good 
olive-oil.  Many  people,  however,  have 
so  great  an  aversion  to  castor-oil,  even  in 
its  purest  state,  that  they  do  not  take  it 
without  great  reluctance.  The  uses  of 
castor-oil  in  medicine  are  Avell  known. 
It  is  at  present  prepared,  in  great  quanti- 
ties, in  vai'ious  parts  of  the  U.  States,  and 
of  an  excellent  quahty. 

Castrametation  ;  strictly,  the  art  of 
tracing  out  and  disposing  to  advantage  tlie 
several  paits  of  a  camp  on  the  ground.  It 
is  sometunes  used  more  extensively  to  in- 
clude all  the  ordinary  operations  of  a  cam- 
paign. A  camp,  whether  composed  of  tents 
or  barracks,  or  merely  of  places  assigned 
for  bivouacking,  must  be  divided  in  such 
a  way  that  the  several  divisions  shall  be 
disposed  as  they  are  intended  to  be  when 
drawn  up  in  order  of  battle  ;  so  that,  on  a 
sudden  aWm,  the  troops  may  rise  in  their 
proper  posts.  At  the  same  lime,  the  places 
for  cooking,  for  the  baggage,  and  for  am- 
munition, nmst  be  conveniently  arranged. 

Castrates.  The  change  produced  in 
men  by  emasculation  is  highly  remark- 
able, and  assimilates  their  constitution,  in 
some  respects,  to  that  of  females.  The 
elasticity  of  the  fibres  and  muscles  is 
weakened,  and  the  cellular  membrane  be- 
comes charged  with  a  much  larger  quan- 
tity of  fat ;  the  growth  of  the  beard  is  pre- 
vented ;  the  up])er  part  of  the  windpipe 
contracts  considerably,  and  the  castrate 
acquires  the  physiognomy  and  voice  of  a 
female.  On  the  mond  character  it  like- 
wise appears  to  have  some  influence,  by 
weakening  the  intellectual  faculties,  and 
rendering  the  subject  unfeeling,  morose, 
faint-hearted,  and,  on  the  whole,  incapable 
of  performing  those  deeds  which  require 
a  high,  magnanimous  dis})osition.  The 
most  numerous  class  of  castrates  are  those 
who  are  made  such  by  the  removal  of  the 
testicles.  Another  class  are  not  deprived 
of  the  parts  of  generation,  but  have  them 
ingeniously  injured  in  such  a  manner  as 
to  leave  them  the  faculty  of  copulating, 
but  deprive  them  of  the  power  of  beget- 
ting.   Juvenal  mentions  these  as  the  par- 


ticular favorites  of  the  licentious  Roman 
ladies.  To  the  third  class  belong  those 
who  are  entirely  deprived  of  their  genital 
members.  They  ai-e  used  in  preterence, 
by  the  Turks,  as  keepers  of  their  women. 
The  castrates  of  all  three  classes  are  called 
eunuchs.  Those  of  the  third  class,  to  dis- 
tinguish them  from  the  two  others,  are 
frequently  teniied  entire  eunuchs.  The 
word  eunuch  is  Greek,  and  signifies  guard 
or  keeper  of  the  bed.  The  castration  of 
adults  produces  some  change  in  the  dis- 
position, but  little  in  the  bodily  constitu- 
tion. Even  the  power  of  engender- 
ing continues  for  a  short  time.  Accord- 
ing to  the  accounts  of  ancient  historians, 
the  Greeks,  jiarticularly  the  Lydians,  cas- 
trated women.  The  latter  are  said  to 
have  used  these  beiiigs  as  guards  of  their 
Avives  and  daughters.  With  females,  the 
oj)eration  produces  a  completely  opposite 
effect  to  that  which  it  has  on  nien.  The 
sexual  ap])etite  ceases,  a  beard  aj^pears  on 
the  chin  and  upper  lip,  the  bosom  van- 
ishes, the  voice  becomes  harsh,  &c.  Boer- 
haave  and  Pott  relate  motlern  instances 
of  this  kind.  Nothing  but  an  immediate 
and  fatal  injury  to  the  parts  authorizes  an 
operation  of  such  vital  consequence  to 
the  human  race.  Among  the  evils  which 
religious  enthusiasm  has  at  all  times  pro- 
duced, castration  is  conspicuous.  The 
emperors  Constantuie  and  Justinian  were 
obliged  to  use  their  utmost  power  to  ojj- 
pose  this  religious  frenzy,  and  could  put 
a  stop  to  it  only  by  punishuig  it  like  mur- 
der. The  Valerians,  a  religious  sect, 
whose  minds  had  been  distracted  by  the 
example  of  Origen  (q.  v.),  not  only  consid- 
ered this  mutilation  of  themselves  as  a 
duty  which  rehgion  imposed  on  them, 
but  believed  themselves  bound  to  perform 
the  same,  by  fair  means  or  foul,  on  all 
those  who  came  into  their  power.  lu 
Italy,  the  castration  of  boys,  in  order  to 
form  them  for  soprano  singei-s,  has  been 
in  use  for  a  long  time,  evirati  having  been 
employed  in  the  pontifical  chapel,  ever 
since  the  beginning  of  the  17th  centu- 
n',  to  sing  the  treble  parts.  Clement 
XIV  prohibited  this  abuse,  which,  not- 
withstanding, continued  for  a  long  time, 
and,  in  some  Italian  towns,  was  not  only 
suffered,  but  exercised  with  such  shame- 
ful openness,  that  the.  practitioners  gave 
public  notice  of  tlieir  profession.  In 
modem  times,  severe  laws  have  been 
enacted  against  castration,  and  the  custom 
is  going  out  of  use.  Beings  thus  muti- 
lated, however,  are  sometimes  to  be  found 
on  Euroj>ean  stages  and  in  Catholic 
churches.    Among  the  papal  suigers,  wq 


CASTRATES— CAT. 


569 


found  castrates  as  late  as  1823.  It  is  re- 
iuarkable  that  so  odious  and  unnatural  an 
operation  should  produce  the  fine  effect 
on  the  tones  of  the  singer,  which  all  must 
acknowledge  who  can  rid  themselves  of 
the  disagreeable  effect  of  the  association. 
In  the  Cathohc  church,  no  castrate,  how- 
ever he  became  such,  is  permitted  to  be 
an  officiating  priest.  The  part  which 
eunuchs  have  always  played,  wherever 
they  have  belonged  to  the  household  of 
princes,  is  well  known  ;  and  some  authore 
have  compared  them  to  Catholic  priests, 
who,  like  them,  have  often  been  the  intrigu- 
ing advisers  of  sovereigns,  and,  like  them, 
are  not  comiected  with  society  by  the  gen- 
tle bonds  of  marriage  and  tamil)'  relations. 
Castriot.  {See  Scanderbeg.) 
CastrumDoloris,  a  Latin  term,  signi- 
fying castle  of  grief,  has  a  different  mean- 
ing from  calafalco.  The  latter  is  used  to 
denote  an  elevated  tomb,  containing  the 
coffin  of  a  distinguished  pereon,  together 
with  the  tapers  around,  ornaments,  armo- 
rial bearings,  Inscriptions,  &c.,  placed  in 
the  midst  of  a  church  or  hall.  The  cas- 
trum  doloris  is  the  whole  room  in  which 
the  catafalco  is  elevated,  with  all  the 
decorations.  The  sarcophagus,  usually 
empty,  is  exposed  for  show  ui)on  an  ele- 
vation covered  with  black  cloth,  under  a 
canojjy  surioundetl  with  candelabra.  Up- 
on the  coffin  is  laid  some  mark  of  the 
rank  of  the  deceased,  as  his  epaulette  or 
sword,  and,  when  the  deceased  was  a 
sovereign  or  a  member  of  a  ruling  fam- 
ily, princely  insignia  are  placed  on  sur- 
rounding seats.  The  French  call  die 
castrum  doloris,  chapelle  ardente,  which 
is  to  be  disdnguished  from  chambre  ar- 
dente. (q.  V.) 

Casuistry  :  that  part  of  the  old  theol- 
ogy and  morals,  which  relates  to  the  prin- 
ciples by  which  difficult  cases  of  con- 
science (especially  where  there  is  a  collis- 
ion of  different  duties)  are  to  be  settled. 
Kant  calls  it  the  dialectics  of  conscience. 
Hence  a  casuist  is  a  moralist,  who  en- 
deavoi-s  to  solve  such  doubtful  quesdons. 
There  have  been  many  celebrated  casu- 
ists among  the  Jesuits  (e.  g.,  Escobar, 
Sanchez,  Busenbaum,  &c.),  famous  for 
their  ingenuity  in  the  invention  of  such 
cases,  and  for  the  ajnbiguity  and  singu- 
larity of  their  solutions.  It  is  impossible, 
without  reading  the  works  of  some  of  the 
casuistical  writers,  to  form  an  idea  of  the 
ingenious  and  foie-spun  sophistry  which 
they  contain. 

Cat   (fdis  catus,  L.)  ;    a  well-known 
domesticated,     carnivorous     quadruped, 
whose  attachment  appears  to  be  rather  to 
48* 


the  dwellings  than  the  persons  of  her 
protectoi-s  ;  in  which  respect  her  conduct 
is  very  opposite  to  that  of  the  dog,  whose 
alliance  with  man  is  founded  upon  disin- 
terested, personal  attachment,  not  to  be 
affected  by  changes  of  place  or  fortune. 
Her  youthful  spoitiveness,  beautiful  fur, 
and  gentle  demureness  of  manner  in  after 
life,  dispose  mankind  to  regard  the  animal 
with  kindness ;  but  the  most  persevering 
attempts  to  cultivate  her  good  disposi- 
tions are  followed  with  such  slight  suc- 
cess, and  met  with  so  much  of  deceit  and 
ingratitude,  as  to  weary  the  patience  of 
the  most  benevolent.  The  cat  is  capable 
of  showing  considerable  fondness  for  an 
individual,  but  never  appeal's  to  confide 
fidly,  even  in  the  wannest  demonstra- 
tions of  kindness.  Her  treacherous  calm- 
ness of  disposition  needs  but  sUght  provo- 
cation to  be  changed  to  vengeful  malig- 
nity. When  hurt,  or  mucli  alarmed, 
slie  is  ready  to  attack  her  best  benefactoc 
with  as  much  furj'  as  a  stranger.  Being 
highly  sensitive,  and  fond  of  ease,  the  cat 
evinces  little  anxiety,  except  for  the  con- 
tinuance of  her  enjoyment,  and  is  ever 
piej)ared  to  seek  moi'e  comfortable  quar-- 
tei?,  whenever  the  condition  of  her  pat- 
rons may  render  a  movement  politic.  At 
what  period  cats  became  inmates  of  hu- 
man habitations,  it  is  scarcely  possible,  at 
this  period,  to  determine.  Beyond  doubt, 
their  usefulness  ui  destroying  rats,  mice, 
and  other  small  animals,  first  introduced 
thenj  to  notice.  The  fii-st  mention  we. 
find  made  of  them,  in  profane  history,  is 
by  Herodotus,  the  father  of  historians,  in 
his  account  of  Egypt.  [Euterpe,  vet  lib.  ii.) 
He  speaks  of  them  as  diminishing  the 
vermin  infesting  human  dwellings  ;  states 
some  of  the  Egyptian  sujierstitions  rela- 
tive to  them,  as  well  as  some  observations 
upon  their  breeding,  dispositions,  &c. 
The  celebrated  naturalist  Temminck,  in  his 
excellent  monography  of  the  genus  felis, 
adduces  strong  reasons  for  believing  that 
the  cat  was  originally  domesticated  in 
Egypt,  and  that  the  gloved  cat,  F.  nianic- 
xdata  [chat  gante  of  Southern  Africa)  is, 
in  all  probability,' the  original  stock  of  the 
domestic  cat.  Its  strong  resemblance  in 
size,  jjropoitions,  &c.,  renders  this  opin- 
ion more  acceptable  than  that  which  at- 
tributes the  origui  to  the  common  Euro- 
pean wild  cat,  which  is  smaller,  has  a 
shorter,  thicker  tail,  and,  indeed,  would 
seem  rather  to  be  the  domestic  cat  re» 
turned  to  the  savage  state,  than  its  origin- 
al stock.  The  subtlety  and  circumspec- 
tion of  the  common  cat  are  evinced  by  all 
its  habits  and  movements ;  and  the  ob- 


S70 


CAT— CAT-BIRD. 


serration  of  this  disposition  has  obtained 
for  it  the  name  it  bears  in  most  of  the 
living  languages  of  Europe.  In  Greek, 
it  is  called  alXovpos,  for  which  we  have  found 
no  derivation.  In  Latin,  it  was  called 
cahcs,  from  the  adjective  signifying  cun- 
ning, ivary,  subtle,  &c.  According  to 
Varro,  this  adjective  is  a  Sabine,  and  not 
a  Roman  word ;  but,  as  we  find  it  used  by 
Horace,  in  his  ode  Ad  Mercurium,*  its  ad- 
mission into  the  classic  vocabulary  can 
scarcely  be  denied.  From  this  name,  ca- 
tv^,  we  have  the  English  cat,  the  German 
katze,  the  French  chat,  &c.  The  domes- 
tic cat  belongs  to  a  genus  [felis]  better 
armed  for  the  destruction  of  animal  life 
than  all  other  quadrupeds.  The  short 
and  powerful  jaws,  moved  by  vigorous 
muscles,  are  supplied  with  most  formid- 
ably trenchant  teeth :  a  cunning  disposi- 
tion, combuied  with  noctunial  habits  and 
much  patience  in  pursuit,  gives  them  great 
advantages  over  their  prey ;  and  their 
keen,  lacerating  claws,  which  are  always 
preserved  in  the  most  acute  state  by  the 
peculiar  arrangement  that  keeps  them 
concealed  when  not  in  use,  enables  them 
to  uiflict  a  death-blow  on  their  victims 
with  as  much  cei-tamty  as  ease.  The  cat, 
in  a  degree,  partakes  of  all  the  attributes 
of  her  race — lies  in  ambush  for  her  prey, 
and  seizes  it  by  a  sudden  leap ;  plays 
with  her  captives  before  putting  them  to 
death  ;  and  does  not  limit  her  destruction 
to  the  mere  gratification  of  appetite.  Cold 
and  wet  are  disagreeable  to  the  cat,  and 
electricity  is  especially  feared  by  her: 
advantage  may  be  taken  of  the  latter  cir- 
cumstance to  avert  the  troublesome  visits 
of  the  animal.  After  having  once  re- 
ceived a  shock  from  a  Leyden  vial,  but 
little  apprehension  need  be  entertained  of 
the  cat's  return  to  the  same  place.  Of 
various  aromatic  substances,  as  catnep  or 
catmint,  &c.,  puss  is  remarkably  fond ; 
and  the  odor  of  valerian  appears  to  throw 
her  into  an  ecstasy  of  pleasure.  The  food 
of  the  cat,  in  a  state  of  domestication ,  is  ne- 
cessarily veiy  various,  but  always  of  flesh 
or  fish,  if  it  can  be  obtained.  A  desire  to 
possess  herself  of  the  latter  article  of  diet, 
proves  one  of  the  strongest  temptations  to 
theft  that  the  cat  is  exposed  to  :  in  fact,  it 
takes  a  very  severe  education  to  make  her 
any  better  than  a  thief  under  any  circum- 
stances. The  cat  is  remarkable  for  the 
fetor  of  its  eructations,  as  well  as  the 
poweifully  offensive  and  phosphorus-like 

•  Mercuri,  facunde  nepos  Atlantis 
Qui  feros  cultus  hominum  recentum 
Voce  formasti  catus  et  decorse 
More  palaestra.    Lib.  i.  Cam. 


odor  of  its  urine,  &c.  But,  personally,  ft 
is  a  very  cleanly  animal,  avoiding  to  step 
in  any  sort  of  filth,  and  preserving  its  fiir 
in  a  very  neat  condition.  Of  its  habits, 
when  well  taken  care  of  and  much  petted, 
it  cannot  be  necessaiy  to  speak  here,  as 
they  are  universally  known.  Equally 
notorious  is  their  clamorous  mode  of 
making  love,  which  is  designated  by  the 
term  caterwauling,  and,  once  heard,  can 
never  be  forgotten.  The  cat  goes  with 
young  for  sixty-three  days,  and  brings 
forth  from  three  to  six  at  a  litter,  which 
remain  blind  for  nine  days. 

Cat-Bird  [turdusfelivox,y\e\\;  T.liv- 
idus,  Wils.) ;  a  numerous  and  well-known 
species  of  thrush,  which  annually  advances 
from  the  south  with  the  progress  of  agri- 
culture, and,  during  the  summer,  is  found 
throughout  the  Middle  and  New  England 
States,  frequentbig  thickets  of  brambles, 
or  the  shrubberies  of  gardens.  The  note 
from  which  the  bird  obtains  its  name  is 
strikingly  similar  to  the  plaint  of  a  kitten 
in  distress,  and  would  almost  certainly  de- 
ceive the  ear  of  any  one  unacquainted  with 
the  cry  of  this  species.  The  cat-bird  is 
exceedingly  famihar  and  unsuspicious,  al- 
lowing itself  to  be  closely  approached,  a)id 
saluting  every  one  passing  near  its  abode 
by  its  cat-like  note.  It  is  lively  and  ac- 
tive in  its  movements,  and,  but  for  the 
unfortunate  resemblance  of  its  ordinary 
cry  to  the  voice  of  an  animal  by  no  means 
a  lavorite,  would  be  considered  an  agree- 
able bird,  notwithstanding  its  plain,  lead- 
colored  plumage.  Wilson  uiforms  us, 
that  the  cat-bird  arrives  in  the  lower 
parts  of  Georgia  about  the  end  of  Febru- 
ary, whence  1  3  infers  that  its  winter  resi- 
dence is  not  far  distant  from  Florida.  It 
reaches  Pennsylvania  by  the  second  week 
in  April,  and  has  its  nest  built  by  the  be- 
ginning of  May.  For  this  purpose,  a 
brier  or  bramble  thicket,  a  thorn-bush, 
thick  vine,  or  fork  of  a  saplLag,  is  selected. 
Little  attention  is  paid  to  concealment, 
though  few  birds  are  more  solicitous  for 
the  safety  of  their  young.  The  nest  is 
constructed  of  dry  leaves,  weeds,  small 
twigs,  and  fine,  dry  grass,  the  inside  being 
lined  with  fine,  black,  fibrous  roots.  Tiio 
female  lays  4  or  5  eggs,  of  a  uniform 
greenish-blue  color,  free  Irom  spots.  They 
generally  raise  two,  and  sometimes  three, 
broods  in  a  season.  The  admirable  natu- 
ralist above  mentioned  relates,  that  he 
sometimes,  when  in  the  woods,  amused 
himself  with  imitating  the  violent  cliirp- 
ing  or  squeaking  of  yoinig  birds,  in  order 
to  discover  what  species  were  in  his  vi- 
cinity ;  and  these  sounds,  to  birds  in  tlie 


CAT-BIRD— CATACOMBS. 


571 


breeding  seasons,  he  compares  to  the 
alarm  of  fire  in  a  large  and  populous  city. 
Ou  such  occasions  of  alarm  and  conster- 
nation, the  cat-bird  is  the  firet  to  make 
his  aj)pearance,  not  suigly,  but  sometimes 
half  a  dozen  at  a  time,  flying  from  differ- 
ent quarters  to  the  spot.  Other  birds  are 
variously  affected,  but  none  show  symp- 
toms of  such  extreme  suftering.  He  hur- 
ries backward  and  forward  with  lianging 
wings  and  open  mouth,  calling  out  louder 
and  faster,  and  actually  screammg  with 
distress,  till  he  appears  hoarse  with  his 
exertions.  He  attempts  no  offensive 
measures,  but  he  bewails,  he  implores,  in 
the  most  pattietic  terms  with  which  na- 
ture has  suppUed  him,  and  with  an  agony 
of  feeling  which  is  truly  affecting.  This 
species  does  not  readily  desert  its  nest ; 
and,  when  the  eggs  or  young  of  other 
birds  are  placed  in  it,  they  are  content  to 
throw  out  the  intruders,  and  continue 
their  attentions  to  their  own  family. 
When  the  nest  and  eggs  are  carefully 
removed  to  another  place  by  n)au,  the 
parents  follow,  and  do  not  remit  their 
cares.  Before  the  dawn,  when  there  is 
scarcely  light  enough  to  render  it  visible, 
the  cat-bird  generally  begins  its  song, 
while  fluttering  with  great  sprightliness 
from  bush  to  bush.  His  notes  are  more 
singular  than  melodious,  consisting  of 
short  imitations  of  other  birds,  but  failing 
where  strength  and  clearness  of  tone  are 
requisite.  He  appears  to  study  certain 
passages  with  great  perseverance,  com- 
mencing in  a  low  key,  and,  as  he  suc- 
ceeds, ascending  to  a  higher  and  freer 
note,  unembai-rassed  by  the  presence  of  a 
spectator,  even  within  a  few  yards.  An 
attentive  listener  discovers  considerable 
variety  in  his  performance,  a|)parently 
made  up  of  a  collection  of  odd  sounds 
and  quaint  passages.  The  cat-bird  is  a 
great  enemy  to  the  common  black  snake 
or  horse-runner  {coluber  constrictor),  which 
rifles  its  nest  whenever  an  opportunity 
offers.  As  the  cat-bird  uniformly  attacks 
or  pursues  this  snake,  and  is  fi-equently 
seen  in  the  actof  ho])ping  eagerly  after  it, 
numerous  ridiculous  stories  are  related  of 
its  being  fascinated  or  charuied  by  the 
snake.  The  testimony  of  Wilson  and 
Bartram  show  that  the  bird  is  almost  uni- 
formly tlie  aggressor  and  victor,  driving 
the  snake  to  its  hiding-place.  In  one 
instance,  the  writer  witnessed  an  attack 
of  a  cat-bird  on  the  black  snake,  almost 
precisely  similar  to  that  related  in  Wil- 
son's Ornithologj^,  by  his  venerable  friend, 
tlie  naturalist  Bartram.  The  cat-bird  is 
nine  inches  long,  and,  at  a  short  distance, 


appears  nearly  black,  but,  on  a  closer  in- 
spection, is  seen  to  be  of  a  deep  slate-color 
above,  lightest  on  the  edges  of  the  prima- 
I'ies,  and  of  a  considerably  lighter  slate-col- 
or below,  except  under  the  tail  coverts, 
Avhich  are  of  a  very  dark  red ;  the  tail, 
Avhich  is  rounded,  and  the  superior  part 
of  the  head,  as  well  as  the  bill  and  legs, 
are  black.  (See  Wilson,  1st  ed.,  vol.  ii. 
p.  90.) 

Cat  Island,  or  St.  Salvador,  or  Gu- 

AXAHA.M,  or  GuAM.MI.NA  ",  OHO   of  tlic  Ba- 

liarna  islands ;  about  GO  miles  in  length 
from  N.  to  S.,  and  12  in  its  mean  breadth. 
Population,  in  1797,  G57.  This  island  is 
remarkable  for  being  the  first  land  of 
America  discovered  by  Cohmibus,  Avho 
landed  here  Oct.  12,  1492,  and  named  it 
St.  Salvador.  Lon.  75°  W. ;  lat.  24°  SO^ 
N. 

Catacombs  (caverns,  grottoes,  subter- 
raneous caves,  destined  tor  the  sepulture 
of  the  dead).  The  respect  felt  for  the 
deatl,  by  all  nations,  naturally  led  them 
to  some  outward  manifestation  of  regard, 
such  as  the  pomp  of  funeral  solemnities, 
or  the  consecration  of  a  particular  sj)Ot 
for  sepulture,  or  the  erection  of  monu- 
ments, to  transmit  to  posterity  the  re- 
membrance of  the  seiTices  or  virtues 
of  the  deceased.  Some  nations,  as  the 
Egyptians,  constnicted  pyramids  and  lab- 
yrinths to  contain  their  mortal  remains. 
Othei-s,  as  the  Phoenicians,  and,  after  them, 
the  Greeks,  hollowed  out  the  rocks  for 
tombs,  surrounding  their  towns  with  vast 
magazines,  contahiing  the  bones  of  their 
fathers.  Asia  Minor,  the  coast  of  Africa, 
and  Cyrenais,  afibnl  instances  of  these 
singular  and  gigantic  works.  The  Ro- 
mans, not  so  bold,  but  still  more  magnifi- 
cent, embellished  their  roads  with  superb 
mausoleums  and  sarcophagi  of  marble, 
consecrated  to  their  distinguished  families. 
At  a  later  {leriod,  when  the  change  of 
their  religion  made  it  necessary  to  con- 
ceal these  last  marks  of  regard,  they  con- 
secrated vast  subteiTaneous  caverns  to 
the  ])urpose  of  tombs.  The  discovery  of 
these  monuments  has  always  exciteil  the 
curiosity  of  travellei-s  and  the  attention  of 
artists.  The  latter  have  ajiplied  them- 
selves to  learn  from  them  the  character 
of  architecture  and  painting  at  diflerent 
epochs ;  and,  though  they  have  often 
found  only  coarse  representations,  the 
productions  of  art  in  its  infancy  or  de- 
cline, they  have  occasionally  met  with 
types  of  j)erfeclion.  Many  monuments 
of  this  description  have  been  preserved 
to  our  days,  and  still  contain  traces  of  the 
painting    and    architecture  with    which 


572 


CATACOMBS. 


tliey  were  decorated.  There  are  cata- 
combs existing  iu  Syria,  Persia,  and 
among  the  most  ancient  Oriental  nations. 
But  the  revolutions  in  these  countries, 
and  the  changes  which  tliey  have  occa- 
sioned, have  deprived  us  of  the  docu- 
ments which  would  have  given  us  exact 
information  regarding  tliein.  The  de- 
scription of  the  catacombs  in  Upper 
Egypt  gives  us  an  idea  of  those  wliose 
existence  is  still  unknown  to  us.  They 
contain  tlie  history  of  the  countiy,  and 
tlie  customs  and  manners  of  the  people, 
painted  or  sculptured  in  many  monu- 
ments of  the  njost  admii'able  presena- 
tion.  The  subterraneous  caves  of  these 
countries,  hke  ahnost  all  of  the  kind,  have 
their  origin  in  quarries.  From  the  depths 
of  the  mouiitains  which  contain  them, 
stone  was  taken,  v\'hich  served  for  the 
building  of  the  neighbormg  towns,  and 
also  of  the  great  edifices  and  pyramids 
which  ornament  the  land.  They  are 
dug  in  a  mountain  situated  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  the  Nile,  and  furnished  the 
Romans  witli  materials  for  the  construc- 
tion of  buildmgs  in  their  colonial  estab- 
lishments. The  excavations  in  these 
mountains  are  found  throughout  a  space 
of  15  to  20  leagues,  and  form  subteirane- 
ous  caverns,  which  appear  to  be  the  work 
of  ait ;  but  there  is  neitlier  order  nor 
synunetry  m  them.  They  contain  vast 
and  obscure  apartments,  low  and  iiregu- 
lar  vaults,  supported,  in  different  parts, 
with  piles,  left  purposely  by  the  workmen. 
Some  holes,  of  about  six  feel  in  length 
and  two  feet  in  width,  give  rise  to  the 
conjecture,  that  they  were  destined  for 
sepulchres.  Cells  of  very  small  dimen- 
sions, formed  in  the  hollows  of  these  ob- 
scure cavenis,  prove  them  to  have  been 
tlie  abode  of  recluses.  In  Sicily  and  Asia 
Minor,  a  prodigious  nimiber  of  grottoes 
and  excavations  have  been  discovered, 
containing  sepulchres.  Some  aj)])ear  to 
have  served  as  retreats  to  the  victims  of 
despotism :  the  greater  part  are  the  work 
of  the  waters  which  travei-se  tlie  moun- 
tauis  of  these  regions,  as,  for  instance,  the 
great  cave  of  Nolo,  which  passes  for  one 
of  the  wonders  of  Sicily.  This  cave,  the 
height,  length  and  breadth  of  which  are 
equal,  has  been  fonned  by  the  river  Cas- 
sibili,  which  runs  at  tlie  bottom,  and  trav- 
erses it  for  the  length  of  100  fathoms.  In 
the  interior  of  this  cave  are  a  number  of 
houses  and  tombs.  In  the  ancient  Hybla, 
there  is  a  grotto  containing  many  sepul- 
chres, near  which  is  the  tomb  of  ^Eschy- 
lus.  At  Yela  are  abodes  for  the  living 
and  sepulchres  for  the  dead,  cut  in  the 


rocks ;  at  Agrjgentum,  subterraneous 
caves,  labyrinths  and  tombs,  arranged 
with  great  order  and  symmetry.  There 
are  also  caverns  in  the  environs  of  Syra- 
cuse, which  may  be  ranked  with  the 
principal  monuments  of  this  description, 
from  their  extent  and  depth,  their  archi- 
tectural ornaments,  and  from  some  his- 
torical recollections  attached  to  them.  In 
the  catacombs  of  Rome,  coffins  are  some- 
times found,  and  it  is  supposed  that  the 
bones  in  them  belonged  to  Christians. 
Inscriptions  are  also  seen  on  the  walls  of 
the  ajiartments.  But,  though  they  may 
not  have  been  used  by  the  Christians  as 
tombs,  it  is  certain  that  they  sencd  for 
places  of  assembling  for  secret  exercises 
of  devotion.  (See  Artaud's  Voyage  dans 
les  Catacombes  dt  Rome,  Paris,  1810.) — 
The  catacombs  in  the  tufa  mountains  of 
Capo  di  JMonte,  near  Naples,  consist  of 
subten-aneous  galleries,  halls,  rooms,  ba- 
silicas, and  rotundos,  which  extend  to  the 
distance  of  two  Italian  miles.  Through- 
out there  are  seen  niches  for  coffins 
{locidi)  and  bones.  A  description  of  them 
was  given  by  Celano,  in  164.3.  They 
jirobablj'  owe  their  origin  to  the  quames 
which  afforded  tufa  for  the  walls  of  the 
cities  Palaeopolis  and  Neapolis,  and  after- 
wards served  as  sepulchres  for  tlie  Chris- 
tian congregations.  The  catacombs  of 
Paris  are  extensive  subterraneous  galle- 
ries, to  wliich  you  descend  from  the 
buildings  on  the  western  side  of  the  bar- 
riere  d'aifer.  The  name  itself,  which  has 
been  given  to  this  labyrinth  of  caverns 
and  galleries,  from  its  resemblance  to  the 
asylums  and  places  of  refuge  of  the  per- 
secuted Christians  under  Naples  and 
Rome,  infonns  us  of  the  purpose  to 
which  it  has  been  applied  since  1786. 
These  galleries  were  originally  the  quar- 
ries from  which  materials  were  excavated 
for  constructing  the  edifices  of  the  capi- 
tal. The  weight  of  the  superincumbent 
houses  rendered  it  necessary  to  prop 
them ;  and  when  the  cemeteries  of  tlie 
demolished  churches  and  the  burying- 
grounds  were  cleared  in  1786,  the  gov- 
ernment resolved  to  deposit  tlie  bones  in 
these  quairies,  which  were  consecrated 
for  that  purpose.  The  relics  of  ten  gen- 
erations were  here  united  in  the  rejiose 
of  the  grave.  Eight  times  as  great  as  the 
living  tide  that  rolls  over  this  spot  is  its 
subterraneous  population.  By  the  light 
of  wax  tapers  you  descend  90  feet  to  a 
world  of  silence,  over  which  the  Paiisiaa 
police  keeps  watch  as  strictly  as  over  the 
world  of  noise  and  confusion  above.  You 
enter  a  gallery,  where  two  can  just  go 


CATAC03IBS— CATALANI. 


573 


abreast.  A  black  streak  on  the  stones,  of 
which  the  walls  consist,  points  out  the 
way,  which,  from  the  great  number  of 
intersectuig  by-passages,  it  would  be  dif- 
ficult to  retrace  without  this  aid,  or  with- 
out guides.  The  jilain  of  Montrouge  and 
the  great  suburb  St,  Jacques,  as  well  as 
St.  Germain,  and,  according  to  some,  the 
channel  of  the  Seine,  are  thus  under- 
mined. Among  the  curiosities  of  this 
])ait  of  tliat  lower  world  is  a  plan  of  the 
harbor  of  3Ialion,  which,  in  his  hours 
of  leisure,  an  ingenious  soldier  faithfully 
copied,  fi"om  memory,  in  the  material  of 
the  quarries.  You  finally  enter  die  hall, 
whence  you  are  ushered  into  the  realms 
of  death  by  the  inscription  which  once 
stood  over  the  entrance  to  the  church- 
yard of  St.  Sulpice  : — Has  ultra  nidas  re- 
quiescunt  heatam  spem  exspectantts.  Nar- 
row passages  between  walls  of  skeletons; 
chambei-s  in  which  mausoleums,  altai*s, 
candelabras,  constructed  of  human  bones, 
with  festoons  of  skulls  and  thigh-bones, 
intei-spersed,  occasionall}',  with  inscrip- 
tions, not  always  the  most  hajipily  select- 
ed, from  ancient  and  modern  authoi-s, 
excite  the  gloomy  hnpression  which  is 
always  produced,  even  in  the  most  light- 
minded,  by  the  sight  of  the  dissolution  of 
the  human  frame.  Fatigued  with  these 
horrible  embellishments,  you  enter  a  sim- 
ple chapel,  without  bones,  and  containing 
an  altar  of  granite.  The  inscrijjtion  D,  ]\I, 
II  et  III  Septembr.  IVIDCCXCII.  recalls 
to  memory  the  victims  of  those  mournful 
days,  whose  remains  are  here  united.  It 
is  the  only  spot  in  the  whole  labyrinth, 
that  speaks  immediately  to  the  heart  of 
every  body.  On  leaving  these  rooms, 
consecrated  to  deadi,  where,  however,  the 
air  is  always  preserved  pure  by  means  of 
secret  passages,  you  may  visit  a  geo- 
logical cabinet,  formed  by  Mi".  Hericourt 
de  ThuiT,  the  director  of  the  carrieres 
sous  Paris,  who  has  also  j)ublished  a  de- 
scription of  them  (Paris,  1815).  Speci- 
mens of  the  minerals  furnished  by  the 
regions  you  have  travei-sed,  and  a  collec- 
tion of  diseased  bones,  in  a  contiguous 
hall,  scientifically  arranged,  are  the  last 
curiosities  which  these  excavations  oft'er. 
300  toises  east  of  the  road  to  Orleans  you 
finally  return  to  the  light  of  day.  We 
understand  that  it  has  lately  been  prohib- 
ited to  visit  this  remarkable  spot,  because 
a  ])erson  had  lost  himself  in  this  labyrinth, 
and  had  never  been  heard  of  again.  In 
Rome,  there  is  a  Franciscan  church,  un- 
der which,  for  centuries,  the  bones  of  the 
monks  of  the  convent,  and  of  many  per- 
sons, who  think  tlieir  eternal  happiness 


will  be  promoted  by  their  burial  there, 
have  been  preserved,  ingeniously  arranged 
in  columns,  altars,  arches,  garlands,  fes- 
toons and  architectural  ornaments.  Ev- 
eiy  year,  mass  is  read  there. 

Catacoustics  (from  ».urn,  and  ukSw,  / 
hear),  called,  also,  catnphonics ;  the  sci- 
ence of  reflected  sounds,  or  that  part  of 
acoustics  which  considers  the  projjerties 
of  echoes.    (See  Acoustics.) 

Catafalco.  (See  Castrum  Doloris.) 
Catalani,  AngeUca,  by  marriage  Val- 
ahr^guc ;  a  celebrated  singer,  born,  ac- 
cording to  her  own  statement,  in  1784,  at 
Sinigaglia,  in  the  Ecclesiastical  States,  and 
educated  in  the  conventof  St.  Lucia,  near 
Rome.  Angehca  displayed,  in  her  seventh 
year,  an  uncommon  talent  for  singing,  and 
such  multitudes  came  to  hear  her,  that  the 
magistrates  of  tlie  place  jwohibited  her 
singing  any  longer  in  the  convent.  But 
the  favor  of  a  cardinal,  and  the  love  of 
the  celebrated  Bosello,  enabled  her  to 
cultivate  her  talents.  Afl;er  leaving  the 
convent,  she  appeared,  in  her  filleenth 
year,  at  the  theatre  in  Venice,  and  then 
in  other  Italian  cities.  In  Lisbon,  she 
was,  for  five  years,  together  with  Cres- 
centini  and  Gafforini,  the  ornament  of  the 
Italian  opera.  Her  first  concert  in  ?.Ia- 
drid  brought  her  more  than  $15,000;  and, 
from  her  concerts  in  Paris,  her  fame 
spread  over  all  Europe.  In  London,  she 
had,  in  the  first  year  of  her  engagement, 
a  salary  of  72,000  francs  ($12,931),  and, 
in  the  following, of  96,000 francs  ($17,241). 
Two  concerts,  besides,  brought  her  30,000 
francs  ($5,388)  each,  and  she  received 
immense  sums  in  her  journeys  through 
the  country  towns  during  her  eight 
months'  stay  in  the  island.  In  1814,  she 
undertook,  in  Paris,  the  direction  of  the 
Italian  opera,  left  it  on  the  return  of  Na- 
I)oleon,  and  obtained  it  anew  on  the  res- 
toration of  the  king,  after  an  inten'al 
which  she  spent  in  journeys  through  Bel- 
gium. In  1816,  she  visited  the  chief 
cities  of  Germany  and  Italy.  She  owes 
her  fame  to  an  agreeable  exterior,  to  a 
lively  way  of  acting,  to  an  unconunon 
fulness  and  a  rare  flexibility  of  voice,  a 
singularly  fine  shake,  and  an  exceeding 
richness  of  difficult  and  striking,  but  bril- 
liant rather  than  beautiful,  figures  and  or- 
naments, particularly  in  chromatic  pas- 
sages, and  an  original  combination  of  all 
those  excellences  in  a  whole,  which  is 
more  fit  to  excite  astonishment  and  ad- 
miration than  to  touch  the  heart.  As  the 
French  government,  after  her  return, 
were  contiiuially  obliged  to  advance  con- 
siderable sums  for  the  support  of  the  Ital- 


574 


CATALANI— CATAMENIA. 


ian  opera  in  Paris,  whilst  she  never  yield- 
ed to  the  wish  of  the  pubhc  in  the  choice 
of  the  pieces  performed,  and,  through 
jealousy,  removed  other  female  singei-s 
of  merit,  she  was  dismissed,  and  travelled 
anew,  in  1818,  through  the  chief  cities  of 
Gei-many,  and  then  to  Petersburg  and 
^^'aI•sa\v ;  in  1822  to  London,  in  1825  to 
Italy,  in  1826  to  Stuttgart.  She  is  man-i- 
ed  to  M.  Valabrt  gue,  formerly  a  captain 
hi  the  French  service,  by  whom  she  has 
several  children.  The  latest  accounts  in- 
form us  that  she  has  determined  not  to 
sing  publicly  any  more,  except  for  chari- 
table purposes.  She  Uves  retired  in 
Italy. 

Catalepsy.  Tliis  is  a  spasmodic  dis- 
ease, and,  by  some,  regai'ded  as  a  species 
of  tdaniis.  It  affects  the  whole  body,  so 
as  to  render  it  immovable,  as  if  dead. 
Tetaniis  differs  from  catalepsy  in  its  sub- 
jects and  causes.  Females  are  most  lia- 
ble to  the  last,  while  the  first  is  equally 
produced  in  both  sexes  by  appropriate 
causes.  Tetanus  is  most  frequently  pro- 
duced by  pimctured  wounds  of  tendinous 
textures,  and  most  readily  in  hot  weather. 
Sometimes,  however,  it  occurs,  like  cata- 
lepsy, independently  of  wounds.  The 
spasm  is  more  limited  in  tetanus ;  some- 
times being  most  severe  in  the  muscles 
of  the  face,  producing  lock-jaw ;  now  it 
attacks  the  muscles  of  the  trunk,  on  the 
fore  pait,  producuig  onprosthotonos,  and 
now  the  muscles  of  the  back  part,  ])ro- 
ducing  opisthotonos f  or  cunature  of  the 
tnmk  backwards.  During  all  this,  the 
natural  temperature  may  remain,  the 
pulse  be  pertiictly  natural,  and  the  senses 
unimpaii-ed.  Under  tlie  most  active  and 
vaiied  treatment,  tetanus  has  always  been 
a  verj'  fatal  malady. — Catalepsy  is  a  uni- 
versal spasmodic  disease  of  the  organs  of 
locomotion.  The  body  remains  in  the 
position  in  which  it  may  have  been  when 
attacked  with  the  fit,  and  the  limbs  pre- 
serve any  situation  in  which  they  may  be 
placed.  The  senses  are  obliterated,  and 
the  mind  totally  inactive,  nothing  being 
able  to  rouse  the  patient.  The  pulse  and 
temperature  remain  natural.  The  fit  is 
of  unceitain  length ;  according  to  some 
writei-s,  not  lasting  more  than  a  quarter 
of  an  hour,  though  known  by  others  to  be 
much  longer.  This  disease  is  an  obsti- 
nate one,  and  is  very  liable  to  recur,  even 
when  the  patient  seems  in  the  least  re- 
spect liable  to  a  recurrence.  It  is,  for  the 
most  part,  a  consequence  of  some  other 
disease.  This  may  be  a  local  affection; 
but  it  more  frequently  occui"s  in  a  gen- 
erally enfeebled  constitution,  induced  by 


some  grave  malady,  or  one  which  has 
been  caused  by  the  gradual  operation  of 
unobserved  morbid  causes. 

Catalogues  of  Books.  (See  Books, 
Catalogues  of.) 

Catalo.ma  (anciently  Taracoiiensis) ; 
a  province  of  Spain,  bounded  N.  by 
France,  E.  and  S.  E,  by  tlie  MediteiTa- 
nean,  S.  W.  by  Valencia,  and  W.  by  Ar- 
ragon.  Its  form  is  nearly  that  of  a  trian- 
gle, the  base  towards  the  I\Icditerranean 
being  about  140  miles  in  length,  the  side 
towards  France  120,  and  that  towards 
An-agon  140,  The  countrj-  in  general  is 
mountainous,  but  intersected  with  I'ertile 
valleys,  while  the  mountains  themselves 
are  covered  with  valuable  woods  and 
fruit-trees.  Corn,  wine,  oil,  flax,  hemp, 
legumes,  and  silmost  every  kind  of  fruit, 
are  abundant.  Here  are  quanies  of  mar- 
ble of  all  colors,  of  crjstal,  and  alabaster  ; 
also  topazes,  rubies,  jaspers  and  other 
})recious  stones ;  mines  of  lead,  tin,  iron, 
alum,  vitriol  and  salt,  and,  foimerly,  of 
gold  and  silver.  On  the  coast  is  a  coral- 
fisherv'.  Catalonia  is  naturally  much  less 
fertile  than  either  of  the  Castiles ;  but  it 
far  surpasses  both,  and,  indeed,  every 
other  province  in  Spain,  in  the  industry 
of  its  inhabitants,  as  well  as  the  improve- 
ments which  they  have  effected  in  man- 
ufactures, agriculture  and  commerce. 
Pop.  858,818;  square  miles,  12,111.  It 
has  usually  been  divided  into  15  vigueries 
or  jm-isdictions.  The  principal  towns 
are  Barcelona,  Tortosa,  Tairagona,  Ge- 
rona,  and  Villa  Franca  de  Panades.  (See 
Spain.) 

Catamenia  (derived  from  these  two 
Greek  words, — Kara,  according  to,  and  //;/», 
the  month) ;  menses,  the  monthly  discharge 
from  the  uterus  of  females,  between  the 
ages  of  14  and  45.  JMany  have  question- 
ed whether  this  discharge  arose  from  a 
mere  rupture  of  vessels,  or  whether  it  was 
owing  to  a  secretory  action.  There  can 
be  httle  doubt  of  the  truth  of  the  latter. 
The  secretoi*y  organ  is  composed  of  the 
arterial  vessels  situated  in  the  fundus  of 
the  uterus.  The  dissection  of  women 
who  have  died  during  the  time  of  their 
menstruating  proves  this.  Sometimes, 
though  very  rai'ely,  women,  during  prcg^ 
nancy,  menstruate ;  and,  when  this  hap- 
pens, the  discharge  takes  place  from  the 
arterial  vessels  of  the  vagina.  During 
pregnancy  and  lactation,  when  the  person 
is  in  good  health,  the  catamenia,  for  the 
most  part,  cease  to  flow.  The  quantity 
a  female  menstruates  at  each  time  is  very 
various,  depending  on  cUmate  and  a  vari- 
ety of  other  circumstances.     It  is  com- 


CATAMENIA— CATARACT. 


S7S 


monly,  in  England,  from  five  to  six 
ounces :  it  rarely  exceeds  eight.  Its  du- 
ration is  fi'oin  three  to  four,  and  some- 
times, tliough  rarely,  five  days.  With 
respect  to  the  nature  of  the  discharge,  it 
differs  veiy  much  from  pure  blood.  It 
never  coagulates,  but  is  sometimes  gru- 
nious,  and  membranes  like  the  decidua 
are  formed  in  difficult  menstruations.  In 
some  women,  it  always  smells  rank  and 
peculiar  ;  in  others,  it  is  inodorous.  The 
use  of  this  monthly  secretion  is  said  to  be, 
to  render  the  uterus  fit  for  the  conception 
and  nutrition  of  the  foetus;  therefore  girls 
rarely  conceive  before  the  catamenia  ap- 
pear, and  women  rarely  after  their  entire 
cessation,  but  very  easily  soon  after  men- 
struation. 

Catania  (anciently  Catana);  a  city  of 
Sicily,  in  the  valley  of  Demona,  on  the 
borders  of  the  valley  of  Noto,  the  see  of  a 
bishop,  the  suffragan  of  Monreal ;  47 
miles  S.  S.  W.  Messina,  85  E.  S.  E.  Pa- 
lermo ;  lat.  37°  3(y  N. ;  Ion.  15°  &  E, 
The  population  is  variously  estimated  at 
from  40  to  80,000.  It  is  situated  on  a 
gulf  of  the  Mediterranean,  at  the  foot  of 
mount  iEtna.  This  city  has  been  repeat- 
edly visited  by  tremendous  earthquakes, 
and  was  laid  in  ruins  by  one  in  1693, 
when  18,000  people  were  destroyed  ;  and 
upon  the  situation  which  it  occupied,  the 
present  city  is  built ;  the  lava  serving,  at 
the  same  time,  for  a  foundation,  as  well 
as  a  quarry,  from  which  stone  was  dug 
lor  its  construction.  Catania  is  reviving 
with  gi-eat  splendor,  and  has  much  more 
the  features  of  a  metropolis  and  royal 
residence  than  Palermo.  The  principal 
streets  are  wide,  and  well  paved  with 
lava.  JMost  of  the  edifices  have  an  air  of 
magnificence  unknown  in  other  parts  of 
the  island,  and  the  town  has  a  title  to 
rank  among  the  elegant  cities  of  Europe. 
Here  is  a  university  with  three  faculties, 
much  celebrated  in  Sicily.  The  inhabit- 
ants have  always  been  noted  for  their  su- 
periority over  the  other  Sicilians  in  polite- 
ness. The  Benedictine  convent  of  St. 
Nicholas  is  very  large.  Every  part  has 
been  rebuilt  since  tlie  earthquake  of  1693. 
An  obehsk  of  red  granite,  placed  on  the 
back  of  an  antique  elephant  of  touchstone, 
stands  in  the  centre  of  the  great  square, 
which  is  formed  by  the  town-hall,  semi- 
nary and  cathedral.  The  cathedral,  ded- 
icated to  St.  Agatha,  the  pati-oness  of  the 
city,  has  suffered  so  much  by  earthquakes, 
that  little  of  the  original  structure  remains. 
The  other  religious  edifices  are  profusely 
oniamented,  but  in  a  bad  taste.  The  har- 
bor, though  one  of  the  largest  in  the 


island,  is  not  much  frequented ;  but  the 
trade  is  considerable.  The  exports  are 
wheat,  barley,  wine,  oil,  &c. 

Cataplasms,  or  Poultices,  are  soft 
compoimds,  intended  to  be  applied  to  the 
surface  of  the  body.  They  are  common- 
ly made  of  meals,  powdei"s,  boiled  pulps, 
&c.,  mixed  with  water,  milk,  or  some 
other  liquid.  They  are  called  sinapisms 
when  mustard  forms  their  base. 

Catapults  (Latin,  catapuUcB ;  Greek, 
(tarairArai);  Certain  macliincs  of  the  an- 
cients, corresponding  to  oiu*  heavy  can- 
non. The  catapults  differed  from  the 
hallistce  by  throwing  more  horizontally, 
the  latter  more  in  a  curve.  The  form 
also  differed,  and  the  catapults  resembled, 
in  their  general  shape,  a  cross-bow.  The 
whole  machine  rested  on  a  frame,  and,  if 
hitended  for  the  field,  had  wheels.  The 
size  of  these  machines  varied  much. 
The  large  catapults  shot  arrows  of  3 
cubits,  or  4i  Roman  feet,  in  length,  often 
larger  ones,  and  sometimes  beams  12 
feet  long.  Uurning  arrows  were  likewise 
often  thro^vn  by  the  catapults.  The  large 
ones  threw  their  arrows  4  stadia,  but 
not  more  than  2  stadia  with  precision. 
Pliny  ascribes  the  invention  of  catapults 
to  the  Syrians ;  Plutarch  and  Diodorus,  to 
other  nations.  At  the  siege  of  Jerusalem, 
the  Romans  had  300  catapults  and  40 
ballistse.  The  Romans  did  not  cany  all 
the  parts  of  these  machines  with  them, 
but  only  the  ropes  and  fastenings,  with 
the  necessary  tools ;  and  the  soldiei-s  built 
the  catapults  when  they  wanted  them. 
The  terms  catapult  and  hallistm  were 
often  used  indiscriminately ;  and,  in  later 
tunes,  the  word  catapult  went  entirely  out 
of  use.  Vegetius  and  Ammianus  JMarcel- 
linus  never  introduce  it,  and  employ  hal- 
listcE  to  signify  all  machines  throwing  large 
arrows  or  beams,  and  onager  for  those 
throwing  stones. 

Cataract.  By  this  term  two  very  dif- 
ferent diseases  are  designated  by  some 
writers,  viz.  the  true  cataract,  and  amau- 
rosis, or  gxdta  serena.  By  the  first  of 
these  terms,  in  its  most  common  signifi- 
cation, is  understood  opacity  of  the  crys- 
talline lens,  or  its  capside,  or  both.  By 
the  secortd  is  meant  a  disease  of  the  reti- 
na, by  which  it  is  rendered  unsusceptible 
of  the  action  of  light.  In  cataract,  the 
lens  becomes  opaque,  loses  its  transpa- 
rency, and  is  no  longer  capable  of  trans- 
mitting the  light.  The  causes  of  cataract 
are  numerous.  Inflammation  may  pro- 
duce it.  Sometimes  it  is  ascribed  to  a  state 
of  the  vessels  of  the  part  which  prevents 
a  proper  nourishment  of  the  lens  or  it3 


576 


CATARACT. 


capsule.  It  is  produced  by  various  dis- 
eases, such  as  gout,  rheurnatisui,  scrofula, 
and  accompanies  old  age.  Its  earliest 
approach  is  marked  by  a  loss  of  the  natu- 
ral color  of  the  puj>il;  this  becoming  tur- 
bid, or  slightly  ^ray.  Mvscce  volitantes 
accompany  this  period.  The  opacity  is 
not,  at  first,  over  the  whole  ciy.stalline, 
and,  most  frequently,  fii-st  attacks  the 
centre  portion  ;  this  being  turbid,  and  of  a 
grayish  color,  while  the  suiTOunding  por- 
tions remain  transpai-ent,  and  of  the  usual 
black  color.  While  it  exists  in  this  de- 
gree only,  the  person  can  see  in  an  ob- 
lique direction.  The  color  of  the  pupil 
is  various  ;  mostly  grajish- white  or  pearl- 
colored  ;  sometimes  milk-white,  or  of  a 
yellowish-gray ;  now  and  then  of  a  gray- 
ish-brown, and  even  of  a  dark-brown  or 
dark-gray.  The  consistence  of  the  lens 
differs  in  different  cases,  being  either  hard, 
and  even  horny,  or  very  soft,  as  if  dis- 
solved.— The  treatment  of  cataract  is  by  a 
surgical  operation  on  the  eye,  and  differ- 
ent operations  have  been  tried  and  recom- 
mended. They  all  consist  in  removing 
the  diseased  lens  from  its  situation  oppo- 
site the  transparent  cornea.  By  one  of 
these  operations,  the  cataract  is  depressed, 
removed  downwards,  and  kept  from  ris- 
hig  by  the  vitreous  humor.  This  is  call- 
ed couching.  Another  operation  is  ex- 
traction, and  consists  in  making  an  incis- 
ion of  the  cornea,  and  of  the  capsule  of 
the  lens,  by  which  the  lens  may  be 
brought  forward,  and  through  the  cut  in 
the  cornea.  The  third  operation  is  by 
absorption.  This  consists  m  wounding 
the  capsule,  breaking  down  the  crjstal- 
line,  and  bringing  the  fragments  into  the 
anterior  chamber  of  the  eye,  where  th6y 
are  exposed  to  the  action  of  the  aqueous 
humor,  and  are,  at  length,  absorbed. 
This  last  operation  has  the  name  kerato- 
nyxis  applied  to  it.  The  choice  of  the 
operation  is  determined  by  the  character 
of  the  cataract.  After  the  operation,  the 
patient  is  to  be  kept  from  the  light,  and 
from  all  means  of  irritation.  Such  medi- 
cines and  such  articles  of  food  are  to  be 
prescribed  as  will  most  effectually  pre- 
vent inflammation  ;  and  should  this  occur, 
it  must  be  treated  by  such  means  as  are 
the  most  sure  to  restrain  or  overcome  it. — 
Amaurosis  is  a  disease  of  the  optic  nerve, 
and  its  continuation,  the  retina.  Its 
causes  are  immerous.  It  may  be  occa- 
sioned by  organic  disease  of  the  parts  re- 
ferred to,  by  mechanical  pressure  upon 
the  nerve,  by  too  powerful  light,  by  long- 
continued  use  of  the  eyes  in  too  weak 
light,  by  rapid  transition  from  darkness- to 


hght,  and,  finally,  by  old  age.  Vaiiotjs 
other,  and  some  more  general,  causes  may 
produce  amaurosis.  Among  these  are 
wounds  of  tJie  head,  compression  of  tho 
brain,  fits  of  apoplexy,  suppressed'colds 
in  the  head,  habitual  inebriety,  vomiting, 
coughing,  sneezing,  affections  of  the  ali- 
mentary canal,  and  some  of  the  neighbor- 
ing viscera — tl)e  liver,  for  example.  Ac- 
cording to  the  activity  of  these  various 
causes,  the  malady  comes  on  sudden- 
ly or  gradually.  The  patients  are  some- 
times unable  to  bear  the  light,  and,  there- 
fore, seek  the  darkness,  where  sparks  and 
flames  frequently  appear  to  their  eyes. 
Objects  sometimes  appear  of  different 
colors,  or  fluctuate,  swim,  and  confuse 
themselves.  At  other  times,  the  patients 
begin  to  squint,  suffer  a  severe  pain  in 
the  ball  of  the  eye,  and  a  straining  above 
the  eyebrows :  finally,  they  begin  to  see 
as  if  through  a  crape  or  fog,  and  only  in 
bright  daylight  can  distinguish  accurate- 
ly: black  flakes  and  specks  appear  to 
hover  before  their  eyes.  The  gi'eatest 
insensibihty  of  the  retina  is  often  oppo- 
site the  centre  of  the  cornea ;  but  ulti- 
mately the  disease  produces  total  blind- 
ness, tlie  pupil  losing  its  motion,  and  be- 
coming permanently  dilated.  Deep  in 
the  eye  a  white  speck  is  ofl;en  visible, 
which  is  traversed  by  veins.  According 
to  the  different  causes,  the  malady  is 
either  easily  cured  or  is  incurable.  Re- 
gard is  especially  to  be  had  to  them  in  the 
selection  and  use  of  remedies. 

Cataract,  in  geography  (from  the 
Greek  KarapaKTris).  The  English  language 
has  more  words  than  most  European  lan- 
guages, to  express  different  degrees  of 
rapid  and  sudden  descent  in  streams  of 
water.  The  most  general  term  is  falls. 
A  considerable  declivity  in  the  bed  of 
a  river  produces  rapids ;  when  it  runs 
down  a  precipice,  it  forms  a  cataract ; 
and,  if  it  tails  from  steep  to  steep,  in  suc- 
cessive cataracts,  it  is  ofl;en  called  a  cas- 
cade. In  primary  and  transition  countries, 
rivere  abound  in  rapids :  they  also  some- 
times occur  in  secondary  regions,  but  the 
descent  is  always  more  gentle.  In  allu- 
vial districts,  falls,  of  coui-se,  are  very 
rare :  they  are  almost  always  found  in 
the  passage  of  streams  from  the  ])rimitive 
to  the  other  formations :  thus  falls  ai*e 
found  where  the  alluvial  formations,  on 
the  coast  of  the  U.  States,  border  on  the 
primitive  formations  ;  but  none  are  found 
in  the  alluvion  below.  Rapids  and  cata- 
racts are  often  the  greatest  blessing  to 
rugged  countries,  since  they  furnish  the 
cheapest   means  to  move   machines  in 


CATARACT. 


577 


manufactoiies,  &c.  In  flat  countries,  as 
Holland,  the  lower  part  of  Germanj',  and 
the  West  Indies,  people  must  resort  to 
wndmi!ls,on  account  of  the  want  of  falls. 
]Many  cataracts  are  remarkable  for  their 
sublimity ;  and  the  falls  of  JViagara  sur- 
pass all  othei-s  of  the  known  world  in 
grandeur.  The  whole  mass  of  water 
which  empties  itself  from  the  great  in- 
land seas  of  North  America  is  here  com- 
pressed into  a  channel  of  three  quarters 
of  a  mile  in  width,  and  plunges  over  a 
precipice  of  150  to  IGO  feet  in  height. 
The  river,  more  than  a  mile  above  the 
falls,  is  divided  by  Grand  and  Na\'y  isl- 
ands, and  has  a  gradual  descent  of  57  feet 
from  this  place.  The  banks  preserve  the 
level  of  the  countiy,  and,  in  some  ])arts, 
rise  100  feet  from  the  water :  the  whole 
stream  is  covered  with  foam  and  waves. 
At  the  grand  falls,  the  river  is  three  quar- 
ter of  a  mile  bi-oad,  and  the  preci|)ice 
curves  nearly  m  a  semicircle,  extending 
in  the  longest  line  on  the  American  or 
eastern  side.  An  island,  called  Goat  isl- 
and, divides  the  cataract  into  two  j)rinci- 
pal  portions — the  American  fall  on  the 
east,  and  the  Hoi-se-shoe  on  the  west,  or 
Canada  side.  A  small  portion  of  the  fall 
on  the  American  side  is  cut  off  by  a 
small  island  on  the  precipice :  the  rest 
descends  in  one  body,  almost  perpendic- 
ularly, from  a  height  of  164  feet,  and  1000 
feet  in  width.  Both  the  falls  on  the 
American  side  are  crossed  by  bridges. 
The  Horse-shoe  fall  is  14  feet  less  in 
height,  but  surpasses  the  other  much  in 
grandeur.  The  great  body  of  the  water 
])asses  the  precipice  with  such  foice,  that 
it  forms  a  curled  sheet,  which  strikes  the 
water  below  50  feet  from  the  base  of  the 
precipice,  and  visitors  can  pass  behind 
the  sheet  of  water.  The  best  view  of 
this  cataract  is  from  Table  rock.  It  is  fre- 
quently adorned  with  a  rainbow.  Some- 
times three  are  seen  in  the  clouds  of 
spray,  which  rise  100  feet  above  the  preci- 
pice. (See  Dwight's  Travels.) — The  river 
Montmorency  forms  a  cataract  250  feet  in 
height  and  50  feet  in  breadth  ;  nine  miles 
below  Quebec. — The  falls  of  the  river 
Chaudiere,  not  far  from  the  cataract  just 
mentioned,  are  about  100  feet  in  height. — 
The  Mississippi  forms  a  cataract  of  40 
feet  in  height,  above  its  junction  with  the 
Ohio.  The  stream  is  700  feet  in  width, 
and  the  surrounding  countiy  level. — The 
Missouri,  at  a  distance  of  500  miles  from 
its  sources,  descends  3G0  feet  in  1 8  miles. 
There  are  three  principal  cataracts  ;  one 
of  87,  one  of  47,  and  one  of  26  feet  in 
height.  The  river  is  1000  feet  broad,  and 
VOL.  II.  49 


the  whole  scene  is  described  as  most  beau- 
tiful, only  surpassed  by  the  falls  of  Ni- 
agara.— The  falls  of  Passaic,  in  New  Jer- 
sey, at  Patterson,  about  15  miles  from 
Newark,  are  among  the  most  celebrated 
of  the  U.  States.  The  river  is  150  feet 
broad,  and  falls,  in  one  entire  sheet,  into  a 
chasm  70  feet  in  depth,  and  12  wide.  Its 
watei"s  form  the  moving  power  for  one  of 
the  most  manufacturing  districts  of  the 
U.  States. — The  Mohawk  river,  near  its 
junction  with  the  Hudson,  forms  tluvfolls 
termed  the  CoJioes,  about  60  feet  high. — 
The  Housatonic  river,  in  the  north-west 
of  Connecticut,  forms  the  finest  cataract 
in  New  England. — In  Georgia,  the  cata- 
ract in  the  Tuccoa  creek  is  interesting.  It 
passes  through  a  channel  20  feet  wide, 
over  a  precipice  of  187  feet,  in  one  sheet, 
if  the  season  is  wet. — A  similar  cataract 
occurs  in  the  river  Ache,  in  Bavaria;  fall- 
ing 200  feet,  by  five  steps,  and  being  en- 
tirely scattered  in  spray.  Its  noise  is 
heard  at  a  distance  of  several  miles. — 
Bellows  falls,  on  the  Connecticut  river, 
near  Walpole,  are  grand  and  striking. — 
Glen''s  falls,  in  the  Hudson  river,  are 
similar. — The  highest  cataract  in  America 
is  that  of  Tcqucndama,  in  the  river  Bo- 
gota, or  Funza,  a  -branch  of  the  Magda- 
lena.  The  river  rises  in  the  lofty  plain,  in 
which  Bogota  is  situated,  9000  tcet  above 
the  sea,  and  is  jn-ecii)itated  into  the  lower 
countiy,  through  deep  ravines  and  over 
steep  precipices,  and  finally  plunges  600 
feet  into  a  deep  chasm. — The  cataracts  of 
the  wViZe  (one  at  Syene,  and  the  other 
some  distance  above)  have  been  describ- 
ed, by  Mr.  Bruce,  as  grand,  principally 
from  the  wildness  and  desolation  of  the 
scene  ;  but  the  highest  of  them  does  not 
exceed  40  feet  in  height. — The  primary 
regions  of  Europe  abound  in  cataracts. 
The  torrents  are  seldom  of  great  size,  but 
the  rocky  beds  over  which  thej'  roar  and 
dash  in  foam  and  spray,  tlie  dark  glens 
into  which  they  rush,  and  the  wildness 
of  the  whole  sceneiy,  often  produce  awful 
emotions. — The  most  remarkable  cataract 
m  Scotland  is  the  Fyers. — The  river  Go- 
tha  has  a  fall  of  celebrity  at  Trolhatta,  in 
Sweden.  It  descends  100  feet. — One  of 
the  most  considerable  falls  in  Europe  has 
lately  been  discovered  in  the  river  Lattin, 
in  Swedish  Lapland.  It  is  described  as 
Jialf  a  mile  in  width  and  400  feet  ui 
height. — Another,  of  immense  size,  has 
been  discovered  by  Mr.  Esmark,  in  the 
river  Maamelven,  in  Norway,  consisting 
of  three  separate  falls,  the  whole  height 
being  800  feet. — The  Alpine  highlands, 
in  Europe,  abo(jmd  in  beautiful  fulls.    The 


578 


CATARACT— CATECHETICAL  SCHOOLS. 


cataract  near  Schaffhausen  is  400  feet 
broad  and  70  high. — The  river  Oreo,  de- 
Kceiidiiig  from  mount  Rosa  into  Italy, 
forms  a  cascade,  the  height  of  wliich  is 
estimated  at  2400  feet. — Tlie  fall  of  the 
JEvanson,  flowing  from  the  same  moun- 
tain, is  stated  to  be  1200  feet  high. — At 
Staubbach,  in  the  canton  of  Bern,  in 
Switzerland,  a  small  stream  descends  a 
height  of  1400  feet. — In  Italy,  the  falls  of 
Terni  and  Tivoli  are  beautiful,  and  were 
celebrated  even  among  the  ancients. — 
At  Terni,  about  45  miles  north  of  Rome, 
the  Evelino  plunges  over  a  precipice  of 
marble  rocks,  300  feet  high.  The  watei-s 
contain  lime,  which  produces  many  petri- 
factions.— At  Tivoli,  18  miles  north-east 
of  Rome,  are  the  falls  pf  the  Anio  or  Tei'- 
erino,  a  branch  of  the  Tiber.  It  falls 
nearly  lOOfeetdeep.  (See  Woodbridge's 
System  of  Universal  Geography,  Hartford, 
1827.) 

Catarrh  (from  (carapptw,  I  flow  down) ; 
an  increased  secretion  of  mucus  from 
the  membranes  of  the  nose,  fauces  and 
bronchia,  accompanied  with  fever,  and 
attended  with  sneezing,  cough,  thirst,  las- 
situde, and  want  of  appetite.  There  are 
two  species  of  catarrh,  viz :  catarrhus  afri- 
gore,  which  is  very  common,  and  is  called 
a  cold  in  the  head ;  and  catarrhus  a  conta- 
gio,  the  influenzEi,  or  epidemic  catai-rh, 
which  sometimes  attacks  a  whole  city. 
Catarrh  is  also  symptomatic  of  seveml 
other  diseases.  It  is  seldom  fatal,  except 
in  scrofulous  liabits,  by  laying  the  foun- 
dation of  phthisis ;  or  where  it  is  aggra- 
vated, by  improper  treatment,  or  repeated 
exposure  to  cold,  into  some  degree  of 
peripneumony ;  when  there  is  hazard  of 
the  patient,  particularly  if  advanced  in 
life,  being  suffocated  by  the  copious  effu- 
sion of  viscid  matter  into  the  air-passages. 
The  epidemic  is  generally,  but  not  invari- 
ably, more  severe  than  the  common  form 
of  the  disease.  The  latter  is  usually  lefl 
to  subside  spontaneously,  which  will 
commonly  happen  in  a  few  days,  by  ob- 
sen'ing  the  antiphlogistic  regimen.  If 
there  should  be  fixed  pain  of  the  chest, 
with  any  hardness  of  the  pulse,  a  little 
blood  may  be  taken  from  the  arm,  or 
topically,  followed  by  a  blister ;  the  bow- 
els must  be  kept  regular,  and  diaphoretics 
employed,  with  demulcents  and  mild  opi- 
ates, to  quiet  the  cough.  When  the  dis- 
ease hangs  about  the  patient  in  a  chronic 
form,  gentle  tonics  and  expectorants  are 
required,  as  myrrh,  squill,  &c.  In  the 
epidemic  catarrh,  more  active  evacuations 
ai*e  often  required,  the  lungs  being  more 
seriously  affected  ;    but,  ^though    tliese 


should  be  promptly  employed,  they  must 
not  be  can-ied  too  far,  the  disease  being 
apt  to  assume  the  typhoid  cliaracter  in  itg 
progress  ;  and,  as  the  chief  danger  ajipears 
to  be  that  suffocation  may  happen  from  tlie 
cause  above-mentioned,  it  is  especially 
important  to  promote  expectoration,  first 
by  antimonials,  afterwards  by  squill,  the 
inhalation  of  steam,  &c.,  not  neglecting 
to  support  the  strength  of  the  patient  as 
tlie  disease  advances. 

Catechesis  ;  the  science  which  teach- 
es the  proper  method  of  instructing  be- 
ginners in  the  principles  of  the  Christian 
rehgion  by  question  and  answer,  which 
is  called  the  catechetical  method.  (See 
Method.)  Hence  catechist  and  catechise. 
The  art  of  the  catechist  consists  in  being 
able  to  elicit  and  develope  the  ideas  of 
the  youthful  minds  of  learners.  This 
part  of  reUgious  science  was  first  culti- 
vated in  modem  times,  and  Rosenmuller, 
Dinter,  Schmid,  Wolratli,  Doltz,  Grafle, 
Daub,  Winter,  Heinrich  Muller,  and 
others  have  particularly  distinguished 
themselves  by  their  writings  upon  it. 

Catechetical  Schools  ;  institutions 
for  the  elementary  education  of  Christian 
teachers,  of  which  there  were  many  in 
the  Eastern  church  from  the  2d  to  the  5th 
centurJ^  They  were  different  from  cate- 
chumenical  schools,  which  were  attached 
to  almost  every  church,  and  which  were 
intended  only  for  the  popular  instruction 
of  proselytes,  and  of  the  children  of  Chris- 
tians ;  whereas  the  catechetical  schools 
were  intended  to  communicate  a  scien- 
tific knowledge  of  Christianity.  The 
first  and  most  renowned  was  established 
about  the  middle  of  the  2d  century,  for 
the  Egyptian  church  at  Alexandria,  on 
the  model  of  the  famous  schools  of  Gre- 
cian learning  in  that  place.  (See  Alexan- 
drian School.)  Teachers  like  Pantsenus, 
Clement  and  Origen  gave  them  splendor 
and  secured  their  permanence.  They 
combined  instruction  in  rhetoric  and  ora- 
tory, in  classical  Grecian  literature,  and 
the  Eclectic  philosophy,  vaih  the  principal 
branches  of  theological  study,  exegesis, 
the  doctrines  of  religion,  and  the  tradi- 
tions of  the  church ;  distinguished  the 
popular  religious  belief  from  the  Gnosis, 
or  the  thorough  knowledge  of  religion  ; 
estabUshed  Christian  theology  as  a  sci- 
ence, and  finally  attacked  the  dreams  of 
the  ChiUasts  (behevers  in  a  millennium) ; 
but,  by  blending  Greek  speculations  and 
Gnostic  phantasies  with  the  doctrines  of 
the  church,  by  an  allegorical  interpreta- 
tion of  the  Bible,  and  the  assumption  of  a 
secret  sense  in  the  Scriptures,  different 


CATECHETICAL  SCHOOLS— CATECHISM. 


579 


from  the  literal,  contributed  to  tlie  cor- 
ruption of  Christianity.  The  distraction 
of  the  Alexandrian  church  by  the  Arian 
controversies  proved  the  destruction  of 
the  catechetical  schools  in  that  place, 
about  the  middle  of  the  4th  century. 
The  catechetical  school  at  Antioch  ap- 
pears not  to  have  been  a  permanent  uisti- 
tution,  hke  the  Alexandrian,  but  only  to 
have  been  formed  around  distinguished 
teachers,  when  there  happened  to  be  any 
ill  the  place.  There  were  some  distin- 
guished teachers  in  Antioch,  about  the 
year  220.  We  have  no  certain  informa- 
tion, however,  of  the  theological  teachers 
in  that  place,  such  as  Lucian,  Diodorus 
of  Tarsus,  and  Theodore  of  INIopsuestia, 
until  tl»e  latter  j)art  of  the  4th  century. 
These  teaclieis  were  distinguished  from 
tiie  Alexandrian  by  more  sober  views  of 
Christianity,  by  confining  themselves  to 
the  literal  interpretation  of  the  Bible,  by 
a  cautious  use  of  the  tj'pes  of  the  Old 
Testament,  and  by  a  bolder  discussion  of 
doctrines.  The  Nestorian  and  Eutychiaii 
controversies,  in  the  5th  century,  drew 
after  them  the  ruin  of  the  schools  at  An- 
tioch. Of  a  similar  character  were  the 
cateclietical  school  instituted  at  Edessa, 
in  the  3d  century,  and  destroyed  in  489, 
and  the  school  afterwards  established  at 
Nisibis,  b}-^  tlie  Nestorians,  in  its  stead  ; 
both  of  which  were  in  Mesopotamia.  To 
these  catechetical  schools  succeeded,  at  a 
later  date,  the  cathedral  and  monastic 
schools,  especially  among  the  Western 
Christians,  who,  as  late  as  the  6th  cen- 
tury, made  use  of  the  heathen  schools, 
and.  had  never  estabhshed  catechetical 
s<-'liools  even  at  Rome.     (See  Schools.) 

Catechism  ;  a  book  which  contains 
the  principles  and  first  instructions  to  be 
i^ommunicated  in  any  branch  of  knowl- 
edge, particularly  in  religion.  In  modern 
times,  the  word  has  been  applied  more 
freely  tlian  formerly.  Thus  we  see  cate- 
chisms of  chemistiy,  history,  and,  in 
FiTince,  catechism  des  gens  de  ban  seiis  (a 
satire),  catechism  du  ban  ton,  &c.  The 
word  is  derived  from  the  Greek  KaTvxf<'>, 
I  sound,  i.  e.,  into  the  ears  of  the  pei-son 
to  be  instructed.  The  word,  however,  is 
chiefly  used  to  denote  the  books  that 
contain  the  religious  instruction  which 
any  sect  deems  most  important  to  be 
taught  to  the  children  and  the  peoj)le,  in 
a  popular  and  easy  form,  generally  in  the 
form  of  question  and  answer.  In  the 
Catholic  cliurch,  each  bishop  has  the 
right  to  make  a  catechism  for  his  diocese. 
But,  in  modern  times,  their  catechisms  ai-e 
generally  a  pretty  close  copy  of  the  one 


drawn  up  by  the  council  of  Trent,  of 
which  an  English  translation  was  pub- 
lished in  London  (1687),  ^^permhsu  snpe- 
liorum,"  under  the  })atronage  of  James  II. 
Among  Protestants,  the  catechism  of  Lu- 
ther acquired  great  celebrity,  and  still 
continues  to  be  used  by  many  clergymen 
in  Germany,  where  regular  instruction 
in  religion,  during  a  certain  period  pre- 
scribed by  law,  must  precede  the  con- 
firmation, which  takes  ])lace  between  the 
L3th  year  of  age  and  the  17th.  Clergymen, 
however,  in  some  parts  of  that  country, 
have  been  allowed  to  publish  and  use 
their  own  catechisms  ;  and  it  is  a  matter 
of  no  little  interest,  to  observe  how  the 
many  different  philosophical  schools  of 
Germany  have  influenced  the  tone  of  the 
catechisms  by  their  various  systems  of 
morals.  Sec.  Some,  which  we  have  seen, 
were  books  of  oOO  pages,  and  rather  ]»hil- 
osophical  sjstems,  supported  by  numer- 
ous quotations  from  the  Bible,  than  sim- 
ple catechisms.  Such  catechisms,  how- 
ever,^are  going  out  of  use.  Tlie  catechet- 
ical mode  of  giving  instructions  in  Chris- 
tianity had  much  declined  previous  to 
the  reformation,  when  it  was  revived,  and 
numerous  catechisms  sprung  up.  The 
proper  preparation  of  such  manuals,  the 
communication  of  religious  and  moral 
instruction  in  a  short  compass  and  a  sim- 
ple form,  is  a  thing  of  no  small  difficulty. 
In  England,  soon  after  the  reformed  reli- 
gion was  estabhshed  there,  a  short  cate-; 
chism  was  introduced,  consisting  of  the 
creed,  the  Lord's  prayer,  and  tlie  deca-r 
logue,  to  which  a  few  cautious,  explana- 
tory passages  were  added,  about  1549,  it 
is  sujiposed  by  archbishop  Cranmer.  "  A 
Shorte  Catechisme  or  Playne  Instruction, 
conteynynge  the  Sumnie  of  Christian 
Learninge,  sett  fourth  by  the  Khig's 
Maiesties  Authoritie  for  all  Scholemais- 
tei-s  to  teach,"  was  the  work  which  closed 
the  labors  of  the  reformers  in  the  reign 
of  Edward  VI,  whose  name  it  commonly 
bears.  It  was  jirinted  both  in  Latin  and 
in  English,  in  155.3,  and  may  fairly  be 
considered  as  containing  the  sense  of  the 
church  of  England  then  established.  The 
catechism  of  the  English  church,  now  in 
use,  is  drav.'n  up,  after  the  primitive  maiiT 
ner,  by  way  of  question  and  answer.  The 
questions  and  answers  relative  to  the  sac- 
raments were  subjoined  to  it,  at  the  revis- 
ion of  the  liturgy,  in  the  first  year  of 
James  I.  As  now  extant,  it  consists  of 
five  parts,  viz. : — 1.  the  doctrine  of  the 
Christian  covenant ;  2.  the  articles  of  be- 
hef ;  3.  the  commandments ;  4.  the  duty 
and  efficacy  of  prayer ;  and,  5.  the  nature 


8B0 


CATECHISM— CATGUT. 


and  end  of  the  holy  sacraments. — Calvin 
wrote  a  catechism,  as  Luther  did ;  but 
tliat  of  the  former  has  not  enjoyed  so 
much  po|Hilarity,  nor  been  translated  into 
so  many  languages,  as  that  of  the  latter. — 
In  France,  the  catechisms  of  later  times 
exhibit  plain  marks  of  political  influence. 
The  catechism  of  Napoleon,  in  its  tenth 
chapter,  explicitly  states  in  what  light  he 
and  his  family  were  to  be  regarded.  This 
celebrated  chapter  has  generally  been 
tiiought  scandalous,  though  it  was  approv- 
ed, after  a  fashion,  by  the  papal  nuncio. 
Most  of  the  catechisms  published  since 
1814  are  equally  scandalous,  because 
they  contain  illegal,  nay,  anti-constitu- 
tional, precepts.  When  the  complaints 
on  this  score  became  too  loud  to  be  dis- 
regarded, the  pitiful  excuse  was  made, 
that  the  offensive  turn  of  the  passages 
was  owing  to  errors  of  the  press. 

Catechu  {terra  japonica) ;  an  extract 
prepared  from  the  wood  and  the  green 
fruit  of  the  mimosa  catechu  (Lin.)  and  of 
several  other  trees  of  the  same  famil)-, 
which  grow  in  the  East  Indies,  princi- 
pally in  Bengal.  There  are  three  sorts 
of  catechus.  The  first,  Bombay  catechu, 
is  in  square  pieces,  of  a  reddish-brown 
color,  friable,  of  a  uniform  texture,  fracture 
uneven,  of  a  specific  gravity  of  about  1.39. 
The  second,  Bengal  catechu,  is  in  round 
pieces,  of  the  weight  of  three  or  four 
ounces,  of  a  deep. chocolate  color  inter- 
nally, and  resembling  iron  rust  externally, 
more  fi-iable,  of  the  specific  gravity  of  1.28. 
The  third  kind,  catechu  in  masses,  is  in 
irregular  pieces  of  two  or  three  ounces, 
of  a  reddish-brown  color,  shining,  homo- 
geneous, and  wrapped  up  in  large-nened 
leaves.  These  three  kinds  of  catechu  are 
inodorous,  of  an  astringent  taste  at  first, 
but,  soon  after,  sweet  and  agreeable ;  at 
least,  this  is  the  case  with  the  first  and 
last  sort.  Catechu  is  one  of  the  best  as- 
tiingents  to  be  found  in  the  materia  med- 
ico, and  likewise  one  of  the  most  in  use. 

Catechumens  is  a  name  which  was 
applied  to  those  converted  Jews  and  hea- 
thens, in  the  first  ages  of  the  church,  who 
were  to  receive  baptism,  had  a  particular 
place  in  the  church,  but  were  not  permit- 
ted to  be  present  at  the  celebration  of  the 
sacrament.  Afterwards,  it  was  ajjplied 
to  those  young  Christians,  who,  for  the 
first  time,  wished  to  partake  of  this  ordi- 
nance, and,  for  this  purpose,  went  through 
a  preparatory  course  of  instruction. 

Category,  in  logic  ;  an  assemblage  of 
all  the  beings  contained  under  any  genus 
or  kind,  ranged  in  order.  The  school 
philosophers  distribute  all  beings,  all  the 


objects  of  our  thoughts  or  ideas,  into  cer- 
tain genera  or  classes,  which  classes  the 
Greeks  call  categories,  and  the  Latins, 
predicaments,  and  which  Mr.  Hairis  hcis 
styled  philosophical  arrangements.  The 
ancients,  following  Aristotle,  generally 
make  10  categories.  Under  the  first  all 
substances  are  comprised,  and  all  acci- 
dents or  attributes  under  the  9  last,  viz., 
quantiti/,  quality,  relation,  action,  passion, 
time,  place,  situation  and  habit.  This  ar- 
rangement, however,  is  arbitrary,  and  now 
almost  excluded.  Accordingly,  some  phi- 
losophers think  that  all  nature  may  be 
better  considered  under  these  seven  divis- 
ions— sjfirit,  matter,  quantity,  substance, 
figure,  motion  and  rest.  Others  make  but 
two  categories,  substance  and  attribute, 
or  subject  and  accident;  or  three,  acci- 
dent being  divided  into  the  inherent  and 
circumstantial.  The  arrangement  of  the 
10  categories  was  borrowed  from  the 
Pythagorean  school.  It  is  said  to  have 
been  invented  by  Archytas  of  Tarentum. 
From  him  it  passed  to  Plato  (who, 
however,  admitted  only  five  categories — 
substance,  identitif,  diversity,  motion  and 
rest),  and  from  Plato  to  Aristotle,  The 
Stoics  held  four — subjects,  qualities,  in- 
dependent circumstances,  relative  circum- 
stances. (For  the  categories  of  Kant,  see 
Kant.) 

Catel,  Charles  Simon,  composer  of 
music,  bom  about  1773,  apupilof  Gosscc, 
professor  of  harmony  at  the  consenatoiy 
(q.  v.)  in  Paris,  has  published  many  mu- 
sical works,  of  which  none  has  obtain- 
ed so  much  fame  as  his  Traite  d'Hamw- 
nie  (1802),  which  the  conservatorj'  has 
chosen  as  a  text-book  for  instruction  in 
composition.  Among  the  works  of  Catel, 
besides  a  great  number  of  compositions  for 
wind  instruments,  particularly  for  militaiy 
music,  are  the  operas  Semiramis,  Les  Ba- 
yaderes, L\iuhergt  de  Bagn^res,  and  Les 
Artistes  par  Occasion. 

Caterpillar.  (See  Papilio.) 
Catgut.  The  strings  of  certain  musical 
instruments,  the  cords  of  clock-weights, 
and  those  of  some  other  machines  and 
implements,  are  made  of  a  dense,  strong 
animal  substance,  denominated  catgut.  It 
is  made  from  the  intestines  of  different 
quadrupeds,  particularly  those  of  cattle 
and  sheep.  The  manufacture  is  chiefly 
carried  on  in  Italy  and  France.  The  tex- 
ture from  which  it  is  made  is  tliat  which 
anatomists  call  the  muscular  coat,  Avhich 
is  carefully  separated  from  the  j)eritoneal 
and  mucous  membranes.  After  a  tedious 
and  troublesome  ])rocess  of  steeping, 
scouring,  fermenting,  inflating,  &c.,  the 


CATGUT— CATHARI. 


581 


piateriA^  is  twisted,  rubbed  with  horse- 
hair cords,  fumigated  with  burning  sul- 
phur, to  improve  its  color,  and  dried. 
Cords  of  different  size,  and  strength,  and 
delicacy,  are  obtained  from  different  do- 
mestic animals.  The  intestine  is  some- 
times cut  into  unitbrm  strips,  with  an 
instrument  made  for  the  purpose.  To 
prevent  offensive  effluvia  during  the  pro- 
cess, and  to  get  rid  of  the  oily  matter,  the 
French  make  use  of  an  alkaline  Uquid, 
calleil  eau  dt  Javelle.  Catgut  for  stringed 
instruments,  as  violins  and  harjjs,  is  made 
principally  in  Rome  and  Naples.  For  the 
smallest  viohn  strings,  3  thicknesses  are 
used ;  for  the  largest,  7 ;  and,  for  the  largest 
bass-viol  strings,  120.  In  the  kingdom 
of  Naples,  Avhence  the  best  strings,  com- 
monly called  Roman,  are  obtained,  there 
are  large  manufactories  of  this  article. 

Cathari  ;  a  denomination  which  was 
applied,  from  the  middle  of  the  lltii  to 
the  Kith  centuiy,  to  several  parties  and 
sects,  that  appeared  tirst  in  Loinbardy, 
and  afterwards  in  other  coimtries  of  the 
West,  and  which  were  violently  persecut- 
ed, on  account  of  their  31anichean  tenets 
and  usages.  As  they  originated  in  Bulga- 
ria, they  were  sometimes  termed  Bulga- 
rians,  whence  arose  the  French  term  of 
abuse,  Bougrts.  Sometimes,  in  token  of 
their  contemptibleness,  as  men  of  the 
lowest  class,  they  were  called  Patarenes, 
or  Paiarines,  from  Pataria,  a  region  of 
bad  reputation  near  Milan ;  sometimes 
Publicans,  or  Popelites,  and,  in  the  Low 
Countries,  Pipldes.  But  the  most  general 
name,  by  w'hicii  they  were  denoted,  in  the 
middle  ages,  was  Cathxin  (either  from 
(caOapoi,  the  pure,  w'liich  they  claimed  to 
be,  or  from  the  national  appellation  Cha- 
zars,  because  they  were  said  to  have  pro- 
ceeded from  Chazary,  tlie  present  Crimea; 
whence  ketzer,  the  German  ^vord  for  her- 
etics). The  religious  views  and  practice 
of  the  sects  comprehended  mider  this 
name  differed  much,  according  to  the  age 
and  country  in  Whicii  tliey  appeared,  and 
according  to  the  sjiirit  of  their  leaders ; 
but  they  all  agreed  in  an  obstinate  resists 
ance  to  Catholicism,  and  in  the  following 
points  of  doctrine  and  rehgious  life : — In 
common  with  the  old  Manicheans,  but 
without  esteeming  Manes  a  jirophet,  they 
entertained  an  avei-sion  to  the  mixture  of 
Judaism  in  Christianity,  professed  the 
dualism  couched  in  scriptui-al  language, 
which  places  the  devil  nearly  on  a  level 
with  God,  and  entertained  the  conceit  of 
a  high  moral  perfection.  The  influence 
of  Arian  and  Platonic  notions  was  cour 
spicuous  in  their  explanations  of  the  dcjc- 
49* 


trine  of  the  Trinity,  wliich  defined  the 
Fatlier  to  be  the  unity  of  the  divine  will, 
the  Son,  or  Logos,  to  be  his  first  thought, 
and  the  Spirit  to  be  their  common  opera-: 
tion.  In  every  good  man  they  saw  a 
Christ,  and,  therefore,  in  their  congregaT 
tions,  separated  the  elect  from  the  novices. 
The  merit  of  the  Redeemer  they  believed 
to  consist  more  in  his  example  than  in 
his  expiatory  death,  and  built  their  hopes 
of  happiness,  for  the  consummation  of 
which  a  resurrection  of  the  body  did  not 
appear  to  them  requisite,  on  their  own 
virtue.  They  regarded  the  exaltation  of 
the  soul  over  the  mortal  nature,  so  as  to 
become  wholly  absorbed  in  mystical  con- 
temj)lation,  as  the  highest  stage  in  the 
religious  life  of  man.  They  despised  the 
mass,  the  service  of  the  altar,  and  similar 
ceremonies,  as  mere  vanity.  The  adora- 
tion of  the  cross,  of  saints  and  relics,  to- 
gether with  all  arbitrary  penances  and 
good  works,  so  called,  they  deemed  idle 
superstition.  The  daily  blessing  oi"  their 
meats  and  drinks  they  esteemed  equiva- 
lent to  the  celebration  of  the  eucharisL 
The  imposition  of  the  hands  of  spotless 
teachei-s  served  for  the  communication  of 
the  spirit,  for  baptism,  and  as  a  pledge  of 
the  forgiveness  of  sins.  Deep  devotion, 
of  the  heart  in  prayer,  and  a  life  of  jnirity, 
connected  with  abstinence  from  sexual 
pleasure,  and  from  the  use  of  stimulating 
food,  were  their  exercises  of  piety.  The 
tenets  of  popery,  and  the  whole  estab- 
lishment of  the  Catholic  priesthood,  as  it 
then  existed,  they  looked  upon  as  un- 
christian and  pernicious.  They  insisted 
on  the  restoration  of  the  apostolic  sim- 
plicity, and  the  literal  fulfilment  of  the 
jirecepts  of  the  New  Testament,  which 
they  read,  indeed,  with  assiduity,  but  fre- 
quently misunderstood.  In  an  age  when 
the  heartless  subtilties  of  dialectics,  the 
mechanical  administration  of  divine  wor^ 
ship,  and  the  scandalous  morals  of  the  cler- 
gy, widened  more  and  more  the  breach  be- 
tween religion  and  the  estabhshed  church, 
such  doctrines  and  maxims  necessarily 
met  with  approbation,  on  account  of  their 
opposition  to  the  prevalent  practices, '  The 
piety  and  morality  at  which  most  of  the 
separatists  diligently  aimed,  the  charm  of 
their  secret  connexion,  and  the  high  intel-^ 
ligence  of  things  sacred  to  whiph  they 
made  claim,  the  warmth  of  their  mystir 
cism,  and  the  moving  power  of  their  sim- 
ple worship,  procured  them  many  adhe- 
rents, and  those  not  from  the  common 
people  mei-ely,  They  were  joined  by  the 
discontented  of  all  classes,  even  by  the 
clergy  and  nobles;  whence  they  were 


CATHARI— CATHARINE  OF  ARRAGON. 


called,  in  France,  boiis  hommes,  good,  i.  e., 
noble,  people ;  and,  in  the  rude  state  of  the 
existing  j)olitical  constitutions,  amid  the 
confiision  of  civil  wars  and  ecclesiastical 
controversy,  their  congregations,  with  little 
mutual  connexion,  and  not  menacing  the 
state  with  danger,  were  able  to  pursue  with 
impunity,  for  years,  their  quiet  course. 
But  these  sects  were  not  free  from  cor- 
ruptions. The  nocturnal  assemblies,  the 
community  of  goods,  the  homeless,  roving 
life  (on  account  of  which  several  of  them 
were  called  Passageri,  Passagini),  and  the 
contemj)t  of  the  marriage  state,  which 
originated  in  ascetic  views,  gave  rise,  in 
many  cases,  since  they  permitted  the  tAvo 
sexes  to  live  together,  to  gross  immorali- 
ties ;  and  the  mystery,  in  which  they  en- 
veloped their  religious  exercises,  some- 
times served  to  conceal  the  eiTors  of  an 
unbridled  fanaticism.  But,  when  the  old 
denominations  became  disgraced  by  such 
errors,  new  leaders,  and  reforms  in  doc- 
trine and  life,  gave  rise  to  new  sects,  and 
imparted  a  fresh  impulse  to  the  once  ex- 
cited spirit  of  separatism.  From  this 
originated  the  excitements  occasioned 
among  the  people  of  France,  Switzerland 
and  Italy,  by  Peter  Bruys,  and  Henry  and 
Arnold  of  Brescia,  in  the  12th  century, 
■which  introduced  the  names  Pdrohru- 
sians,  Henricians  and  Amoldists.  (See 
Arnold  of  Brescia.)  The  ecclesiastical 
authority  now  became  zealous  in  search- 
ing out  and  punishing  heretics;  so  that 
these  new,  but  unconnected,  classes  of 
Cathari  soon  became  extinct.  The  older 
Cathari,  Publicans,  Patarenes,  &c.,  had 
the  prudence,  wherever  they  were  settled, 
to  adhere  publicly  to  the  Catholic  church, 
and  to  hold  their  private  meetings  in  the 
night.  They  even  allowed  the  persecuted 
members  to  have  recoi/rse,  before  the 
spiritual  courts,  to  an  apparent  recanta- 
tion ;  but,  the  attention  of  these  authorities 
being  once  excited,  and  the  popes  carry- 
ing on  the  persecution  of  the  heretics  by 
their  own  legates,  and  establishuig  the 
horrible  inquisition  in  the  13th  century, 
the  most  blameless  hfe,  and  the  utmost 
secrecy  in  the  performance  of  religious 
exercises,  no  longer  afforded  security  to 
these  heterodox  believers.  The  fate  of 
the  Albigenses  (q.  v.),  who  were  mainly 
Cathari,  finally  produced  the  overthrow 
of  all  this  family  of  sects  in  the  13th  cen- 
tury. The  Waldenses  (q.  v.)  alone,  who 
were  unjustly  confounded  with  the  Ca- 
thari, escaped.  No  sects,  of  a  later  origin, 
have  borne  this  general  appellation. 

Catharine,  St.  ;  a  virgin  of  Alexan- 
dria, who,  according  to  Catholic  tradition, 


suffered  martyrdom  under  Maximin,abotlt 
A.  D.  236.  She  is  represented  with  a 
piece  of  a  wheel ;  and  tlie  legend  of  her 
marriage  with  Christ  has  been  painted  by 
several  of  the  fii-st  masters.  Correggio's 
Catharine,'m  Dresden, is  beautiful. — TJiere 
are  two  other  St.  Catharines  mentioned. — 
The  knights  of  St.  Catharine  on  mount 
Sinai  are  an  ancient  military  order,  in- 
stituted for  the  ]H'otection  of  the  pilgrims 
who  came  to  visit  the  tomb  of  St.  Catha- 
rine, on  tliis  mountain.  In  Russia,  the 
order  of  St.  Catharine  is  a  distinction  for 
ladies,  instituted  by  Catharine,  wile  of 
Peter  tlie  Great,  in  memory  of  his  signal 
escape  from  the  Turks  in  1711. 

Cathakine  of  France,  queen  of  Eng- 
land, youngest  child  of  Charles  VI  and 
Isabella  of  Bavaria,  was  born  in  1401, 
and,  in  1420,  was  manied  to  Henry  V  of 
England,  who  was  then  declared  succes- 
sor to  the  croAATi  of  France.  To  this 
prince  she  bore  Ileniy  VI,  crowned  in 
his  cradle  king  of  both  countries.  After 
the  death  of  Henry,  Catharine  privately 
married  Owen  Theodore,  or  Tudor,  a 
Welsh  gentleman  of  small  fortune,  but 
descended  from  the  ancient  British 
princes.  By  this  mamage  she  had  two 
sons,  the  eldest  of  whom,  Edmund,  earl 
of  Richmond,  by  a  maniage  with  Marga- 
ret Beaufort,  of  the  legitimated  branch  of 
Lancaster,  became  father  of  Henry  VII, 
and  founder  of  the  house  of  Tudor. 
Catharine  was  treated  with  some  rigor, 
on  the  discovery  of  her  second  mar- 
riage, and  died  in  the  prime  of  hfe,  in 
1438. 

Catharine  of  Arragon,  queen  of 
England,  the  youngest  daughter  of  Ferdi- 
nand of  Arragon  and  Isabella  of  Csistile, 
was  born  in  1483.  In  1 501 ,  she  was  married 
to  Arthur  prince  of  Wales,  son  of  Henry 
VII.  Her  husband  dying  about  five 
months  after,  the  king,  unwilhng  to  return 
her  dowTy,  caused  her  to  be  contracted  to 
his  remaining  son  Henry,  and  a  dispensa- 
tion was  jirocured  from  the  pope  for  that 
])urpose.  In  his  15th  year,  the  prince 
made  a  public  protest  against  the  mar- 
riage ;  but,  at  length,  yiekling  to  the  repre- 
sentations of  his  council,  he  consented  to 
ratify  the  contract,  and,  on  his  accession 
to  the  throne,  in  1509,  was  croAvned  with 
her.  The  inequality  of  their  ages,  and  the 
capricious  disposition  of  Henry,  were  cir- 
cumstances very  adverse  to  the  durability 
of  their  union,  and  it  seems  surprising 
that  Catharine  should  have  acquired  and 
retained  an  ascendency  over  the  affections 
of  the  king  for  nearly  20  years.  The 
want  of  male  issue,  however,  proved  a 


CATHARINE  OF  ARRAGON— CATHARINE  DE  MEDICI. 


583 


souree  of  disquietude  to  him,  and  scruples, 
real  or  pretended,  at  length  arose  in  his 
jnind  concerning  the  legality  of  their 
union,  which  were  greatly  enforced  by  a 
growing  passion  for  Anne  Boleyn,  one  of 
the  queen's  maids  of  honor.  He  speedily 
made  appUcation  to  Rome  for  a  divorce 
froiTi  Catharine.  An  encouraging  answer 
was  returned,  and  a  dispensation  promis- 
ed, it  being  the  interest  of  the  pope  to 
favor  the  Enghsh  king.  Overawed,  how- 
ever, by  the  power  of  the  emperor  Cliarles 
V,  Catharine's  nephew,  the  conduct  of 
the  pontiff,  who  depended  u])on  the  em- 
pire, became  embai'rassed  ami  hesitating. 
Catliarine,  meanwhile,  conducted  herself 
with  gentleness  and  firnmess,  and  could 
not  in  any  way  be  induced  to  consent  to 
an  act,  which  would  render  her  daugluer 
illegitimate,  and  stain  her  with  the  impu- 
tation of  incest.  Being  cited  before  tlie 
l)a])al  legates,  cardinals  Wolsey  and  Cam- 
l)eggio,  in  1529,  she  declai'cd  that  she 
would  not  submit  her  cause  to  their  judg- 
ment, but  appealed  to  the  comt  of  Rome; 
which  declaration  was  declared  contu- 
macious. The  subterfuges  of  the  pope  at 
length  induced  the  king  to  decide  the 
affair  for  himself;  and  the  resentment  ex- 
])ressed  on  tiiis  occasion,  by  the  court  of 
Rome,  provoked  him  to  throw  off  his 
submission  to  it,  and  declare  himself  head 
of  the  English  church — a  result  of  royal 
caprice  more  curious  and  important  than 
most  in  history.  In  1582,  he  married 
Anne  Boleyn ;  upon  which  Catharuio,  no 
longer  considered  queen  of  England,  re- 
tired to  Ampthill  in  Bedfordshire.  Cran- 
mer,  now  raised  to  the  primacy,  j)ronounc- 
ed  the  sentence  of  divorce,  notwithstand- 
ing Avhich  Catharine  still  persisted  in 
mfuntainingher  claims.  She  died  in  Jan- 
uary, 1536.  Shortly  before  her  death, 
slie  wrote  a  letter  to  the  king,  recom- 
mending their  daughter  (afterwards  queen 
Mary)  to  his  j)rotoction,  praying  for  the 
salvation  of  his  soul,  and  assuring  him  of 
bi-r  forgiveness  and  unabated  affection. 
Tiie  pathos  of  this  epistle  is  said  to  have 
di'awu  tears  from  Henry,  ^vho  was  never 
backward  in  acknowledging  the  virtues 
of  his  injured  wife,  mIio  certainly  acted 
with  eminent  dignity  and  consistency. 
Several  devotional  treatises  have  been 
attributed  to  Catharine,  which  belong  to 
queen  Catharine  Parr. 

Catharijse  he  Medici  ;  wife  of  Henry 
II,  king  of  France ;  born  at  Florence  in 
1519 ;  the  only  daughter  of  Lorenzo  do 
Medici,  duke  of  Urbino,  and  the  niece  of 
pope  Clement  VII.  Francis  I  consented 
that  his  son  Henry  should  marry  her,  only 


because  he  did  not  believe  she  ever  would 
ascend  the  throne,  and  because  he  was  in 
great  waiu  of  money,  which  Lorenzo 
could  furnish  hin).  The  marriage  was 
celebrated  at  Mai-seilles  in  1533.  Catha- 
rine was  equally  gifted  with  beauty  and 
talents,  and  had  cultivated  lier  taste  for 
the  fine  arts  in  Florence ;  but,  at  the  same 
time,  imbibed  the  perverted  principles  of 
politics  then  prevaihng  in  Italy,  which 
justified  a  constant  resort  to  cabal,  in- 
trigues and  treachery,  and  are  paitic- 
ularly  unsuited  to  tlie  government  of 
large  empires.  Catharine's  ambition  was. 
unbounded.  She  sacrificed  France  and 
her  children  to  the  passion  for  ruling;  but 
she  never  aimed  steadily  at  one  gi'eat  end, 
and  had  no  profound  views  of  policy. 
The  situation  in  which  she  was  placed, 
on  her  amval  at  the  French  court,  gave 
her  great  opjiortunity  to  perfect  herself  in 
the  art  of  dissimulation.  She  flattered 
alike  the  ducliess  d'Etampes,  the  mistress 
of  the  king,  and  Diana  de  Poitiers,  the 
mistress  of  her  own  husband,  though  these 
two  ladies  hated  each  otlier.  From  her 
sipparent  indifiercnce,  she  might  have 
been  supposed  inchiiedto  shun  the  tumult 
of  public  affaii-s;  but,  when  the  death  of 
Henry  II,  in  1559,  made  her  mistress  of 
herself,  she  plunged  her  children  in  a 
whirl  of  pleasures,  partly  to  enenaie  them 
by  dissipation,  partly  from  a  natural  incli- 
nation towards  prodigality;  and,  in  the 
midst  of  these  extravagances,  cruel  and 
bloody  measures  were  executed,  the  mem- 
ory of  which  still  makes  men  shudder. 
Her  authority  was  limited  under  the 
reign  of  Francis  II,  her  eldest  son,  silice 
this  prince,  by  his  marriage  with  the  un- 
fortunate IVIary  Stuart,  was  entirely  devot- 
ed to  the  })arty  of  the  Guises.  Jealous 
of  a  power  she  did  not  exercise,  Catharine 
then  decided  to  favor  the  Protestantis.  If 
it  had  not  been  for  her  patronage,  by 
wliich  the  ambition  of  the  chiefs  of  the 
Hugnenots  was  stimulated,  the  conflicting 
rehgious  opinions  in  France  never  would 
have  caused  such  lasting  civil  wars.  Cath- 
arine felt  herself  embarrassed,  by  this  in- 
dulgence towards  the  iimovatoi-s,  when 
the  death  of  Francis  II  placed  the  reins 
of  government,  during  the  minority  of 
Charles  IX,  in  her  hands.  Wavering 
between  the  Guises  on  one  side,  who  had 
put  themselves  at  the  head  of  the  Catho- 
lics, and  Conde  and  Coligny  on  the  other, 
who  had  become  very  powerful  by  the  aid 
of  the  Protestants,  she  was  constantly 
obliged  to  resort  to  intrigues,  which  failed 
to  procure  her  as  much  power  as  she 
might  easily  liave  gained  by  openness  of 


534 


CATHARINE  DE  MEDICI— CATHARINE  I. 


conduct  Despised  by  all  parties,  but 
consoled  if  she  could  deceive  them ;  taking 
arms  only  to  treat,  and  never  treating 
without  preparing  the  materials  for  a  new 
civil  war,  she  brought  Charles  IX,  when 
lie  became  of  age,  into  a  situation  in 
which  he  must  either  make  the  royal  au- 
thority subordinate  to  a  powerful  party, 
or  cause  part  of  his  subjects  to  be  massa- 
cred, in  the  hope,  at  best  a  doubtful  one, 
of  subduing  faction.  The  massacre  of 
St.  Bartholomew  (see  Bartholomeiv,  mas- 
sacre of)  was  her  work.  She  induced 
the  king  to  practise  a  dissimulation  foreign 
to  his  character;  and,  as  often  as  he 
evinced  a  disposition  to  free  himself  from 
a  dependence  of  which  he  was  ashamed, 
she  knew  how  to  prevent  him,  by  the  fear 
and  jealousy  which  she  excited  in  him 
by  favoring  his  brother  Henry.  After  the 
death  of  Charles  IX,  Catharine  became 
again  regent  of  tiie  kingdom,  till  the  re- 
turn of  Henry  III,  then  king  of  Poland. 
She  contributed  to  the  many  misfortunes 
of  his  reign,  by  the  measures  which  she 
had  adopted  previously  to  its  commence- 
ment, and  by  the  intrigues  in  which  she 
was  uninterruptedly  engaged.  At  her 
death,  in  1589,  France  was  in  a  state  of 
complete  dismemberment.  The  religious 
contests  were,  in  reality,  veiy  indifferent 
to  her.  Tlie  consequences  she  was  not 
able  to  conceive.  She  was  ready  to  risk 
life  for  the  gratification  of  her  ambition. 
She  was  equally  artful  in  uniting  her 
adherents,  and  in  promoting  dissension 
among  her  adversaries.  She  was  extrav- 
agant to  folly,  and  was  unable  to  limit  her 
expenses.  To  those  who  directed  her 
attention  to  the  prodigal  expenditure  of 
the pul)lic treasure,  she  used  to  say, "One 
must  live."  Her  example  contributed 
gi-eatly  to  promote  the  coiTuption  of  mor- 
als wliich  prevailed  in  her  time.  Her 
manners,  however,  were  elegant,  and  she 
took  a  lively  interest  in  the  sciences  and 
arts.  She  caused  valuable  manuscripts 
to  be  brought  from  Greece  and  Italy,  and 
the  Tiiileries  and  the  Hotel  de  Soissous 
to  be  built.  In  the  provinces,  also,  several 
castles  were  erected  by  her  order,  distin- 
guished for  the  beauty  of  their  architect- 
ure, in  an  age  when  the  principles  of  the 
art  were  still  unknown  in  France.  She 
had  two  daughters,  Elizabeth,  married  to 
Philip  11  of  S|)ain  in  1559,  and  Margaretta 
(q.v.)  of  Valois,  married  to  Hemy  of  Na- 
varre, afterwards  Henry  IV. 

Catharine  of  Braganza,  wife  of 
Charles  II,  king  of  England,  and  daugh- 
ter of  John  IV,  king  of  Portugal,  was 
born  in  1G38.      In   16G1,  siie    married 


Charles  II,  in  whose  court  she  long  en* 
dured  all  the  neglect  and  mortification 
his  dissolute  conduct  was  calculated  to 
inflict  upon  her.  This  endurance  was 
also  rendered  greater  by  her  proving  im- 
fruitful ;  but  "slie  supported  herself  with 
great  equanimity,  and,  after  the  death  of 
Charles,  received  much  attention  and  re- 
spect. In  1693,  she  returned  to  Portugal, 
where,  in  1704,  she  was  made  regent  by 
her  brotlier,  don  Pedro,  whose  increasing 
infirmities  rendered  retirement  necessary. 
In  this  situation,  Cathai'ine  shoAved  con- 
siderable abilities,  carrying  on  the  war 
against  Spain  with  great  firmness  and 
success.     She  died  in  1705,  aged  67. 

Catharine  I,  empress  of  Russia.  The 
early  history  of  this  remarkable  woman  is 
uncertain.  According  to  some  accounts, 
she  was  the  daughter  of  a  CathoUc  peas- 
ant in  Lithuania,  by  name  Samud,  for  he 
had  (as  is  frequently  the  case  there)  no 
fjunily  name.  It  is  said  that  she  was  born 
in  1G86,  named  Martha,  and  placed,  by 
her  poor  parents,  in  the  service  of  a  Lu- 
theran clergyman,  named  Daiit,  at  Roop, 
in  the  circle  of  Riga,  where  she  imbibed 
the  principles  of  the  Protestant  religion. 
She  then  removed  to  Marienburg,  a  small 
village  in  the  circle  of  Wenden,  and  enter- 
ed the  service  of  a  clergyman  named  Gliick, 
who  caused  her  to  be  instructed  in  the  Lu- 
theran religion.  Here  she  was  married 
to  a  Swedish  dragoon.  But,  a  few  day3 
after,  he  was  obliged  to  repair  to  the  field, 
and  the  Russians,  within  a  short  jjcriod, 
took  Marienburg,  in  1702,  Martha  fell 
into  the  hands  of  general  Scheremetjeff", 
who  relinquished  her  to  prince  Menzikoffi 
While  in  his  possession,  she  was  seen  by 
Peter  the  Great,  who  made  her  his  mis- 
tress. She  became  a  proselyte  to  the 
Greek  <jhurch,  and  assumed  tlie  name  of 
Catharine  Alexieiona.  In  1708  and  1709, 
she  bore  the  emperor  the  princesses  Anna 
and  Elizabeth,  the  first  of  whom  became 
,the  duchess  of  Holstein  by  maniage,  and 
mother  of  Peter  III.  The  second  became 
empress  of  Russia.  In  1713,  the  empe-. 
ror  publicly  acknowledged  her  his  wife- 
She  was  subsequently  proclaimed  empress, 
and  crowned  in  Moscow.  Besides  the 
daughters  above-named,  she  bore  the  em-i 
peror  five  more  children,  all  of  whom  died 
early.  The  princesses  Anna  and  Ehza- 
beth  were  declared  legitimate.  By  her 
kindness,  by  her  pei"severance,  and,  above 
all,  by  her  intelligence,  she  gained  posses-- 
sion  of  the  heart  of  the  emperor.  When 
Peter,  with  his  army,  seemed  irreparably 
lost  on  tlie  Pruth,  in  1711,  Catharine,  in 
connexion  witb  Ostermann  and  Schafii- 


CATHARINE  I— CATHARINE  II. 


585 


rofF,  endeavored  to  win  over  the  grand 
vizier;  and,  having  succeeded,  by  bribing 
his  confidant  with  her  jewels,  she  dis- 
closed her  plan  to  the  emperor,  who  gave 
it  his  approbation,  and  was  soon  relieved. 
She  afterwards  received  many  proofs  of 
the  gratitude  of  her  husband.  (Her  coro- 
nation, as  em])ress,  in  Moscoav,  which 
sojne  place  in  1718,  took  place,  according 
to  Weber  and  Bergholz,  in  1724.)  Peter 
even  deemed  her  worthy  of  being  his 
successor.  But,  in  the  latter  part  of  1724, 
she  fell  under  his  displeasure.  Her  cham- 
berlain Mons,  with  whom  Peter  had  found 
her  tite  a  tete,  was  beheaded,  on  pretence 
that  he  had  been  bribed  by  the  enemies 
of  Russia;  and  she  was  obhged  to  view 
tlie  head  of  3Ions  nailed  to  a  gibbet. 
This,  however,  is  only  an  anecdote,  and 
the  affair  of  Mons  remains  a  mystery. 
Menzikoff,  who  had  always  manifested 
much  attachment  to  her,  had  now  been 
in  disgrace  for  some  time,  and  Peter  had 
very  frequent  attacks  of  bodily  pain, 
which  were  interrupted  by  dreadful  ex- 
plosions of  rage.  These  circumstances 
made  Catharine's  situation  critical,  and 
her  anticipations  of  the  future  must  have 
been  the  more  melancholy,  as  the  empe- 
ror had  uttered  some  threats  of  a  change 
in  the  succession  to  her  disadvantage. 
To  prevent  such  an  event,  she  applied  to 
Menzikoft';  and,  by  the  prudence  of  Ja- 
guschinski,  who  then  enjoyed  the  favor 
of  Peter,  and  whom  she  gained  over,  a 
reconciliation  was  effected  with  the  em- 
peror. The  empress  and  the  favorite 
were  laboring  to  confirm  their  improving 
prospects,  when  Peter  the  Great  died, 
Jan.  28,  1725.  Catharine,  Menzikoff  and 
Jaguschinski  considered  it  necessary  to 
keep  the  death  of  the  emperor  secret, 
until,  by  judicious  arrangements,  they  had 
secured  the  succession  of  the  throne  to 
the  empress.  Theophanes,  archbishop  of 
Plescow,  swore  before  the  jieople  and 
troops,  that  Peter,  on  his  death-bed,  had 
declared  Catharme  alone  worthy  to  suc- 
ceed him  in  tlie  government.  She  was 
then  proclaimed  empress  and  autocrat  of 
all  the  Russias,  and  the  oath  of  allegiance  to 
her  was  taken  anew.  At  first,  tlie  cabinet 
])ui-sued  the  plaus  of  Peter,  and,  under 
Meuzikoff's  management,  the  administra- 
tion was  conducted  with  considerable 
ability.  But  the  peniicious  influence  of 
favorites  was  soon  felt,  and  great  errors 
crept  into  the  administration.  Catharine 
died  suddenly,  on  the  17th  of  May,  1727, 
in  the  42d  year  of  her  age.  Her  death 
was  probably  hastened  by  excess  in  the 
use  of  Tokay  wine  and  ardent  spirits. 


Catharine  II,  empress  of  Russia,  a 
woman  of  remarkable  ability,  was  born 
at  Stettin,  April  25, 1729,  where  her 'father. 
Christian  Augustus,  prince  of  Anhalt- 
Zerl)sr,  and  Prussian  field-marshal,  was 
governor.  Her  name  was  originally  Sophia 
Augusta.  The  emj^rcss  Elizabeth,  at  the 
instigation  of  Frederic  II,  chose  her  for  the 
wife  of  Peter,  her  nephew,  whom  she  ap- 
pointed her  successor.  The  young  prin- 
cess accompanied  her  mother  to  Russia, 
where  she  joined  the  Greek  church, 
and  adoj)ted  the  name  of  Catharine  Alex- 
iewna,  given  to  her  by  the  empress.  The 
marriage  was  celebrated  Sept.  1,1745.  It 
was  not  a  happy  one,  but  Catharine  found 
recreation  in  the  improvement  of  her 
mind.  She  was  endowed  with  uncommon 
strength  of  character ;  but  the  ardor  of  her 
temperament,  and  the  ill-treatment  of  her 
husband,  led  her  into  errors  Avhich  had 
the  most  iujurious  influence  on  her  whole 
political  life.  Amongst  the  fiiends  of  her 
husband,  coimt  Soltikoff  was  distinguish- 
ed for  talent  and  the  gi-acesof  his  person. 
He  attracted  the  attention  of  Catharine, 
and  an  intimate  connexion  between  them 
was  the  consequence.  When  Soltikoff, 
who  was  employed  in  foreign  embassies, 
grew  indifferent  to  Catharine,  a  young 
Pole,  Stanislaus  Augustus  Poniatowski, 
celebrated  both  for  his  good  and  ill  for- 
tune, gained  the  affections  of  the  grand 
princess.  Their  intimacy  was  known  to 
tlie  empress,  but  did  not  appear  to  dis- 
please her ;  and  it  was  at  her  recommen- 
dation that  Augustus  III  appointed  Po- 
niatowski his  ambassador  at  the  court  of 
St.  Petersburg.  This  connexion  created 
alarm  at  Paris.  France,  at  tliat  time  at 
war  with  England,  had  formed  a  secret 
treaty  with  Austria,  and  drawn  Russia 
into  the  same.  Poniatowski  was  known 
to  be  a  warm  adherent  of  England,  and  it 
was  feai'ed  that,  through  his  influence  on 
the  princess,  he  might  prejudice  Elizabeth 
against  France  ;  and  Louis  XV  endeavor- 
ed to  induce  the  king  of  Poland  to  recall 
him.  In  the  year  1761,  Elizabeth  died, 
and  Peter  III  ascended  the  throne.  The 
emperor  now  becmne  still  more  alienated 
from  his  wife.  Peter  hved  in  the  great- 
est dissipation,  and  on  such  intimate  terms 
with  a  lady  of  the  court,  named  Elizabeth 
Woronzoff,  that  it  was  generally  thought 
that  he  would  repudiate  Catharine,  and 
marry-  his  mistress.  The  empress,  there- 
fore, was  obliged  to  take  measures  for 
her  personal  security.  At  the  game  time, 
Peter  grew  continually  more  and  more 
unpopular  witli  his  subjects,  owing  to  his 
blind  predilection  for  the  Prussian  militai-y 


BW 


CATHARINE  II. 


discipline,  his  politics,  and  the  faults  of  his 
character.    Tliis  led  to  a  conspiracy,  at 
the  head  of  which   were   the    hetman 
count  Rasiimowski,  count  Panin,  the  en- 
terprising princess  DaschkofF,  and  a  young 
officer  of  the    guards,    Gregory    OrloftJ 
who,  since  Poniatowski's  departure,  had 
taken  his  place  in  Catharine's  affections. 
All  those  who  were  dissatisfied,  or  who 
expected  to  gain  by  a  change,  joined 
tills  conspiracy.     Panin  and  the  gi*eater 
part  of  the  conspirators  were  actuated 
only  by  the  desire  to  place  the  minor 
prince,  Paul,  on  the  throne,  under  the 
guardianshif)  of  the  empress,  and  a  coun- 
cil of  the  empire.     But  this  plan  was 
changed  through  the  influence  of  the  Or- 
loffs.    The  guards  were  the  first  to  swear 
allegiance  to  the  empress,  on  her  present- 
ing herself  to  them-  at  Peterhoff",  on  the 
morning  of  July   9,   1762;  and   Alexei 
Orloff  prevailed  on  Teplow,  who  was 
afi;erwards  appointed  senator,  to  read,  at 
the  Kazan  church,  instead  of  the  proc- 
lamation of  the  conspirators  in  favor  of 
the  young  prince,  one  announcing  the  ele- 
vation of  Catharine  to  the  throne.     Peter 
died,  a  few  days  aft;er,  in  prison.    The 
accusation  against  Catharine,  of  having 
contributed  to  hasten  this  event,  is  with- 
out foundation.     The  young,  ambitious 
princess,  neglected  by  her  husband,  whom 
she  ilid  not  respect,  remained  passive  on 
tlie  occasion,  yielded  to  circumstances, 
which  were,  it  is  true,  propitious  to  her, 
and  consoled  herself  for  an  event  which 
she  could  not  remedy.     She  knew  how 
to  gain  the  aftections  of  the  people  by 
flattering  their  vanity;  showed  great  re- 
spect for  their  religion ;  caused  herself  to 
be  crowned  at  Moscow  with  great  pomp ; 
devoted  herself  to  the  promotion  of  agri- 
culture and  commerce,  and  the  creation 
of  a  naval  force ;  improved  the  laws,  and 
showed  the  greatest  activity  in  the  admin- 
istration of  the  internal  as  well  as  the  ex- 
ternal affairs  of  Russia.    A  year  after  her 
ascension  to  the  throne,  she  forced  the 
Courlanders  to  displace  their  new  duke, 
Charles  of  Saxony,  and  to  recall  Biren, 
who  was  extremely  odious  to  the  nobles. 
After  the  death  of  Augustus  III,  king  of 
Poland,  she  was  the  means  of  Stanislaus 
Poniatowski's  being  crowned  at  Warsaw. 
But,  whilst  she  was  forcing  this  king  on 
the  Poles,  the  number  of  die  malcontents 
in  her  own  empire  increased,  and  several 
attempts  against  her  hfe  were  made  at 
St  Petersburg  and  Moscow.    The  young 
Ivan  (q.  v.)  was  the  person  to  whom  the 
hopes  of  the  conspirators  were  directed ; 
but  his  sudden  death,  at  the  fortress  of 


Schliisselburg,  overthrew  the  plans  of  the 
disaffected.  After  this,  the  court  of  the 
empress  was  only  disturbed,  from  time  to 
time,  by  intrigues,  in  which  gallantry  and 
politics  went  hand  in  hand,  and  which 
had  no  other  object  tlian  to  replace  one 
favorite  by  another.  In  the  midst  of 
pleasure  and  dissipation,  Catharine  did 
not  neglect  the  improvement  of  the  laws. 
Deputies  from  all  tlie  provinces  met  at 
Moscow.  The  empress  had  herself  pre- 
pared instructions  for  their  conduct,  which 
were  read  at  the  first  session  ;  but  it  was 
impossible  for  so  many  different  nations 
to  understand  each  other,  or  to  be  subject 
to  the  same  laws.  In  the  first  sessions, 
the  emancipation  of  the  peasants  was 
proposed.  This  alone  would  have  been 
sufficient  to  cause  a  bloody  revolution. 
Catharine,  who  presided  at  the  debates, 
and  received  from  the  assembly  the  title 
of  mother  of  the  country,  soon  dismissed 
the  discordant  legislators.  About  this 
time,  France  formed  a  jiarty  in  Poland 
against  Russia ;  but  these  attempts  only 
served  to  accelerate  Catharine's  plans. 
The  war  to  which  the  Porte  was  instigated 
had  the  same  result.  The  Turks  were 
beaten.  The  Russian  flag  was  victorious 
on  tlie  Greek  seas ;  and  on  the  banks  of  the 
Neva,  tlie  plan  was  formed  of  reestablish- 
ing the  republics  of  Sparta  and  Athens,  as 
a  check  to  the  Ottoman  power.     The  ad-  ^ 

vancement  of  Austrian  troops  into  Poland  7 

inspired  Catharine  with  the  desire  to 
aggi-andize  herself  in  this  quarter.  She 
therefore  entered  into  ^un  agreement  for 
the  division  of  the  country  with  tiie  courts 
of  Berlin  and  Vienna  in  1772,  by  which 
the  governments  of  Polotzk  and  Mohilow 
fell  to  her  share,  and  she  ensured  to  her- 
self exclusive  influence  in  Poland,  by  un- 
dertaking to  guaranty  the  Polish  constitu- 
tion. At  the  same  time,  she  abandoned 
all  her  conquests,  with  the  exception  of 
Azoph,  Taganrog  and  Kinburn,  in  the 
peace  with  the  Porte,  concluded  at  Kain- 
ardscbi  in  1774,  but  secured  to  herself  the 
free  navigation  of  the  Black  sea,  and  stip- 
ulated for  the  independence  of  the  Cri- 
mea. By  this  apparent  independence,  the 
Crimea  became,  in  fact,  dependent  on 
Catharine.  This  peace  was  as  opportune 
as  it  was  advantageous  to  Russia ;  for,  in 
the  third  year  of  the  war,  Moscow  and 
several  other  cities  were  desolated  by  the 
plague ;  and,  about  the  same  time,  an  ad- 
venturer, named  Pvgatscheff,  assuming 
the  name  of  Peter  III,  had  excited  a  revolt 
in  several  provinces  of  Eastern  Russia. 
At  this  time,  Potemkin  exercised  an  un- 
limited influence  on  the  empress.     In 


CATH.\RINE  11. 


587 


1784,  he  succeeded  in  conquering  the 
Crimea,  to  Avhich  he  gave  its  ancient 
name  of  Taurts,  and  extended  the  con- 
iines  of  Russia  to  the  Caucasus.  Catha- 
rine, upon  tliis,  traversed  tiie  provinces 
wliich  had  revolted  under  Pugatscheff, 
and  navigated  the  Woiga  and  liorysthe- 
iies,  taking  greater  interest  in  the  expedi- 
tion, as  it  was  connected  with  some  dan- 
ger. She  was  desirous,  hkewise,  of  see- 
ing Tauris.  Potcmkin  turned  this  jour- 
ney, wliich  took  place  in  1787,  into  a 
triumphal  march.  Throughout  a  dis- 
tance of  nearly  1000  leagues,  nothing  but 
feasts  and  spectacles  of  various  kinds 
wore  to  be  seen.  Palaces  were  raised  on 
barren  heaths,  to  be  inhabited  for  a  day. 
Villages  and  towns  were  built  in  the  wil- 
dernesses, where,  a  short  time  before,  the 
Tartars  had  fed  their  herds.  An  inmiense 
population  appeared  at  everj'  step — the 
picture  of  affluence  and  prosperity.  A 
hundred  ditferent  nations  paid  homage  to 
their  sovereign.  Catharine  saw,  at  a  dis- 
tance, towns  and  villages,  of  which  only 
the  out\vard  walls  existed.  She  was  sur- 
rounded by  a  multitude  of  i»eople,  who 
were  conveyed  on  during  tlie  night,  to 
afford  her  the  same  sjjectacle  the  tbllow- 
ing  day.  Two  sovereigns  visited  her  on 
Jier  journey — the  king  of  Poland,  Stanis- 
laus Augustus,  and  the  emperor  Joseph  II. 
The  latter  renewed  his  promise,  given  at 
St.  Petersburg,  to  assist  her  in  her  projects 
against  the  Turks.  About  this  time,  Prus- 
sia and  England  combined  to  instigate  the 
Porte  and  Sweden  to  take  up  arms  against 
Russia.  The  Turks  were  no  more  tbrtu- 
nate  this  time  tlian  before ;  and  perhaps 
they  would  have  been  driven  entirely  out  of 
Europe,  had  not  Catharine  been  restrain- 
ed by  the  interference  of  other  states. 
(See  Reichenbach  Congress,  1790.)  Peace 
was  concluded  at  Jassy  in  1792.  Catha- 
rine kept  Oczakow,  and  all  the  country 
between  the  Bug  and  the  Dniester.  AV^hilst 
Russia  was  occupied  with  the  Turks, 
Gustavus  III  had  commenced  hostilities, 
and,  at  one  time,  threatened  St.  Peters- 
burg. After  a  war  of  two  yeai-s,  peace 
was  concluded  at  Werela,  in  1790,  leaving 
the  possessions  of  both  countries  as  they 
were  before  the  commencement  of  hos- 
tilities. Thus  all  the  wars  undertaken 
against  Russia  had  only  tended  to  aug- 
ment her  political  preponderance.  Cath- 
arine's influence  on  Poland  was  equal  to 
absolute  dominion.  When  the  republic, 
in  1791,  wished  to  change  its  constitution, 
she  took  part  with  the  opponents  of  the 
plan,  gained  the  concurrence  of  Prussia, 
garrisoned  Poland  with  her  troops,  and 


concluded  a  new  treaty  of  partition  with 
the  cabinet  of  Berhn  in  1792.  fSee  Po- 
land.) The  insurrection,  which  broke  out 
in  Poland  in  1794,  could  not  save  this  un- 
happy country,  which,  after  the  storming 
of  Praga,  and  the  devastation  of  several  of 
its  provinces,  was,  at  last,  in  1795,  entirely 
divided.  Courland,  too,  was  united  with 
the  Russian  empire.  A  pension  was  given 
to  the  last  duke  of  Courland,  and  the  last 
king  of  Poland  spent  his  pension  at  St. 
Petersburg.  During  these  occurrences, 
Catharine  could  not  take  part  in  the  war 
against  France.  She,  how^ever,  broke  off" 
all  connexion  with  the  French  republic, 
actively  assisted  the  emigrants,  and  enter- 
ed into  an  alliance  with  England  against 
France.  She  likewise  made  wai*  against 
Persia,  and,  as  some  historians  assure  us, 
entertained  the  project  of  destroyhig  the 
power  of  the  English  in  Bengal,  when  a 
fit  of  apoplexy  put  an  end  to  her  life,  Nov. 
9,  1796. — Catharine  II  has  been  equally 
censured  and  praised.  With  all  the 
weakness  of  her  sex,  and  w^ith  a  love  of 
pleasure  carried  to  hcentiousness,  she 
combined  the  firmness  and  talent  of  & 
])owerful  sovereign.  Two  passions  were 
predominant  with  her  until  her  death, 
love  and  ambition.  She  was  never  with- 
out her  favorite,  who,  by  the  manner  in 
which  she  distinguished  him,  and  by  the 
valuable  presents  she  gave  him,  was  pul)- 
licly  designated  as  such.  She  never,  how- 
ever, lost  sight  of  lier  dignity.  She  was 
distinguished  for  activity,  working  with 
her  minir?ters,  writing  a  philosophical  let- 
ter to  Voltaire,  and  signing  an  order  to 
attack  the  Turks,  or  to  occupy  Poland,  in 
the  same  breath.  She  favored  distinguish- 
ed authors,  and  was  particularly  partial  to 
the  French.  At  Paris,  she  had  a  literaiy 
agent  (baron  Grimm).  She  several  times 
invited  Voltaire  to  her  court,  proposed  to 
D'Alembert  to  finish  the  Encyclopedia  at 
St.  Petersburg,  and  to  undertake  the  edu- 
cation of  tlie  grand-duke.  Diderot  visited 
her  at  her  request,  and  she  often  allowed 
him  the  privilege  of  famihar  conversation 
with  her.  By  these  means,  she  gained  the 
favor  of  the  hterati  of  Europe,  who  called 
her  the  greatest  of  rulers;  and,  in  fact, 
she  was  not  Avithout  claims  to  this  title. 
She  protected  commerce,  improved  the 
laws,  dug  canals,  founded  towns,  hospi- 
tals and  colleges.  Pallas  and  others  trav- 
elled at  her  expense.  She  endeavored  to 
put  a  stop  to  the  abuses  wliich  had  crept 
into  the  administration  of  the  different  de- 
partments of  government ;  but  she  began 
without  being  able  to  finish.  Civilization 
advanced   but  slowly  in  Russia  under 


588 


CATHARINE  II— CATHARINE  PAWLOWNA. 


her  reign ;  and  her  anxiety  to  enlighten 
her  subjects  ceased  when  she  began  to 
entertain  the  idea  that  tlie  French  rev- 
olution had  been  brought  about  by  the 
progress  of  civilization.  Laws,  colonies, 
schools,  manufactures,  hospitals,  canals, 
towns,  fortifications,  every  thing  was  com- 
menced, but  frequently  left  unfinished  for 
want  of  means.  She  issued  no  paper 
money.  Several  letters,  and  other  corn- 
positions  by  her,  in  the  French  and  Rus- 
sian languages,  have  been  published.  A 
statue  of  Catharine,  of  white  marble,  in  a 
sitting  posture,  was  executed  by  professor 
Gothe,  at  Stockholm,  in  1825.  The  man- 
ners of  the  Russian  court,  in  her  time,  are 
set  forth  in  the  diary  of  Krapomisky  (St. 
Petersburg,  1826).  Krapomisky  was  her 
private  secretary  for  10  years.  Among 
several  histories  of  her  life  are  Tooke's 
Life  of  Cathai'ine  II  (3  vols.),  and  eas- 
tern's Hisloirt  de  Calharine  II  (3  vols.). 

Catharine  Parr,  sixth  and  last  wife 
of  Henry  VIII,  was  the  eldest  daughter 
of  sir  Thomas  Parr  of  Kendal,  and  was, 
at  an  early  age,  distinguished  for  her 
learning  and  good  sense.  She  was  first 
married  to  Edward  Burghe,  and  secondly 
to  John  Neville,  lord  Latimer,  and,  after 
his  death,  attracted  the  notice  of  Henry 
VIII,  whose  queen  she  became  in  1543. 
Her  zealous  encouragement  of  the  reform- 
ed rehgion  excited  the  .anger  and  jealousy 
of  Gardiner,  bishop  of  Winchester,  the 
chancellor  AVriothesley,  and  others  of  the 
Catholic  faction,  who  conspired  to  ruin  her 
with  the  king.  Taking  advantage  of  one 
of  his  moments  of  irritation,  they  accused 
her  of  heresy  and  treason,  and  prevailed 
upon  the  king  to  sign  a  warrant  for  her 
committal  to  the  Tower.  This  being  ac- 
cidentally discovered  to  her,  she  repaired 
to  the  king,  who  purposely  turned  the 
conversation  to  rehgious  subjects,  and  be- 
gan to  sound  her  op'inions.  Aware  of  his 
purpose,  she  humbly  replied,  "that  on 
such  topics  she  always,  as  became  her 
sex  and  station,  referred  herself  to  the 
wisdom  of  his  majesty,  as  he,  under  God, 
was  her  only  supreme  head  and  governor 
liere  on  earth."  "Not  so,  by  St.  Mary, 
Kate,"  replied  Henry ;  "  you  are,  as  we 
take  it,  become  a  doctor,  to  instruct,  and 
not  to  be  instructed  by  us."  Catharine 
judiciously  replied,  that  she  only  objected 
in  order  to  be  benefited  by  his  superior 
learning  and  knowledge.  "  Is  it  so,  sweet- 
heart ?"  said  the  king ;  "  and  tended  your 
arguments  to  no  worse  end  ?  Then  are 
we  perfect  friends  again."  After  the 
death  of  the  king,  she  espoused  the  lord 
admiral  sir  Thomas  Seymour,  uncle  to 


Edward  VI  ;  but  this  connexion  proved 
unhappy,  and  involved  her  in  troubles 
and  difficulties.  She  died  in  child-bed  in 
1548,  not  Avithout  suspicion  of  poison. 
She  was  a  zealous  promoter  of  the  relbr- 
mation.  Among  her  papers,  after  her 
death,  was  found  a  composition,  entitled 
Qiteen  Catharine  Parr^s  Lamentaiions  of 
a  Sinner^  bewailing  the  Ignorance  of  her 
hlind  lAfe ;  a  contrite  meditation  on  the 
yeai-s  she  had  passed  in  Catholic  fasts  and 
])ilgrimages.  It  was  published,  wirfi  a 
j)reface,  by  the  great  lord  Burleigh,  in 
1.548.  In  her  lifetime,  slie  published  a  vol- 
ume of  "Prayers  or  IMeditations,  wherein 
the  Mind  is  stirred  patiently  to  suffer  all 
Afflictions  here,  and  to  set  at  nought  the 
vaine  Prosperitie  of  this  Worlde,  and  also 
to  long  for  the  everlasting  Felicitee."  Ma- 
ny of  her  lettere  have  also  been  printed. 

Catharine  Pawlowxa,  queen  of 
Wiirtemburg,  gituid-princess  of  Russia; 
born  May  21,  1788;  younger  sister  of  the 
emperor  Alexander,  and  widow  of  George, 
prince  of  Holstein-Oldenburg,  whom  slie 
married  in  1809,  and  thus  got  rid  of  a 
proposal  of  marriage  made  her  by  Napo- 
leon. George  died  in  Russia,  December, 
1812.  Her  two  sons,  by  this  maniage, 
born  in  1810  and  1812,  are  still  living. 
She  was  distinguished  ahke  for  beauty, 
talents  and  resolution,  and  exhibited  tlie 
tenderest  affection  for  her  brother  Alex- 
ander. After  1812,  she  was  fi-equently 
his  companion  in  the  campaigns  in  Ger- 
many and  France,  as  well  as  during  his 
residence  at  London  and  Vienna,  and 
evidently  had  an  important  influence  on 
several  of  his  measures.  It  is  said  that 
she  effected,  in  1814,  the  marriage  of  the 
j)rince  of  Orange  with  her  younger  sister. 
In  1813,  William,  croAATi-prince  of  Wiirt- 
emburg, in  Germany,  formed  an  acquain- 
tance witli  her,  and,  in  1814,  saw  her  again 
in  Paris.  They  were  married  Jan.  24, 1 8 1 6, 
at  Petersburg ;  and,  after  the  death  of  his 
father,  ui  October,  1816,  he  ascended 
with  lier  the  throne  of  Wiirtemburg. — 
She  was  a  generous  benefactor  to  her 
subjects  in  the  famine  of  1816.  She 
formed  the  female  associations  existing 
throughout  the  country,  and  established 
an  agricultural  societj'.  She  labored  to 
promote  the  education  of  her  people,  and 
founded  valuable  institutions  for  the  poor 
(paiticularly  a  school  for  educating  and 
employing  poor  children),  a  school  for 
the  females  of  the  higher  classes,  and 
savings  banks  for  the  lower  classes,  after 
the  example  of  the  EngUsh  savings  banks. 
Indeed,  she  interfered,  often  arbitrarily, 
in  the  internal  economy  of  the  state,  and 


CATHARINE  PAWLOWNA— CATHOLIC  EMANCIPATION.       589 


chiefly  imitated  the  institutions  of  Eng- 
land. For  the  fine  arts  she  had  but  little 
taste.  She  died  Jan.  9, 1819,  leaving  two 
daughters. 

Cat-Harpings  ;  small  ropes  ui  a  ship, 
running  in  little  blocks,  from  one  side  of 
the  shrouds  to  the  other,  near  the  deck. 
Their  use  is  to  force  the  main  shrouds 
tight,  for  the  ease  and  safety  of  the  masts 
when  the  ship  rolls. 

Cathedral  ;  tlie  Episcopal  church  of 
a  diocese.  The  word  is  derived  from  the 
Greek  KaOiSpa,  a  seat  or  bench.  From  the 
early  times  of  the  Christian  church,  the 
bishop  presided  in  the  presbytery,  or  the 
assembly  of  priests.  He  was  seated  on  a 
chairi  a  little  higher  than  that  of  the 
others.  The  whole  meeting  of  priests 
was  called  catJiedra ;  and,  at  a  later  pe- 
riod, when  Cliristians  were  allowed  to 
build  churches,  this  name  was  applied  to 
the  Episcopal  churches,  and  the  name 
basilica  to  the  particular  cluu-ches  erected 
in  honor  of  a  saint  or  a  martyi-.  In  the 
middle  ages,  the  cathedral  received  the 
form  of  tlie  cross.  Several  of  the  old 
churches  are  masterpieces  of  Gothic  ar- 
chitecture. Among  these  are  the  cathe- 
dral at  Oviedo,  that  at  Milan  [see  Storia  e 
Descrizione  del  Duonio  di  Milano  (com- 
menced in  1387,  and  not  yet  fiiiislied),  by 
Gaet.  Franchetti,  with  engravings,  Milan, 
1821,  4to.]  ;  those  at  Toledo  and  liurgos ; 
those  at  Rouen,  Rheims,  Amiens,  and  the 
church  of  Notre-Dame,  in  Paris  (see  Ca- 
tkedrales  Francaises,  dessinees,  lithogr.  et 
publ.  par  Chapuy,  avec  un  Atlas  historique 
et  descriptif,  par  JoUnvont,  36  numbers, 
Paris,  1823  et  seq.  It  contains  views  of 
25  cathedrals).  Those  at  Lund,  Dron- 
theim,  Upsal,  at  York,  Salisbury  and 
Ciuiterbury,  also  Westminster  aljbey,  are 
celebrated  (see  J.  Britton's  Hist,  aiid  An- 
tiquities of  the  Metropolitan  Church  of 
Canterbury,  London,  1823,  with  engrav- 
ings ;  and  Cathedratical  Antiquities,  l)y  tlie 
same  author).  The  cathedrals  at  Oppen- 
heim,  Uhn,  Marburg,  Meissen,  Freiburg 
(q.  V.)  in  the  Brisgau,  are  fine  buildhigs  (see 
doctor  Moller's  Denkmcde  dcr  Deutschen 
Baukunst,  Darmstadt,  1825 ;  and  F.  W. 
Schwechten's  Der  Dom  zu  Meissen,  bildl. 
dargest.  u.  beschr.,  Berlin,  1820,  3  nos.). 
Respecting  the  cathedral  of  Colojine,  see 
Boisseree.  (For  further  information,  see 
Wiebeking's  work  Die  Kaihedralen  von 
BJiehm  und  York,  nebst  den  Grundrissen 
von  42  andern  merkwiirdigen  Kirchen, 
Aliinich,  1825,  fol.,  with  engravings.)  In 
Rome  there  has  appeared,  since  1822, 
the  Collection  of  the  oldest  Christian 
Churches,  or  Basihcas,  of  Rome,  from  the 

VOL.  II.  50 


4th  to  the  13th  Century  ;  drawn  and 
published  by  J.  G.  Gutensohn  and  J.  M. 
Knapp  (ai'chitects) ;  accompanied  by  an 
Archseol.  Histor.  Description,  by  Anth. 
Nibby,  professor  of  Archaeology  in  the 
University  at  Rome  ;  7  numbei-s,  each 
containing  7  plates.  There  is  now  in  the 
course  of  pubhcation  at  Milan,  a  splendid 
work,  entitled  Chiese  principali  d'Europa, 
which  will  extend  to  36  numbers ;  each 
of  tliem  being  devoted  to  one  particular 
edifice.  From  the  numbers  already  pub- 
lished, we  extract  the  subsequent  meas- 
urements of  celebrated  buildings. 
St.  Peter's,  at  Rome. 

English  feet. 

Width  of  the  cathedral, 2.33 

External  diameter  of  the  cupola,   .  158 
Total  height, 448 

Cathedral  at  Milan. 

Feet. 

Width  of  the  front, 21G 

Width  of  the  cross, 251 

Total  height, 350 

Pantheon  at  Rome. 

Pieds*. 

Length  of  the  portico, 103 

Width  of  do.,    61 

Interior  diameter, 132 

Height  from  the  pavement  to  the 
summit  of  the  cupola, 132 

St.  Stephen's,  at  Vienna. 

Feet 

Width  of  the  facade, 148 

Great  tower,  from  the  ground  to 

the  top  of  the  cross, 450 

Greatest  breadth  between  tlie  two 

chief  towers, 235 

Santa  Maria  del  Piore,  Florence. 

Feet. 

Whole  length, 517 

Total  height, 386 

Catholic  Emancipation.  Emanci- 
pation, with  the  Romans,  signified  the 
release  of  a  son  fi-om  the  power  of  liis 
father,  or  of  a  slave  from  that  of  his  mas- 
ter. It  was  performed  before  the  pretor, 
attended  by  certain  solemnities.  By  the 
emancipation  of  the  Catholics  is  under- 
stood the  abolition  of  those  civil  and 
ecclesiastical  restraints,  to  which  the 
Catholics  of  Great  Britain,  and  particu- 
larly of  Ireland,  were  once  subjected. 
Ireland,  from  the  time  of  its  subjugation, 
was  maltreated  by  its  conquerors ;  and 
repeated  attempts,  on  the  part  of  the  na- 
tives, to  free  themselves  from  foreign 
domination,  only  increased  the  severity 

*  The  nieasureinents  of  this  edifice  are  given  in 
feet ;  but  ihey  are  neither  Roman  nor  the  Parisian, 
nor  any  other  feet  we  are  acquainted  with. 


590 


CATHOLIC  EMANCIPATION. 


of  their  rulers.  (See  Orangemen.)  The 
Catholic  inhabitants  of  the  country  were 
excluded  from  public  offices,  and  from  all 
participation  in  the  choice  of  membei*8  of 
parliament.  None  but  the  Anglo-Irish, 
belonging  to  the  Episcopal  church,  which 
had  now  become  the  established  church 
in  Ireland — men  who  possessed  the  great- 
est part  of  the  landed  property,  that  had 
been  torn  from  the  original  inhabitants — 
were  eligible  to  pubhc  offices,  or  to  a  seat 
in  parliament.  In  this  oppressed  condi- 
tion the  Irish  Catholics  remained  till 
1793.  But  when  the  principles  dissemi- 
nated at  the  time  of  the  French  revolu- 
tion produced  a  general  fennentation, 
which  extended  to  the  Iiish  Catholics,  a 
lively  desire  was  awakened  in  them  to 
obtain  equal  rights  with  their  Protestant 
fellow-citizens.  They  were  supported  in 
England  itself  by  a  very  respectable  party. 
Burke  repeatedly  spoke  in  parliament  in 
favor  of  their  emancipation.  In  1792, 
they  presented  a  petition,  praying  for  the 
abolition  of  all  the  restrictions  to  which 
they  had  hitherto  been  subjected-  Upon 
this,  a  recommendation  was  addressed 
from  the  throne  to  the  Irish  parliament, 
to  contrive  means  for  the  melioration  of 
the  condition  of  the  Catholics.  Accord- 
ingly, the  Irish  act,  so  called,  was  j)assed 
in  1793,  which  conferred  the  elective 
franchise  on  the  Catholics,  threw  open  to 
them  all  employments  in  the  army  in 
Ireland,  and  all  offices  in  the  navy.  Three 
offices  in  tlie  army  only  were  excepted — 
those  of  the  commander-in-chief,  master- 
general  of  the  ordnance,  and  generals  on 
the  staff.  They  continued  to  be  excluded, 
however,  from  30  public  offices,  and  from 
parliament — an  arrangement  which  could 
not  be  changed  without  a  repeal  of  the 
corporation  and  test  acts.  (q.  v.)  A  part 
of  the  Irish  Catholics  were  satisfied  with 
the  concessions.  Another  party,  however, 
encouraged  by  a  few  noblemen,  who  had 
entered  into  connexion  with  France, 
cherished  the  hope  that  Ireland  would 
succeed,  with  the  help  of  France,  in  free- 
ing itself  from  the  British  power.  An 
insurrection  speedily  broke  out,  which 
was  quelled  by  the  severity  of  the  gov- 
ernor, lord  Camden.  It  blazed  forth 
again,  however,  in  1798,  and  Ireland  be- 
came the  theatre  of  a  new  civil  war.  By 
this  rebeHion,  judicious  men,  both  in 
England  and  Ireland,  were  convinced 
that,  as  long  as  the  two  kingdoms  had 
separate  legislatiu-es,  and  that  of  the 
weaker  was  dependent  on  that  of  the 
sti'onger,  and  the  inhabitants  of  the  two 
kingdoms  thought  their  interests  incon- 


eistent,  jealousy  and  distrust  would  coi 
tinue.  The  Anglo-Irish,  also,  who  ha 
l)reviously  desired  the  independence  of 
Ireland,  and,  at  first,  supported  the  re- 
bellion, perceived  that  the  suj)erior  num- 
bers of  the  Catholics,  and  their  bitter 
enmity  to  the  Protestants,  would  make 
the  separation  of  Ireland  from  England  a 
great  misfortune  for  them.  It  Avas  re- 
solved, then,  to  unite  Ireland  with  Eng- 
land ;  and,  three  years  after  the  last  re- 
bellion, the  union  was  effected,  and  the 
united  parliament  was  opened  Jan.  22, 
1801.  In  regard  to  ecclesiastical  affairs, 
nothing  further  was  provided  in  the  act 
of  union,  than  that  the  Episcopal  church 
in  Ireland  should  remain  the  established 
church,  and  should  constitute,  with  the 
English,  one  church.  Respecting  the 
condition  of  the  Catholics  nothing  was 
done,  and  Pitt  observed  that  it  would  be 
well  to  reserve  this  business  for  future 
deliberation.  The  united  parliament  had 
been  in  session  but  a  few  days,  when  re- 
ports were  spread,  which  cast  a  dark 
shade  over  the  union,  and  gave  occasion 
for  much  anxiety.  The  Catholics  in  Ire- 
land, it  was  said,  complained  of  the  non- 
fulfilment  of  expectations  which  had  been 
lield  out  to  them,  to  make  tliem  favorable 
to  the  union.  Full  emancipation  had 
been  promised  them,  as  a  certain  conse- 
quence of  it.  Pitt,  the  author  of  the 
union,  had  pledged  himself,  with  his  col- 
leagues, to  promote  tlie  fulfilment  of  tliis 
Avish  of  tlie  Catholics.  After  the  union 
was  completed,  invincible  obstructions 
were  found  in  the  way  of  the  accomplish- 
ment of  their  promise.  Pitt  and  his  col- 
leagues had  encouraged  these  hopes  with 
the  expectation  of  being  able  to  fulfil 
tliem.  For  this  reason,  they  endeavored, 
after  the  union  was  completed,  to  obtain 
an  act  of  parliament,  by  which  admission 
to  parhament  and  to  offices  of  state,  from 
which  the  Catholics  were  still  excluded, 
should  be  made  possible  for  a  certain 
number  of  them,  by  dispensing  with  the 
test-oath.  But  the  king  set  himself  against 
this  measure,  as  being  inconsistent  with 
his  coronation-oath.  Pitt  and  his  col- 
leagues, therefore,  in  1801,  resigned  their 
places.  Pitt  foresaw  that,  if  both  houses 
agreed  to  tliis  measure,  the  king  would 
still  withhold  his  permission  ;  and  thus  the 
discontent  of  the  Catholics  would  be  di- 
rected against  the  pei-son  of  the  king 
himself  This,  like  a  wise  statesman,  he 
wished  by  all  means  to  avert ;  and,  on 
this  ground,  in  1805,  he  spoke  against 
the  emancipation,  when  the  opj)osition 
proposed  anew  to  grant  the  Catholic  a 


CATHOLIC  EMANCIPATION— CATHOLIC  MAJESTY. 


591 


seat  and  a  voice  in  parliament,  and  ad- 
inissibility  to  all  offices  of  state.  During 
late  years,  the  petition  for  complete 
emancipation  has  been  several  times  re- 
newed in  vain.  In  1822,  on  the  motion 
of  Mr.  Calming,  a  bill  was  passed,  in  the 
house  of  commons,  by  a  majority  of  21 
voices,  enabling  Roman  Catholic  peers  to 
sit  in  parliament;  but,  in  the  house  of 
lords,  tlie  bill  was  rejected.  The  same 
happened  in  1825,  when  the  duke  of 
York,  who  died  in  1827,  solenmly  op- 
posed it.  In  1827,  under  Canning's  ad- 
ministration, the  motion  for  emancipation 
was  lost,  in  the  house  of  commons,  by 
a  majority  of  3.  The  measure  has,  at 
last,  been  effected,  under  the  administra- 
tion of  the  duke  of  Wellington.  The 
disturbances  in  Ii'eland  were  assuming 
continually  a  more  organized  character, 
under  the  influence  of  the  Catholic  asso- 
ciation, which  was  spread  through  the 
countiy,  and  directed  by  men  of  great 
abilities — such  as  O'Connell  and  Shiels — 
BO  that  his  grace  was,  at  last,  driven  to 
support  the  cause  of  emancipation.  He 
said  that  he  had  to  choose  between  con- 
cession to  the  Catholics  and  civil  war. 
Mr.  Peel,  who  had  formerly  spoken  v\^ann- 
ly  against  emancipation,  now  moved  it  in 
the  house  of  commons.  One  of  the  chief 
opposers  of  the  measure  was  lord  Eldon, 
the  former  lord  chancellor ;  one  of  the 
royal  family — ^the  duke  of  Cumberland — 
also  took  part  with  the  opponents. — The 
emancipation  of  the  Catholics  is  so  inter- 
esting an  event,  that  the  followng  abstract 
of  the  fate  of  various  motions  respecting 
it  may  not  be  unacceptable  to  our  readers. 
In  the  year  1805,  a  majority  of  129  in  the 
house  of  lords,  and  of  212  in  the  house 
of  commons,  refused  to  act  on  the  peti- 
tion of  the  Catholics,  moved  severally  by 
lord  Grenville  and  Mr.  Fox.  In  1807, 
lord  Grenville  withdrew  his  motion  in 
favor  of  emancipation,  it  being  under- 
stood that  his  majesty  was  averse  to  it. 
In  1808,  Mr.  Grattan's  motion  was  reject- 
ed, in  the  house  of  commons,  by  a  major- 
ity of  15.3,  and  lord  Donoughmore's,  in 
the  house  of  lords,  by  a  majority  of  87. 
In  1810,  a  motion  to  the  same  eftect,  by 
the  same  members,  was  again  lost,  by  a 
majority  of  112  in  the  commons,  and  80 
in  the  lords.  In  1812,  there  was  a  ma- 
jority of  72  in  the  lords,  and  85  in  tlie 
commons,  against  the  movei-s.  Mr.  Can- 
ning's motion  was  lost,  in  the  same  year, 
by  a  majority  of  129  in  the  commons, 
and  that  of  the  marquis  of  Wellesley,  by 
a  majority  of  113  in  the  lords.  In  181.3, 
the  motions  of  IMr.  Grattan,  sir  John  Cox 


Hippesley  and  doctor  Duigenan,  drew  forth 
majorities  against  the  Catholics  of  40,  48 
and  42,  and,  on  the  24th  of  May,  the  bill 
was  given  up.  In  1821,  Mr.  Plunkett  car- 
ried the  bill  through  the  house  of  com- 
mons by  a  majority  of  19 ;  but  it  was  lost 
in  the  lords  by  a  majority  of  39.  In  1822, 
Mr.  Canning  carried  it,  in  the  commons, 
by  a  majority  of  21  ;  but  it  was  thrown 
out,  in  the  lords,  by  a  majority  of  42.  In 
1825,  sir  Francis  Burdett  carried  it,  in  the 
commons,  by  a  majority  of  27  ;  but  it  was 
again  thrown  out,  in  the  lords,  by  a  ma- 
jority of  48.  In  1827,  sir  Francis  Bur- 
dett's  motion  for  a  committee  was  lost,  in 
the  commons,  by  a  majority  of  3.  In 
1828,  the  motion  for  a  conference  with 
the  lords  was  earned,  in  the  commons,  by 
a  majority  of  G ;  but  thrown  out,  in  the 
lords,  by  a  majority  of  45.  And,  in  1829 
(April  10),  a  relief  bill,  abolishing  the  civil 
disabilities  on  Roman  Catholics,  by  re- 
pealing the  oaths  of  supremacy,  &c., 
was  carried  through  the  commons  by 
Mr.  Peel,  with  a  majority  of  180  on  the 
second  reading,  and  178  on  the  third; 
and  through  the  lords,  by  the  duke  of 
Wellington,  with  a  majority  of  105  on 
the  second  reading,  and  104  on  the 
third.  By  this  bill,  Cathohcs  are  eligible 
to  all  offices  of  state,  excepting  the  lord- 
chancellorships  of  England  and  Ireland, 
the  lord-lieutenancy  of  Ireland,  the  office 
of  regent  or  guardian  of  the  United  King- 
dom, and  that  of  high  commissioner  to 
the  church  of  Scotland.  They  are  still 
excluded  from  the  right  of  presentation  to 
livings,  and  all  places  connected  with  the 
ecclesiastical  courts  and  establishment. 
The  church  patronage  attached  to  any 
office  in  the  hands  of  a  CathoUc  is  to  be 
vested  in  the  archbishop  of  Canterbury. 
Attached  to  the  bill  is  a  clause  for  the 
gradual  suppression  of  the  Jesuits  and 
monastic  orders  (religious  establishments 
of  females  excepted).  At  the  same  time, 
the  duke  carried  a  disfranchisement  bill, 
by  which  the  40  shilling  freeholders  of 
Ireland  were  disfranchised,  and  the  in- 
come of  real  estate  necessary  to  entitle  to 
a  vote  in  elections  in  that  countiy  raised 
to  £10  sterling.  There  has  lately  been 
pubUshed  a  History  of  the  late  Catholic 
Association  of  Ireland,  from  its  Institu- 
tion, in  1760,  to  its  final  Dissolution  in 
1829 ;  by  Thomas  Wyse, junior,  Esq.,  one 
of  the  members  of  that  body  ;  2  vols.  8vo., 
London,  1829,  Colbum. 

Catholic  Majesty  ;  a  title  which  pope 
Alexander  VI  gave  to  the  kings  of  Spain, 
in  memory  of  the  perfect  expulsion  of  the 
Moors  out  of  Spain,  in  1491,  by  Ferdi- 


592  CATHOLIC  MAJESTY. 

nand  of  Arragon.    But  even  before  that    Toledo,  in  589,  several  Spanish  kings  had 
time,  and  especially  after  the  council  at    borne  this  title. 


CONTENTS. 


attle-Axe 3 

Piece " 

Baltoges,  Battacks  ........    " 

Baituecas  (Las) 4 

Baucis " 

Bauman  Islands " 

Bauniann's  Cavern " 

Baumgarten  (Alex.  Gottlieb) .     " 

Bause  (John  Frederic) " 

Bautzen " 

Bavaria 5 

(constitution  of) 9 

Bavius  (Marcus)  and  Maevius    10 

Bawdy-House " 

Baxter  (Andrew) " 

(Richard) " 

Bayadeer 11 

Bayamo " 

Bayard  (chevalier  de) " 

(James  A.) 13 

Bayle  (Pierre)   . U 

Bavlcn  (capitulation  at) 15 

Bayley  (Richard) IG 

Bayonet " 

Bayomic 17 

Bazar " 

Beacon  (see  Signals,  and  Light- 
house)     " 

Beagle " 

Bear " 

Beard 18 

Beam 19 

Beatification " 

Beaton  (archbisliop) 20 

Beattie  (James) " 

Beaucaire 21 

Beaufort  (in  S.  C.) " 

(Henry) " 

Beaulianiais  (viscount) " 

(marquis  de).  ...   '•' 

Beaumarchais  (P.  A.  Ceuwn  de)  22 

Beaurnont  and  Fletcher " 

(mad.  Leprince  de).  23 

Beauty  (see  Philosophy) " 

Beaver " 

Beccaria  (Cesare  Bonesana)  .  24 

(Giovanni  Battista)  .  25 

Becher  (John  Joachim) " 

Beck  (Christian  Daniel) " 

Becket  (Thomas) '■ 

Beckmann  (John) 27 

50* 


Bed  (in  gunnery) 

of  Justice  (see  Lit  de  Jus- 
tice)   

Beddoes  (Thomas) 

Bede 

Bedford  (duke  of) 

i!"S"^); 

(in  Penn.) 

Level 

(New) 


27 


Bedouins 

Bee 

Beech 

Beef-Eaters 

Becjapoor 

(see  Bija-pur)  .  . 

Beek  (David) 

Beelzebub 

Beer 

(Michael) 

Beering  (Vitus) 

's  Island 

's  Straits 


Beet , 

Beethoven  (Louis  von) 

Beetle 

Befana 

i5eg 

Beggary  (see  Pauperism)  .  . 

Beglerbeg 

Beguards  (see  Beguines)  . . . 

Beguines 

Behaim  (Martin) , 

Beheading , 

Behn  (Aphara) , 

Behring  (see  Beering) 

Beira 

Beiram  (see  Bairam) 

Bekker  (Elizabeth) 

(Imniauuel) , 

Bel  (see  Baal) 

Belem 

Belfast  (in  Ireland) 

(in  Maine) 


Belgians  . 

Belgium 

Belgrade 

Relgrano  (Manuel) 

Belial 

Belisarius 

Belknap  (Jeremy) . 
BeU 


33 


3G 


37 


38 


39 


40 


Bell  (see  Lancaster) 41 

Bella  (Stefano  della) " 

Bellamy  (James) 42 

Beilarmin  (Robert) " 

Belle  Alliance  (see  Waterloo)   " 

Bellegarde  (count) 43 

(Gabriel  du  Pac  de) 


Belle-Isle  (in  bay  of  Biscay) .  .  42 
(in  N.  A.) 43 


Belleisle  (count  de) " 

Bellenden  (William) " 

Belles-Lettres " 

Bellevue 44 

Bellini  (James) " 

Bellisle  (see  Belle-Isle) " 

Bellmann  (Charles  Michael).  .   " 

Bell-Metal  (see  Copper) 41 

Bellona " 

Bellows 45 

Belloy  (P.  Laurent  Buirette  de)  " 

Bell-Rock 41 

Beloochistan  (see  Belujistan)  .  46 

Belt  (Great  and  Little) " 

Belujistan " 

Belvedere " 

Belzoni  (Giambattista) " 

Bembo  (Pietro) 47 

Ben 48 

Benares " 

Benavides 48 

Benbow  (John) " 

Bencoolen " 

Benda  (George) 60 

Bender " 

Benedict  XIV " 

(St.) 51 


Benedictbeurn " 

Benedictines " 

Benediction 52 

Benefit  of  Clergy " 

Benevento 53 

Benezet  (Anthony) " 

Bengal 54 

Bengel  (John  Albanus) 56 

Benger  (Elizabeth  Ogilvy).  . .   " 

Benguela " 

Benin  (kingdom) 57 

(town) " 

Bcnjowsky  (count  of) " 

Ben-Lawere 68 

Lodi " 

Lomond " 


594 


CONTENTS. 


Ben-Macduie 58 

More " 

Nevis " 

Benningsen  (baron  of) " 

Bennington " 

Beiino  (St.) " 

Benserade  (Isaac  de).  .  . 

Bensley  (Thomas) .... 

Bentham  (Jeremy) 

Bentivoglio  (Coruelio) 

(Guy,  or  Guido).  . 

Bentley  (Richard) 

Benzel-Steniau  (count) 

Benzenberg  (John  Frederic). . 

Benzoic  Acid 

Benzoin 

Beranger  (Pierre,  Jean  de)  . . 

Berber 

Berbice 

Berchtesgaden 

Berchtold  (count) 

Bercy 

Berengarius 

Berenhorst  (F.  Leopold  von)  . 

Berenice 

Beresford  (William) 

Berezina 

Berg 

Book  of  (see  Symbolic 

Books) 

Bergamo 

Bergamots 

Bergasse  (Nicholas) 

Bergen  (several  towns  of  this 
name) 

Berger  (Louis  von) 

Bergerac 

Berghem  (Nicholas) 

Bergmann  (Torbern  Olof ) .  .  . 

Bergstrasse 

Berkeley  (George) 

Berlichingen  (Gotz  or  Godfrey) 

Berlin 

Bermudas'  Islands 

Bern 

Bemadotte  (see  Charles  XIV) 

Bernard  (Pierre  Joseph)  .... 

(duke  of  Wennar).  .  . 

of  Clairvaux 

(Great  St.) .  . 

Bemardi  (Augustus  Frederic). 

Bemardin  de  St.  PieiTe  (see 
Pierre,  St.) 

Bemardine  Monks  (see  Cister- 
cians)   

Bemburg  (Anhalt) 

Berners,  or  Barnes  (Juliana).  . 

Berni  (Francesco) 

Bernini  (Giovanni  Lorenzo).  . 


59 


62 


63 


64 


65 


66 


67 


76 


Bemis  (cardinal  de).  . 
Bemouilli  (James,  &lc.)  . 


Benistorff  (count  of,  &lc.).  .  .  . 

Berri  (duke  of) 

(province  and  dukedom) 

Berserker 

Berthier  (marshal) 

BerthoUel  (count) 

Berthoud  (Ferdinand) 

Bertoli  fcoimt  of) 

Berton  (Henry  Montan) 

Bertrand  (count) 

Bertuch  (Frederic  Justin). .  .  . 
Bervic  (Charles  Clement). .  .  . 

Berwick  (duke  of) 

Berwick-upon-Tweed 

Beryl . . . ! 


83 


Berzclius  (James) 84 

Besan9on  " 

Bessarabia " 

liessel  (Frederic  William) . .     "' 

Betel 85 

Bethania '" 

Bethesda " 

Betlilehem  (in  Palestine) ...     '•' 

(in  Penn.) 86 

Betrotliment " 

Betterment . " 

Betterton  (Thomas) " 

Bettiiielli  (Saverio) 87 

Bey " 

Beza  (Theodore) " 

Bezant 88 

Bezoar " 

Bia 89 

Biagioli  (Josaphat) " 

Biauchim  (Francesco) " 

Hias " 

Bibbiena  (Fernando) 90 

Bible " 

(geography  of) 92 

Societies " 

Biblical  Archaeology 95 

Bibliography " 

Bibliomancy 97 

BibliomEuiia " 

Bicetre 99 

Bidassoa " 

Biddle  (John) " 

Bidpai  (see  Pilpay) 100 

Bielefeld " 

Bievre  (marquis  de) " 

Big  (see  Barley) 101 

Bigamy 100 

Bignon  (Louis  Edward).  .  .  .  101 

Bija-pur " 

Bilbao  (see  Bilboa) 102 

Bilboa " 

Bilderdyk  (William) " 

Bildge  (see  Bilge) " 

Bile " 

Biledulgerid 103 

Biiin " 

Bilious  Fever  (see  Fever)  . .    " 

Bill  of  Exchange " 

Lading 106 

Rights " 

Bill  in  Equity " 

Billiards " 

Billinglon  (Elizabeth) " 

Bingen 107 

Bingtey " 

Binnacle " 

Binomial 108 

Bioernstaehl  (James  Jonas)  .    " 
Biologv  and  Biometry  (see 

Life) " 

Bion " 

Biot  (Jean  Baptiste) " 

Birch " 

(Thomas) 109 

Bird  (Edward) " 

Island  (several  isleuids of 

this  name) " 

Birds  (see  Ornithology)  ....  110 

'  Nest " 

Biren  (Ernst  John  von)  ....    " 

Birman  Empire " 

Birmingham 113 

Biron  (duke  of) 114 

Birth  (see  Labor) " 

Biscay " 

(bay  of) 115 


Biscay  (bay  of,  Newfoundland)  116 

New  (in  Mexico)  ....    " 

Bischofswerder " 

Bishop « 

's  Hood  (see  Mitre) . .  116 

's  Staff  (see  Crosier)  .    " 

Bismark  (count) " 

Bismulli " 

Bison 117 

Bissago 118 

Bisset  (Robert) " 

Bitaubc  (Paul  Jeremiah)  ...    " 

Bilhvnia " 

Bitsch 119 

Bittern " 

Bitumen " 

Bivouack 120 

Blacas  (count) " 

Black  (Joseph) " 

Art  (see  Magic) " 

Blackbird " 

Blackfish 121 

Black  Forest 122 

Blackfriars'  Bridge 123 

Blackguard " 

Black-Lead  (see  Plumbago).    " 

Blacklock  (Thomas) " 

Blackmore  (sir  Richard)  .  . .  124 
Black  Rock  (see  Buffalo).  .  .  123 

Sea " 

Blackstone  (sir  William)  . . .  124 

Canal 126 

Bladensburg " 

Blair  (Hugh) " 

(John)  " 

(Robert) « 

Blake  (admiral) 127 

Blakeley  (Johnston) 128 

Blanc,  Mont  (see  Mont  Blanc)    " 

Blanchard  (Francois) " 

Blanco  (cape) 129 

Blangini  (G.  M.  M.  Felice).  .    " 

Blank  Verse " 

Blasphemy " 

Blasting 130 

Blazonmg " 

Bleaching " 

Blemmyes " 

Blende  (see  Zinc) 131 

Blenheim " 

Blessing 132 

Blight " 

Blind 133 

(institutions  for  the)  ...    " 

Blinds 135 

Blister 136 

Bloch  (Marcus  Eliezer)  ....    " 

Blockade " 

Blockhouse " 

Blocks " 

Bloemart  (Abraham) 137 

Blois " 

Blomfield  (Charles  James)  .  .    " 

(Edward  Valentme)    " 

Blondel 138 

Blood  (Thomas) " 

(in  animals) " 

Vessels 139 

Bloo<lhound 140 

Bloomfield  (Robert) " 

Blowing-3Iachines " 

Blowpipe " 

Blucher  (prince) 141 

Blue  (see  Color) 143 

Bluebird " 

Blue  (Prussian) " 


CONTENTS. 


595 


Blue  Ridge 144 

■■        Stocking " 

Blumauer  (Aloysius) " 

Blumeubach  (John  Frederic)    " 

Boa " 

Boadicea 146 

Boat " 

Boccaccio  (Giovanni) " 

Boccage  (Mjirie  Anne  du) .  .  148 

Boccherini  (Luigi) " 

Bocchetta " 

Bochica " 

BOckh  (Augustus) 149 

Bode  (John  Elert) " 

Bodin  (Jean) " 

Bodleian  Library  (see  Libra- 
ries)  150 

Bodley  (sir  Thomas) " 

Bodmer  (John  Jacob) " 

Botioni  (Giambatlista) " 

Boece  (see  Boeihius) 151 

Boehnie  (Jacob) " 

Boeotia " 

Boerhaave 152 

BoMius(A.M.T.Severinus)  153 
Boettcher  (John  Frederic)  . .  154 

Bogdanowitsch  (H.  F.) " 

Bogota " 

(city  in  Colombia).  .  .  155 

River  (see  Tequen- 

dama,  Cataract  of) " 

Bohemia " 

Bohemian  Brethren 157 

and  Bavariem  For- 
est   158 

Langucige " 

Literature 160 

Boiardo  (Matteo  Maria) ....  164 

Boil 

Boileau  ( Despreaux  Nicholas)  165 
Boiler  (see  Steam,  and  Steam 

Engine) 

Bois-le-Duc 

Boisseree 166 

Boissonade  (Jean  Fran9ois)  . 

Bojaca  (battle  of) 

Bole 

Boleyn  (Anne) 

Bolingbroke  (viscount) 167 

Bolivar  (Simon) 169 

Bolivia 176 

Bollandists 177 

Bollman  (Erich) •' 

Bologna " 

Bomb 178 

Bombast 179 

Bombay 

Bombeiles  (marquis  de)  .  .  . .  180 

Bomb-Ketch " 

Bona " 

Dea " 

Bonald  (viscount  de) " 

Bonaparte  family " 

Bonaventura  (John  of  Fidan- 

za) 181 

Bond 182 

Bondage  (see  Villenage)  . . . 

Bondi  (Clemente) 

Bondy  (count  of) 

Bone 

Boner  (Ulrich) 183 

Boneset 

Boniface  (popes) 

(St.) 184 

Bonn  (in  Prussia) 185 

■■-»  (Andrew) .......... 


Bonner  (Edmund) 

Bonnet  (in  fortification)  .  . 

Bonnet  (Charles) 

French  advocate) 


Bonneval  (count  of). 
Bonnvcastle  (John)  .... 

Bonpland  ( Aime) 

Bonstetten  (Charles  von) 
Bonzaniga  (Giuseppe)  .  . 

Bonzes 

Book-keeping 

Books,  (caiafogues  of ) .  . 
(censorehip  of )  . . 


Book-Trade 

Boone  (Daniel) 

Boors 

Bootan 

Bootes 

Bootli  (Barton) 

Bopp  (Francis) 

Bora  (Catharine  von) 

Boracic  Acid 

Borak  Al  (see  Alborak) . .  . 

Borda  (Jean  Charles) 

Bordeaux  (see  Bourcleaux) 

Bordelais  Wines 

Bordentown 

Bordone  (Paris) 

Boreal 

Boreas 

Borghese 

(prince) 

(princess) 

Borgia  (Caesar) 

(Stefano) 


186 


187 


188 


189 
190 
191 
189 
193 
194 

195 


196 
197 


198 


199 


200 
201 


Borgue 

Bonng  

Borneo 

Bomholm 

Bomou 

Bonxlino  (sec  Moscow,  Bat- 
tle of )  

Borough 

Borromei  Islands 

Borromeo  (count) 

Borstell  (L.  G.  Leopold  von) 

Bory-de-Saint- Vincent 

Bos  (Lambert) 

Bosc  (L.  Antoine  Guillaume) 
Boscan  (Almogaver  Juan)  .  . 

Boscawen  (admiral) 

Boscovich  (Roger  Joseph)  . . 
Boshmen  (see  Holtentols) .  .  . 
BoshuanEis  (see  Bushwanas) . 

Bosio(N.) 

Bosjesmen  (see  Hottentots).  . 

Bosnia 

Bosphoms 

Boss!  (baron  de) 

Bossuet  (Jacques  Benigne) . . 

Bostangi 

Boston  (in  Eng.) 

(in  Mass.) 

Boswcll  (James) 

Bosworth 

Botanical  Gardens 

Botany 

Bay  (see  New  South 


Bots  (see  CEstrus) , 

Botta  (Carlo  G.  G.) . . . 

Bottles 

Bottomry , 

Botzen 

Bouchardon  (Edmund).  . 
Boucher  (Alexander) .  . . 
(Francis) 


216 
215 

215 

(( 

216 


Bouches-du-Rh6ne 217 

Boudinot  (Elias) " 

Boudoir " 

Boufflers  (marshal  de) " 

(chevalier  de) ....    " 

Bougainville  (L.  Antoine  de)  218 

Bouille  (marshal  de) " 

Bouillon " 

Bouilly  ( J.  N.) 219 

Boulevards  (see  Paris) " 

Boulogne " 

(wood  of) 220 


Wales) 
Both  (John  and  Andrew) , 

Bothnia  (East) 

(Sulf  of) 

West). 


214 


Boulton  (Matdiew). 

Bounty 

Bourbon  family   .  . 

(duke  of). 

(isle  of).. 

( Louis)  . . 


222 
224 

225 


Bothwell  (in  Scotland) . 
(earl) 


Bolocudes . 


Bourbojuiais 

Bourdaloue  (Louis) 

Bourdeaux 

Bourdon  (Sebastian) 

Bourges 

Bourgogne  (see  Burgundy)  . 

Boungnon  (Antoinette)  .... 

Boursault  (Edme) 

Boustrophedon 

Bouterwek  (Frederic) 

Bouts-Rimes 

Bow 

(in  music) 

instruments 

Bowdich  (Thomas  Edward) . 

Bowdoin  (James) 

Bower  (see  Anchor) 

Boxing  (see  Gymnsistics) .  .  . 

Box-tree 

Boydell  (John) 

Boyeldieu  (Aarian) 

Boyer  (Alexis) 

(Jean  Pierre) 

Boj'le  (Rotsert) 

Boylston  (Zabdiel) 

Boyne 

Bozzaris  (see  Greece) 

Brabant 

Brachmans  (see  Gymnoso- 
phists) 

Bracteates 

Bracton  (Henry  de) 

Braddock  (Edward) 

Bradford  (William) 

Bradley  (James) 

Bradsliaw  (John). 

Braga  (see  Mythology,  North- 
ern)   

Braganza 

Braham 

Brahe,  Tychp  de  (seeTycho) 

Brahilow 

Brahma  (see  Brama) 

Brailow  (see  Brahilow)  . .  .  . 

Brails 

Brain 

Brainerd  (David) 

(in  Tenn.). 


226 
227 


228 


229 


230 


231 


233 


234. 


235 


236 


237 


Brakenburg  (Regner) 
Brama 


696 


CONTENTS. 


Bramante  of  Urtino 238 

Bramiiis " 

Brandenburg  (province) ....  239 

(town) 240 

Brandes  (Ernest) " 

Brandt  (Nicliolas) " 

(Sebastian) " 

Brandy  (see  Distillation)  ...    " 

Brandvwine " 

Brantome  (Pierre)   241 

Brasil  (see  Brazil) " 

Brass  (see  Copper) " 

Brattleborouen " 

Brauwer  (Adrian) " 

Bravo  (Nicholas) 242 

Bravura  Air " 

Bray  (vicar  of) " 

(coimt  de) 243 

Brazil " 

Breach 250 

Bread 2ol 

Fruit " 

Breakers 252 

Breaking  Bulk ,    " 

Breakwater  (see  Cherbourg, 
Plymouth  and  Delaware) .    " 

Breast  (see  Chest) " 

Plate " 

Wheel " 

Work " 

Breath " 

Breathing  (see  Respiration)  .  253 

Breccia " 

Brechin " 

Breda " 

Bredow  (Gabriel  Godfrey). .    " 
Bree  (Matthew  van,  &c.). . .  254 

Breeches " 

Breeching " 

Breezes  (see  Winds) " 

Breguet  (A.  L.) " 

Brenon " 

Breisgau  (see  Brisgau)  ....    " 

Breislak  (Scipio) " 

Breitkopf  (J.  G.  Emmanuel).  255 

Bremen " 

Brenner 256 

Brennus " 

Brentano  (Clement) 257 

Brentford " 

Brescia " 

Breslau 258 

Brest " 

Bretagne  (see  Britteiny).  ...     " 

Breteuil  (baron  de) " 

Bretschneider  (H.  G.  von)  . .  259 

Breughel  (Peter,  &c.) " 

Breve " 

Brevet 260 

Breviary " 

Brewing " 

Brewster  (David) 264 

BrPze  (marquis  de) 

Briareus 

Bribe 

Briceno  Mendez  (Pedro). . . .  265 

Brick 

Bridewell  Hospital 266 

Bridge 

Bridgetown 269 

Bridgewater 

Canal  (see  Ca- 
nal)   

Bridle J 

Brief 

Brie! 270 


Brienne  (in  France) 

cardinal  (see  Lome- 


nie). 

Brig 

Brigade 

Brigandine 

Brigantine  (see  Brig) 

Brigliella  (see  Mask) 

Brifht... 

Briglithelmstone 

Brighton,  in  Eng.  (see  Bright- 
he)  mstoue)  

(in  Mass.). 


270 

271 


Brilliant  (see  Diamond) .  .  .  . 

Brimstone 

Brindley  (James) 

Bring-to 

Brinkmann  (Charles  G.)  . .  . 

Brion  (Luis) 

Brisach 

Briseis  (see  Achilles) 

Brisgau 

Brissac  (see  Cosse) 

Brissot  de  Wcu^ille  (Jean  P.) 

Brissotins 

Bristol  (in  Eng.) 

R.1) 

Channel 


Britain . 


New  (in  Australia) .  . 

New  (in  N.  America) 

Britannicus  Caesar 

Britinians 

British  America 

Channel  (see  English 
Channel) 

Museum 


Brittany 

Brizard  (see  French  Theatre) 

Broach  (in  Hindostan) 

■  (a  clasp) 

-to 


272 

ti 

it 
ti 

273 

it 
(i 

ii 

274 

U 
tl 

rib 

ii 

276 
it 

It 

tl 
277 


Broad  Piece , 

Broadside 

Broad-Sword 

Brocade 

Brocken  (see  Hartz)  . 

Brody 

Broekliuizen  (Jan  van) 
Broglio  (famil)'  of)  .  . 
(duke  of)  ... 


Broker 

Brome 

Bromelia  (see  Pine-Apple).  . 

Bromius 

Bronkhorst  (Peter  van,  &c.). 

Bronner  (Francis  Xaver). . . 

Bronze 

Bronzes 

Bronzing 

Bronzino  (Angelo) 

Brooding  (see  Ornithology)  . 

BrooklyTi 

Brooks  (John) 

Broom- 

Brosses  (Charles  de) 

Bi-othel  (see  Bawdy-House) . 

Brotherhood,  Holy  (see  Her- 
mandad) 

Brotherhoods  (see  Fraterni- 
ties)  

Brothers 

Broughjun  (Henry) 

Broughton's  Archipelago  .  . . 

Broussonet  (P.  M.  Auguste) . 

I  Brewer  (see  Br^iuwer) 


278 
279 


283 


Brown  (Charies  Brockden). .  284 

(count) 286 

(John) " 

Robert) 286 

(Thomas) « 

(William) « 

Browne  (count) 287 

(Simon) " 

(sir  Thomas) 288 

BrowTiy " 

Bruce  (James) " 

(Michael) 289 

(Robert) " 

(Robert,  son  rftbe  pre- 
ceding)   290 

Bruges  (in  the  Netherlands) .    " 

— (viscount  of) " 

Brugnians  (Sebald  Justinus) .  291 
Bruhl  (F.  Aloysius,  count  of)    " 

(Henrv,  count  of).  ...    " 

(John 'Maurice) 292 

Brulotta  (see  Fire-Ship).  ...    " 

Bruimire  (the  18th  of ). " 

Bnin  (see  Lebnm) " 

Brunck  (R.  Francis  Philip)  .    " 

Bnindusium " 

Bruue  (marshal) " 

Bruneliaut  (see  Brunehild) . .  293 

Brunchild  (Bninichild) " 

Brunelleschi  (Philip) 294 

Brunei  (James  Charles) ....    " 

Tlieaire  of  ( see  Paris)    " 

Brunhildis  (see  Nibelungen) .    " 
Bi-uni  (see  Bruno,  Giordano)    " 

Brunings  (Christian) " 

Bruim 295 

Bruno  the  Great " 

(St.) " 

of  Arezzo " 

(Giordano) 296 

Brunonian  System  (see  Brown, 

John) 297 

Brunswick  (family  of)     ....    " 

(duchy  of) " 

(city) 298 

(in  Maine) " 

New    (see    New 

Brunswick).  .  .     " 

(C.W.F.dukeof)    " 

(Ferdin.      "    "  )  299 

(F.  \Vm.    "    "  )  300 

(Louis  E.    '•'    "  )  301 

(M.J.  L. prince  of)    " 

Brush- Wheels " 

Brussels " 

Brutus c 302 

(Lucius  Junius)  ....    " 

(Marcus  Junius) ....  303 

Bniyere  (Jean  de  la) " 

Bruyn  (Conieille  le) 304 

Bryant  (Jacob) " 

Bubna  (count  of) " 

Buccaneers 305 

Bucentaur 306 

Bucephalus " 

Bucer  (Martin) " 

Buch  (Leopold  von) '■' 

Buchanan  (George) " 

Bucharest 307 

(peace  of) " 

Bucharia  (Great) 308 

(Little) 309 

Bucher  ( Aiithony  von) " 

Buchholz  (Paul  F.  Frederic)    " 

Buck « 

Buckeburg  (see  Lippe)  ....    "  . 


Buckcu 309 

Buckinck  (Arnold) " 

Buckingham  (duke  of) " 

..  . — —  (duke  of,  son  of 

the  precedinff) 311 

Buckler  (see  Shield) " 

(John) 312 

Buckmiusier  (jfosepli  S.)  . .  .    " 

Buckwheat 313 

Bucolics  (see  Pastoral  Poetry) 

Buda 

Buddha 

Bude  (Guillaume) 314 

Budessin  (see  Bautzen)  ....    " 

Budgell  (Eustace) " 

Budget 315 

Budweiss " 

Buenaventura  (in  California)    " 

(in  Colombia)     " 

Buen  Ayre ;  •  •  •    " 

Buenos  Ayres  (cwuitry  in  S. 

America). .    " 

: (city) 316 

Buen  Rctiro " 

Buffalo  (in  N.  Y.) " 

(an  animal) 317 

Buffet " 

Buffon  (count  of) " 

Buffone 318 

ilugenhagen  (John) " 

Bug^e  (Thomas) 319 

Bugle-Horn  (see  Horn)  ....    " 
Buhrstone  (see  Quartz)  ....    " 

Builth " 

iSuinaah  Point " 

Bukharia  (see  Bucharia)  ...    " 
Bukowina  (see  Galicia) ....    " 

Bulac " 

Bulamsu " 

Bulgaria " 

Bulgarians " 

Bulimia 320 

Buikh  (see  Aighanistan). ...    " 

Bulk-Heads " 

Bull " 

Baiting " 

Dog " 

(papal) " 

Bullen,  Aime  (see  Boleyn)  . .  321 

Bullers  of  Bucnan " 

Bulletm " 

Universel,  &c " 

Bull-Fights " 

Bullfinch 322 

Bullfrog  (see  Frog) " 

Bullion " 

Bull,  John  (see  Jolm  Bull)  . .    " 

Bullock  (see  Ox) '•' 

Bullock's  Museum " 

Bullrush  (see  Scirpus) " 

Bull's  Bay " 

Buhner  (VV'^illiam) " 

Bulow  (Frederic  vVilliam)  . .    " 

(Henry  von) 323 

Bulwark  (see  Bastion) " 

Bum-Boat " 

Bundelcund " 

Bungalow " 

Bunco " 

Bunk " 

Bunker  Hill   (see    Charles- 
town)  " 

Bunt " 

Bunting " 

Bunyau  (John) " 

Btionaparte  (see  Bonaparte).  3^ 


CONTENTS. 

Buonarroti,       Michelagnolo 

(see  Augelo) 324 

Buoy " 

Burats  (see  Buriats) " 

Burchiello  (Domenico^ " 

Burckhard  (John  Louis).  ...    " 
Burckhardt  (John  Charles).  .  325 

Burden " 

Burdett  (sir  Francis) " 

Bureau 326 

Burg  (John  Tobias) " 

Burgas " 

Burger  (Godfrey  Augustus)  .    " 

Burgess 327 

Burghers  (see  Seceders)  ...  " 

Burglary " 

Burgomaster 328 

Burgos " 

Burgoyne  (John) " 

Burguetta 329 

Burgundians " 

Burgundy  ( Lower) 331 

(circle  of) " 

(duke  of) " 

Wines " 

Burial 332 

Buriats " 

Burin 333 

Burkard  (Waldis) " 

Burke  (Edmund) " 

Burleigh,  lord   (see  Cecil)  . .  335 

Burlesque " 

Burletta " 

Burlington " 

Burman  Empire  (see  Birman 

Empire) " 

Burmann  (family  of) " 

(Gottlob  William).  336 

Burmhan  (see  Birman  Em- 
pire)      " 

Burnet  (Gi|l>ert) •' 

(Thomas) " 

Burnett  (James) 337 

Burney  (Charles) " 

(Charles,  son  of  the 

preceding) " 

Buruing-Glass 338 

Burning  Mirrors 339 

Burning  of  houses  (see  Arson)    " 

Burnisner " 

Bums  (Robert) " 

Burrampooter 341 

Burrill  (James) " 

Bursa " 

Burschen " 

Burton  (Robert) " 

Burton-upon-Trent " 

Bury  Sl  Edmund's 342 

Burj-ing-Places " 

Busaco 343 

Busbecq " 

Busching  (Anthony  Frederic)    " 
Busembaum  (Hermann). .  . .  344 

Bushel " 

Bushire " 

Bushmen " 

Bushwanas 345 

Buskin " 

Bust " 

Bustard " 

Butchers 346 

Bute  (eari  of) " 

(island  of,  Scotland)   . .    " 

Butler  (James) 347 

(Joseph) 348 

■  ■        (Samuel) , , .    " 


597 

Butter 349 

Butterfly  (see  Papilio) " 

Buttmaim  (Philip  Charles) . .    " 

Buttons 350 

Buttresses " 

Buttura  (Antonio) " 

Buxhowden  (count  of) " 

Buxton  (in  Eng.) 351 

(Jedediah) " 

Buxtorf  (John) " 

(John,  the  younger) .    " 

Bu>xikdere " 

Buzzard 352 

's  Bay 353 

Bv-law " 

Byles  (Mather) " 

Byng  (John) 354 

Byukershoeck  (Cornelius)  .  .    " 

Byron  (John) 358 

— (lord) 354 

's  Island 359 

Byssus " 

Byzantine  Empire " 

Historiaas 363 

School  of  Art 364 

Byzantium 367 

c. 

C 368 

Cabal " 

(a  beverage) " 

Cabala " 

Cabanis  (P.  John  George)  .  .  369 

Cabarrus  (count  of) " 

Cabbage " 

Cabbala  (see  Cabala) 370 

Cabello  (see  Porto  Cabello; .  " 

Cabenda " 

Cabin " 

Cabinet " 

Cabiri " 

Cable 371 

Caboose " 

Cabot  (George) " 

(Sebastian) 372 

Cabrera 373 

Cabul " 

Cabulistau " 

Cacao " 

Cachao 374 

Cachelot  (see  Whales) " 

Cachet  (Lettres  de) " 

Cacique " 

Cacodemon  (see  Demon) ...  " 

Cacophony " 

Cactus " 

Cacus 375 

Cadalso  (Jose) " 

Cada  Mosto " 

Cade  (John) 376 

Cadence " 

Cader  Idris " 

Cadet " 

de  Vaux " 

Cadi '/ 

Cadiz " 

(straits  of) 377 

Cadmus " 

Cadsand " 

Caduceus " 

Cadwalader  (John) " 

Caelius  Mons 378 

Caen " 

Caerleon ,  " 

Caerroartben , .  " 


598 


CONTENTS. 


Caernan'on 379 

Caerphilly " 

Caerwent " 

Caerwys " 

Caesar " 

Caesar  {Caius  Julius) " 

Caesarea 382 

Csesarean     Operation     (see 

Midwifery) " 

Caeslus " 

Caesura " 

Caf " 

Cafe  (see  Coffee-Houses). .  .    " 
Caffa " 

(strait  of) " 

Caffarelli  (see  Majoremo) ...    " 

du  FaJga " 

Caffe  (Daniel) 383 

Caffila " 

CafTraria " 

Caffres " 

CaAan 384 

Caglia,  cape  (see  Matapan, 

cape) " 

Cagliari  (in  Sardinia) " 

(Paul) " 

Cagliostro  (count  of) " 

Cagnoli  (Anthony) 385 

Caffots 386 

Cahoes  Falls  (see  Mohawk) .    " 

Cahors  Wine " 

Caiaphcis " 

Caic « 

Caicos " 

(!)ailas " 

Caillaud  (Frederic) " 

Caille  (Auffuste) " 

(Nicliolas  Louis  de  la)  387 

Caimacan 388 

C  ai  man  ( see  C  ajinau  Islands )    " 

(see  Alligator) " 

Cain " 

Caique  (Grand) 389 

Ca-Ira " 

Cairn " 

Cairngorm " 

Cairo " 

Caisson " 

Caius 390 

Caieput  Oil " 

C'alabsu: " 

Calabash-Tree " 

Calabrese 391 

Calabria " 

Calahorra 392 

Calais. " 

(pas  de) " 

straits  of  (see  Dover, 

straits  of) " 

Calaite  (see  Turquoise) ....    " 

Calamanco " 

Calamata  (see  Greece)  ....    " 

Calamine  (see  21inc) " 

Calcunines " 

Calamus 393 

Calcindra  (see  Mosaic) " 

Calas  (John) " 

Calatrava  (see  Orders)  ....    " 

Calcar  (John  van) " 

Calcariovis  Spar  (see  Lime) .    " 

Calchas " 

Calcination 394 

Calcography  (see  Engraving)    " 

Calculus " 

(in  voting,  &c.)  . . .  395 

(in  animals) " 


Calcutta 

Caldara  (Polidoro) 

(a  composer  of  music) 

Caldas  de  Monbuy 


Calder 
Calderari  . 
Calderon.  . 

Caleb 

Caledonia . 


400 


(in  N.  Y.j 

New  (in  N.  A.)  . . 
(in  the  Pacific) 


Caledonians 

Calembourg 

Celenberg 

Calendar 

Calender 

Calenders 

Calends 

Calenture 

Calepin 

Caliber 

Calico 

Calicut 

Calif  and  Califate  (see  Ca- 
liph) 

California  (gulf  of) 

(New) 

(Old) 

Caligula  (Caius  C.  A.  G.)  .  . 

Caliph 

Calixtins 

Calixtus  (popes) 

(George) 

Calk 

Calkar  (see  Calcar) 

Calkoen  (Jan  F.  van  Beek) . 

Call 

Callao 

Callimachus 

Calliope 

Callisen  (Henry) 

Callisthenes 

Callisthenics  (see  Gymnastics) 

Callisto 

Callot  (Jaques) 

CaUus 

Calmar 

Calmet  (Augustine) 

Calms  (region  of) 

Calmucs 

Ceilomel  (see  Mercury)  .... 

Calonne  (C.  Alexander  de)  . 

Caloric 

Calorimeter 

Calorimotor  (see  Galvanic 
Battery) 

Calottists 

Caloyers 

Calpe  (see  Abyla  and  Gib- 
raltar)  

Calprenede  (G.  de  C.  de  la). 

Calpumius  (Titus  Julius)  . . . 

Caltrop 

Cahjmet 

Calvados 

■ (see  Departments). 

Calvart  (Dionysius) 

Calvary 

Calvert  (George). 

Calvin  (John)  . . . 

Calvinism 

Calvisius  (Seth). . 

Calx 

Calydon 

Calypso 


401 


401 


405 


415 


416 


417 


Camaieu 435 

Camaldolites " 

Camargue " 

Cambaceres  (Jean  J.  Regis)    " 
Cambodia  (country  in  Asia) .  426 
(river  in  Asia). .  .    " 


Cambray 

Cambridge  (in  Mass.)  . 

(m  Eng.)  .  . 

(duke  of ) .  . 

Manuscript . 


427 
428 


Cambronne  (baron) 

Cambyses  (two  of  this  name) 

Camden 

Camel ■. 

(in  mechanics) 

Cameleon  (see  Chaoneleon)  . 

Camelopard 

Camenz 

Ccimeo 

Camera  /Eolia 

Clara 

Lucida  (see  Came- 
ra Clara)  

Obscura  (see  Came- 
ra Clara)  

Camerarius  (Joachim  I).  .  . . 
(Joachim  II) . .  . 


430 
432 


433 


Camerlingo. 

Cameronians 

Caines 

Camillus  (Marcus  Furius). . . 

Cemiiscirds 

Camlet 

Camma 

Camoeuae 

Camoens  (Louis  de) 

Camomile 

Camp 

Campagna  di  Roma 

Campaign 

Campan  (Jeanne  Louise  H.) 

Campanella  (Thomas) 

Campania 

Campanile 

Campbell  (George) 

(John) 

(Thomas) 


434 


435 


437 


438 

439 


421 


4S2 
4&i 


425 


Campe  (Joachim  Heinrich). . 

Campeachy 

Camper  (Peter) 

Campetti 

Camphor 

Campistron  (Jean  Galbertde) 
Campo  Chiaro  (duke  of ) . . . 
Formio 


Campomanes  (count  of). 

Campus  Martins 

Camuccini  (Vicenzo) .  .  . 
Canaan  (see  Palestine)  . 

Canada  

(Lower) 

(Upper) 


440 

« 
<( 

441 

i( 

442 

u 

443 

« 

444 


Canaille . 

Canal 

Canals  of  Egypt 
China. 


Italy. 

Russia 

•  Sweden 

'  Denmaric 

.  Holland 

■  Germany 

•  Spain 

-  France 

■  Great  Britain  . . 


445 

44? 

« 

448 
449 
4S0 


451 


453 


CONTENTS. 


599 


Canals  of  America 464 

Canaletto  (Antonio,  &c.) .  .  .  466 

Canaries " 

Canary-Bird  (see  Finch)  .  . .  467 

(Grand) " 

Cancer  (in  astronomy) " 

(in  medicine) " 

Root 468 

Candelabra. " 

Candi 469 

Candia " 

Candidate 471 

Candide 472 

Candlemas " 

Cane  (see BambooEindRaiaji)    " 

Caiiea " 

Canga-Arguelles  (don  Jose) .    " 
Cange,  Du  (see  Du  Fresne) .  473 

Caiusius  (Petrus) " 

Cannae " 

Caimes " 

Cannibals  (see  Anthropophagi 

and  Caribs) " 

Canning  (George) " 

Cannon 475 

Cano  (Alonzo,  or  Alexis)  .  .  .  476 
Canobus  (see  Canopus)  ....    " 

Canoe " 

Ccmon  (a  dignitary) 477 

(m  the  arts) " 

(in  music) " 

of  the  Scriptures  ....  478 

[by  a  Catliolic]     " 

and  Caput  in  Councifs  479 

Law " 

Canonical  Books  (see  Canon 

and  Apocryphal)  481 

Hours " 

Canonization " 

Canopus " 

Canosa  (city) " 

(castle) 482 

Canova  (Antonio) " 

Canstein  (Charles  H.  von)  .  .  484 

Cantabile 

Cantal>ri 

Cainacuzeno  (Geo.and  Alex.) 

Cantacuzenus  (John) 485 

Cantal " 

Cantata " 

Canteen 486 

Canlemir  (Demetrius) " 

Cauterbur)' " 

Cantharides " 

Cantharidin 487 

Canticles  (see  Solomon,  Song 

of) " 

Cant  Timljers 484 

Cantium 487 

Canto  Fermo " 

• Figurato " 

Canton " 

Canute  1 488 

Canzona '189 

Canzonet 

Caoutchouc 

Cap 490 

Cape " 

Ann " 

Breton " 

Cod 491 

Fear " 

Fear  River •' 

Fran9ois      (see     Cape 

Haytien) " 

-  of  GJood  Hope " 


Cape  of  Good  Hope  (colony)  491 

—  Hatteras 492 

—  Haytien " 

—  Horn " 

—  Lookout " 

—  Town " 

—  Verde 493 

—  V^erde  Islands " 

Capellen  (baron  de) " 

Capello  (Bianca) " 

Caper 494 

(in  shipping) " 

Capernaum " 

Capet 495 

Capi  Aga " 

Capias 496 

Capigi  (see  Capi  Aga)  ....  497 

Capillary  Tubes '•' 

Vessels " 

Capital   (in  politiced  econo-  •' 

my) " 

(in  geography)  ....  499 

(in  architecture ;  see 

Architecture)  ....  500 

Offence  (see  Crime)  '' 

Punishment       (see 

Death,  punishment  of )  .  .  .  " 

Capitanata " 

Capitani " 

Capiie  Censi " 

Capitol " 

Capitularj' 501 

Capitulation •' 

Capnist    (Weissil    Wassilje- 

witsch) 502 

Capo  d'Istria  (count  of).  ...  " 

(in  Austria)  . .  " 

Capoc 503 

Caponier " 

Cappadocia " 

Caprea  (see  Capri ) " 

Capri " 

Capriccio " 

Caprification  (see  Figs) ....  " 

Capsicin " 

CapslEin " 

Captain 501 

Capture  (see  Prize) 505 

Capua " 

Capuchins  (see  Franciscans).  " 

Caput-mortuum " 

Caciueta " 

Carabine " 

Carabobo " 

Caracalla " 

Caracas 506 

Caracci  (see  Carracci) 507 

Caraccioli  (Francisco) " 

(Louis Anloinede)  " 

(marquis  de)  ....  " 

Caractacus " 

Carafa  (Michael) " 

Caraites " 

Caramania " 

Carascosa  (baron) 508 

Caravsiggio(Mich.Ang.Am.)    " 

(see  Caldara)  . .  " 

Caravan " 

Caravansaries " 

Caravan  Tea  (see  Tea). ...  " 

Caraway  Seeds 509 

Carbon  . " 

Carljonari 513 

Carljonic  Acid  (see  Carbon) .  514 

Oxyde    (see  Car- 
bon)    " 


Carbuncle  (see  Garnet) . . .    614 

(in  surgery) " 

Carcass " 

Carcinoma  (see  Cancer)  ...    " 

Card « 

Cardamom 515 

Cardan  (Geronimo) " 

Cardinal 516 

Points " 

Virtues 517 

Carding " 

Careening " 

Carew  (Thomas) " 

Cargillites " 

Cariaco " 

Cariati  (prince) " 

Cariatides    (see    Caryatides 

and  Architecture) 518 

Caribbean  Sea " 

Caribbee  Bark " 

Caribbee  Islands ** 

Caribbees " 

Caribs  (see  Caribbees) " 

Caricature " 

Cari»nano  (prince) 519 

Carillons  (see  Chimes) " 

Carinthia 520 

Carissimi  (Giacomo) " 

Carita " 

Carlcton  (sir  Guy) " 

Carli  (count) " 

Carlin " 

Carlisle  (iji  England) 621 

(in  Penn.) " 

Carlos  (don) " 

Carlovitza 623 

Carlsbad " 

(congress  of) 524 

Carlscrona " 

Carlsmhe " 

Caristadt " 

Carmagnole 525 

Carmef " 

Carnier  (count  of) 526 

Carmine " 

Carmontelle " 

Carnatic " 

Carnation " 

Carneades " 

Camelian  (see  Quartz)  ....  527 

Camiola " 

Carnival " 

Carnot(L.  N.  M.) 528 

Caro  (Annibale) 629 

Carolina " 

Maria  (of  Naples) .  .  630 

(North    " 

(South) 532 

Caroline  .\melia  Elizabeth  . .  634 

Laws  (see  Carolina)  635 

Matilda  (of  Denmark)  " 

Carp " 

Carpathian  Mountains 636 

Carpentaria " 

Carpets " 

Carpi  (Girolamo  da) 637 

(Um  da) " 

Carracci  (family) " 

Carreras  (famify) 638 

Carrier,  common  (see  Com- 
mon Carrier)  ....  639 

(John  Baptist) " 

Pigeon " 

Carro  (Giovanni  di) 540 

Carroll  (John) " 

Carron " 


600 


CONTENTS. 


Carronades 541 

Carrot  . , " 

Carrying  Trade  (see  Cgni- 

merce) " 

Carslares  (William) " 

Carsteus  ( Asmus  Jacob).  . . .  642 

Carte  (Thomas) " 

Cartel 543 

Carter  (Elizabeth) " 

Cartes,  Des  (see  Descartes) .    " 

Carthage " 

Carthagena  Hn  Spain) 545 

(province  in  Co- 
lombia)      " 

■  (city  in  Colom- 

bia)      " 

Carthusians " 

Cartilage 546 

Cartoon " 

Cartouch .•.•■••  ^'7 

Cartouche  ( Louis  Dominique)    " 

Cartridge " 

Cartwrighl  (Edmund) " 

(John) " 

Carver  (Jonathan) 548 

Cary  (Lucius) 549 

Caryatides 550 

Casa  (Giovanni  della) " 

Casanova  (Francis) " 

(J.  J.  de  Seingalt)      " 

Casas  (Bartholomew  de  las).  651 
Casaubon  (Isaac  de) 552 

(iVIeric) " 

Casco  Bay " 

Case  (action  upon  the) " 

■  '    '    in  grammar  (see  Lan- 

,   guage) " 

— —  hardening " 

Casemates 553 

Case-shot " 

Cases,    coimt   of    (see    Las 

Cases) " 

Cashmere " 

Goat " 

Cashna 554 

Cashoo " 

Casimir  III,  the  Great   ....    " 

Casino 555 

Casiri  (Michael) " 

Caspian  Sea ;  . .  .  .    " 

Cassander  (George) " 

Cassandra 556 

Cassas  (Louis  Francis) " 

Cassation " 

(court  of) " 


Cassava 668 

Cassel " 

,  Hesse  (see  Hesse).  .    " 

Cassia " 

Cassina  (see  Cashna) " 

Cassini  (family) " 

Cassino 659 

Cassiodorus  (Marcus  Aiu«l.)    " 

Cassiopeia. 560 

Cassiquiari " 

Cassiterides " 

Cassius  ( Longinus  Caius)  .  ,    " 

Ciissowary " 

Cast  (see  Casting) 561 

Engravings " 

Castagno  (Andrea  del)  ....  862 

Castanets " 

Castanos  (don  Francisco  de).    " 

Caste " 

Castelcicala  (prince  of)  ... .  563 
Ctistello  (Gabriel  Lancelot) .    " 

Casti  (Giambattista) " 

Castiglione  (Baldcissare).  . . .  564 

Castile " 

Castillo  (Jose  Maria  del)  . .  .  665 

Castine " 

Casting " 

Casdereagh  (see  Londonder- 
ry)  667 

Castor  (see  Beaver) " 

and  Pollux " 

Oil " 

Castrametation 568 

Castrates " 

Castriot  (see  Scanderbeg). .  .  569 

Caslrurn  Doloris " 

Casuistry " 

Cat " 

Catacombs 671 

Catacoustics 673 

Catafalco  (see  Castrtim  Dolo- 

risj " 

Catalani  (Angelica) " 

Catalepsy 574 

Catalogues    of    Books    (see 

Books,  Catalogues  of)  ...    " 

Catalonia " 

Catamenia " 

Catania 575 

Cataplasms " 

Catapults " 

Cataract '•' 

(in  geography) ....  576 

Catarrh 578 

Cat-Bird 570 


Catechesis 678 

Catechetical  Schools " 

Catechism 679 

Catechu 680 

Catechumens " 

Category " 

Catel  (Charles  Simon) " 

Caterpillar  (see  PapUio).  ...    " 

Catgut " 

Cathari 681 

Catharine  (St.) 682 

of  Arragon " 

of  Braganza 684 

of  France 582 

de  Medici 583 

I  of  Russia 584 

II 585 

Parr 588 

Pawlowna " 

Cat-Harpings 689 

Cathedral " 

Catholic  EmEuicipation " 

Majesty 691 


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